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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek • Sanghi

Poisson’s Ratio

• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

sx
ex = sy = sz = 0
E

• The elongation in the x-direction is

accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
homogeneous and isotropic (no directional
Fig. 2.29 A bar in uniaxial tension and a
representative stress element. dependence),
ey = ez ¹ 0
• Poisson’s ratio is defined as
lateral strain ey e
n=- =- =- z
axial strain ex ex

Fig. 2.30 Materials undergo transverse

contraction when elongated under axial load.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio

Is negative Poisson’s ratio

possible?

auxetic metamaterials
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mKKC4dejJnU

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Multiaxial Loading: Generalized Hooke’s Law
• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,
the normal strain components resulting from the
stress components may be determined from the
principle of superposition. This requires:
1) Each effect is linearly related to the load that
produces it.
2) The deformation resulting form any given
load is small and does not affect the conditions
of application of the other loads.
• With these restrictions:
sx ns y ns z
ex = + - -
E E E
ns x sy ns z
ey = - + -
E E E
ns x ns y sz
Fig. 2.33 Deformation of unit cube under ez = - - +
multiaxial loading: (a) unloaded; (b) deformed. E E E
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Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is
e = n - 1 = 1 + éëe x + e y + e z ùû - 1
= ex + ey + ez
1 - 2n
=
E
(
sx + sy + sz )
= dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

3 (1 - 2n ) p
e=- p=-
E k
E
k= = bulk modulus or modulus of compression
3 (1 - 2n )

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
Fig. 2.33 Deformation of unit 1
cube under multiaxial loading: 0<n < 2
(a) unloaded; (b) deformed.

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Sample Problem 2.5

A circle of diameter d = 225 mm is scribed on

an unstressed aluminum plate of thickness
t = 18 mm. Forces acting in the plane of the
plate later cause normal stresses sx = 84 MPa
and sz = 140 MPa.
For E = 70 GPa and n = 1/3, determine the
change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter CD,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.

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Sample Problem 2.5

SOLUTION: • Evaluate the deformation components.
• Apply the generalized Hooke’s dB A ( )
= e x d = +0.533 ´ 10 -3 mm/mm ( 225mm )
Law to find the three components
dB A = +0.12 mm
of normal strain.

ex = +
sx
-
ns y
-
ns z dC D ( )
= e z d = +1.600 ´ 10 -3 mm/mm ( 225mm )
E E E
dC D = +0.36 mm
1 é 1 ù
= ê
70 GPa ë
( 84 MPa ) - 0 -
3
(140 MPa ) ú

-3
û
( )
d t = e y t = -1.067 ´ 10 -3 mm/mm (18mm )
= +0.533 ´ 10 mm/mm
ns x sy ns z d t = -0.0192 mm
ey = - + -
E E E
= -1.067 ´ 10 -3 mm/mm
ns x ns y sz
• Find the change in volume
ez = - - +
E E E e = e x + e y + e z = +1.066 ´ 10 -3 mm 3 /mm 3
= +1.600 ´ 10 -3 mm/mm DV = eV = 1.066 ´ 10 -3 ( 380 mm)(380 mm)(18 mm ) mm 3

DV = +2770 mm 3

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Shearing Strain

Fig. 2.36 Unit cubic element Fig. 2.37 Deformation of unit cubic
subjected to shearing stress. element due to shearing stress.

• A cubic element subjected to only shearing stress will deform into a rhomboid.
The corresponding shearing strain is quantified in terms of the change in angle
between the sides, t xy = f g xy ( )
• A plot of shearing stress vs. shearing strain is similar to the previous plots of
normal stress vs. normal strain except that the strength values are approximately
half. For values of shearing strain that do not exceed the proportional limit,
t xy = G g xy t yz = G g yz t zx = G g zx

where G is the modulus of rigidity or shear modulus.

