Lecture No.

GE 135: FUNDAMENTALS OF
SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TOPIC 4:

Introduction to Vertical Distance Measurements

Department of Geodetic Engineering

College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University
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Outline
▪ Concepts and principles of vertical distance measurements,
particularly leveling
▪ Types of Leveling Methods
▪ Instruments used for Leveling
▪ Leveling operations
▪ Earth’s curvature and refraction
▪ Sources of errors in leveling
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Intended Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lecture, the students must be able to:

● Identify and discuss various leveling concepts and definitions

● Identify different types of Leveling methods
● Solve leveling problems.
● Identify and discuss the instruments and procedures involved in leveling
● Discuss the effects of earth's curvature and refraction to leveling
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF VERTICAL DISTANCE

MEASUREMENTS, PARTICULARLY LEVELING
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Leveling
• Leveling is the process or operation of directly or
indirectly measuring vertical distances to determine
the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.
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Significance of Leveling Operations

• Leveling operations are undertaken to provide
necessary data for engineering design and
construction, and production of topographic maps.
• It can also be used for site suitability development.
• Through the processes of leveling, buildings, roads,
canals, and other vertical and horizontal structures
can be designed and laid out that conform to the
configuration of the ground.
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Definition of Terms
• To give more understanding of leveling operations, the following
basic terms are illustrated below.
Relationship between Level Surfaces
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Definition of Terms
1. Level surface is a curved surface parallel to the
mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
2. Level line is a line lying on a level surface.
3. Horizontal surface is a plane that is tangent to a
level surface at a particular point.
4. Horizontal line is a straight line in a horizontal
plane that is tangent to a level line at one point.
5. Vertical line is a vertical line at any point is a line
parallel to the direction of gravity.
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Definition of Terms
Relationship between Level Surfaces
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Definition of Terms
6. Elevation is the vertical distance above or below the
mean sea level or any other selected datum.
7. Difference in elevation is the difference in elevation
between two points is the vertical distance between the
two-level surfaces in which the points lie.
8. Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or
parallel with mean sea level to which elevations of a
particular area are referred.
9. Mean Sea Level is an imaginary surface of the sea which
is midway between high and low tides.
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Definition of Terms
Relationship between Level Surfaces
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Vertical Datum
• The Geoid is a surface of constant potential energy (equipotential
surface) that coincides with mean sea level over the oceans while
the Reference Ellipsoid is a mathematical surface of reference.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

TYPES OF LEVELING METHODS

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Methods of Leveling
• Various methods could be used to determine the elevation of
points and their difference in elevation. These methods may be
undertaken either directly or indirectly and they may differ
concerning the instrument used, the procedure employed and
the attainable degrees of precision.
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Methods of Leveling
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling is a method of determining the elevation
of points some distance apart by a series of setups of a leveling
instrument along a selected route. It is also referred to as spirit
leveling since the instrument used is a spirit level. There are three
(3) forms of direct leveling such as differential leveling, double –
rodded leveling, and three-wire leveling.
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➢ BASIC OPERATIONS IN FIELDWORK – DIRECT LEVELING

❑ Backsight ( BS )- It is reading taken on a rod held on a point of known or assumed elevation.
❑ Backsight Distance ( BSD )- It is measured from the center of the instrument to the rod on which
a backsight is taken.
❑ Foresight ( FS )- It is a reading taken on a rod held on a point whose elevation is to be
determined.
❑ Foresight Distance ( FSD )- It is the horizontal distance from the center of the instrument to the
rod on which a foresight is taken.
❑ Turning Point ( TP )- It is an intervening point between two bench marks upon which point
foresight and backsight rod readings are taken to enable a leveling operation to continue from a
new instrument position.
❑ Height of Instrument ( HI )- It is the elevation of the line of sight of an instrument above or
below a selected reference datum.
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Differential Leveling
▪ It is the process of determining the difference in elevation between two or
more points some distance apart.
▪ It requires a series of set ups of the instrument along a general route and, for
each set up, a rod reading back to the point of known elevation and forward to
a point of unknown SKETCH:
elevation are taken. SKETCH:
SKETCH: SKETCH:

BRIDGE
BM BM BM BM
BMa
Known
Elevation

FS BS FS BS FS BS FS

HI TP1 HI TP2 HI TP3 HI BMb

BRIDGE
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➢ Procedure of Differential Leveling

