NUREGKR-6149

SAND93-2478

Applications of Fiber Optics

in Physical Protection

Manuscript Completed: November 1993

Date Published: March 1994

Prepared by
T.H.Buckle

Sandia National Laboratories

Albuquerque, N M 87185-0781

Prepared for
Division of Fuel Cycle Safety and Safeguards
Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
Washington, DC 20555-0001
NRC FIN L1387

w
 DISCLAIMER

This report w a s prepared a s an account of work sponsored

by an agency of t h e United States Government. Neither t h e
United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any
of their employees, make any warranty, express or implied,
or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for t h e
accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information,
apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that
its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference
herein to an.y specific commercial product, process, or
service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or
otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its
endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by t h e United
States Government or any agency thereof. The views a n d
opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily
state or reflect t h o s e of t h e United States Government or
any agency thereof.
 DISCLAlMER

Portions of ,this document may be illegible

in electronic image products. Images are
produced from the best awailable original
document.
 Abstract

The purpose of this NUREG is to provide technical information useful for the development of fiber-optic communications and
intrusion detection subsystems relevant to physical protection. There are major sections on fiber-optic technology and
applications. Other topics include fiber-optic system components and systems engineering. This document also contains a
glossary,a list of standards and specifications, and a list of fiber-optic equipment vendors.

iii NUREG/CR-6149

~~ _I -
 Contents
Page

Abstract.................................................................................................................................................... iii

Acknowledgments.................................................................................................................................... ix

Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Discussion of NRC Requirements ............................................................................................ 1

1.2 Purpose of Document .............................................................................................................. 1

Background....................................................................................................................................... 2

Fiber-Optics Technology.................................................................................................................... 3

3.1 Theory of Operation................................................................................................................ 3

3.1.1 Optical Fiber Transmission Fundamentals.................................................................. 3

3.1.2 Sensing Phenomena................................................................................................... 4

3.2 System Components................................................................................................................ 5

3.2.1 Optical Fiber and Cable............................................................................................. 5

3.2.2 Connectors and Splices.............................................................................................. 7
3.2.3 Emitters (Light Sources)............................................................................................. 10
3.2.4 Detectors (Light Receivers)........................................................................................ 10

3.3 References............................................................................................................................... 11
. .
Systems Engineering.......................................................................................................................... 12

4.1
. .
Specification............................................................................................................................ 12
4.2 Design..................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3 Installation.............................................................................................................................. 14
4.4 Test......................................................................................................................................... 15
4.5 Maintenance............................................................................................................................ 15
4.6 References............................................................................................................................... 15

Applications...................................................................................................................................... 16

5.1 Communications...................................................................................................................... 16

5.1.1 Video......................................................................................................................... 17
5.1.2 Data........................................................................................................................... 18
5.1.3 Voice.......................................................................................................................... 18
5.1.4 Communications Products.......................................................................................... 19

5.2 Intrusion Detection.................................................................................................................. 19

5.2.1 Light Disturbance Products........................................................................................ 19

5.2.2 Optical Continuity Products....................................................................................... 22

V NUREG/CR6149
Contents

5.3 Tamper-Indicating Devices (Loop Systems)............................................................................. 22

5.3.1 Passive Tamper Indicators (Seals).............................................................................. 22

5.3.2 Active Tamper Indicators........................................................................................... 23

5.4 References............................................................................................................................... 23

Appendix A, Optical Fiber Theory of Operation....................................................................................... 25

A.l Refkction. Total Internal Reflection. and Numerical Aperture................................................. 25

A.2 Attenuation............................................................................................................................. 26
A.3 Dispersion Limitations of Optical Fibers................................................................................. 27
A.4 References............................................................................................................................... 29

Appendix ByGlossary............................................................................................................................... 30

Appendix Cy Standards............................................................................................................................. 34

Appendix D. Partial Listing of Fiber-Optics Equipment Suppliers............................................................ 35

D.l
. .
Communications Products....................................................................................................... 35
D.2 Intrusion Detection Sensors..................................................................................................... 35
D.3 Seals........................................................................................................................................ 36
D.4 Cable....................................................................................................................................... 36
D.5 Connectors and Termination Tools........................................................................................... 36
D.6 Splices, Splicing Equipment, and Closure Systems.................................................................. 37
D.7 Test and Measurement Equipment........................................................................................... 37

NUREGKR-6149 vi
 Page
3-1 Core and cladding of optical fiber................................................................................................. 3
3-2 Optical fiber guides light .............................................................................................................. 3
3-3 Step-index multimode fiber.......................................................................................................... 4
3-4 Graded-index multimode fiber...................................................................................................... 4
3-5 Single-mode fiber......................................................................................................................... 4
3-6 Effects of microbending on fiber.................................................................................................. 5
3-7 Speckle pattern............................................................................................................................. 5
3-8 A basic fiber-optic system............................................................................................................ 5
3-9 Fiber dimension for 50/125 optical fiber....................................................................................... 6
3-10 Optical fiber cable........................................................................................................................ 7
3-11 Optical fiber in loose tube cable ................................................................................................... 7
3-12 Optical fibers in tight buffer cable................................................................................................ 7
3-13 Fibers with offset axes.................................................................................................................. 8
3-14 Off-center and elliptical cores...................................................................................................... 8
3-15 Angular misalignment of fiber axes.............................................................................................. 8
3-16 Numerical aperture mismatch....................................................................................................... 8
3-17 Fiber separation loss due to spreading.......................................................................................... 8
3-18 ST@ fiber-optic connector............................................................................................................ 9
3-19 SMA fiber-optic connector........................................................................................................... 9
3-20
. .
Biconic connector......................................................................................................................... 9
3-21 Example of clamp-type mechanical splice.................................................................................... 10
5- 1 Fiber-optic transmission systems.................................................................................................. 16
5-2 CCTV alarm assessment system using coax cable........................................................................ 17
5-3 CCTV alarm assessment system using fiber optics....................................................................... 17
5-4 CCTV system incorporating video and control signals................................................................. 17
5-5
..
Wavelength division multiplexing................................................................................................ 17
5-6 Alarm communications system..................................................................................................... 18
5-7 Video/audio link using fiber optics............................................................................................... 19
5-8
. .
Causing an alarm on an optical contrnuity sensor......................................................................... 19
5-9 Alarm causes for a light disturbance sensor.................................................................................. 19
5-10 ?Lpical components of a fiber-optic light disturbance sensor........................................................ 20
5-1 1 Buried installation of fiber-optic intrusion detection system......................................................... 21
5-12
. .
Treaty verification seal................................................................................................................. 22
5-13 Commercial seal .......................................................................................................................... 23
A- 1 Light refraction............................................................................................................................ 25
A-2 Optical fiber showing the propagation of light through the core .................................................... 25
A-3 Numerical aperture and acceptance angle..................................................................................... 26
A-4
..
Effects of curved fiber on light transmission................................................................................. 26
A-5 M i c a 1 fiber's attenuation Sis a h c t i o n of wavelength................................................................. 27
A-6 Step-index multimode fiber.......................................................................................................... 27
A-7
. .
Modal dispersion m step-index multimode fiber........................................................................... 27
A-8 Graded-index multimode fiber...................................................................................................... 28
A-9 Correcting modal dispersion through index grading...................................................................... 28
A-10 Single-mode fiber......................................................................................................................... 28

vii NUREG/CR6 149

 Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his appreciation to the following technical experts for providing research materials and
private consultation, and for reviewing the report and suggesting improvements: Bill Black, Tim Malone, Larry Miller,
Dale Murray, Charles Ringler, and Bill Stewart. The author would also like to thank Priscilla Dwyer, Senior Safeguards
Technical Analyst at the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, for reviewing the document and providing insighfil
comments about the report's intended audience. Finally, the author thanks Carol Whiddon and Colleen Lennon-Wallach of
BE, Inc., for their fme work in preparing the document for publication.

ix NUREG/CR-6149
 1 Introduction

1.1 Discussion of NRC Power reactor licensees are subject to the provisions of
section 73.55. Paragraph 73.55(c)(4) states that
Requirements “[dletection of penemtion or attempted penetration of the
protected area or the isolation zone adjacent to the pro-
U. S.Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations tected area barrier shall assure that adequate response by
under part 73 “Physical Protection of Plants and Materials” the security organization can be initiated.” Paragraph
of Title 10, Code of Federal Regulations, specify perfor- 73.55(h)(6) states that “[t]o facilitate initial response to
mance requirements for the physical protection of special detection of penetration of the protected area and assess-
nuclear materials and associated facilities. For fuel cycle ment of the existence of a threat, a capability of observing
facilities using or possessing a formula quantity of strategic the isolation zones and the physical barrier at the perimeter
special nuclear material, paragraph 73.45(c)(l)(iii) calls for of the protected area shall be provided, preferably by means
the use of detection and surveillancesubsystems and of closed circuit television or by other suitable means which
procedures to discover and assess unauthorized activities limit exposure of responding personnel to possible aftack.”
and conditions and to communicate them so that response
can stop the activity or correct the conditions. For these 1.2 Purpose of Document
facilities, an example reference system is outlined in section
73.46. Paragraph 73.46(e)( 1) states that “[tlhe licensee With respect to the physical protection of special nuclear
shall provide an intrusion alarm subsystem with the capabil- material and associated facilities, applications of fiber
ity to detect penetrationthrough the isolation zone and to optics include (1) communication of video, data, and voice
permit response action.” Paragraph 73.46(e)(8) states that information and (2) detection of intrusions or penetrations
“[all1 exterior areaswithin the protected area shall be into controlled areas. The purpose of this report is to
monitored or periodically checked to detect the presence of provide technical information useful for the development of
unauthorized persons, vehicles, materials, or unauthorized fiber-optic communications and intrusion detection sub-
activities.” systems relevant to physical protection.

The discussion of equipment or systems in this document

does not constitute acceptance or endorsement by the NRC.
 2 Backgroiund

Opticalfibers are long, hair-like strands of transparent noticeably since the incorporation of optical fiber into
glass or plastic. Fiber optics is the class of optical technol- long-distance systems. An added benefit is that fiber-optic
ogy that uses these transparent fibers to guide light fiom cables are smaller and lighter than their electrical counter-
one place to another. Fiber optics has found applications in parts. Interference fiom. lightning strikes and electrical
the areas of imaging, communications, and the sensing of grounding problems is eliminated in fiber-optic systems.
physical parameters. Fiber-optics technology is so widely Fiber optics is not limited to long-distance communication
used now that the term “fiber optics” is almost as well use---transmissionof cable television, closed-circuit
known as “electronics.” television, and computer data is currently being accom-
plished via fiber optics.
Since the 1 9 5 0 ~the
~ medical community has used optical
fiber bundles, called endoscopes, to look inside the body Finally, fiber optics has found applications in the sensing
without surgery. Endoscopes are also used to guide laser of physical properties. The transmission of light through
light into patients’ bodies so that physicians can perform an optical fiber is changed, sometimes minutely (but
internal laser surgery. detectably), by such factors as temperature, pressure,
motion, and even magnetic fields.
The telecommunications industry has benefitted greatly by
applying fiber optics to their communication networks. Several areas of fiber-optics technology are applicable to
Signal speeds and traffic capacity have increased consider- security. In particular, this report addresses those applica-
ably, and the quality of voice signals has improved tioils that use fiber optics for communications and sensing.

2
 3 Fiber-Optics Technology

Fiber optics is becoming more and more prevalent as a

means of communicatinginformation and as a means of
sensing minute environmental changes (e.g., motion,
vibration, and pressure). This chapter describes how optical
fiber can be used to cany light signals and how it can be
used to sense environmental changes. System compo-
nents-cable, light sources, light detectors, connectors, and
splices-are also described in this chapter. Figure 3-2. Optical fiber guides light

3.1 Theory of Operation The fiber does not have to be straight-light will follow the
fiber around a turn as long as the turn is not too tight. The
allowed tightness of the turn is determined by the refractive
The following two sections deal with the optical characteris-
indexes of the core and cladding. Repactive index is the
tics of fiber that (1) allow light signals to be transmitted
measure of a material’s ability to bend light.
through the fiber from a light source to a detector, and (2)
permit environmentalchanges to be sensed.
A measure of a fiber‘s ability to accept light is called
numerical aperture,NA. Numerical aperture is related to
3.1.1 Optical Fiber Transmission the broadness-of-angle over which the end of the fiber will
Fundamentals1-3 gather light. The larger the numerical aperture, the larger
the light-gathering angle.
[Note: For a more in-depth presentation of this material,
see Appendix A.] Due to the high transparency of a glass fiber core, light can
travel through the fiber several kilometers and still retain
Light is guided by an optical fiber due to its special con- much of its brightness (optical power). To put this in
struction. An optical fiber consists of two parts: a light- perspective, compare the transparency of an optical fiber to
guiding cure and a surrounding optical cladding (see Figure that of a picture window found in a home. The plate glass
3-1). picture window is l/S-inch thick. It could be replaced with a
3-mile thickness of optical glass fiber material and the same
bright image would be seen (same transparency). Optical
Core fiber is also made from plastic, although plastic fibers
reduce optical power much more than equivalent lengths of
glass fiber. Plastic fibers can be used for distances of 100
meters or less.

As light travels through an optical fiber, it loses some

optical power. This reduction in power is called attenuation
and is a result of impurities in the fiber and imperfections in
the fiber’s manufacture. Attenuation is measured in decibels
(dB), which are logarithmicunits commonly used to relate
Figure 3-1. Core and cladding of optical fiber input power to output power. If light is reduced to 1/10 of
its original power while traveling from one end of the fiber
The cladding is reflective and the core is very transparent. to the other, the attenuation is 10 dB.Light reduced to
As light travels through the fiber, it remains in the core by 1/100 of its power has undergone 20 dB of attenuation.
bouncing off the reflective cladding. This “light pipe” Similarly, if only 1/1000 of the power remains, the light has
confmes the light and guides it along the fiber (see Figure been attenuated 30 dB, and so on. A fiber’s quality is often
3-2). characterized in terms of its attenuation per kilometer (dB/
b).

