MC ELT 6

Teaching Assessment of Grammar

Module I

A. INFORMATION SHEETS

· Information Sheet 1
Grammar – The science dealing with the systematic rules of a language , its forms,
inflections and syntax and the art of using them correctly ( phonology, morphology, syntax)
The applying of the rules / the system of forms and syntactical usages characteristics of
any language , a book of grammar, the basic principles of an art or science.
It is a system of meaningful structure and patterns that are governed
by particular pragmatic constraints, has referred to the three dimensions present in this
definition of grammar as form, meaning, and use.

2 Types of Grammar:

1. Descriptive Grammar- is a study of a language , its structure and its rules as they are
used in daily life by its speakers from all walks of life including standard and nonstandard
varieties . That is descriptive grammar describes the language, its structures and the
syntactic rules that govern sentence and phrase construction. A descriptive study of
grammar is nonjudgmental, and it does not have a goal of determining what represents
good or bad language, correct or in correct structure, or grammatical or ungrammatical
form.
Ex. Him and me, we are neighbors.
I don’t know nothing.
2. Prescriptive Grammar - Prescriptive grammar, on the other hand, specify how
a language should be used and what grammar rules should be followed. A prescriptivist
view of language implies a distinction between good grammar and
bad grammar, and its primary focus is an standard forms of grammar and
syntactic constructions. Among native speakers of practically any language,
a prescriptivist approach to grammar after encompasses many ideas, opinions and
judgments about how and when grammar rules should be used.

Descriptive Prescriptive
1. Him and me, we are 1. We are neighbors.
neighbors. IN descriptive though it is considered acceptable,
in prescriptive it is ungrammatical because it
violates at least two grammar rules. 1. Object
forms of pronoun Him and me should not be used in
the sentence –initial or subject - noun position and,
2. Only one noun or noun phrase can play role of a
sentence subject.
 2. I don’t know nothing. 2. I don’t know anything.
(Double negative is considered ungrammatical not
and nothing that the is changed to anything in
prescriptive to follow grammar rules.)

The typical example of prescriptive English grammar rules

1. A sentence cannot end with a preposition, often called standard preposition.
Who are you talking to? Incorrect
Whom are you talking? Correct
2. Singular subject nouns can have only singular pronoun reference.
Every employees needs to go through their year books . incorrect
Every employees needs to go through his/her year book. correct.
3. Who should be used only in the subject position and if it comes in the object position
“whom” should be used.
Who did you see there? Incorrect
Whom did you see there? Correct
4. Don’t use double negative.
I didn’t go nowhere incorrect
I didn’t go anywhere. Correct
5. Don’t split infinitives.
……to boldly go where no one has gone before. incorrect
…….to go boldly where no one has gone before. Correct.

VS
Prescriptive Descriptive
Prescriptive grammar records and Descriptive grammar records how
teaches the grammar rules people actually use a language.

It isn’t logical to say, I wonder why so many people sa,

Each person should do their own work. Each person should do their own
work.

I’m interested in codifying and I’m interested in understanding how

preserving language. language breathes.

It is important to define standard so It’s important to observe language

that patterns so we can understand one
There can be agreement and oder. another.

It is good to understand that prescriptive and descriptive grammar do not have

to be enemies. The two approaches are both valid and can work together, provided neither
side holds to its stand too tightly.
 English Grammar which is applied directly to the analysis of sentence structure;
Subject Predicate
a. The kids may have started the game.
noun phrase verb phrase

1. Noun is the name of a person, place, thing or event.

2. Verb is a word which expresses action or state of being
3. Adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun
4. Adverb describes or modifies a verb, adjective, and another adverbs.
5. Pronoun takes the place of a noun.
6. Conjunction connects words or group of words.
7. Preposition is a word that introduce a phrase showing a relationship between the noun
and pronoun in the phrase and some other words in the sentence.
8. Interjection is a word that expresses strong feeling.
9. Phrases is a group of related word that does not contain a subject and a verb in
combination. Generally, a phrase is used in the sentence as a single part of speech. In this
section we will be concerned with prepositional phrase, gerund phrase, participial phrase
and infinitive phrase.
* The prepositional phrase, the most common type of phrase in English, begins with a
preposition and is followed by a noun or pronoun, called the object of the pre[position, and
any modifiers of the object.
* Prepositional phrase function in the sentence like adjectives or adverbs.