▪ The leveling instrument is set up at any convenient location along the level
route and a backsight is taken on a leveling rod held vertically on BMa.
▪ The backsight reading added to the known or assumed elevation of the
initial bench mark gives the height of instrument above datum or

HI = Elev BMa + BS
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➢ Procedure of Differential Leveling

▪ The rodman moves forward along the general direction of BMb and holds
the rod at a convenient turning point ( TP1).
▪ The instrument man takes a foresight on the rod.
▪ This foresight reading subtracted from the height of instrument gives the
elevation above datum of the turning point or

Elev TP1 = HI – FS

▪ Then, the level is transferred again and a backsight is taken at TP1 and
foresight at TP2. Repeat procedures until foresight is taken on BMb.
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Sample Problem
▪ For the given data of a differential leveling as shown in the tabulation, compute
the elevation of BM2.

STA. BS HI FS ELEV.
BM1 6.77 120.48
TP1 7.45 4.23
TP2 7.07 5.12
BM2 3.48

BM2
TP2
TP1
BM2=128.94
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Sample Problem
▪ Complete the table given below:

STA BS HI FS ELEV.
BMa 1.205 12.10 m.

TP1 1.335 1.435

TP2 1.387 1.505

TP3 1.360 1.525

BMb 1.313
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Three-Wire Leveling
▪ It is a method of determining differences in elevation wherein three horizontal
hairs (or threads) are read and recorded rather than from a single horizontal
hair.

HI= Elev+mean of BS
Leveling Rod
mean = (a+b+c)/3 Elev. = HI-mean of FS

Horizontal Line of Sight

a
b c

s = a-b
where: a – upper stadia hair reading
b – lower stadia hair reading
c – horizontal cross hair reading
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Sample Problem
▪ Complete the table given below:

BACKSIGHT FORESIGHT
STA HAIR MEAN S HI HAIR MEAN S ELEV.
RDGS RDGS
1.152
BMa 0.935 20.610 m.
0.718
2.784 1.117
TP1 2.420 0.899
2.057 0.682
1.713 1.900
TP2 1.440 1.537
1.166 1.172
1.450
BMb 1.177
0.904
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Methods of Leveling
2. Reciprocal Leveling is the process of accurately
determining the difference in elevation between two
intervisible points located at a considerable distance
apart and between which points leveling could not be
performed in the usual manner.
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Methods of Leveling
3. Profile Leveling is used to determine the difference in
elevation between points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide data from
which a vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted.
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Profile Leveling
▪ The process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at
designated short measured intervals.
▪ It is executed to provide data from which a vertical section of the ground
surface can be plotted.
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➢ Definition of Terms in Profile Leveling

1. Profile
▪ It is a curved line which graphically portrays the intersection of a vertical plane
with the surface of the earth.
2. Stationing
▪ It is a numerical designation given in terms of horizontal distance any point
along a profile line is away from the starting point.
3. Intermediate Foresights
▪ These sights, which are also known as ground rod readings, are taken along the
centerline of the proposed project to provide an accurate representation of the
ground surface.
▪ They are observed at regular intervals and at points where sudden changes in
elevation occur.
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➢ Definition of Terms in Profile Leveling

4. Full Stations
▪ They are points which are established along the profile level route at uniformly
measured distances.
5. Plus Stations
▪ These points are taken at breaks in the ground surface slope and at critical
points such as the intended location of culverts, bridges, and other structures.
6. Vertical Exaggeration
▪ It is a process of drawing the vertical scale for a profile much larger than the
horizontal scale in order to accentuate the differences in elevation.
7. Profile Paper
▪ It is a special heavy grade graphing paper used for plotting profiles.
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➢ Procedure of Profile Leveling