3 NUREG/CR-6149
Technology

Attenuation is an important issue in the design of fiber-optic times at which the light rays arrive at the far end, resulting
systems. In fact, all of the optical system losses should be in less modal distortion. This improved multimode fiber is
accounted for to ensure that sufficient optical power reaches calIed graded index. See Figure 3-4.
the detector. The maximum length of transmission depends
on all of the system losses.

Wavelength is the color-determiningproperty of light and

plays an important part in fiber-optic systems. Most fiber-
optic systems operate in the near infixed region where
losses for glass fibers are at a minimum. Three operating
wavelengths are commonly used 850 nanometers (nm),
1300 nm, and 1550 nm, with the longer wavelengths having
Figure 3-4. Graded-index multimode fiber
the lowest loss. Plastic fiber systems operate in the visible
red region at 665 nm. From the book UnderstandinaTelecommunicationsandLiahhvave
Svstems: An Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. NeIIist, 01992. Pub-
lished by IEEE Press. Used bypermission ofpublisher.
Fiber can be classified as either multimode or single-mode.
From a dimensions standpoint, the core of multimode fiber Over moderate distances (a few kilometers) and at moderate
is much larger than that of single-mode fiber. Multimode signal rates, graded-index multimode fiber performs
core diameters range from 50 to 100 microns (0.002 to satisfactorily. But over long distances some modal distor-
0.004 inches), while the core diameter of single-mode is tion still occurs.
about 8 microns (0.0003 inches).
The only way to completely eliminate modal distortion is to
As its name implies, multimode fiber allows many light use single-mode fiber. In single-mode fiber, only a single
modes or “rays” to be transmitted along the fiber. Origi- ray is allowed to pass through the core (see Figure 3-5).
nally, all multimode fiber was step-indexed, meaning that
there was an abrupt change in the refractive index between
core and cladding. In step-index multimode fiber, rays of
light bounce off the reflective cladding at different angles
(see Figure 3-3).

Figure 3-5. Single-mode fiber

From the book UndersfandinpTelecommunicationsand Linhhvave
Svstems: An Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. NeIIist, 01992. Pub-
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission ofpublisher.

Figure 3-3. Step-index multimode fiber In single-mode fiber, no smearing occurs and modal
From the book UndersfandinpTelecommunicationsand Liehhvave distortion is eliminated. Single-mode fiber allows signals to
SvsfemsrAn Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. Nellist. 01992. Pub- be sent over very long distances (tens of kilometers) and at
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission of publishex very high signal rates.
Due to the reflection angle differences, some rays travel
longer distances than others, and they arrive at the far end
3.1.2 Sensing Phenomena495
of the fiber later than those rays taking shorter paths. Light
Fiber-optic systems can be used to sense many physical
signals (which are made up of all of these rays) tend to get
parameters. Light intensity, displacement, position, tem-
“smeared” in time as they travel down the fiber. This
perature, pressure, sound, and vibration are some of the
smearing is called modal distortion, and it reduces the
physical phenomena that fiber optics can be used to sense.
usable length of step-index multimode fiber, although the
In intrusion detection systems, the primary sensing phenom-
actual usable length also depends on how fast the signal is
ena used are displacement, pressure, and vibration, which
changing (i.e., the signal’s bandwidth). Index grading
are all closely related. Actual fiber breakage is also used as
(gradual changing of the refractive index from core to
a detection event.
cladding) is an improvement that attempts to equalize the

NUREGKR-6 149 4
 Technology

Fiber-optic sensors can be grouped into two broad catego- Core

ries: (1) phase-modulated sensors, and (2) intensity-
modulated sensors. Intensity-modulated sensors detect
variations in light intensity caused by the physical environ-
ment. Phase-modulated sensors use light beam-splitting and
comparison methods to detectphase changes in the light
induced by the physical environment. Cladding

Intensity-modulated sensing can be as simple as detecting a

break in the fiber. This is the lightho-light condition that is Figure 3-7. Speckle pattern
used in security systems that detect the cutting of a webbing From Fiber Outics Handbook 2nd e& by ChristianHentschel,
that contains fiber. Another intensity-modulated sensing 01988. Published by Havlett-PackardCompav. Used byper-
mechanism important to fiber systems involves mission ofpublisher.
microbending. Special plates impose microbends in the
fiber when pressure is applied. As a fiber is bent, some light Of course, multimode fiber must be used to obtain modal
is lost (see Figure 3-6). A significantchange in light interference. Graded-index fibers are preferable for this
intensity at the detector indicates an alarm. kind of detection system, since they show more pronounced
speckle patterns than step-index fibers.6This kind of system
requires a laser source.

3.2 System Components*,3

A fiber-optic system-whether it is used for communication
or sensing-consists of three basic elements: the emitter
(light source), the opticalfiber (and its associated cable),
The deformation and resulting coupling of light and the detector (light receiver). See Figure 3-8.
from core to cladding that occurs in a microbend
intensity-type fiber-optic sensor.

Figure 3-6. Effects of microbending on fiber

From Fiberoutic Sensor TechnolowHandbook, by Charles M.
Davis, et al,, 01986. Published by Optical Echnologies, Inc. signal
Used by permission ofpublisher. Electrical
signal
Sensors mounted on fences or buried in the ground can
make use of this concept. Sensing changes in the light Figure 3-8. A basic fiber-optic system
intensity due to microbends induced by displacement, From the book UndersfandinaFiber OoticsLbyJeJHecht, 01987.
pressure, or vibration provides a way to detect walking Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
intruders or intruders climbing a fence. puter Publishing, Used by permission ofpublisher.

Phase modulation uses interferometty to detect changes in The emitter,. fiber, and detector are joined by special fiber-
the phase of the light and requires a laser source. Interfer- optic connectors. Pieces of fiber can be joined by connec-
ometry involves splitting the light into two paths: a refer- tors or more permanent splices. The following four sections
ence path and a sensing path. At the detector, light fiom the describe each of these components in more detail.
two paths is recombined and forms an interference pattern.
Moving or flexing the fiber-optic cable causes changes in 3.2.1 Optical Fiber and Cable
the light path length, which disturbs the light. This distur-
bance is detectable as an alarm. A variety of optical fibers exist-fiom the single-mode
glass (silica) fibers used in high-speed long-distance
Some sensors use changes in specklepatterns to detect communications to the large-diameter plastic fibers used for
pressure/displacement. As light travels along the fiber, the short-distance lighting and imaging applications. Fiber
various modes interferewith each other and form a speckle types may be categorized by:
pattern at the end of a fiber (Figure 3-7).

5 NuREG/CR-6 149
Technology

(1) composition (e.g., silica or plastic) The three varieties of multimode fiber in the table are
(2) modal characteristics (multimode or single-mode) typically used at the 850-nm and 1300-nm wavelengths and
(3) index characteristics (step-index or graded-index) are usable up to several kilometers. The 8.3/125 single-
mode fiber is designed for 1310-nm and 1550-nm use and
The dimension of most fiber (core and cladding) is on the serves exceptionally well in long-distance communication
order of that for human hak-about 0.004 inches (=lo0 links up to 50 km without the requirement for signal
p). Optical fiber diameters are usually stated in microns regeneration.
(p), as a ratio of core diameter to cladding diameter. For
example, 50/125 means a 5 0 - p diameter core and a 125- In addition to all-glass fibers, plastic-clad glass and all-
pdiameter cladding (Figure 3-9).
plastic fibers are also used. The core dimension of plastic-
clad glass fiber ranges from 200 pm to 1000 p.
+Cladding 125 prn + Attenuation for plastic-clad is about double that of all-glass
fiber-about 10 d B h , which limits its use to lengths less
than 2 Inn. One advantage of plastic cladding is that the
required refractive index difference between the core and
the cladding is easy to attain in manufacture-plastic
inherently has a lower rehctive index than glass. On the
contrary, all-glass fiber uses a complex, multi-step doping
process to sufficiently lower the refractive index of the
cladding. Plastic-clad glass fiber is operated in the 82040-
850-nmrange.

All-plastic fiber typically has a diameter of 1000 pm or

larger. Attenuation of several hundred decibels per kilome-
ter is common, limiting its usefulness to less than 100
meters. All-plastic fiber performs optimally at a wavelength
Figure 3-9. Fiber dimension for 50/125optical fiber of about 665 nm.
Common multimode glass fibers are 50/125,62.5/125, and The larger core plastic-clad and all-plastic fibers do have
100/140. Single-mode glass fibers have much smaller the ability to gather light more easily than the small-core all-
cores-8.3/125, for example. A plastic coating, called the glass fibers, which simplifiesthe task of coupling light
buffer, is applied to the cladding to protect the fiber from sources to the fiber.
scratches and to give added strength. Buffer diameters are
250 pm or 900 pn, depending on the cabling method and For practical use, optical fiber is placed in protective cables.
whether the fiber is to be used in outdoor or indoor applica- Many possible combinations of components-strengthening
tions. Table 3-1 shows characteristics of several glass-core/ members (e.g., steel, kevlar), jacketing materials, numbers
glass-cladding (Le., “all” glass) fiber types.

Table 3-1. Common fiber characteristics

~~ ~

Core Coating Max. BW-length

Fiber diameter Cladding diameter Refractive Numerical Atten. product
type Mode (PI (I@ (pm) indexdelta aperture ( d B h ) (MHz-km)
~ ~ ~~~

50/125 multimode 50 125 250 1 .O% 0.20 4.00’ 500

623125 multimode 62.5 125 250 2.0% 0.275 3.75’ 160
100/140 multimode 100 140 250 2.2% 0.29 5.00’ 100
8.3/125 sinale-mode 8.3 125 250 0.37% 0.13 0.402 NA’

I At 850 nm

’At 1310 nm
3 Source dependent. Chromatic dispersion is the bandwidth limiting factor in single-mode fiber.

NuREG/CR-6 149 6
 Technology

of fibers-exist to address the diverse applications of to improve crush resistance. Tubes may contain up to 12
optical fiber. Cables may have from 1 to over 100 fibers. fibers. Several tubes are usually contained in one cable.
Figure 3-10shows an example of a fiber-optic cable.
In tight buffer cable, the silica fiber is buffered with one or
more plastic layers, usually to a diameter of 900 pm (Figure
3-12).

Kevlar
strenath

Optlcacfiber

Optical
fiber
Figure 3-10. Optical fiber cable
From the book UndersfandinpTelecommunicationsandLiphhvave
Svstems: An Entrv-he1 Guide, by John G. NeIIist, 01992. Pub- . Figure 3-12. Optical fibers in tight buffer cable
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission ofpublisher. From Math Associates, Inc.Jiber opticsproduct catalog, 6sep-
tember 1990. Used by permikion qfMath Associates, Inc.
There are two basic types of fiber-optic cable: loose tube
and tight bufler. In loose tube cable, the silica fiber is Inner buffering layers are often soft so that they will deform
coated (buffered) with plastic to a diameter of 250 p and with external pressure. This alleviates stress on the fiber.
lies loosely in a tube. The tube has a much larger diameter The outer buffering is a hard plastic layer. Several buffered
than the buffered fiber to allow the fiber to be installed in a fibers may be contained in this kind of cable.
loose spiral. Thus, the fiber can move freely with respect to
the tube. This construction technique isolates the fiber flom
external stresses applied to the cable during installation. It
3.2.2 Connectors and Splices
also relieves stresses on the fiber imposed by temperature
expansionkontraction. See Figure 3-11. Connectors and splices are the means by which the various
components of a fiber-opticsystem can be linked together.
Connectors are devices that allow the easy connection and
disconnectionof fiber, transmitters, and detectors. Splices
are permanent connections'thatjoin two fibers.

Before describing the various kinds of connectors and

splices, we will discuss attenuation at these junctures and .
PVC I
I
the various causes of it. Of course, the desire is to keep
outer Braided
jacket kevlar strength
member
I
L~~~~
tube
I
Buffered
attenuation at a minimum in all light transmission elements.
Attenuation in fiberjunctures stems fiom fiber axis ofEet,
optical
fiber off-center and elliptical cores, axis angular misalignment, '
numerical aperture mismatches, fiber spacing, and reflection
at the fiber ends.
Figure 3-11. Optical fiber in loose tube cable
It is easy to see that if the two fibers' cores are not aligned.
From Math Associates, Inc.,jiber opticsproduct cafalog,W e p -
tember 1990. Used by permission ofMafhAssociates, Inc. and matched, some of the light will pass fiom the.transmit-
ting fiber's core to the receiving fiber's cladding..For .
The tube may be filled with gel to keep moisture out, to example, consider Figure 3-13where the two fiber axes are
lubricate the fibers so that they can move more easily, and offset. , .
Technology

This liaht couples into core Light ray not confined in

core of second fiber

Misalignment angle

Figure 3-13. Fibers with offset axes

From the book UnderstandinpFiber ODtics, byJeffHecht, 01987.
Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter Publishing. Used by permissionofpublisher. Figure 3-15. Angular misalignment of fiber axes
From the book UnderstandinpFiber ODlics, by JeffHecht, 01987.
This offset-axes situation represents a loss of light fiom Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
transmitting fiber to receiving fiber. Off-center and elliptical puter Publishing. Used by permissioin ofpublisher.
cores also result in light lost in the cladding (Figure 3-14).
Ray confined in fiber 1
Leaks out of fiber 2

of fiber 2 --I +- of fiber 1

/
1
Fiber 1
- 1Fiber 2
a. Elliptical cores b. Off-center cores
Figure 3-16.Numerical aperture mismatch
From the book UnderstandinpFiber Ovfics, by JeffHecht, @1987.
Figure 3-14. Off-center and elliptical cores Published by SAMsPublishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter Publishing. Used bypermission ofpublisher.
From the book UnderstandinpFiber ODtiCs, byJeffHecht, 01987.
Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter Publishing. Used by permission ofpublisher.
tight here does not enter
core of receiving fiber
A related light-loss problem occurs if there is an angle
between the axes of the two fibers. This is similar to the
losses experienced in fiber that is'bent in too small a radius.
See Figure 3-15.