Note the following:

Example:
Much of his money was made in Europe.
(The first phrase is used as adjective to modify the pronoun much; the second is used as
an adverb to modify made)

The color of the car on the street clashes with my new suit.
Of the car is used as an adjective to modify the noun color, on the street is used as an
adjective to modify the noun car; with my new suit is used as an adverb to modify the verb
clashes.)When discussing the function of a prepositional phrase , we say that it has either
an adjective phrase function or adverbial phrase function.
· Noun Phrase is a group of two or more words that is headed by a noun (a person,
place, or things) that includes modifiers (eg. The, a, of them, with her.)

Ex. Singing in the bath relaxes me.

(Here, the noun phrase is the subject of the verb “relaxes”)
I know the back streets.
(Here, the noun phrase is the direct object of the verb “know”)
She was the devil in disguise.
(Here the noun phrase is a subject complement following the linking verb “was”)
Verb phrase: Three kinds of phrases make use of a verbal, a word formed from a verb but
functioning like a different part of speech.
There are three kinds of verbal; the gerund, the participle, and the infinitive.
A gerund can be recognized by the ending - ing, either on a simple form (reading), or an
auxiliary (having read , being read , having been read ). To be a gerund, one of these forms
must be used as a noun within the sentence, as a subject, direct object, subject
complement, object of the preposition, appositive, etc.
Example:
Swimming is fun. He fears being failed.
A gerund phrase consists of the gerund plus its modifiers and/ or complements
Note: The following examples
He enjoys walking to school at dawn.
He enjoys creating sentence diagrams.
HE enjoyed being selected outstanding student of his class.

The participle is identical in form with the gerund forms (-ing ending) ; In addition,
there is a past participle form( studied, broken) and a progressive form( having been
studying). The difference between the gerund and the participle is in use, or how it
functions within the sentence; the gerund is always used as a noun while the participle is
used as an adjective modifier

Ex. The injured bird clung to the swaying branch.

The participial phrase, consisting of the participle plus its modifiers and /or
complements, can be used at the beginning of ther sentence, at the end of the sentence ,
or within the sentence immediately following the noun it modifies.

Ex. Having once been a football coach, Peter could explain the play to us.
The police removed the man creating the disturbance.

An Infinitive is a verbal consisting of the simple stem of the verb generally preceded
by to (which is called the sign of the infinitive)

Ex. To study, to have studied, to be studying, to be studied, to go. To dance

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive plus its an infinitive plus its modifiers and
/or complements. Infinitive phrases may be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.

Note the following examples:

To leave the party early will be impossible. (noun subject)
I wanted to give John a second chance.(noun direct object)
The quiz to be taken today is not too difficult. (adjective modifier)
I am happy to make your acquaintance. (adverb modifier)

A clause is a combination of words containing a subject and a verb. If the clause can
stand by itself as a sentence , it is called an independent clause, if it cannot stand alone,
it is called dependent ( or subordinate clause) We will be concerned here with several
types of dependent clauses. A dependent clause contains a subject and a verb, but it
functions as a single part of speech (as an adjective, as an adverb, as a noun) within the
sentence.
Note the following examples:
Mr. Jones announced that he had resigned. (Noun direct object)
I must leave when the bell rings. (adverb)

Understanding Voice and When We Use Each Form

When the subject performs the action expressed by the verb the verb is in the active
voice. When the subject receives the action of the verb, the verb is in the passive voice.
Study the following sentences carefully. Note the changes that occur in the form of the
verb. Note the change that occurs in the subject of the sentence:

Ned washed the car (Ned is the doer of the action)