1. The line joining the initial and terminal points must first be established.
2. A transit and tape survey is undertaken starting at the beginning of the line
which is designated as station 0+00.
3. The instrument is set up at a convenient location and a backsight is taken
on a reference bench mark near the initial point to determine the height of
the instrument.
4. A series of intermediate foresights are next taken along the center line to
determine elevations of ground points (done without transferring the
instruments).
5. A turning point is established if there is no longer possible to continue with
the foresight readings (regular intervals of 10 to 30 meters).
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➢ Stationing
▪ They are used to indicate the distance of any ground stake
from the beginning point of the level route.
▪ The line along in which the profile is required must be properly
marked by stakes on the ground (spaced at 100 m. intervals).
Example: 1+00, 2+00, 3+00, etc.
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➢ Locating Stations
▪ Sample #1
• A point that is 152.65 meters beyond station 0+00 is 1+52.65 m
▪ Sample #2
• A point that is 152.65 meters beyond station 5+50 is 152.65 m + 550 m
= 702.65 m from 0+00 station, and the point is marked a 7+02.65
meters
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Methods of Leveling
4. Trigonometric Leveling is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the difference in elevation
between two points from measurements of its
horizontal and slope distance and the vertical angle
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Methods of Leveling
5. Stadia Leveling combines features of direct leveling
with those of trigonometric leveling. It is a form of
trigonometric leveling.
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Methods of Leveling
6. Barometric Leveling involves the determination of
differences in elevation between points by measuring the
variation in atmospheric pressure at each point utilizing
altimeter or barometer.
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Methods of Leveling
7. Cross-Section Leveling is often necessary to obtain a
representation of the ground surface on either side of the
centerline in highways or railroad constructions.
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Methods of Leveling
8. Borrow-Pit Leveling is a method of determining the
relative elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for
calculating volumes of earthwork.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

INSTRUMENTS USED FOR LEVELING

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Instruments Used in Leveling

Types of Levels

• There are various types of instruments used in

leveling operation. These instruments may differ
somewhat in design, each can be used to
establish a horizontal line of sight using a
telescope fitted with a set of crosshairs and a
level bubble.
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Types of Levels
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Types of Levels
1. Dumpy Level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument. It
has a long telescope which is rigidly attached to the level bar.
2. Wye Level is identical to the dumpy level. The only difference is
the telescope is attached to the supporting level bar.
3. Builder’s Level is often called a construction level or an architect’s
level. The level vial is not as sensitive as in other levels and its
telescope has a much lesser magnifying power.
4. Automatic Level is also termed as a self-aligning level. It is
equipped with a prismatic device called compensator.
5. Tilting Level consists of a telescope attached with a level tube
which can be tilted within few degrees in a vertical plane by a
tilting screw.
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Types of Levels
6. Geodetic Level is employed in first-order leveling work where
extreme precision is an important requirement.
7. Transit as a Level is also called a “universal surveying
instrument” because of its variety of uses. There is no doubt
that it can also be used for leveling work.
8. Laser Level is an innovation introduced to surveying
operations with the use of lasers.
9. Hand Level is a handheld instrument used on surveys
involving short sights and where a low order of accuracy is
sufficient.
10.Digital Level uses electronic image processing to evaluate the
special bar-coded staff reading.
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Leveling Rods
• The leveling rod is a graduated rod that is
used for measuring the vertical distance
between the line of sight through a
leveling instrument and the point whose
elevation is either required or known.

• Leveling rods may be either as self-reading rod and target

rod. The Self-reading rod can be read directly by the
instrument man through the telescope by noting the
apparent intersection of the horizontal hair on the rod
while the Target rod has a sliding target which is set and
read by a rodman at the position selected by the
instrument man.
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Leveling Rods
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Telescope
• The telescope is a metal tube containing a system of
lenses that are used to fix the direction of the line of sight
and in magnifying the apparent size of the objects in its
field of view.
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Level Vial
• The level vial is sealed graduated glass tube containing
some amount of liquid and a small air bubble.
• It is used to determine the direction of gravity.

Level Vial
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Tripods
• Tripod serves as a base to prevent movement of the instrument after it
is set up. It consists of three wooden or aluminum legs which are
securely fastened the tripod head using a hinged joint. Two types of
tripods are used with a leveling instrument such as fixed-leg tripod and
extension tripod.
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FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

LEVELING OPERATIONS
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Leveling Operations

Leveling Holding the Taking a

Setting up
the leveling rod
the level.
instrument. rod. reading.
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Setting up the Level

• The leveling instrument may be
set up at any suitable or desired
location.
• The solid ground should be
selected when setting up the
instrument.
• The tripod legs are spread so
that the footplate will be
approximately horizontal and
they should be pushed firmly
into the ground to make it stand
stable.
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Setting up the Level