If the receiving fiber has a smaller NA than the transmitting

fiber, some of the light travelhg out of the transmitting fiber
will not be supported in the receiving fiber because its
critical angle is greater. Light is again lost in the cladding. Figure 3-17. Fiber separation loss due to spreading
This is called numerical aperture mismatch and is illus- From the book UnderstandinpFiber Ovtics, by JeffHecht, 01987.
trated in Figure 3-16. Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter Publishing. Used by permission ofpublisher.
Light spreads out as it leaves a fiber. If space exists between
the two fibers, the spreading portion of the light is lost Spaced fibers also suffer fiom end-reflection loss, which
occurs for all optically transparent materials. This reflection
outside the core. This light-spreading loss depends on the
loss depends on the rehctive indexes of the fiber and the
spacing between the fibers and on the NA of the fibers gap. Light experiences a 3.6% reflection loss leaving the
(Figure 3-17). transmitting fiber and another 3.6% loss entering the

NUREG/CR-6 149 8
 Technology

receiving fiber (total loss of 7.2%). This translates to a 0.32

dB total reflection loss due to the spacing. This is in
addition to the light-spreading loss described in the previous
paragraph. Reflection losses can be reduced by using anti-
reflective coatings on the fiber ends or by filling the gap
with index-matching gel.

Other losses occur (1) if the fiber ends are not cut perpen-
dicular to the fiber axis, (2) if the end surfaces are not Figure 3-19. S M A fiber-optic connector
smooth, or (3) if dirt is present on the end of the fibers. From the book UnderstandinpTelecommunicationsand Liphhvave
Properly installed connectors typically have less than 0.5 Svstems: iln Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. NelIist, 01992. Pub-
dB losses. Iished by IEEE Press. Used bypermission ofpublisher.

Commonly used fiber-optic connectors are the ST, SMA,

and biconic connectors. The ST@ (registered trademark of
AT&T) connector is a bayonet type that utilizes a 'Wit-
lock" installation action similar to the well-known BNC
electrical coaxial connector. Circular orientation of the fiber
is maintained each time a connection is made due to the
keying, which ensures repeatability. Figure 3-18 shows the
ST connector.

Figure 3-20. Biconic connector

From the book Undersandin Telecommunicationsand Liphhvave
Svstems: An Entrv-Level Guide, by John G.NelIist, 01992. Pub-
lished bylEEE Press. Used by permission ofpublisher.

Splices are intended to permanently join two fibers.

Splicing is required when two or more lengths are to be
joined to make one continuous fiber (e.g., for long-distance
Figure 3-18. ST@ fiber-optic connector applications) or if a repair is to be made to a broken fiber.
From the book UnderstandinpTelecommunicationsandLiphhvave Splices should be low-loss and field-installable. Field
Svstems: An Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. Nellist, 01992. Pub-
lished by IEEE Press. Used bypermission ofpublisher.
installation requires that alignments are easily performed,
that specialized tools be kept to a minium, and that the
The S M A connector has similar dimensions to its SMA splice can be completed rapidly.
electrical coaxial counterpart. It utilizes a coupling nut to
secure the fiber connection (similar to the familiar F There are two basic types of splices: fusion and mechanical.
connector found in cable television). Circular orientation Fusion splicing, which requires more expensive equipment,
may change each time a connection is made. Because of the is the welding together of two fibers. For silica fibers, this is
random orientation, and because of connector and installa- accomplished by heating the fibers to their melting point
tion imperfections, inconsistencies in the measured loss of (about 20000C) with an electric arc. Prior to actually fbsing
the connector can occur from one mating to the next. the fibers, the cables and fibers are prepared: the cable
Another concern is that the coupling nut can vibrate loose. jacketing, kevlar, and buffering materials are removed; the
Figure 3-19 shows the SMA connector. fibers are scribed and broken to produce smooth, perpen-
dicular fiber end surfaces; and the fibers are aligned.
The biconic connector is a high-performance connector Alignment is checked visually with a microscope or by
used in high-speed telecommunicationsnetworks. It is monitoring light transmissionthrough the aligned fibers.
designed to bring two fibers into physical contact with each After the fibers are aligned, the fibers are fused. The
other, minimizing the losses that accompany gaps between attenuation of a fbion splice is typically less than 0.1 dB.
The connection is then placed in a closure (essentially a
the fibers. Figure 3-20 shows the biconic connector.
small box), which provides environmentalprotection and

9 NUREG/CR-6149 , (
Technology

mechanical support for the splice and a convenient place to small triangular-shaped groove until they meet at the center.
neatly store excess fiber. Since these operations are usually Finally, the epoxy is cured with ultraviolet light. The use of
done in a splicing van, the resulting cable slack and splice ultraviolet-curable epoxy lessens the splicing time as
closures are stored in a cable enclosure for protection. compared to normal epoxy.

Two kinds of mechanical splices are used: the epoxy type 3.2.3 Emitters (Light Sources)
and the clamp type. Attenuation of mechanical splices is
somewhat more than the fusion type (about 0.25 a), but Emitters generate the light beams in a fiber-optic system.
less equipment is required. They convert electrical information-carrying signals to
optical signals. Two kinds of emitters are used in fiber-optic
One example of a clamp splice consists of (1) a clear plastic systems: the light-emitting diode (LED)and the brighter
housing with a lens molded into its underside to enhance laser diode. The decision of whether to use an LED or a
viewing for a more precise splicing, (2) a glass capillary, laser diode in a fiber-optic system depends on output power
prefilled with an index-matching material, and (3) a metal (brightness), operating wavelength, spectral width, modula-
spring, which has a compliant member to accommodate size tion bandwidth, component lifetime, and cost.
differences in the fiber and to protect the fibers from the
spring. The stripped and cleaved fibers are inserted into the LEDs are often selected as fiber-optic light sources for three
housing and guided into the capillary where they butt in the reasons. First, they are less costly than laser diodes. Second,
center. The spring is engaged and latched into a detent their optical output is linear with respect to input current,
position to align and hold the fibers in place. See Figure which makes them usable for both analog and digital
3-21 for an example of this kind of splice. transmission. Third, their lifetime is much longer than laser
diodes. The optical output of an LED is typically -15 dBm
(30 pW). LEDs are used at 665 nm (plastic fiber use),
850 nm, and 1300 nm, but rarely at 1550 nm, due to the
more complex manufacturing process required to produce
LEDs that operate at 1550 nm.

Some applications require the use of laser diodes. To

transmit over long distances, the greater output power
(brightness) of a laser diode is needed. Outputs of +10
dBm (1 0 mw) are common for laser diodes. Laser diodes
also have narrower spectral widths than LEDs, which means
less chromatic dispersion and hence permits longer trans-
mission distances. The nonlinear input/output characteristic
of laser diodes makes them less suitable for analog trans-
mission applications. Laser diode lifetimes are shorter than
those of LEDs, since they are operated at higher currents to
obtain the higher output power. This causes thermal fatigue
and degradation of performance, eventually causing laser
diodes to fail. Laser diodes are typically used at 1300 nm
and 1550 nm.

Figure 3-21. Example of clamp-type 3.2.4 Detectors (Light Receivers)

mechanical splice
Detectors are the light-beam receivers in a fiber-optic
From AT&T Nehvork Cabling Systems -htSdicem-
&&&& 01990. Used by permission of AT&T Nehvork Cab- system. They convert optical information-carrying signals to
ling Systems. electrical signals. Two types of detectors typically used in
fiber-optic systems are the PIN diode and the avalanche
One epoxy-type splice is the elastomeric splice. Epoxy is photodiode (APD). A detector is selected based on perfor-
inserted into the splice housing. Then the fiber ends are mance (e.g., sensitivity, detection wavelengths, dark current
guided into tapered holes in the splice housing and into a limitations) and cost.

NUREG/CR-6 149 10
 Technology

PIN diodes used in fiber-optic systems have a window to

allow light to enter. The light causes an electrical current to
flow through the diode. The efficiency of converting light to
electrical current is not high for a PIN diode, so the
electrical signal is amplified. .

APDs have higher light-to-electrical efficiency(sensitivity)

than PIN diodes due to a photomultiplicationeffect that
occurs during their operation. Thus, an amplifier is not
required. " b o kinds of APDs are common. Germanium
(Ge) APDs suffer fiom excessive thermally induced dark
current (electrical current when no light is present). Thus,
they require cooling to about 2OoC or 25OC for acceptable
performance. A newer indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs)
APD has lower dark current, so cooling is not required. The
InGaAs device also performs better at 1550 nm than other
detectors.

3.3 References
1. Coden, Michael H., "Everything You Ever Wanted
to Know About Fiber Optics and LANs, But Were
Afiaid to Ask!" The Fiber Optic LAN Handbook,
4th ed., Codenoll Technology Corporation,
Yonkers, New York, October 1991, pp. 38-43.

2. Hecht, Jeff, UnderstandingFiber Optics, Howard .

W. Sams and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1987.

3. Nellist, John G., Understanding Telecommunications

and Lightwave S'sfems: An Enfty-LevelGuide,IEEE
Press, New York,1992, pp. 6, 106-173.

4. Krohn, D. A., Fiber Optic Sensors: Fundamentals

and Applications, 2nd ed., Instrument Society of
America, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina,
1992.

5. Davis, Charles M., et al., Fiberoptic Sensor Technol-

ogy Handbook, Optical Technologies, Inc., Herndon,
Virginia, 1986.

6. Hentschel, Christian, Fiber Optics Handbook, 2nd

ed., Hewlett-Packard, January 1988, pp, 117-118.
 4 Systems Engineering

4.1 Specification power, but have shorter lifetimes and are more expensive
than LEDs.
To specify an appropriate fiber-optic intrusion detection
system, the designer should consider how it fits into the Receivers use either a PIN diode or an avalanche photo-
overall physical protection system. The following items diode (APD). PIN diode receivers are less sensitive, but are
influence the effectiveness of any intrusion detection system adequate for most anticipated safeguards applications (i.e.,
and so should be considered when specifying a fiber-optic short-to-moderate distance applications). PIN diode
intrusion detection system: receivers are also less expensive. For applications requiring
increased receiver sensitivity, an APD receiver may be
(1) Facility threats and targets used.
(2) Peculiarities of the facility
Other detection and assessment elements Specifyingthe type of fiber to be used requires selection of
(3) (1) the fiber material (plastic or glass), (2) the fiber size,
(4) Delay and response mechanisms
and (3) multimode or single-mode. Appropriate choices
In addition, issues that are more directly related to the depend on data-speed and distance requirements. It is not
intrusion detection system should be understood. These likely that single-mode fiber would be required for safe-
include the system’s probability of detection, invalid alarm guards applications.
rate, covertness, susceptibility to vandalism, reliability, ease
of maintenance, and cost (both of installation and of Cable selection should consider (1) fiber type and size, (2)
operation). Manufacturers can provide informationthat fiber count, (3) loose tube or tight buffering, (4) strength
addresses these issues. The degree to which the system member material, (5) armoring material, and (6) jacket type
protects itself fiom a malevolent insider should also be to suit the intended environment (indoor or outdoor), flame
considered. Deciding whether to install a fence-mounted or retardancy, etc. In addition, the cable should be suited to its
a stand-alone system, a buried or a submergible system, a placement method (overhead, direct burial, conduit, duct,
wall-mounted or a wall-encased system depends on the tny, riser, plenum, or wall). Consideration should be given
user’s requirements and the peculiarities of the specific to pulling strength (important during installation), minium
facility. Analyses and decisions should be made on a bend radius, weight and size, crush strength, and color
facility-by-facility basis. coding of fibers.’

SpecifLig a fiber-optic communication system includes Splices and connectors should be selected based on their
selecting appropriate (1) operating wavelength, (2) trans- ease of installation, amount of loss, loss stability over
mitters and receivers, (3) fiber and cable type, (4) splices temperature, and durability. In addition, connectors should
and connectors, and (5) closures and cross-connection be small and should have.good loss repeatability over many
boxes to meet the requirements of the user and to allow for hundreds of mating cycles. Connectors with a bayonet latch
expansion and upgrading. are desirable for easy on-off and for their secure connec-
tions.1
The choice of which operating wavelength to use is
influenced by the data-speed, distance, and cost require- Closures (protective housings for splices) should be small,
ments. Shorter wavelength systems (850 nm) are less but should allow for system growth. Closures should be
expensive but can not transmit data as far or as fast as the dustproof and, if used outdoors, waterproof. Cross-
1300- and 1550-nm systems; 850-nm and 1300-nm systems connection boxes-which are used to mount connectors and
are expected to meet the requirements of most safeguards allow flexible and easy rearrangement of optical circuits-
applications. Plastic fiber systems (665 nm) are also should also be small, allow for growth, and ensure easy
available, but their usefulness is usually limited to less than access to the patch panel.1
100 meters.
4,2 Design
Selection of the wavelength also influences the choice of
the transmitter. Transmitters operating at 850 and 1300 nm Design of fiber-optic intrusion detection sensors is
use LEDs or laser diodes, whereas 1550-nm transmitters primarily the responsibility of the manufacturer. The
require a laser diode. Laser diodes provide more manufacturer makes the selection of the sensing
NUREG/CR-6149 12
 Systems Engineering

technique, cable and fiber types, light source (whether LED Let’s take a more detailed look at the system losses and loss
or laser diode), light detector, and processing equipment. margin, and then consider another example.
The user is responsible for designing the physical layout of
the sensing cable (burial, fence-mounting, etc.), the place- There are significant losses associated with coupling light
ment of control and processing equipment, and for ensuring fiom the transmitter into the fiber. This is especially true for
the sensor’s proper integration with other security system LED transmitters, due to their large emitting surface, their
elements. In essence, the user buys a complete intrusion wide emission angle, and the relatively small diameter of
detection sensor from the manufacturer and adapts it to his the fiber’s core. Much of the light is lost in the cladding of
particular site and requirements, receiving guidance from the fiber. Laser diodes couple more light into fibers-they
and working closely with the manufacturer. have a smaller emitting area, a smaller beam spread, and
higher output power.
Of course, turnkey fiber-optic communications systems are
also available and can be purchased from systems design From the user’s standpoint, knowing how much power is
firms. On the other hand, fiber-optic communication coupled into the fiber is more useful than knowing the
systems are often designed (at the subsystem level) by the transmitter’s total output power. That is why manufacturers
user. From his requirements, the user makes decisions about sometimes state how much power is actually coupled into
which subsystem components to use: light source, detector, the fiber for a given fiber size. For example, the manufac-
fiber, cable, etc. This section will cover several basic design turer may specify that a particular transmitter will couple -
concepts needed to properly select subsystem components 12.5 dBm ofpower into a 100/140fiber, or -18.5 dBm into
of a fiber-optic communicationssystem. 50/125fiber.
An important concept to understand in designing a fiber- Fiber loss is easily calculated from the attenuation per
optic communications system is power budgeting.1-3The kilometer ( d B h ) specified by the manufacturer. Simply
fiber-optic system should be designed to ensure that enough multiply the fiber’s d B h by the length to be used to
optical power reaches the light receiver to be properly obtain the fiber loss. For example, suppose the fiber’s
detected. A certajn amount of power is transmitted into the attenuationper kilometer is 5 d B h and the length to be
fiber by the source (transmitter). Losses in the fiber, used is 400 meters (0.4km). Then the loss due to the fiber
connectors, and splices reduce the power that arrives at the
is 2 dB (5 d B h X 0.4 km).
detector. If the power arriving at the detector is not enough
to be properly detected, the power budget has been ex-
Losses associated with coupling light fiom the fiber to the
ceeded. The design should include extra margin so that the
receiver are generally small and can be ignored. However,
delivered power is not at the detector’s m i n i u m operating
receiver sensitivity (the minimum power that a receiver can
level. This loss margin allows for component variations,
age degradation of components, and system repairs and detect) is important in figuring the power budget and is
additions. stated in dBm (e.g., -30 dBm).