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Concept Application 2.10

SOLUTION:
• Determine the average angular
deformation or shearing strain of
the block.
• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress
Fig. 2.41(a) Rectangular block loaded in shear.
and strain to find the corresponding
shearing stress.
A rectangular block of material with • Use the definition of shearing stress to
modulus of rigidity G = 630 MPa is find the force P.
bonded to two rigid horizontal plates.
The lower plate is fixed, while the
upper plate is subjected to a horizontal
force P. Knowing that the upper plate
moves through 1 mm under the action
of the force, determine (a) the average
shearing strain in the material, and (b)
the force P exerted on the plate.
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Concept Application 2.10

• Determine the average angular deformation
or shearing strain of the block.
1mm
g xy » tan g xy = g xy = 0.020 rad
50 mm

• Apply Hooke’s law for shearing stress and

strain to find the corresponding shearing
Fig. 2.41(b) Deformed block showing stress.
the shear strain.
t xy = Gg xy = ( 630 MPa )( 0.020 rad ) = 12.6 MPa

• Use the definition of shearing stress to find

the force P.
P = t xy A = (12.6 MPa )( 200 mm )( 62 mm ) = 156.2 ´ 103 N

P = 156.2 kN

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Relation Between E, n, and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will
elongate in the x direction and contract in
both of the transverse y and z directions.
• An initially cubic element oriented as in
Figure 2.42(a) will deform into a
rectangular parallelepiped. The axial load
produces a normal strain.
• If the cubic element is oriented as in
Figure 2.42(b), it will deform into a
rhombus. Axial load also results in a
shearing strain.
• Components of normal and shearing strain
are related,
E or E
Fig. 2.42 Representations of strain in an axially = (1 + n ) G=
loaded bar: (a) cubic strain element faces 2G 2 (1 + n )
aligned with coordinate axes; (b) cubic strain
element faces rotated 45º about z-axis.

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Saint-Venant’s Principle
• Loads transmitted through rigid
plates result in uniform distribution
of stress and strain.

• Concentrated loads result in large

stresses in the vicinity of the load
application point.
Fig. 2.47 Axial load Fig. 2.48 Concentrated
applied by rigid plates to axial load applied to
rubber model. rubber model. • Stress and strain distributions
become uniform at a relatively short
distance from the load application
points.

• Saint-Venant’s Principle:
Stress distribution may be assumed
independent of the mode of load
Fig. 2.49 Stress distributions in a
application except in the immediate
plate under concentrated axial loads. vicinity of load application points.
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Stress Concentration: Hole

Fig. 2.50 Stress distribution near Fig. 2.52(a) Stress concentration

circular hole in flat bar under axial factors for flat bars under axial loading.
loading.

Stress concentration factor Discontinuities of cross section may result in

K=
s max high localized or concentrated stresses.
s ave

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Stress Concentration: Fillet

Fig. 2.51 Stress distribution near Fig. 2.52(b) Stress concentration

fillets in flat bar under axial loading. factors for flat bars under axial loading.

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Concept Application 2.12

SOLUTION:
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Figure 2.52.
Determine the largest axial load P
that can be safely supported by a • Find the allowable average normal
flat steel bar consisting of two stress using the material allowable
portions, both 10 mm thick, and normal stress and the stress
respectively 40 and 60 mm wide, concentration factor.
connected by fillets of radius r = 8 • Apply the definition of normal stress to
mm. Assume an allowable normal find the allowable load.
stress of 165 MPa.

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Concept Application 2.12

• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Figure 2.52.
D 60 mm r 8mm
= = 1.50 = = 0.20
d 40 mm d 40 mm
K = 1.82

• Find the allowable average normal

stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
s max 165MPa
s ave = = = 90.7 MPa
K 1.82

Fig. 2.52(b) Stress concentration

• Apply the definition of normal stress
factors for flat bars under axial loading. to find the allowable load.
P = As ave = ( 40 mm )(10 mm )( 90.7 MPa )
= 36.3 ´ 103 N

P = 36.3 kN

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Elastoplastic Materials
• Previous analyses based on assumption of
linear stress-strain relationship, i.e.,
stresses below the yield stress
• Assumption is good for brittle material
which rupture without yielding
• If the yield stress of ductile materials is
exceeded, then plastic deformations occur
• Analysis of plastic deformations is
simplified by assuming an idealized
Fig. 2.53 Stress-strain diagram for an elastoplastic material
idealized elastoplastic material.

• Deformations of an elastoplastic material

are divided into elastic and plastic ranges
• Permanent deformations result from
loading beyond the yield stress

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Plastic Deformations

• Elastic deformation while maximum

s max A
P = s ave A = stress is less than yield stress
K

• Maximum stress is equal to the yield

sY A stress at the maximum elastic
PY = loading
K

• At loadings above the maximum

elastic load, a region of plastic
deformations develop near the hole
PU = s Y A • As the loading increases, the plastic
= K PY region expands until the section is at
a uniform stress equal to the yield
stress
Fig. 2.56 Distribution of stresses in
elastic-perfectly plastic material under
increasing load.

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