The car was washed by Ned (car is the receiver of the action)

In the first sentence the subject is Ned. He is the doer, the one who is performing
the action expressed by the verb washed. The car is receiving the action. In grammar we
say that the verb in the sentence is in the active voice because the subject is the doer or
is doing the washing. The car is the receiver of the action.
The second sentence is written in the reverse order. The subject is now the receiver
of the action instead of the doer. In order to express this idea. It was necessary to use
another verb form, was washed. What happened to Ned., the doer? Ned is still in the
sentence but is now in a phrase introduced by the preposition by.
The verb was washed is in the passive because it represents the subject of the
sentence as the receiver of the action. In other words, the subject is not acting, but is
passive. The doer, or the actor, appears in a phrase introduced by the preposition by.
A verb in the passive voice is never a simple verb. It is always a verb phrase. In the
sentence, Our car was stolen yesterday. The verb was stolen is in the passive voice. The
subject is the receiver of the action. Since the doer is unknown, the “by phrase” is
omitted. But we know that it was stolen by someone. If we discover who stole the car,
the doer might be added to the sentence.

Our car was stolen yesterday by two strangers.

If the verb is in the active voice, the subject is the doer of the action. If a verb is in
the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of the action. When a verb is in the passive
vpice, the doer is often omitted. Sometimes the doer is unknown, and sometimes the doer
is so evident that it is not necessary to include the by phrase.

Understanding Voice and When We Use Each Form

When the subject performs the action expressed by the verb the verb is in the active
voice. When the subject receives the action of the verb, the verb is in the passive voice.
Active: Maria washes the plates.
Passive: The plates are washed by Maria

How the Passive voice is formed

You cannot express an idea in the passive voice without using an auxiliary or helping
verb. The verb to be is the auxiliary verb that is used to help form the six tenses of the
passive voice. If you are familiar with the conjunction of the verb to be , you will have no
difficulty in forming the passive voice of any verb that takes an object.
The passive voice is formed by combining the verb to be with the past participle of
the principal verb. The principal verb is the verb that names the action.
The verb was washed by Ned is made up of the auxiliary verb was which is a form
of the verb to be. The past participle of the principal verb is added to the auxiliary was.
The past participle of the verb wash is washed. The verb phrase is was washed. It is the
verb phrase in the passive voice.
The verb phrase of the following sentences are passive voice. They are formed by
combining some form of the verb to be with the past participle of the principal verb.
The plans will be made by the general.
Trees have been planted in the park by the commissioners.

2nd Module

INFORMATION SHEET I
THE AGREEMENT OF VERB AND SUBJECT

Formal characteristics of verbs

In defining the verb, let us use modern methodology and base our presentation on
form and sentence structure rather than meaning.

1. The verb is defined as a word that has five forms, namely

a. the base form Examples: explain , listen
b. the –s form (called “third person singular “ in many grammars)
Examples: explains, listens
c. the –ing form ( also called present participle)
Examples: explaining, listening
d. the past tense Examples: explained, listened
e. the past participle Examples: explained, listened

The three forms which are called the principal parts of the verb are the base forms,.
Regular verbs have four different forms; some irregular verbs have three to five
different forms. The verb to be has eight forms.

2. The verb is a word that expresses action or state of being and helps make the
statement
I listen. (listen tells action)
She is a pianist (it helps make statement; e.. it links the subject and the
complement)
He has a job. (Has tells the state of the subject)
3. The verb may be signaled by one or more auxiliaries.
I will listen
He has explained.
They must have explained.
4. The verb occurs in the following positions:
a. Verb follows noun.
 The students are listening.
The teacher is explaining.
b. Verb precedes the noun.
He explained the problem.
We studied the solution.
c. Verb stands alone or follows a request signal in a request or command sentence.
(Please ) Listen.
(Kindly) Explain.

Two-Word Verbs
A number of verbs are regularly followed by adverbs which modify or changer the
meaning of the verbs. These verb-adverb combinations are sometimes called two-word
verbs. The two words together have a special meaning when used as a unit.