Power budget is stated in terms of dB (decibels). It is the Connector and splice losses should be accounted for in
differencebetween the power transmitted into the fiber and power budgeting. Properly installed connectors have losses
the receiver’s sensitivity (required receiver power). The sum less than 0.5 dB. Fusion splices have typically about 0.1 dB
of all the system losses and the loss margin should not of loss, mechanical splices about 0.25 dB.Manufacturers
exceed the power budget: specify typical and maximum losses for connectors and
splices-there is some uncertainty in the actual loss. This
Power budget (dB) = Transmitter power - Receiver sens. uncertaintydepends on the quality of manufacture and the
2 Losses + Loss margin quality of installation.

In the above equation, transmitter power and receiver Finally, loss margin should be included in the design. This
sensitivity are expressed in dBm, a dB unit that references safety factor allows for uncertainties in counting the losses.
power to 1 milliwatt. Loss margin can range from 3 to 10 dB,depending on
. performancerequirements, future additions to the systems,
’
A quick power budget example: Suppose the transmitter ease of repair, and cost.
power is -13 dBm and the receiver sensitivity is -30 dBm.
Then the sum of the losses (fiber, connectors, splices) and Suppose that a 10 Mbitkec, 850-nmoptical data link is to
the loss margin should be less than or equal to 17 dB (-13 be established between two locations 1500 meters apart,
dBm - (-30 a m ) ) . using the following components and design criteria. Is the
power budget sufficient?

13 NUREG/CR-6149
Systems Engineering

Transmitter power to 50/125 fiber: -1 8.5 dBm the fiber’s bandwidth is simple: divide the fiber’s fie-
Receiver sensitivity: -38.0 dBm quency-length product (in MHz-km) by the length to be
Fiber attenuation @ 850 nm: 4.0 d B h used (in km). The result is the bandwidth (in MHz) of that
Distance: 1.5 km particular piece of fiber. Determining the system’s band-
8 connectors @ 0.5 dB each width is more difficult and is beyond the scope of this
Required loss margk. 6 dB report. It involves knowing the response times of the
transmitter and receiver as well as the fiber’s response time.
Transmitter power: -18.5 dBm Refer to Denny,] Hecht,2 or Palais: for an in-depth discus-
Receiver sensitivity: - (-38.0 dBm) sion of system bandwidth, or consult with one of the many
Power budget = 19.5 dB manufacturers of fiber-optic communications components.

4.0 d B h X 1.5 km: 6.0 dB 4.3 Installation

8 X 0.5 dB: 4.0 dB
Loss margin: + 6.0 dB Cable installation and fiber termination (installing connec-
Totalloss = 16.0 dB tors) is beyond the scope of this report. Refer to the various
cable and connector manufacturers for this kind of informa-
Since the total loss does not exceed the power budget (there tion. (See Appendix D.)
are 3.5 dB to spare), this system provides sufficient power
to the receiver for proper operation. If the required loss With regard to the physical installation of a fiber-optic
margin was increased to 10 dB (e.g., to allow for more communications system, several practical tips are worth
future splices or connectors), the total loss would exceed the mentioning. 1
power budget. In this case, a more powefil transmitter or
more sensitivereceiver would have to be used. Do not mix fiber sizes or types.
(1)
The choice of operating wavelength is another important Plan for at least four connections for each link
(2)
issue. The design example above was done at 850 nm, one (one connection on each end and two intermediate
of three operating wavelengths used for glass fibers. For connections) to allow for flexibility and future
distances of a few kilometers or more, losses associated expansion.
with the fiber could be appreciablyreduced by using 1300-
nm components. At 1300 nm, fiber loss is about 1 d B h , a Try not to mix connector types or splice types
(3)
reduction of about 3 or 4 d B h over 850-nm operation. (reduces tools and inventory).
For short distances, this fiber loss reduction does not yield
much advantage, and the designer would probably use 850- Include extra fibers for future growth.
nm components to reduce costs. (4)

(5) Include extra cable length to allow for future

For extremely low fiber loss, 1550-nmsystems are avail- splicingwhen determining cable lengths.
able, but these systems are targeted for very high-speed,
long-distance communication links not likely to be required Try to place splice points inside buildings (for
(6)
in safeguards applications. These 1550-nmsystems are also more convenient installation and maintenance
very expensive. of splices).
For very short applications, plastic fiber systems present an Some safety issues to remember include the following:
attractive alternative. These systems are operated at 665 nm.
Plastic fiber’s loss is over 100 d B h , so its use is limited U’se eye protection when working with bare fiber.
to applicationsof 100 meters or less. One advantage is
(1)
plastic fiber’s efficient coupling of transmitted light, due to Collect fiber remnants on sticky tape, and seal in a
(2)
its l e e core diameter. Plastic fiber systems (transmitters closed container (e.g., a plastic bag) for safe
and receivers) are inexpensive compared with their glass disposal.
counterparts.
(3) Always assume that the fiber you are working on is
Bandwidth-which is related to how much information can illuminated by a laser diode (eye-safety standards
be transmitted down the fiber at one time-is another issue apply), unless you know for certain that it is not.
that should be addressed in the system design. Determining

NUREG/CR-6 149 14
 Systems Engineering

4.4 Test optical loss test sets. Fiber failures (breaks) can be located
along the fiber length with 0TDR.s and also with special-
Testing a fiber-optic intrusion detection system to verify ized 0TDR.s calledfault locators.
proper operation can be as simple as performing intrusion
trials. Testing can also be as complex as determining the 4.5 Maintenance
exact location of a break in a fiber-optic cable. To deter-
mine the actual optical performance of a fiber-optic system, Fiber-optic systems are relatively maintenance free. End-to-
special test equipment is needed. Fiber-optic test equipment end loss measurements are periodically recommended for
consists of optical power meters, stabilized light sources, fiber-optic communications systems to ensure that the
and optical time domain reflectometers? systems continue to meet the design specification for power
budget.
An opticalpower meter is a fundamental piece of fiber-
optic test equipment used to measure optical power. It can Connectors require special attention-they should always
also be used to determine optical power loss over a fiber- be covered with their dust caps when not in use. Also,
optic path. This is done by measuring the actual optical m a t e d connectors should always be cleaned with a cotton
power on each side of the component being characterized swab and alcohol prior to remating.
(connector, splice, piece of fiber, or combination), and
comparing the two measurements. This is useful for 4.6 References
verifying the power budget of an installed system. Optical
I
power meters can be wavelength-specific(e.g., 850-nm 1. Denny, J. E., Fiber Optic Cookbookfor LAN and Data
operation only), but multi-wavelength meters are also ’LinkApplications, AN-007LGYAT&T Technologies,
available that operate in all three transmission windows Inc., 1986.
(850,1300, and 1550 nm).
2. Hecht, Jeff, UnderstandingFk5er bptics, Howard W..
Stabilized light sources provide a known power level and Sams and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana, 1987.
wavelength of light into a fiber-optic system. These light
r
sources are used in conjunction with optical power meters 3. Nellist, John G., Understanding Telecommunications
to make loss measurements when a system light source is and Lightwave Systems: An Entry-Level Guide, IEEE
not available. Laser diode and LED stabilized light sources Press, New York, 1992, pp. 6, 105-173.
are available. Test sets that incorporate both stabilized light
sources and optical power meters are called optical loss test 4. Palais, Joseph C., Fiber Qptic Communications,
sets. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Engle’wood Cliffs, New Jersey,
1984.
Optical time domain reflectometers (OTDRs)are used to
measure fiber loss over distance and also to measure splice 5. Horwitz, Dennis, “How to Select Fiber-optic Test
and connector losses in the system. In fact, a full system Equipment,” Communications Technology, January
characterization can be made with an OTDR Measurements 1993. Also published as RIFOCS Corporation
are made from one end of the fiber, which is more conve- application note AN-101.
nient than the two-end measurement method required by I!

15 NuREG/CR-6149
 5 Applications

With respect to physical protection, fiber optics applies to Fiber-optic systems also have superior signal quality. Since
two aieas: fiber-optic systems are light-based, ground loop problems
are eliminated, contributing to cleaner signals. Impedance
(1) communications(e.g., video, data, voice), including variations that reduce signal quality in metallic cable
the protection of the optical fiber from tampering, and systems are nonexistent in fiber. Fiber’s wide bandwidth
(several hundred MHz) also contributes to its excellent
(2) intrusion detection. signal quality.

Another fiber-optics application area that relates to safe- Finally, fiber systems are flexible and upgradable. A
guards is tamper indication, although this falls under the security system may be required to handle video, control,
topic of material control and accounting, and not under and audio information. Fiber provides the flexibility to
physical protection. handle all these information types, and all of the signals
may be multiplexed on a single fiber. Follow-on improve-
Uses of fiber optics in communications, intrusion detection, ments to handle higher bandwidths can usually be accom-
and tamper indication are discussed in the following sections. plished by using the existing fiber and upgrading only the
optical transmitters and receivers of the system.
5.1 Communications
Basically, any electrical signal that can be sent via wire can
Communications, as it relates to the physical protection of alternatively be converted to an optical signal and transmit-
nuclear materials and facilities, can be divided into three ted along a fiber (see Figure 5-1).
categories-the transmission of video, data, or voice

r
information. Optical fiber transmission systems are appli- -
cable to all three types of information. Video Video
Audio Audio
There are several advantages to using fiber optics instead of Analog Analog
metallic cables in communications.1 One advantage is that RS-232 XMTR RCVR RS-232
RS-422
signals can be transmitted longer distances without amplifi- 1TL

L
ers or repeaters. For example, a coax system carrying video 4/20 MA I
ACIDC Power AUDC Power 14/20 MA
signals typically incorporates a line amplifier every 1000 DC Level DC Level
feet to overcome losses in the cable. On the other hand, Relay Relay
some fiber systems can transmit study-quality video signals Closures Closures
-
30 miles without amplification.

Another advantage is the inherent security of optical fiber. It Figure 5-1. Fiber-optic transmission systems
is virtually impossible for someone to passively “listen in”
on the signal (eavesdropjthe light is confmed inside the From Math Associates, Inc.,fiber opticsproduct catalog, Bsep-
tember 1990. Used by permission of Math Associates, Inc.
fiber. This is not the case for metallic cables: an electromag-
netic field is present around a metallic cable and is detect- There are certainly communications applications where
able by a knowledgeable and properly equipped individual. metallic systems are more appropriate (e.g., short distances,
To counter adversary attempts to gain access to fiber-optic no EMI, low bandwidth signalsMptica1 fiber is no
signals, the signal power can be monitored for appreciable
panacea. Also, there are unique installation and repair
change at the optical receiver. This change would indicate
issues associated with optical fiber. During optical fiber
that an intruder was accessing the fiber.
termination operations, care should be taken to keep the
fiber clean. Even small particles of dust can significantly
A third benefit is fiber-optics’ immunity to electromagnetic
interference (Em. EM1 is commonly present at electric reduce performance. Optical fiber repair (splicing) requires
special tools to guarantee proper alignment of the hair-like
utility facilities and nuclear power plants and can couple
into traditional communication cables, causing signal fiber.
distortion and noise. Optical fiber is not susceptible to these
problems and operates well in EMI-noisy environments.
NUREG /CR-6149 16
 Applications

5.1.1 Video2 single direction on each fiber-video information fiom

camera to monitor and data (control) information fkom the
Within the context of physical protection systems, video alarm monitoring station to the camera. Fiber-optic trans-
information typically originates at an assessment camera mitters and receivers are available that interface to a variety
and is transmitted through a coax cable to an alarm monitor- of PTZ signal formats, including RS-232,RS-422,
ing station. There, it is displayed on a television monitor. Manchester (or biphase), transistor-transistor logic (TIL),
This describes a simple closed-circuit television (CCTV) or relay. Figure 5-4 shows a video system incorporat3vj
system. See Figure 5-2. both video and control signals via oplticalfiber.

coax

Camera I Monilor
Monitor

Figure 5-2. CCTV alarm assessment system

using coax cable

How is CCTV accomplished with fiber optics? The coax Figure 5-4. CCTV system incorporating video
cable is simply replaced with three components: a fiber- and control signals
optic transmitter (light source), a piece of optical fiber, and
a fiber-optic receiver (light detector). See Figure 5-3. Video and control signals often interface to common
transceiver units. The transceiver on the camera end
handles outgoing video and incoming data (transmit video/
Fiber-optic Fiber-optic
trans!niller rec8,iver receive data); the transceiver at the monitoring station takes .
care of incoming video and outgoing data (receive video/
optical
transmit data). These transceivers could interface to two
fibers as described above (one fiber for each direction) or,
0 0 0 in more complex systems, could connect to a single fiber.
Short lenglh Monitor Bidirectional traffic on a single fiber is handled through the
of coax use of wavelength division multiplexing 0 ,
meaning
that one direction uses 850-nmcomponents and the other
direction uses 1300-nmcomponents. Figure 5-5 illustrates
Figure 5-3. CCTV alarm assessment system using this concept.
fiber optics

In this system, only the video signal is being transmitted on

the fiber, the direction of transmission being fkom camera to
monitor.

