Experiment 2

Of Dice and Distributions

I. Purpose

The main purpose of this exercise is to show that you can determine a quantity more precisely
by averaging together more data. In other words, you will see that the error in the mean gets
smaller as you average together more measurements. You will also be introduced to the
concepts of a parent distribution and a sample distribution.

II. Equipment
2 good dice 1 bad dice Excel Spreadsheet

III. Introduction
Pick up a pair of dice and roll them. When they stop, two faces will be showing. The
dice might show 1 and 3, or maybe 2 and 4. Roll them again and there is a good chance that a
different pair of faces will show up. We say that the experimental result is not reproducible and
that the results from the dice fluctuate.
As you will see, this behavior is, in many ways, not so different from what happens in
the real world when you make repeated measurements of a physical quantity. Every
measurement you make will have a random error, and these errors fluctuate in an irreproducible
way.

IV. Experiment
PART A: A Few Rolls of the Dice
- Start up Excel and lay out your spreadsheet following the sample table below.

Physics 275 Data Table for Experiment 2: DICE

Physics 275 NAME SECTION DATE
Experiment #2 "DICE"
Part A Part B
trial number DICE 1 DICE 2 two dice running
RED GREEN sum average
1
2
3
4

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 5
6

- Be sure to include your name, your section number, the date, and the experiment number.

- Get a pair of dice from your instructor. Make sure that the dice are two different colors so that
you can easily tell one from the other.

- Inspect your dice and roll them a few times to convince yourself that they look OK (we have
some loaded dice in the lab and we wouldn't want you to mistakenly take data on a bad set of
dice).

- Now roll the dice and record the result for each roll in your spreadsheet.
- Continue rolling the dice for 144 throws, recording the result each time. This should only take
you about 20 minutes.

- Save your spreadsheet on a disk.

PLOT A1: Make a histogram which shows how the results from the first dice are distributed.
Your plot should show the number of times that the face with 1 on it came up, the number of
times the face with 2 came up, etc. The simplest way to do this is to set up a column with bins
ranging from 1-6 (i.e. 1,2,3,4,5,6) and use the Histogram tool in Excel. If you forgot how this
works, try using Excel's help file. If you still can't get it, just raise your hand and ask your
instructor. This particular form of sample distribution, i.e. a distribution obtained from
experimental data, is called a frequency distribution.

What should the one dice distribution look like?

The idea is fairly simple. The result from throwing one dice must be one of six
possibilities: the numbers 1-6. If the dice is not loaded, each face will be equally likely. We can
express this more precisely by saying that the probability P(1) that a "1" will come up, is the
same as the probability P(2) that a 2 will come up. In fact, we expect:
P(1) = P(2) =P(3) = P(4) = P(5) = P(6) [1]
We also know with 100% certainty that if we roll the dice, one of the numbers 1-6 must show
up. This means that the sum of the probabilities must equal 100% or 1. Thus we can write:
P(1) + P(2) + P(3) + P(4) + P(5) + P(6) = 1 [2]
From equations [1] and [2], we find that:

[3]
In other words if you roll the dice 30 times, ideally you would expect to see the number 1 pop up
30/6 = 5 times.
We can think of the numbers P(1), P(2), ...P(6) as defining a function of the face number
n. This function P(n) is called the "parent distribution" or theoretical probability distribution
for one dice. A plot of the parent distribution P(n) is just a flat line (see Figure 1).

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 Parent Distribution for one Dice

0.18
0.16

0.14
0.12
0.1

0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
face number n

Figure II.1 The parent distribution for 1-dice.

Now we want to go from this theoretical probability distribution (the parent

distribution) to a theoretical frequency distribution that we can compare with our experimental
frequency distribution. To do this we need some results from a study of the Binomial
distribution. You will find a discussion of the Binomial distribution in the required textbook
“A Practical Guide to Data Analysis for Physical Science Students”, by Louis Lyons (Cambridge
University Press). Look at Appendix 3, pages 78 – 81. We need two results. The average
frequency: ; and the uncertainty in this average frequency: .
Here N is the total number of throws of the dice. Lyons writes these two equations as
and .

QUESTION A1: Does your sample frequency distribution for 1-dice look like the theoretical
average frequency distribution for 1-dice? Explain briefly.