Patterns with Two-Word Verbs

He brought back the parcel. He brought the parcel back.
He brought it back.
We called up the manager. We called him up.
You turn off the light. You turn it off.

When the complement of the verb is a noun, the adverb generally comes after the
verb and before the complement, although it may also come after the complement. When
the complement is a pronoun, the adverb in this combination comes after the complement.
Common adverbs in two-word verb patterns are back, up, out, down, off, over, and away.
Examples: find out , turn over , put out, call up , think over and etc.

Linking Verbs
Linking Verbs are often called copulas or copulative verbs, copula is simply a Latin
version of linking. They are used to link or join the subject with a word in the predicate
which relates to the subject, it is called the subjective complement. Other terms used for
it are predicate nominative, predicate noun, predicate pronoun and predicate adjective.
The subjective complement may be a noun, pronoun, an adjective, a phrase or a clause.
Consider:
Marietta is a nurse. (Nurse is a noun)
The cake looks delicious. (Delicious is an adjective.)
Was it she who danced? (She is pronoun )
She became the teacher of the year ( Teacher of the year is a phrase)
Children are what elders make them. ( What elders make them is a clause )
The verb most commonly used as a linking verb is be (am , is are was, were) Other common
ones are become, appear, seem feel taste , smell , sound, grow remain, get, run, and loom.
Here they are used as linking verbs:
My favorite color is blue. His voice sounds hoarse.
She remained sick. The ice cream tastes delicious.
He became famous. They are scholars.
She looks dignified.
Mangoes smell good.
You seem tired.
As the examples show, a linking verb is one that can be followed by:
 1. a noun( or noun construction) that is another name for the subject of the verb
2. an adjective or adverb that describes the subject.

A Transitive Verb is one which shows action and needs an object to receive its action.
Artemio made the desk.
An Intransitive Verb is one that does not need or does not pass over to a receiver. It
does not need object or receiver of its action.
The child cried bitterly

Lina plays the piano. Lina plays well

Juan and Amanda sang a duet. They sang on the program.
Jose paints pictures Jose paints in the morning.
The children played hide and seek. They played here.
We read many books. Hilaria reads frequently.

SUBJECT AND VERB AGREEMENT

In all English sentences, the number of the subject controls the form of the verb.
1. A verb must agree with its subject in person and in number.

Rita listens. We listen.

Mario explains. They explain.
She reads novels. The girls read novels.
He writes poetry The boys write poetry.
He is carefree They are carefree.
The singular verb listens, explains, reads, writes, and is tie with Rita, Mario, She, and he
in the singular.
The plural verbs listen , explain, read, write and are tie with plural subjects we, girls,
boys, and they.
You will recall that singular verbs have the –s or es endings and that plural verbs lack the
–s or –es suffixes.
2. You always ties with a plural verb form.
You are sweet.
You have been very kind.
3. Singular pronouns tie with singular verbs. These pronouns are singular:
Each , everybody, anyone, any body, someone , somebody, no one, nobody, one, many, a
one , another , anything, either, neither.
Each of them is responsible.
Everyone is concerned about high taxes .
No one is exempted from the test.
4. Words joined to a subject by with, together with, in addition to, and including do not
affect the verb.
The machine with all its parts sells for five hundred pesos.
His property, including two cars and a lot is for sale.
5. A collective noun ties either with a singular or plural verb, depending on whether the
group is thought of as a whole or as individuals.
Our class sings very well.
Our class do not agree on the songs for the program.
6. Nouns plural in form but singular in meaning tie with a singular verb.
Dramatics is fascinating.
Measles is sometimes serious.
7. When The word number is used in the sense of “many” it is plural ; when it refers to an
arithmetical number , it is singular.
A number of students are waiting outside.
The number of students on the waiting list is small.
A number is assigned each student.
8. Fractions and words such as all, none, some will be singular if bulk or a total number or
amount is implied, and plural if individuals are considered.
9. If two subjects are joined by or , either…nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer
it .
Neither the president nor the other officers have come.
Either they or I am to blame .
10. If one subject is used affirmatively and the other negatively , the verb agrees with
the subject that is used affirmatively.
She not I is responsible.
You , not he , are at fault.
11. The verb ties with a relative pronoun used as subject; the relative pronoun ties with
the number of the person of its antecedent.
He is one of ten students who are suspended.
She is one of the most attractive girls who are active.
12. A compound subject joined by and ties with a plural verb except when the subjects
refer to the same person or thing.
My English instructor and adviser is absent. (same person0
My English instructor and my adviser are absent. (two person)