At first glance, the fiber-optic solution looks more complex

850 nrn Transmitter

a-
850 nrn D e M o r

signal 1

than the coax system (three components versus one). How-

ever, coax systems, especially those used outdoors or those
used for long runs, generally include additional components
for lightning protection, signal equalization, and ground
scs2
U
J
loop elimination. These additional components are not used
1300 nm Delector 1300nrnTransrnltter
in fiber-optic systems.

If control information (e.g., pan-tilt-zoom, or PIZ) needs to

Figure 5-5. Wavelength division multiplexing
be passed fkom the monitoring location to the camera,
another fiber (and associated fiber-optic transmitter and From International Fiber*stems, Inc.,fiber opticdata and video
products catalog, 81993. Used bypermission of International Fi-
receiver) can be added between the monitoring station and ber *sterns, Inc.
the camera. In this two-fiber system, informationtravels in a
Applications

The advantages of using fiber over copper for video polling loop. The MCU periodically polls (interrogates) the
transmission include9 multiplexers; the states of the sensors are passed to the host
computer for further actions (audible alarms, camera
(1) immunity fiom induced noise switching, map display updates, etc.).
(2) no radiated EM1
(3) immunity from external EMI This system has several possibilities for applying fiber
(4) no ground-loop electrical path and associated 60-Hz optics. The most obvious application is to use optical fiber
interference as part ofthe polling loop. For example, multiplexers may
( 5 ) reduced susceptibility to equipment damage from be separated from each other or fiom the MCU by large
lightning distances. Fiber can be used to span these large distances,
(6) wider bandwidth capability enabling a physically larger loop than would be possible
with common electrical serial interfaces such as RS-422
In cases where a high-resolution graphics terminal is (maximum length: 4000 ft), RS-485 (4000 fi), or RS-232
remotely located fiom the main computer, fiber optics (50 ft). Fiber-optic data transmitters and receivers that
presents a good solution. High-resolution video signals can interface to these serial interfaces are readily available. The
extend well above the IO-MHz range present in standard fiber transmitters, receivers, and cable simply replace the
video. These higher frequencies, coupled with long dis- copper cable.
tances, dictate that fiber optics be used for high-quality
image reproduction. Another possibility is the case where a sensor is distant
fiom the multiplexer. The relay closure information (“on” or
5.1.2 Data “off) from the sensor can be communicated easily via fiber
to the multiplexer. Several manufacturersmake fiber-optic
The previous section (video) introduced the use of fiber transmitters that accept relay closures as inputs. Fiber-optic
optics for transmitting one kind of data: camera control receivers are available that provide relay closures as
information. Alarm information is another form of data outputs.
commonly transmitted within physical protection systems.
Many alarm communications systems, like the one shown in
A typical alarm communicationssystem consists of sensors, Figure 5-6, have redundancy built in so that failures of the
multiplexers (or transponders), multiplexer control unit MCU, host computer, or polling loop do not cause the
@ICU), and a host computer (see Figure 5-6). whole system to fail. The backup system that provides this
redundancy would probably be located at another site (an
alternate alarm monitoring station). Communication

8
sensors
between the primary and backup systems provides a good
opportunity to use fiber optics. Linkiig the two systems is
readily done via a fiber-optic local area network (LAN).
Mulllgexer Products to accomplish a fiber-optic LAN implementation
are available fiom a number of manufacturers.

17 computer
Frequently, physical protection systems permit authorized
personnel to enter protected areas through the use of auto-
mated entry control equipment-personal identification
numbers (PINS),card readers, hand geometry readers, etc.

$2
T -Transmit Communicationbetween the remotely located entry control
Mulliplexer
-
R Recate equipment and the alarm monitoring station is another
application for fiber optics.

5.1.3 Voice
Transmission of voice signals via optical fiber brings to
Figure 5-6. Alarm communications system mind the widespread use of fiber optics in the long-distance
telephone industry. Although a fiber-optic telephone system
The sensors are connected to the multiplexers and provide a is most likely not required for a physical protection system,
relay closure to the multiplexers to indicate an alarm. The a fiber-optic intercom (audio) system is easily achievable
multiplexers are linked to each other and the MCU by a with products now available. Figure 5-7 illustrates an

NUREG /CR-6 149 18

 Applications

example of a fiber-optic video-audio link that might be used Optical continuity sensors have a low nuisance-alarm rate
in an entry control booth of a physical security system. since the light path must be positively broken to be consid-
ered an alarm.

Light disturbance sensors detect minute microbending of

the fiber caused by environmental changes such as pressure,
motion, or vibration (see Figure 5-9).

Application of {
pressure
motbn
vibration
} causes alarm

Figure 5-7. Video/audio link using fiber optics

In addition to video and audio, push-to-call and remote

Figure 5-9. Alarm causes for a light
contact closure (e.g., to operate a door lock) functionscan
disturbance sensor
be provided over the same link.
Light disturbance systems include processing circuitryto
5.1.4 Communications Products determine if the environmental change is sufficient to
declke an alarm. For this reason, these sensor systems are
A variety of fiber-optics products exists that supports significantly more complex than optical continuity sensors.
transmission of video, data, and voice signals. A partial list The sensitivity (to environmental change) of most light
of fiber-optics equipment suppliers is included as Appendix disturbance systems can be adjusted to optimize the
D. detection probability and nuisance-alarm rate for a particu-
lar installation.
5.2 Intrusion Detection
Fiber-optic intrusion detection systems are relativelynew,
Fiber-optic intrusion sensors detect (1) cutting or breaking having been introduced to the physical protection market
of the fiber or (2) light disturbances.4 These sensors can be: only in the last few years. Consequently, their reliability and
maintainability are not as well known as that of more
(1) installed on fences established sensor technologies such as microwave and
(2) buried in the ground infi-ared systems.
(3) placed under carpet or above ceiling tiles
(4) built into grates, grids, and window screens The following subsections describe intrusion detection
( 5 ) embedded into walls products. Light disturbanceproducts are discussed first,
followed by a description of optical continuityproducts.
Sensors that detect only the cutting or breaking of the fibers
do so by monitoring the optical continuity of the fiber. A 5.2.1 Light Disturbance Products
light source sends a signal through the fiber to the detector.
As long as the signal arrives at the detector, no alarm Several commercial products are available that detect light
occurs. If the light is interruptedby a cut or break, an alarm
disturbances of optical fiber due to pressure, motion, or
is reported (see Figure 5-8).
vibration. These products can be configuredfor a variety of
applications. They can be:
Cutting (or breaking)
fiber causes alarm
(1) buried in the ground

(2) attached to mechanical or structural €ktures (fences,

walls, etc.)

(3) embedded in walls

Figure 5-8. Causing an alarm on an optical
continuity sensor

19 NUREG/CR-6149
Applications

(4) placed under carpet or above ceiling tiles detection equipment would produce undesired alarms. For
installations in which the secure zone is remote fiom the
(5) placed under articles to be protected detection equipment, insensitive fiber-optic lead-in cable is
available.
Common configurations include burying the sensing cable
or attaching it to a fence. In buried applications, pressure The detection method involves monitoring mode interfer-
changes caused by an intruder moving over the sensored ence changes of the light (up to 60 modes may be propa-
area are transferred to the fiber cable and detected. In fence- gated in the fiber) due to pressure, vibration, or motion. To
mounted applications, fence vibration and movement optimize detection capability and minimize invalid alarms
caused by cutting, climbing, bumping, or lifting of the fence for a particular installation, the system allows the user to
fabric are induced in the fiber cable and detected. select appropriate processing parameters to qualify a
disturbance as an alarm. These parameters include the
Techniques for detecting light disturbance differ somewhat frequency band, energy level and duration of the distur-
for each manufacturer. All of the systems consist of an bance, and the number of disturbances within a specified
optically sensitive fiber cable (deployed in the desired time. An alarm is indicated by a relay closure, an indicator
environment), a light source, a detector, and alarm process- lamp, and an audible signal. The system can be reset
ing circuitry (see Figure 5-10). automatically or manually.

One group of fiber-optic intrusion detection systems uses

Fiber-optic cable
tight an optical interferometry technique in which laser beams
source
are transmitted into each end of a single-mode fiber.*.g The

v
interaction between the two beams yields a high sensitivity
to disturbances of the fiber. Pressure (movement, sound,
Detector
vibration) on the fiber changes the relative phases of the
beams. This phase change is detected and processed for
alarm qualification. In some of the products, the user way

I
optimize the system to discriminate between environmental
Alarm processor and intruder disturbances by appropriately selecting the
sensitivity, detection threshold, time window, event count,
and frequency window. Other products allow user adjust-
Alarm
ment of the sensitivity only. The use of single-mode fiber
allows sensor loops of more than 30 km without the aid of
Figure 5-10. Typical components of a fiber-optic amplifiers or repeaters. These systems are advertised for
light disturbance sensor use in both indoor and outdoor applications and may be
buried in the ground (see Figure 5-11, next page); mounted
From Fiber SenSys, Inc., Fiber ODtic Intrusion Defection Svstem on fences, walls, towers, or other structures; attached to or
Seminar Manual. Used by permission of Fiber SenSys, Inc.
placed beneath artifacts; or used as acoustic sensors to
The light source, detector, and alarm processor are fre- monitor sound.
quently contained in one unit. Although manufacturers are
willing to discuss general concepts of operation, details of Another group of fiber-optic intrusion detection sensors
the actual detection technique are generally proprietary. also uses a laser.10-11 Laser light transmitted into a multi-
mode fiber causes modal interference and forms a speckle
One type of fiber-optic intrusion detection system uses a pattern at the detector end of the fiber (telephone interview
multimode interferometric technique.5-7 In addition to a with Douglas LeBarge, Stellar Systems, October 7, 1993).
multimode interferometer, the system consists of a laser Mechanical disturbancesto the fiber (pressure, vibration,
diode emitter, a sensitive multimode fiber, a light detector, motion) cause a change in the speckle pattern that is
and qualification processing. A system using these compo- detected and processed for alarm qualification. Alarm thres-
nents requires the detection equipment to be located at the hold and laser power output are user-adjustable to optimize
zone of detection. Otherwise, movement of the sensitive performance for a particular installation. Two of these light
cable leading from the intended detection zone to the disturbance systems are available: one for buried installa-
tions (in gravel or under sod) and one for fence mounting.

NLJFEG /CR-6 149 20

 ~

Applications

Figure 5-11. Buried installation of fiber-optic intrusion detection system

Several of the above systems have been evaluated for use in grid serves as a physicaI barrier for water ffow openings. Its
buried and fence-mounted applications.'J2 The environment construction and detection mechanism are similar to the
of the site and the method of installingthe fiber-optic decorative fence. Attempts to bend, spread, or cut the
system influence its performance. Cold weather is a concern structure result in a reduction of the light signal arriving at
for the buried fiber-opticsystems since fiozen ground the detector and consequently initiate an alarm. The
desensitizes these systems. intrusion detection method used in both the decorative
fence and the submergible grid is classified as opto-
Other fiber-optic sensors include a decorativefence and a mechanical.
submergible grid barrier, both of which utilize fiber-optic
light disturbanceto detect intrusions.*3-16In the decorative Another fiber-optic intrusion detection system under
fence, a fiber-opticsensing cable is installed in the top development is expected to be able to both locate the
vertical support channel of the fence. An emitter at one end intruder (along the perimeter) and classib the class of
of the cable transmits a light pulse into the fiber; this light intrusion (crawler, walker, runner, vehicle).17 Buried,
pulse is detected at the other end. Mechanical pressure ground surface, and fence-mounted installationswill be
caused by attempts to climb or bend the fence structure are permitted. Instead of an optical loop, the system uses an
transferred to the fiber via a sensing device inside the fence. optical fiber with both the emitter and detector located at
The disturbanceof the fiber attenuates the light signal the near end; the far end is mirrored. Collocatingthe emitter
arriving at the detector and an alarm is initiated. Attempts to and detector requires optical couplers to interface these
cut the fence structure are also detected. The submergibIe components to the fiber. The system uses a laser source and
multimode fiber and is sensitiveto phase interferencedue to
Test Report: Metricor Fiber-optic Intrusion Detection System, EG&G the application of pressure to the fiber. A working model of
851, CommunicationsSeeuriw Design,November 1990. (proprietary the system has been demonstrated.
report, not publicly available).