• The preferable and convenient set up is one that will enable the instrument
man to sight through the telescope without having to stretch or stoop.
• The legs of the tripod when setting up on hillsides or along a slope, one leg
should extend uphill and two-legs downhill.
• It is also advisable for the instrument man to carry along a hand level to
determine the approximate height at which the instrument should be set-up
so that points to be sighted will fall within the established line of sight.
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Leveling the Instrument

1. Instrument with Four Leveling Screws.
• The bubble is first centered approximately over one pair of opposite leveling screws.
• The telescope is turned and positioned over the two other leveling screws and then the
bubble is again centered approximately.
• This will be repeated until the bubble finally remains centered in any direction the
telescope is pointed. The thumb and the index finger of each hand are used to turn the
screws.
• The screws are turned in the opposite direction, thus, the thumbs should move either away
from each other or toward each other.
• During the final centering, only one screw needs to be turned to move the bubble in small
graduation on the level vial.
• Turning opposite leveling screws should be at the same time and the same rate that will
allow the screws to constantly bear evenly on the footplate while the instrument is being
leveled.
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Leveling the Instrument

• The procedure followed in leveling each type of instrument are
outlined as follows:
1. Instrument with Four Leveling Screws.
• Figure below shows the centering bubble using four leveling screws
instruments.
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Leveling the Instrument

2. Instrument with Three Leveling Screws.
• The telescope is turned until the bubble tube is positioned parallel to the
line through any two of the screws.
• The bubble is then centered on the level vial by turning these two screws
in the opposite direction.
• The telescope is rotated about the vertical axis of the instrument so that
the bubble tube is brought perpendicular to a line through the two
turned screws.
• The bubble is brought at the center employing this screw alone.
• The process is repeated until the bubble remains in the center for any
position of the telescope.
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Leveling the Instrument

2. Instrument with Three Leveling Screws.
• Figure below shows the centering bubble using three
leveling screws instruments.
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Holding the Leveling Rod

The following are the proper way of holding the leveling
rod.
• The leveling rod is held on a point by a rodman when sight
is to be taken on it.
• The rod must be held plumb when the reading is made.
• The instrument man checks the rod by observing through
the telescope and noting if it is held parallel to the vertical
crosshair.
• The fingers must not cover the face of the rod.
• The graduations of the rod are always clearly visible and
not obstructed.
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Taking a Rod Reading

The following are steps performed in taking a rod reading.
1. Position the Rod. The leveling rod is held by the rodman
on the designated point whose elevation is to be
determined. The rod must be held plumb and faces it
towards the instrument man.
2. Focus on the Rod. The instrument man aims and
focuses the telescope on the rod at the same time seeing
to it that the bubble continues to remain in the center of
the level vial.
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Taking a Rod Reading

The following are steps performed in taking a rod
reading.
3. Read the Rod. The instrument man observes
directly from the telescope and records the reading
indicated by the line of sight. A check must be made
on the centering of the bubble before and after
readings are taken on the rod.
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Determining the Difference in Elevation

• Figure below shows the typical set up for determining the
difference in elevation between two points.
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Determining the Difference in Elevation

The order of steps involved are as follows:
1. The instrument is set up and leveled at a point about
halfway between A and B.
2. Sight on the rod held vertically at point A and record
the rod reading.
3. Rotate the telescope carefully about the vertical axis
and sight on a rod held vertically at B. Record the rod
reading at B. Only one rod should be used during the
measurement to avoid instrumental errors.
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Determining the Difference in Elevation

The order of steps involved are as follows:
4. From the figure shown, point B is lower in elevation
than point A since its vertical distance measured
downward from the established line of sight is
greater than that taken at point A. If the elevation of
point A is known, the elevation of point B may be
determined by subtracting the computed difference
in elevation from the elevation of A.
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Carrying the Instrument

The following are the proper practice of carrying the
instrument.
• The level should always be kept in a box when it is not
used.
• It should remain in its carrying case when transported to
the worksite or when it has to be moved to another
distant setup or over rough terrain.
• The level does not detach from the tripod when
transferring to another nearby station provided that it is
securely fastened to the tripod and is carried properly.
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Carrying the Instrument