INFORMATION SHEET II
Functional Grammar and Traditional Grammar

Functional Grammar:
Functional grammar – based on systematic linguistic, emphasizes the way spoken and
written language operate in different social situations. In particular, it is very useful in
showing how to texts work beyond the level of the sentence, how different texts are
structured, and how language varies to suit the purpose of the users. It takes on a
descriptive approach and focuses on groups of words that function to make meanings.
Functional grammar is a grammar model developed by Michael Halliday in 1960. In
his book, An “Introduction to Functional Grammar.” Halliday (1994) points out that
functional grammar is so-called because its conceptual framework is a functional one
rather than a formal one. It is functional in three distinct senses; in its interpretation of;
1. Texts
In the first sense, functional grammar is designed to account for how the
language is used. Every text (everything that is said or written ) unfolds in some context
of use. Over tens of thousand of generation of constant use, language has shaped into a
system which can satisfy human needs, Therefore, A functional grammar is essentially a
natural grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained, ultimately by
reference to how language is used. In other words we use language to talk about our
experiences of the world, including the world in our minds, to describe events and states
and the entities involved in them.
2. of the System
In the second sense, the fundamental components of meaning in language are
functional components. According to the analysis of Halliday, all languages are organized
around two kinds of meanings, the “ideational” ( to understand the environment), and the
“interpersonal “ (to act on the others in it). Therefore, we also use language to interact
with other people, to establish and maintain relation with them, to influence the behavior,
to express our own view point on things in the world, and to elicit or change theirs.
3. Of the elements of linguistic structures.
In the third sense, each element in a language is explained by references to
its function in the total linguistic system. Accordingly, “ a functional grammar is one that
construes all the units of a language – clauses , phrase and so on. In other words each part
is interpreted as functional with respect to the whole. “ Finally in using language, we
organize our message in ways which indicate how they fit in with the other messages
around them and with the wider context in which we are talking or writing.

FUNCTIONAL GRAMMAR
* We use language to satisfy our needs and to express our thoughts and opinions about the
world.
* We use language to interact with other and build relationships
* We use language to organize our messages in ways which indicate how they fit in with
the other messages around them and with the wider context in which we are talking and
writing.
Grammar is more than just a form. There should be meaning in what we form so we
can use it appropriately in the right context to help is get the message across. AS future
teachers of English , you need to remember these concepts on grammar; form , meaning,
and use so you can do away with teaching students grammar that is overly focused on form
making our students too conscious if they had technically said it right. True , there is
nothing wrong with being able to produce accurate sentences, that’s grammar but should
not lose sight of the idea that each correctly and accurately produced sentence should
have meaning and appropriate use.
Grammar ability needs to be – accurate, meaningful and appropriate- as well , maybe
other teachers have quite different views of grammar. It should be noted that grammar
knowledge does not just relate to accuracy. Components of meaning (Semantics) and use
(pragmatics) are important parts of grammar knowledge. Knowing the differences
between these components of grammar knowledge can help you as future grammars
teachers to be more effective.