21 NUREGKR-6 149
Applications

5,2.2 Optical Continuity Products 5.3 Tamper-Indicating Devices

(ILoop Systems)
Several fiber-optic intrusion detection products are avail-
able that detect loss of optical continuity (Le., a break in the Several fiber-optic systems are available that provide
fiber). These sensors can be: tamper indication. These systems are used to show either
unauthorized access or attempts to steal assets or equip-
(1) built into barbed-tape barriers ment. All fiber-optic tamper-indicatingsystems use a loop
(2) built into water inlet and outlet meshing of optic fiber cable that is threaded through or around an
(3) embedded in walls object. If the cable is broken or cut, light transmitted in one
end will not be detected at the other end, indicating removal
(4) built into window screens
of the seal and possible item tampering. Some systems
(seals) are passive-light is passed through the fiber during
Optical continuity systems consist of an emitter, a detector, installation or verification operations only. Other systems
and the optical fiber. Light signals originating at the emitter (e.g., anti-theft products) are active-light signals are
pass through the fiber and are received at the detector. continuously transmitted through the loop. The following
Receipt of these signals at the detector confirms the two subsections describe passive and active tamper indica-
integrity of the fiber. Loss of the light signal resulting fiom tors.
cutting or breaking of the fiber indicates an intrusion.
15.3.1 Passive Tamper Indicators (Seals)
Optical continuity intrusion detection systems include fence
and web-type sensors (telephone interview with Douglas 't'hese systems include two treaty verification seals and a
LeBarge, Stellar Systems, October 7, 1993).1°-ll In one commercial seal.
product, an optical fiber is encased in steel barbed tape.
This barbed tape can serve as a stand-alone fence (provid- The first system is used to seal items under the control of
ing a physical barrier) or can be fitted to walls, existing nuclear nonproliferationtreaty agreements (interview with
fences, or gates. Another product consists of a mesh or web Ken Ystesund, Sandia National Laboratories, July
of fiber cable that resembles rigid chain-link fencing. It can 1993).192O The system consists of a length of multi-strand
be used by itself to provide a sensitive physical barrier or fiber-optic cable (containing 64 plastic fibers) and a clear
can be incorporated into structures (walls, ceilings, floors). polycarbonate seal body (to secure the ends of the cable).
Attempts to penetrate the structure (or the mesh itself) will See Figure 5-12.
break the fiber and generate an alarm. A similar mesh
product is submergible and can provide intrusion protection Compression pin
of water inlets and outlets. Cutting blade
Fiber-opllc cable

A fiber-optic window screen is also available that utilizes Seal body 7 '-\
the optical continuity c ~ n c e p tOptical
.~ fibers woven into
the screen allow the system to detect cutting of the screen.
Recommended installations include safe rooms, high-ticket
manuficturing plants, and museums.

Fiber-optic continuity proof-of-concept systems have also

been demonstrated. One system, developed for treaty
verification applications, consists of a fiber-optic cable
threaded through a fence.'* The system monitors the
integrity of the fence via optical continuity of the fiber and
is used to indicate large-scale breaches of the fence (e.g.,
cable cuts and fence dismantlements for vehicle or treaty-
item pissage). The system also employs techniques to
detect fiber-optictampering. In addition to fence installa-
tions, the fiber-optic cable could also be installed on walls
or secure containers. Figure 5-12. Treaty verification seal

NUREG /CR-6149 22
 Applications

The use of plastic fibers allows the cable to be sheared off The seal body is heat-stamped with a serial number and
cleanly without the use of special tools. optional company name, and securely holds the ends of the
fiber cable. The cable consists of randomly positioned
The seal is used as follows. A fiber-optic cable (up to 20 m) acrylic optical fibers covered with a protective polyethylene
is threaded through or around the item to be sealed. The jacket. Cable loops less than 50 feet have 16 fibers; longer
two ends of the cable are then inserted into the seal body, loops have 24 fibers. Seal integrity can be checked by
which is pre-loaded with a cutting blade. An installation simply shining a light in one end of the cable and observing
tool compresses the seal body and pushes the cutting blade whether light is emitted from the other end. Alternatively, a
into the cable. Due to the construction of the cutting blade, handheld device is available that provides an audible
some of the fibers are cut and some are not. The random indication of the seal’s integrity. If documented evidence of
construction and placement of the cable give the seal a the seal status is required, a camera verifier is available.
unique signature. Next, the cable ends are cut at the seal
face with a cutting tool. Light is shone into the fiber 5.3.2 Active Tamper Indicators
bundles, and an end-view image of the fiber bundles and
seal body is recorded (Polaroid-type photograph). Broken Active tamper indicators include a couple of anti-theft
fibers do not transmit light and therefore appear dark; products and a proof-of-concept fiber-optic necklace (used
unbroken fibers appear bright. To verify seal integrity, a in personnel tracking). The two anti-theft systems are
intended to secure equipment highly susceptible to theft
picture is taken of the seal body. This new image is com-
(e.g., personal computers and peripherals). In these
pared with a previous image (made when the seal was
systems, a fiber-optic cable is threaded through the equip-
installed) to determine whether the fiber loop has been
ment that requires protection. The cable connects to a box
broken or replaced. A proof-of-concept electronic seal containing the emitter, detector, and control circuitry. An
verifier has been demonstrated that performs an automated alarm is initiated if the cable is cut, broken, or disconnected
comparison of images.2’ (telephone interview with Bob Putrino, Photonic Alarm
Products, September 1993).=
The second system is an improvement of the first seal and is
also used for treaty verification (interview with Jack A proof-of-concept fiber-optic necklace has been demon-
Bartberger, Sandia National Laboratories, July 1993). The strated as part of a personnel and material tracking sys-
system has a more secure seal body and a different cable tem.24.25 The necklace fastens an RF tracking tag to a
jacketing that includes unique identifiers (cable length person and will not allow unauthorized removal. Attempts
codes and multi-colored particles embedded in the clear to cut, break, or remove the fiber cable are detected,
jacketing). It is under development at Sandia National initiating an alarm.
Laboratories with DOE finding.
5.4 References
The commercial seal was developed for use by the public
utility, transportation, and security industries.22The seal 1. Cladis, Chris P. and Mitch Frishman, “The Force of
consists of two basic parts: a high-impact plastic body and a Fiber,” Security Management, October 1990, pp. 77-
fiber-optic cable. See Figure 5-13. 80.

2. De Lia, Robert, “Seeing into the World of Fiber Optics

for Security,” Security Management, March 1993, pp.
Jacketad 7A-11A.
fiber-opticcable

3. Greenwoll, D. A., J. C. Matter, and P. E. Ebel, yideo

Systemsfor Alarm Assessment, NUREGICR-572 1
(SAND91-0947), September 1991.

mer-optlc 4. Vitch, Martin L., “Sensing Your Way to Security,”

bundle Security Management,July 1992, p. 54.
open and

Metal
5. Reynolds, Sandra, “Fiber Optic Intrusion Detection,”
wnom Proceedings of the 6th Annual Joint Government-
Industry Symposium and Exhibition on Security
Technologv,June 12-14,1990, Williamsburg,‘Viiginia
Figure 5-13. Commercial seal (American.Defense Preparedness Association).

23 NUREGKR-6 149
Applications

6. Fiber SenSys, Inc., Model 105HlOdE Fiber Optic 18. Skogmo,David, and Bill Black, “A Fiber-optic
Intrusion DetectionSystems Installer S Manual. Barrier Integrity Monitor, ” Proceedings of the 3P’
Annual Meeting of the Institute of Nuclear Materials
7. Reynolds, Sandra, “Fiber Optic Sensors Offer Various Management, July 1990,pp. 745-751.
Options,” Access Control, March 1991.
19. Ystesund, Kenneth. J., and Darryl D. Drayer, “Labora-
8. Mason and Hanger National, Inc., FOIDP: Fiber toryflield Evaluation of Modified Cobra Seal System,”
Optic Intelligence & Detection System, sales brochure Proceedings of the 30th Annual Meeting of the Institute
of Nuclear Materials Management,July 1989,pp. 875-
literature.
879.
9. “Indoor Fiber: Built-in Wall, Window Security,” 20. Product literature, Cobra Seal I1, Aquila Technologies
Security, May 1993,p. 59. Group, Inc., October 1990.
10. Remsdaq Ltd., Sabre Perimeter Systems, product 21. Mukaiyama, T. and Y. Yamamoto, “Cobra-A
literature. Demonstration of the Development of C/S Equipment
at JAERI: Electronic Verifier of Cobra Seal
11. Stellar Systems, Fibre Optic Sensors and Systemsfor (Abstract),” Proceedings of the 3ISt Annual Meeting
Security, product literature. of the Institute of Nuclear Materials Management, July
1990,p. 822.
12.This reference intcntionally IcR blank
22. Product literature, Brooks Fiber-Lock Seal, E. J.
Brooks Company, August 1992.

23. Interactive Technologies, Inc., LightGard,product

literature.
13. Safeguards Technology, Inc., DTR DF Decorative
Fence Manual. 24. Anspach, DeNisc A.,et al., “ P A M m A Personnel
and Material Tracking System,” Proceedings of the
33rd Annual Meeting of the Institute of Nuclear
14. Safeguards Technology, Inc., DTR-DF Decorative Materials Management, July 1992,p. 681.
Fence, product literature.
25. Trujillo, Amado A. and Chris E. Hoover,
15. Safeguards Technology, Inc., MAGBAR OPTO GRID “Demonstration of a Real Time Personnel and Material
Operation and Maintenance Manual. Tracking System,” Proceedings of the 30thAnnual
Meeting ofthe Institute of Nuclear Materials Manage-
16. Safeguards Technology, Inc., MAGBAR OPTO GRID ment, July 1989,pp. 392-3.
Intrusion Detection Grid, product literature.

17. Anro Engineering, Inc., Opticalm e r Intrusion

Location Sensor System (FIBLOC)for Suface and
Subsuface Perimeter Protection: Final Report, August
31,1993.

NUREG /CR-6149 24
 Appendix A
Optical Fiber Theory of Operation

A.1 Refraction, Total Internal In reality, not all of the light penetrates into the second
material-some light is reflected off the boundary back into
Reflection, and Numerical the first material.
Aperture13
If the angle of incidence (0,) in Figure A-1 is allowed to
Although the wave theory of light is necessary to com- increase, an angle will eventually be reached where the
pletely model the light properties of optical fiber, the ray angle of refraction (0,) is 90". At this point the refracted ray
optics model is sufficient for a basic understanding of fiber follows the surface boundary. The angle at which this
optics. This section uses the ray optics model to discuss the occurs is called the critical angle, 0, The critical angle is
concepts of refraction, total internal reflection, and computed as
numerical aperture.

As a ray of light crosses the boundary between two trans- If the angle of incidence is allowed to increase beyond 0,
parent media (e.g., air and glass), it is refracted, or bent. no light penetrates into the second material. Instead, all of
The amount of refraction, or bending, depends on the index the light reflects off the surface boundary. This important
of refraction n of each material and on the angle of inci- phenomenon, called total internal reflection, is the reason
dence 19.(For glass, n is approximately 1.5, and for air, n = that light can be guided by an optical fiber.
1.O.) Snell's law describes this relationship as
A problem with using a bare optical fiber to guide light is
no sin eo= n, sin that some light is lost wherever it is touched or supported by
a non-transparent (lossy) material. The solution is to coat
where no = the index of refraction of the the fiber with a transparent medium having a refractive
medium the light is traveling fiom index less than the inner light-guiding material. Thus,
n, = the index of refraction of the optical fiber consists of a light-guiding core and a surround-
medium the light is traveling to ing optical "insulator," called the cladding (Figure A-2). In
0, = the angle between the incident ray addition to its optical benefits, the cladding physically
and the normal to the surface protects the core fiom scratching.
O1 = the angle between the refracted ray
and the normal to the surface

Figure A-1 shows the case where light is passing fiom a

material of high index of refixtion into a material with a
lower index of refraction.

no sin 8, = n1 sin 8, no 'ni Figure A-2. Optical fiber showing the propagation
of light through the core
I/ "0
The core has a higher index of refi-action than the cladding,
which permits total internal reflection if the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle. Light can thus be
confined in the core and transmitted along the length of the
I fiber.

Consider an external ray of light (Figure A-2). As it enters

Figure A-1. Light refraction the core, the ray of light is refracted and travels to the wall

25 NUREGKR-6149
Theory

of the core's cylinder (the corelcladding interface). If the

angle of incidence at this interface is greater than 0, the
light will reflect off the cylinder wall, continue through the
fiber (experiencing multiple reflections), and eventually
emerge fiom the other end of the fiber. Thus, the light is
guided through the core. Of course, if the angle of incidence
at the core/cladding interface is less than 0, light will be
transmitted into the cladding and will eventually be lost at
points where the cladding is touched by the non-transparent
coating and buffering materials that exist in fiber cable.
Figure A-4. Effects of curved fiber on
One important measure of a fiber's ability to accept light is light transmission
called numerical aperture, NA. It is dependent on the
refractive indexes of the core and cladding. As long as the light ray's q g l e of incidence through the
curved section is greater thqn the critical angle, all of the
light will be transmitted throu@ the curve. mote, however,
that the angle of incidence in the curved section is less than

Alternately,
the angle of incidence in the strat@ section ( < et,),
since the normal to the core surface has been rotated.] If the
angle of incidence exceeds the critical y g l e (i.e., too tight a
bend), some of the light will penetrate into the cladding and
be lost. In this case, the ray would experience a loss of
is the acceptance angle shown in Figure A-
where Oaccep,ance power (brightness) as it traveled through the curve.
3.
A.2 Attenuation'-3
Fiber is not 100%efficient in transmitting light. Light is
lost, or attenuated, as it travels through the fiber due to
impurities in the fiber and imperfections in the manufacture
of the fiber. Attenuation depends on the ratio of output
power and input power, according to the following logarith-
mic relationship.
Acceptance cone

Affenuafion= -10 log(</4) dB

Figure A-3. Numerical aperture and where Po = outputpower
acceptance angle Pi = input power, and
the units are in dB (decibels).
For angles of incidence occurring inside the acceptance
cone shown in the figure, light will be propagated through For example, if the light's output power diminishes to 0.01
the core of the fiber. In brief, the larger the numerical of the input power for a particular piece of fiber, the
aperture, the larger the acceptance angle. attenuation is 20 dB. Fiber is rated according to its attenua-
tion per b i t length, usually in d B h . For the preceding
Optical fibers are most commonly made of k e d silica. The example, if the piece of fiber is 10 Ian, the attenuation per
core of the fiber is doped with germanium or phosphorus unit length is 2 d B h .
pentoxide to increase the refi-active index. The cladding is
either pure silica or doped with boron oxide or fluoride to Loss is dependent on wavelength. Figure A-5 shows a
lower its refractive index. mica1 fiber's attenuation ( d B h ) over the range of
wavelengths used in fiber-optic systems. This range is just
So far, we have considered only straight pieces of fiber. beyond the visible region in the near infkred.
What happens if the fiber is curved? Figure A 4 shows a
light ray traveling through the core of a curved fiber.