Your sample frequency distribution should look something like the theoretical frequency
distribution but you should not be too surprised that is does not look exactly like the theoretical
distribution. The exact result of any given throw is quite unpredictable, and thus there is no
guarantee that after 144 throws you will see exactly 144/6= 24 occurrences of say the face with
"3" marked on it. But how different do you expect it to be? Should you be worried if you don't
see any 3's after 144 throws, or is this not so unlikely ?

This type of situation arises very frequently in all types of experiments and it is
extremely useful to understand how to answer these type of questions.

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-Now that you have a theoretical distribution (derived from parent distribution) with error bars,
data (a sample distribution), perform a 2 test on your data and theory. Find 2, v, and P(2,v).
In this particular circumstances the experimental data is exact unless you made a mistake in
recording the data. It is the theoretical average frequency that has an uncertainty. Thus the
uncertainty which appears in the expression for 2 is the uncertainty in the average frequency.
Use the function CHIDIST to calculate P(2,v). Show your instructor.

QUESTION A2: Does your data fit the theory? Briefly explain and show your instructor.

MORE THEORETICAL STUFF: Finding the average and standard deviation

Why is the probability distribution useful? Well for one thing, you can use it to find the
average and the standard deviation. Suppose we throw the dice N times and then average all of
the results together. We expect that each of the six faces will show up 1/6 of the time, or N/6
total times if we throw N times. Thus we will see N/6 ones, and N/6 two's, etc. The sum of all
the faces from all the N throws will thus be:
sum = 1*N + 2*N + 3*N + 4*N + 5*N + 6*N
6 6 6 6 6 6
The factors 1/6 are of course just the probabilities P(1), P(2), etc. of seeing the corresponding
face. Thus we can write the sum of all the throws as:
sum = 1*N*P(1) + 2*N*P(2) + 3*N*P(3) + 4*N*P(4) + 5*N*P(5) + 6*N*P(6)
We can find the average result of all the throws by taking the sum and dividing by the total
number of throws N. The result is:
<n> = "average face number" = 1*P(1) + 2*P(2) + 3*P(3) + 4*P(4)+ 5*P(5) + 6*P(6)
[1]
= = 1*1 + 2*1 + 3*1 + 4*1 + 5*1 + 6*1 = 1+2+3+4+5+6 = 21 = 3.5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6
Notice that we can write equation [1] in a useful compact form:

It is not too hard to see that the mean square deviation for throws in a 1-dice distribution
can be written as:

= (1-3.5) 2 P(1)+(2-3.5) 2 P(2)+(3-3.5) 2 P(3)+(4-3.5) 2 P(4)+(5-3.5) 2 P(5)+(6-3.5) 2 P(6)

(2.5) 2 + (1.5) 2 + (0.5) 2 +(0.5) 2 +(1.5) 2 +(2.5) 2 = 35 = 2.91667
= 12
6
The root mean square deviation or standard deviation is thus:

- Find the actual average and standard deviation for the 144 throws you made for Dice #1.

Question A3. Compare the your measured average and standard deviation to the theoretical

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predictions above. Is your average in reasonable agreement with the prediction ? Explain briefly
(if you average together N things and there is an uncertainty of 1.7078 in each of the N things,
what's the uncertainty in the average?). Show your instructor.
- Now create a column which has the running average of the numbers in your Dice #1 column.
Here's the idea. Lets say that for Dice #1 you threw the following numbers 2,3,5,1,3,6..... The
first number in the running average column will be 2 (this is just the first number in your
sequence of throws), the second number in the running average column will be 2.5 (this is the
average of 2 and 3, the first two numbers in your sequence), and the next number in the running
average column will be 3.33 (which is the average of 2, 3, and 5, the first three numbers in your
sequence of throws). If you can figure out by yourself how to create the Excel formula for the
running average, that's great! Otherwise, just raise your hand and your instructor will go over
this with you.

PLOT A2: Make a plot which shows the running average for the 1-dice results versus the
number of the throw. Notice that this plot starts off looking very scattered, but tends to settle
towards the average as the number of throws gets large.
Let us return to this question of how the average value that you get from your data improves as
you collect more data for data that is fluctuating randomly. The result you get from throwing
dice fluctuates randomly, so it is a good example of what we are talking about. The Binomial
distribution results tell us that the uncertainty in the average frequency divided by the average
frequency is . The fractional precision in the average frequency

gets smaller as N gets larger, and is proportional to .