Traditional Grammar

His good friend wrote this book in

America.
Pron adj n v pron n prep
n
Functional grammar
His good friend wrote this book in America.
 Nominal group verbal group Prepositional group

Example 2
Traditional Grammar
This bridge was built before the 19th century .
Subject predicator adverbial

Functional grammar
This bridge was built before the 19 th century.
Theme Rheme

Functional grammar
This bridge was built before the 19 th century.
Goal Process Circumstance

From these two examples , we can see that functional grammar has this characteristics.
To serve its communicative purpose, its concern different from traditional grammar
fiased on current books grammar, its key concepts include functions and systems
hierarchy of units, word order word groups, functions of the sentence explained in the
following section.

Functions and System.

Functional grammar looks at how language in works in functional relationships of its
constituent parts, and systems of make whenever we use language. The term functional
is use to describe the approach which sees grammatical categories in communicative
functions. Its system net work is like a computer . We start to run the program , the
computer presents us with functions which the program can perform. After we select one
of the menu as an example.
When we speak an utterance , we must choose whether the form of a statement ,
question, exclamation greetings, requests and etc. Once we choose to form a question we
then have interrogative options in English, such as starting with Wh, hw, will/would or with
some other verbs by making inversions.
As you move forward in this course, The Teaching and Assessment of Grammar, you
must remember these key terms and concepts in managing and implementing standards-
based grammar. Implementing a variety of standard – based teaching strategies and
techniques for teaching grammar in the development and integration of English skills is
important. “Standard” is the regularization of the grammar, spelling, language usage, and
not to minimal desirability or interchageability. Teaching and learning a language serve as
a liberating factor because it educates people in what language and linguistic manners are
all about hence, we need to study the different key terms and concepts in study of
grammar.
A. Grammar and Grammaring
Grammar is what one knows about a language – the phonology, syntax, sematics
and pragmatics while language skills are what we do with language including speaking ,
listening, writing and reading. What we know about a language and what we do with a
language had sparked controversies about their blurry boundaries . (Benhima 2015)
These controversies resulted in the development of different models thaty
accounted for grammar differently. Grammar was then considered a method of teaching
and learning a language in what we called Grammar- Translation Approach which viewed
grammar as the core of the language.
However , the notion of grammar has changed with a shift from philology to
linguistics. The outburst of modern linguistics described grammar as a system of
structures besides vocabulary and pronunciation. The shift from structuralism to
transformational grammar has become a system of rules every native speaker of a
language acquired and then later on described as competence.
Larsen-Freeman (2001) gave a convincing argument on how grammar should be
treated. She shared that grammar should be seen as a skill rater than purely competence.
She postulated grammarmaring to be the fifth skill (together with listening, speaking,
reading , and writing) and referred to grammaring as the ability to accurately ,
meaningfully and appropriately use grammar structures.
Grammar is much more than knowing rules, though it is part of the construct.
Grammaring involes sensitivity to usage because grammar is more flexible than we think.
Everytime we speak or write, we always consciously or unconsciously involved ourselves in
doing grammar. Grammar teachers should strip themselves of the idea that grammar is
simply a set of rules for memorization. Rather , the goal of learners should be in the
development of a skill and conceive grammar in its active and progressive sense.
b. Grammaticalizing / Grammaticalization
French linguist Antoine Meillet introduced the concept of grammaticalization in his
1912 study “L’evolution desforms grammaticales. In its broadest sense, grammaticalization
is described as the process by which grammar is created (Croft, 2006) or the study of
this process. It is the language process change by which words representing objects and
actions (i.e. nouns and verbs) become grammatical markers (affixes, prepositions, etc.)
which results in the creation of function words through a process other than deriving them
from existing bound and inflectional constructions, but instead derive them from content
word .
Grammaticalization involves reduction and increased dependency. Reduction also
known as phonetic erosion or phonologic al reduction is an expression in linguistics that
loses phonetics substance if it undergoes grammaticalization.
For example:
1. going to (verb) gonna (auxiliary)
2. because coz
3. That ( demonstrative)--- that (complementizer) as in:
Demonstrative: I saw that. He went there.
Complementizer ; I saw [ that he went there]
4. I will see you later -------- I am gonna see you later.
5. My friends will be there this evening. -------- My friends ‘ll be there this evening.