NUREGICR-6 149 26

-~
 Theory

ualion (dBkm)
I I 1 1 1 I 1 i

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.o

.5

.O
800 900 I000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Wavelength (nm)
Figure A-6. Step-index multimode fiber
From the book UnderstandinpFiber ODliar,byJefHecht, 01987.
Figure A-5. Typical fiber’s attenuation as a Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prenlice Hall Com-
function of wavelength puter Publishing. Used by permission ofpublisher.
From the book Understandinp Telecommunicationsand Liphhvave
Svstems: An Entrv-Level Guide, by John G. Nellist, 01992. Pub- These step-index multimode fibers have a large core (50 pm
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission ofpublisher. or larger) and support more than one light propagation
mode. The large core has the advantage of being able to
The peaks in attenuation at 1250 nm and 1390nm are due collect more right than the smaller core singIe-mode fibers,
to light absorption by hydroxyl (OH-) ions trapped in the but the disadvantage is that modal dispersion can cause
fiber during manufacture. Premium grade fiber miniiizes signal distortion in even reasonably short lengths of step-
these impurities through an improved manufacturing index multimode fiber.
process to reduce these attenuation peaks.
As shown in Figure A-7, some of the light rays pass straight
As shown in Figure A-5, there are three transmission down the core, but other rays are reflected offthe core/
%windows” used in glass fiber-optic communications- cladding interface, following a zigzag path. These zigzag
850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm. The last two windows rays (or light modes) travel farther and thus take longer than
were chosen as improvementsto the original 850-nm the straight-pathray (mode) to arrive at the end of the fiber.
window to minimize transmission losses required for long- Since light is the summation of all of these modes, light
distance light-wave communication systems. pulses are broadened by the time they reach the output.
Consequently, fiber length adversely affectsthe perfor-
The general trend of Figure A-5 indicates that attenuation mance of step-index multimode fiber. This phenomenon is
decreases with increasing wavelength. This is due to known as modal dispersion.
Rayleigh scattering, which reduces light transmission due to
local (Le., microscopic) fluctuations in density and refrac-
tive index.

A.3 Dispersion Limitations of

Optical Fibers132
Attenuation is not the only signal-limitingcharacteristic of Figure A-7. Modal dispersion in stepindex
optical fiber. Modal dispersion and chromatic: dispersion multimode fiber
distort light signals by causing a spreading of the optically
From the book UnderstantiinpTelecommunicationsand Liphtwavg
transmitted pulses. These concepts are described below. Svstems: An Entrv-he1 Guide, by John G. Nellist, 91992. Pub-
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission ofpblisher.
Early optical fibers were “step-index” multimode fibers. In
a step-index fiber, the rehctive index of the core is To alleviate the pulse-broadeningdrawbacks of step-index
constant from the center of the fiber to the core/claddmg multimode fiber, graded-indexmultimode fiber was
interface, followed by an abrupt refractive index change at developed. The refractive index of the core decreases
the interface. Figure A-6 shows an example of the refractive parabolically from the center of the fiber to the cord
index profile for a step-index multimode fiber.
27 NUREG/CR-6149
Theory

cladding boundary. Figure A-8 shows an example of the Chromatic (or material) dispersion is a second pulse-
rehctive index profile for a graded-index multimode fiber. broadening effect present in all optical fiber systems.
Chromatic dispersion arises from the fact that (1) light
sources used in fiber systems are not monochromatic, but
occ~lpya finite spectral width (i.e., a range of wavelengths),
and (2) the velocity of light through an optical material
Fiber varies with the wavelength of the light.

l+l25 pm-1
A Index Profile

Figure A-8. Graded-index multimode fiber

Index Profile I l
From the book UndersfandinpFiber Oviics, by JeffHecht, 01987.
Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter PubIishing. Used by permission ofpublisher.
Figure A-10. Single-mode fiber
The result of index grading is that each mode travels From the book UndersfandinpFiber Ovtics, byJeffHecht, 01987.
longitudinallyalong the fiber at the same rate; thus, pulses Published by SAMs Publishing, a division of Prentice Hall Com-
puter Publishing. Used by permission ofpublisher.
arriving at the end of the fiber are not spread out as in step-
index fiber. Each light mode travels in sine-wave-like paths
A light pulse is actually the sum of many component pulses
through the fiber. See Figure A-9.
that are identical except for their wavelengths. Consider n
fiber system consisting of a light source, a piece of fiber,
and a detector. Imagine that the source emits a light pulse.
The component pulses are emitted from the source at
exactly the same time, but as they travel the length of the
fiber they begin to separate in time. The component
(wavelength) pulses of the original pulse arrive at the
detector at different times. After a summation of the
received pulses, the result is pulse spreading. By using a
Figure A-9. Correcting modal dispersion through index light source that is nearly monochromatic (e.g., a laser
grading diode), the effects of chromatic dispersion can be mini-
From the book UnderstandimTelecommunicationsand Liahhvave
mized.
Sensors: An Enirv-Level Guide, by John G. Nellist, 01992. Pub-
lished by IEEE Press. Used by permission ofpublisher. Chromatic dispersion is not constant but varies with
wavelength. At approximately 1300 nm, chromatic disper-
In practice, some pulse broadening occurs in graded-index sion is at a minimum for fused silica fiber (i.e., glass fiber).
fiber. By operating at this wavelength, chromatic dispersion
effects can be minimized. Systems operating in the second
One way to eliminate the adverse effects of modal disper- transmission window (1300 nm) shown in Figure A-5 take
sion is to reduce the diameter of the core to about 8 pm. advantage of this fact. Specially designed dispersion-shijted
This small diameter will support only one mode-the mode Jiber is also available that has its chromatic dispersion
that travels straight through the fiber. Fiber that exhibits this minimum at 1550 nm. Systems using this fiber reap the
monomode behavior is called single-mode fiber. Of course, benefits of both minimum chromatic dispersion and low
there is no need to grade the rehctive index; single-mode attenuation (recall Figure A-5).
fiber is step-indexed. Figure A-10 shows an example of the
refi-active index profile for a step-index single-mode fiber. Dispersion effects also influence the maximum light-pulse
rate (bit rate) of fiber-optic systems. The basic concept is
Pulse broadening due to modal dispersion is eliminated in that if pulses are broadened enough, they will begin to
single-mode fiber.

NUREGKR-6 149 28
 Theory

"smear" into adjacent pulses. To prevent this smearing, the A.4. References
bit rate is reduced, effectively reducing the maximum
operating fiequency of the transmittedsignal.
1. Hecht, Jeff, UnderstandingFiber Optics, Howard
W. Sams and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana,
Frequency-length products (in MHz-km) are published in
1987.
manufacturers' data sheets and are used to obtain maximum
operating fiequencies. To find out the maximum operating
2. Nellist, John G., Understanding Rlecommunica-
fiequency for a given piece of fiber, divide the fiequency-
lions and Lightwave Systems: An Entry-Level Guide,
length product by the length of the fiber. For example,
IEEE Press, New York, 1992, pp. 6,105-173.
suppose the fiber is rated at 100 MHz-km and its length is 2
km.Then its maximum fiequency is 50 MHZ. Thus, the
3. Krohn, D. A., Fiber-optic Sensors: Fundamentals
maximum operating fiequency of fiber is inversely propor-
and Applications, 2nd ed., Instrument Society of
tional to its length.
America, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina,
1992.
 Appendix B
Glossairy

pm -a micron, one millionth of a meter. chromatic dispersion -pulse spreading caused by varia-
tion in light propagation with wavelength. Units are
pW- a microwatt, one millionth of a watt (a unit of picoseconds (of dispersion) per kilometer (of fiber length)
power). per nanometer (of source spectral width). Laser sources
minimize this effect due to their narrow spectral width.
angle of incidence -the angle that a ray of light falling on
a surface makes with a perpendicularto the surface at the cladding -the reflective outer layer of an optical fiber that
point of incidence. surrounds the light-canyingcore. The cladding retains the
light in the core and allows the fiber to guide light fiom one
angle of reflection-the angle between a reflected ray of end to the other. The cladding has a lower index of refiac-
light and a perpendicular to the surface at the point of tion than the core.
reflection.
closed-circuittelevision (CCTV -a television system in
attenuation -reduction of signal magnitude, or loss, which signals are transmitted from the camera to the
normally measured in decibels (dB). monitor through electrical wires or an optical fiber, as
opposed to broadcast television in which signals are
avalanchephotodiode (APD) -one of two semiconductor transmitted through the air using antennas.
devices commonly used to detect light signals and convert
them to electrical signals. The APD can detect very faint core -the central part of an optical fiber that carries light.
light. The other device is the PIN diode. It has a higher index of refiaction than the cladding.
bandwidth -the differencebetween the high and low critical angle -the angle at which light undergoes total
frequencies of a transmission band. With regard to light internal reflection.
signals, the highest frequency that can be transmitted in
analog operation. dB See decibel.
bandividth-length product -the measure of a fiber’s ability dBm -a unit of power measured in decibels above
to transmit high-speed signals, stated in MHz-Ian. It is (positive) or below (negative) one milliwatt.
influenced by modal dispersion. The bandwidth-length
product is used to determine the bandwidth of a particular
decibel (dB) -a logarithmic comparison of two power
length of fiber by dividing the length into the bandwidth-
levels. It can be used to express gain or loss without
length product.
reference to absolute power levels. Defined as ten times the
base-ten logarithm of the ratio of the two power levels.
biconic connector-a threaded fiber-optic connector used
in high-speed telecommunications. It is designed to bring
two fiber ends into physical contact, minimizing loss. dispersion -the spreadingout of light pulses as they travel
along an optical fiber.
bit -a binary digit, the smallest unit of information in a
binary system of notation. c l i s p e r s i o n - s h i e r -specially constructed fiber that
shifts the wavelength of minimum chromatic dispersion
bit rate -the rate, or speed, at which bits (binary digits) fiom 1300 nm to 1550 nm.
are transmitted (e.g., bits per second).
electromagnetic interference (EM)-noise generated
bufler -the protective coating that covers an optical fiber. when stray electromagnetic fields induce currents in
electrical conductors.
CCTV See closed-circuit television.
EM.See electromagnetic inte$erence.

NUREGICR-6149 30
 Glossary

endoscope -a fiber-optic bundle that delivers Iight and light detector -the light receiver in a fiber-optic system
views inside the human body. that converts optical (light) signals to electrical signals. Two
commonly used light detectors are the PIN diode and the
fault locator -an instrument used to locate breaks in avalanche photodiode.
optical fibers. Fault locators are specialized optical time
domain reflectometers. light disturbance sensor -a fiber-optic sensor that detects
the disturbance of the light traveling through the fiber.
fiber optics -light transmission through optical fibers for Contrasts with optical continuity sensors, which only detect
communications, sensing or imaging. breaks in the fiber.

frequency-lengthproduct See bandwidth-lengthproduct. light-emitting diode (LED) -a semiconductor device

important as a light source in fiber optics. LEDs are
fused silica -technical name for glass. It is made by relatively inexpensive but have lower power and wider
melting silicon dioxide and is commonly used to make spectral widths than laser diode sources.
optical fiber.
light mode -with regard to optical fiber, a stationary
-
fusion splice a splice in which two optical fibers are vibration pattern of light in the fiber.
joined using heat to melt the fibers together.
light source -the light transmitter in a fiber-optic system
graded-indexfiber -optical fiber in which the index of that converts electrical signals to optical (light) signals. Two
refraction changes gradually with distance from the fiber commonly used light sources are the laser diode and the
axis, rather than abruptly at the core-cladding interface. light-emitting photodiode.

host computer -in an alarm communications system, the local area network (M)-a network that transmits data
among many nodes in a small area (e.g., a building).
computer that transforms alarms into audible and visible
forms usable by the operator. The host computer also
loose tube -a fiber-optic cable constructiontechnique in
accommodates operator control functions and data storage.
which the fibers are installed loosely in hollow tubes inside
the cable. More than one fiber may be in each tube. This
index of repaction -same as rehctive index. It is a
construction technique isolates the fibers from external
measure of a transparent material’s ability to bend light,
stressesthat the cable might undergo. Contrast with tight
usually abbreviated“n.” Index of refraction is the ratio of buffer construction.
the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
material. loss margin -extra loss (in dB) included in the design of a
fiber-optic system to account for age degradation of
intensity-modulatedsensor -a fiber-optic sensor that components, component variation, repairs, and additions
detects changes in light intensity due to motion, vibration, (splices and connectors).
pressure, or other physical effects.
MCU See multiplexer control unit.
integerometer -an instrument that uses interference of
light waves for precise determinations of light wavelength. mechanical splice -a splice in which two optical fibers
are joined using a clamp or epoxy.
interferometry-using interferenceof light waves to
precisely determine light wavelength. microbending- tiny bends in optical fiber that allow light
to leak out and increase loss.
LAN See local area network.
-
micron (p) one millionth of a meter.
laser diode -a light-emitting semiconductor device
important as a light source in fiber optics. Laser diodes are modal dispersion -dispersion arising fiom differences in
characterized by their high power and narrow spectral the times that different modes take to travel through
width. multimode fiber. Also known as multimode dispersion.

LED See light-emittingdiode.