PART B: The two dice distribution

Go back to your spreadsheet and create a new column which contains the sum of Dice #1 and
Dice #2 for each throw (see sample table above).

QUESTION B1: What is the average and standard deviation of the two-dice sum for all your
throws?

QUESTION B2: What do you expect the average and standard deviation to be?

PLOT B1: Make a histogram which shows how the sum of the two dice is distributed.

Class Discussion: What should the two dice distribution look like?

At this point your instructor will discuss the two-dice distribution. The result from
summing two dice must be one of eleven possibilities: the numbers 2, 3, 4,5 ,..., 11, 12. The
truly important thing to realize is that there are several ways that you can get, for example, a sum
of 6. You could have the sumof 1+5, 2+4, 3+3, 4+2, or 5+1, where the first number in each sum
is for Dice #1 and the second is for Dice #2. To see what is going on, we can make a table of all
the possible outcomes of rolling two dice. From the table below, we can see that there are six
different combinations which will yield s a sum of 7, but only one combination which will yields

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a sum of 2. The table below can also be used to construct a probability distribution for the two-
dice average. To find the probability of seeing an average of 7, for example, you just need to
take the number of combinations which produce an average of 7 (there are 6 such combinations)
and divide by the total number of possible combinations (there are 6*6=36 possible
combinations); thus we can write P(7) = 6/36 = 1/6. Figure 3 shows the resulting parent
distribution for the 2-dice average.

Sum P(n)
1+1 2 1/36
1+2 2+1 3 2/36
1+3 3+1 2+2 4 3/36
1+4 4+1 2+3 3+2 5 4/36
1+5 5+1 2+4 4+2 3+3 6 5/36
1+6 6+1 2+5 5+2 3+4 4+3 7 6/36
2+6 6+2 3+5 5+3 4+4 8 5/36
3+6 6+3 4+5 5+4 9 4/36
4+6 6+4 5+5 10 3/36
5+6 6+5 11 2/36
6+6 12 1/36

Figure II.3 Table of outcomes for two dice and Parent distribution showing how the 2-dice sum
is distributed.

The remarkable thing about Figure II.3 is that the distribution is peaked, even though the
distribution for each individual dice is not (compare with Figure II.1). Notice also that it is
peaked about the <n>=7. This is a very general result: the more random things we average
together, the more peaked the resulting distribution of the averages becomes. This is because
there are many more combinations that give values near the average than there are combinations
which produce values far from the average. The standard deviation of the 2-dice average is

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QUESTION B3: Does your 2-dice frequency distribution look like the theoretical 2-dice
frequency distribution? What analysis could you do to answer this question precisely? Then do
it. It is similar to what you have done for the one dice frequency distributions.

PART C: Loaded Dice

Obtain from your instructors a new dice. This new set may be "loaded" or "biased. On
the other hand, it might not be loaded or biased.

(1) Take a look at your dice. Using complete sentences, describe briefly anything unusual with
your dice and clearly indicate whether or not you expect this to produce a bias.

(2) It is your job to determine whether or not the dice is biased. After discussing with your
instructors and classmates, in a few sentences briefly describe the procedure you will follow to
determine whether or not your dice is biased. Note that any data you collect will produce a
frequency distribution.

(3) Using the procedure you described above, determine whether or not your dice is biased. Be
sure to include in your spreadsheet any data or analysis.

QUESTION C1: Is your dice biased? Explain briefly.

Before you leave the lab, e-mail a copy of your spreadsheet to your instructor.

V. Homework Problems
To be turned in by e-mail by 6 PM Friday. Send as an attachment.

1. Finish any parts of the analysis which you did not complete in class.

2. Comparing your 1-dice sample distribution to the 2-dice sample distribution, what is the
qualitative difference between them? Briefly explain what is causing this difference.

3. Suppose that you get into a car accident at an average rate of about one accident every 3
years. In the next 21 years, you would thus expect to have about 7 accidents. If it turned out
that you actually had 5 accidents in that time, can you say that you've really gotten better at
driving. Explain briefly. If you do a calculation, you need to use complete sentences to
explain what you are calculating and what it means. Just writing a series of formulas won't
get you any credit.

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