31 NUREGICR-6149
d..
Glossary

modal interference - interference of the various light phase -the point in the vibrational or oscillatory period of
modes with each other. Modal interference produces a light.
speckle pattern at the end of a multimode fiber that is being
illuminated by a laser. phase-modulated sensor -a fiber-optic sensor that detects
changes in the length of the fiber (actually, changes in the
mode-- with regard to optical fiber, a stationary vibration phase of the light) due to motion, vibration, pressure, or
pattern of light in the fiber. other physical effects.

multimodefiber -optical fiber that permits more than one PIN diode -one of two semiconductor devices commonly
light mode to be propagated. Contrast with single-mode used to detect light signals and convert them to electrical
fiber, which allows only one mode to be propagated. signals. The PIN diode provides a fast, linear response.
The avalanche photodiode is the other device.
multiplexer -also transponder. In an alarm communica-
tions system, the multiplexer is the device that collects power budget -the difference between the power trans-
alarms fiom several sensors and relays them to the primary mitted into an optical fiber and the optical receiver’s
collection device, the multiplexer control unit. sensitivity (required receiver power). Power budget is
stated in dB.
multiplexer control unit (MCU)-in an alarm communica-
tions system, the primary alarm collection device. The PlZ See pan-tilt-zoom.
MCU receives alarms fiom the multiplexers and interfaces
with the host computer. Rayleigh scattering- scattering of light in a transparent
material due to local (microscopic) fluctuations in density
NA See numerical aperture. and refractive index.

nanometer (nm) -one billionth (1 x 10-9)of a meter. receiver -a light detector that can convert optical (light)
signals to electrical signals.
numerical aperture (NA) -the sine of half the angle over
which an optical fiber can accept light for propagation. receiver sensitivity -the minimum optical power level
required for detection by the receiver. Usually given in
optical continuity sensor -a fiber-optic sensor that detects dBm.
a break in the fiber. Contrast with light disturbance sensors,
which detect the disturbance of the light traveling through refraction -the bending of light as it passes between
the fiber. materials of different refiactive index.

opticalfiber -long strands of transparent material that can refi.active index -same as index of rejaction. It is the
guide light. Usually made from glass or plastic. measure of a transparent material’s ability to bend light,
usually abbreviated “n.” Refractive index is the ratio of the
opticalpower -light energy per unit time, measured in speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the
milliwatts or related units (e.g., &m). Intuitively, optical material.
power has to do with the brightness of light.
RS-232 -a single-ended electrical serial communications
opticalpower meter -an instrument that measures optical standard that defines the serial link between data terminal
power at a particular wavelength. equipment (DTE) and data communicationsequipment
(DCE). Can accommodate distances up to 50 feet.
optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) -an instrument
that measures transmission characteristics of fiber-optic 12s-422 -an electrical serial communicationsstandard for
systems by sending a short pulse of light down a fiber and balanced-line transmission. Can accommodate distances up
observing backscattered light. Commonly used for system to 4000 feet.
loss measurements. Locations of fiber breaks, splices, and
connectors can also be made with an OTDR. 12s-485 -an electrical serial communicationsstandard for
balanced-line transmission. RS-485is an upgrade to RS-
pan-tilt-zoom (PZ)-camera controls that affect the field 4.22 that allows multiple drivers and receivers. Can accom-
of view. modate distances up to 4000 feet.

NUREGKR-6 149 32
 Glossary

seal -a tamper-indicating device used to ensure the tight bufler -a fiber-optic cable constructiontechnique in
integrity of an item. which each fiber in the cable is coated with a buffering
material that holds it rigidly in place. This construction
single-modeJber -optical fiber that permits only one technique makes handling of the individual fibers in the
light mode to be propagated. Contrast with multimode fiber, cable easier. Contrast with loose tube construction.
which allows more than one mode to be propagated.
total internal refection -total reflection of light back into
SAU connector -a threaded connector commonly used in a material when it strikes the interface with another trans-
fiber optics. parent material at an angle less than the critical angle. The
second material must have a lower index of refraction than
-
speckle pattern a light interferencepattern produced at the first for this to occur.
the end of a multimode fiber that is being illuminated by a
laser source. transceiver-a device consistingof a transmitter (light
source) and a receiver (light detector).
-
spectral width a measure of the wavelength spread of a
light source. Specifically, the differencebetween the transmittedpower-the optical power transmitted into an
wavelengths at which the source's radiant intensity is half its optical fiber. Usually stated in dBm.
peak intensity.
transmitter -a light source that can convert electrical
splice -a permanentjunction of two optical fiber ends. signals to optical (light) signals.

ST@ connector-a commonly used fiber-optic connector transponder -also multiplexer. In an alarm communica-
that incorporatesa ''twist-lock'y feature similar to the coaxial tions system, the transponder is the device that collects
BNC connector. alarms from several sensors and relays them to the primary
collection device, the multiplexer control unit.
stabilized light source -a light source that provides a
known wavelength and level of optical power. Often used in wavelength division multiplexing 0 -multiplexing
conjunction with an optical power meter to make loss of signals by transmitting them at different wavelengths
measurements. through the same fiber.

step-indexJber -an optical fiber in which the rehctive WDM See wavelength division multiplexing.
index changes abruptly at the core-cladding interface.
Contrast with graded-index fiber whose refractive index
changes gradually from the fiber axis to the core-cladding
interface.
 Appendix C
Standards

EIA 440-A-89 Fiber-optic Technology ELA CB9-F-87 Reference Guide for Fiber-
Optic Test Procedures
IEEE 812-84 Standard Definitions of Terms
Relating to Fiber Optics EIA TIA-455-A-91 Standard Test Procedure for
Fiber-optic Fibers, Cables,
EIA TIA-458-B-90 Standard Optical Fiber Material Transducers, Sensors, Connect-
Classes and Preferred Sizes ing and Terminating Devices,
and Other Fiber-optic
EIA 4720000-85 Generic Specification for Components
Fiber-optic Cable
EIA TSB19-86 Optical Fiber Digital Trans-
EIA TIA-4750000-B-89 Generic Specification of mission Systems Considerations
Fiber-optic Connectors for Users and Suppliers

EIA 5 150000-86 Generic Specification for ANSI 2136.2-88 Safe Use of Optical Fiber
Optical Fiber and Cable Splices Communication Systems
Utilizing Laser Diode and LED
EIA TIA-455-57A-90 Optical Fiber End Preparation Sources
and Examination
EIA 515B000-87 Sectional Specification for
EIA TIA-5730000-93 Generic Specification for Field- Splice Closures for Pressurized
Portable Fiber-optic Tools Aerial, Buried, and Under-
ground Fiber-optic Cables
EIA TIA-526-92 Standard Test Procedures for
Fiber-optic Systems

NUREG/CR-6 149 34
 AppendixD .

Partial Listing of Fiber-Optics Equipment Suppliers

Note: Users of this NUREG report should not rely on the Math Associates Inc.
completeness of this directory when making purchases of 5500 New Horizons Blvd.
fiber-optics equipment. Amityville, NY 1 1701
(516)226-8900
D.l Communications Products Meret Optical Communications, Inc.
1800 Stewart St.
Allied Telesis Santa Monica, CA 90404
575 East Middlefield Road (3 10) 828-7496
Mountain View, CA 94043
(800)424-4284 Optelecom
(415)964-2771 9300 Gaither Road
Gaithersburg, MD 20877
American Fibertek (301)840-2121
27 Worlds Fair Drive
Somerset, NJ 08873 Opticomm Corporation
(908)302-0667 5505 Morehouse Drive, Suite 150
San Diego, CA 92121
Codenoll Technology Corporation (619)450-0143
1086 North Broadway
Yonkers, NY 10701 D.2 Intrusion Detection Sensors
(914)965-6300

Fiber Options Anro Engineering, Inc.

80 Orville Drive, Suite 102 Management Division
Bohemia, NY 11716 1800 Second Street, Suite 878
(516)567-8320 Sara~ota,FL 34236-5992
(800)342-3748 (813)957-3080

Force, Incorporated Fiber SenSys, Inc.

P. 0. Box 2045 9640 SW Sunshine Court, MOO
(825 Park Street) Beaverton, OR 97005
Christiansburg, VA 24068 (503)641-8150
(703)382-0462
Interactive Technologies, Inc. (IT0
Innovations in Optical Communications, Inc. 2266 North Second Street
9921 Carmel Mountain Road, Suite 242
I North St. Paul, MN 55109
San Diego, CA 92129 (800)777-5484
(619)484-7865
Mason and Hanger National, Inc.
International Fiber Systems Incorporated 2227 Drake Avenue, Suite 10-D
Huntsville, AL 35805
(IFS)
34 Delmar Drive (205)881-2728
Brookfield, CT 06804
(203)775-4961 Perimeter Products
1130 Terra Bella Avenue
Mountain View, CA 94043
(415)966-8550
 Photonic Alarms Products Optical Cable Corporation
8130 West 26th Ave. P. 0. Box 11967
Hialeah, FL 33016 Roanoke, VA 24022-1967
(800) 237-8277 (703) 265-0690

Remsdaq Limited Remee Products Corp.

Parkway Fiberoptic Division
Deeside Industrial Park 186 North Main Street
Deeside Florida, NY 10921
Clwyd CH5 2" (800) 431-3864
United Kingdom (914) 651-4431
(0244) 28803 1
The Rochester Corporation
Safeguards Technology Inc. 751 Old Brandy Road
300 Hudson Street Culpeper, VA 22701
Hackensack, NJ 07601-6700 (703) 825-2111
(201) 784-0220
Siecor Corporation
Stellar Systems 489 Siecor Park
Santa Clara Technology Park Hickory, NC 28603-0489
351 1 Leonard Court (704) 327-5000
Santa Clara, CA 95054
(408) 496-6690 Storm Products Co.
Advanced Technology Group
D.3 Seals 116 Shore Drive
Hmdale, IL 60521
Aquila Technologies Group, Inc. (708) 323-9121
840 1 Washington Place NE
Albuquerque, NM 87113 D.5 Connectors and Termination Tools
(505) 828-9100

E. J. Brooks Company
AMP Incorporated
Harrisburg, PA 17105-3608
164 North 13th Street
Newark, NJ 07107 (800) 522-6752
(800) 458-7325
AT&T Network Systems
D.4 Cable National Telemarketing Center
505 North 5 1 Avenue
AT&T Network Systems Phoenix, AZ 85043
National Telemarketing Center (800) 344-0223
505 North 5 1 Avenue
Phoenix, AZ 85043 3M TelComm Products Division
(800) 344-0223 P. 0. Box 2963
Austin, TX 78769-2963
Belden Wire and Cable (512) 834-1800
P. 0. 1980
Richmond, IN 47375 OFT1
(317) 983-5200 T\vo Lyberty Way
Westford, MA 01886
MohawWCable Design Technologies (508) 692-6606
9 Mohawk Drive
Leominster, MA 01453
(508) 537-9961
(800) 422-9961

NUREG/CR-6149 36
 Suppliers

Seiko Instruments USA Inc. D.7 Test and Measurement Equipment

Electronic Components Division
2990 West Lomita Blvd. Ando Electric Co., Ltd.
Torrance, CA 90505 19-7, Kamata 4-chome
(213) 517-7786 Ota-ku, Tokyo
144 Japan
Siecor Corporation (03) 733-1151
489 Siecor Park
Hickory, NC 28603-0489 Anritsu Corporation
(704) 327-5000 10-27, Minamiazabu 5-chome
Minato-ku, Tokyo 106
D.6 Splices, Splicing Equipment, and Japan
Closure Systems 03 (446) 1111

Advanced Custom Applications Inc. Antel Optronics Inc.

6-1 Ilene Court 3325B Mainway
Belle Mead, NJ 08502 Burlington, Ontario
(908) 281-0353 Canada, L7M 1A6
(416) 335-5507
AMP Incorporated
Harrisburg, PA 17105-3608 AT&T Network Systems
(800) 522-6752 National Telemarketing Center
505 North 51 Avenue
AT&T Network Systems Phoenix, AZ 85043
National Telemarketing Center (800) 344-0223
505 North'5 1 Avenue
Phoenix, AZ 85043 EXFO Electro-Optical Engineering Inc.
(800) 344-0223 352 St-Sacrement Ave.
Quebec City, QC, Canada, G1N 3Y2
GTE Fiber Optic Products (418) 683-0211
2401 Reach Road
Williamsport, PA 17701 Fotec Incorporated
(800) 327-6782 The Schrafft Center
Box 246
3M TelComm Products Division Boston, MA 02129
P. 0. Box 2963 (800) 537-8254
Austin, TX 78769-2963 (617) 241-7810
(512) 834-1800
Hewlett -Packard Company
PSI Telecommunications Incorporated Test and Measurement Group
3333 North San Fernando Blvd. P. 0. Box 58059
Burbank, CA 91504 MS 5lLSC
(8 18) 843-7944 S ~ ~Clara,
C I CA 95052-8059
(800) 452-4844
Reliable ElectricKJtility Products
11333 Addison Street Laser Precision
Franklin Park, IL 6013 1 109 North Genesee Street
(312) 455-8010 Utica, NY 13502
(3 15) 797-4449
Siecor Corporation
489 Siecor Park 3M Telecom Systems Group
Hickory, NC 28603-0489 6801 River Place Blvd.
(704) 327-5000 Amtin, TX 78726-9000
(800) 745-7459
37 NuREG/CR-6 149
Suppliers

RIFOCS Corporation Siecor Corporation

474 Constitution Avenue 489 Siecor Park
Camarillo, CA 93012 Hickory, NC 28603-0489
(805) 389-9800 (704)327-5000

Schlumberger Instruments Tektronix, Inc.

P. 0. Box 7004 P. 0. Box 11 97
829 Middlesex Turnpike Redmond, OR 97756
Billerica, MA 01821 (800) 833-9200
(508) 671-9700 (503)923-0333
(800) 225-5765
L
NRC FORM 335 US. NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION 1. REPORT NUMBER
12.891 (Assignedbv N R C Add Vol.. SUPP.. Rev..
NRCM 1102, n d Addrndum Numbm, If my.)
3201.3202 BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET
(See instructions on the reverse)
NUREG/ CR-6 149
SAND93-2478
2. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

I Applications of Fiber Optics in Physical Protection 3. DATE REPORT PUBLISHED

MONTH , I YEAR

March ’ 1994
4. FIN OR GRANT NUMBER
L1387
5. AUTHORiS) 6. TYPE OF REPORT

Technical
7. PERIOD COVERED llnc/usiveDares/

The purpose of this NUREG is to provide technical information useful for the
development of fiber-optic communications and intrusion detection subsystems
relevant to physical protection. There are major sections on fiber-optic
technology and applications. Other topics include fiber-optic system components
I
~
and systems engineering. This document also contains a glossary, a list of
standards and specifications, and a list of fiber-optic vendors.

12. KEY WORDSIDESCR!PTORS lLbr words OrphnYs rhar willsnistmearrhers in locaring rherepon.1 13. AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Fiber Optics F14. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION

Physical Protection Devices

Data Transmission Systems I Unclassified
(This Reponl

16. PRICE.

NRC FORM 335 11.891