The following are the proper practice of carrying the
instrument.
• In open spaces, the level may be carried on the
shoulder in preferably a near-vertical position.
• In densely forested areas, the level should be cradled
between the arms and held close to one’s chest left or
right chest.
• The spindle is clamped slightly so that the telescope
does not rotate when carried.
 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

EARTH’S CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

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Curvature and Refraction

• The effects of earth curvature and refraction are taken into
account in leveling work since the measurements are made in
vertical plane and these effects occur if the same plane.
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Curvature and Refraction

• When levelling is employed in a large area, the curvature of
Earth is considered and the horizontal line is not a level line,
because of which the staff reading is more than expected, this is
called curvature correction.
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Curvature and Refraction

• Refraction is the result of the bending downward of rays of light
when it passes through air strata of different densities.
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Curvature and Refraction

• The combination of the earth’s curvature and atmospheric refraction
is expressed as:

B A
h’ = 0.0675K2
ℎ𝑟 C
Where: K = length of the line of sight (in kilometers)
0.0675 = coefficient of refraction h’ D
ℎ𝑐

• If backsight and foresight distances

were exactly equal for each set up, the
errors caused by curvature and
refraction would cancel each other.
 Lecture No. 1

Sample Problem
Two points, A and B, are 525.850 meters apart. A level is set up on the line between A and B
and at a distance of 240.500 m from A. If the rod reading on A is 3.455 m and that on B is
2.806 m, determine the difference in elevation between the two points, taking into account
the effects of curvature and atmospheric refraction.
240.500 2
ℎ𝑎′ = 0.0675𝐾𝑎 2 = 0.0675( ) = 0.003904 m
1000

525.850 − 240.500 2
ℎ𝑏′ = 0.0675𝐾𝑏 2 = 0.0675( ) = 0.005496 m
1000

𝑎′ = 𝑎 − ℎ𝑎′ = 3.455 − 0.003904 = 3.451 𝑚

𝑏′ = 𝑏 − ℎ𝑏′ = 2.806 − 0.005496 = 2.801 𝑚

𝐷𝐸 = 𝑎′ − 𝑏′ = 3.451 − 2.801 = 0.65 𝑚

 Lecture No. 1

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING AND MAPPING

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN LEVELING

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Sources of Error in Leveling

• The accuracy of leveling work may be affected by
several factors such as the type of instrument used,
the skills of the members of a level party, and the
degree of refinement in which the whole operation is
performed. The principal sources of error in leveling
work may emanate from either of the following:
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Sources of Error in Leveling

1. Instrumental Errors. These errors are attributed to
imperfections in the instruments either from faults in their
manufacture or from improper adjustment. In leveling work
instrumental errors are the following:
• Instrument out of adjustment
• Rod not standard length
• Defective tripod
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Sources of Error in Leveling

2. Personal Errors. It occurs largely due to the limitation of the senses of touch,
sight, or hearing of individuals, the skills, training, and teamwork of the members of a
leveling party. It is usually caused by erroneous manipulation and careless handling of
the instruments when making observations. Such errors include the following:
• Bubble not centered
• Parallax
• Faulty rod readings
• Rod not held plumb
• Incorrect setting of target
• Unequal BS and FS distances
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Sources of Error in Leveling

3. Natural Errors. These are errors that are due to natural sources and
could not be removed but their effects can be reduced by applying
corrections and using good judgment. Such errors include:
• Curvature of the earth
• Atmospheric refraction
• Temperature variation
• Wind
• Settlement of the instrument
• Faulty turning points
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Common Mistakes in Leveling

The following are some of the most commonly made
mistakes in leveling operations:
• Misreading of the Rod
• Incorrect Recording
• Erroneous Computations
• Rod not fully Extended
• Moving turning Points
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References
▪ Ghilani, C.D., Wolf, P., 2012. Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to Geomatics (13th Edition), Pearson Education
Inc., USA. Available online at: https://dl.icdst.org/pdfs/files3/b2b03a2010d7cfca226e3115636ee421.pdf
▪ Google Images
▪ La Putt, J. P., 2007. Elementary Surveying, 3rd Edition, Baguio Research & Publishing Center, Baguio City, Philippines.
▪ https://www.apsed.in/post/reciprocal-
levelling#:~:text=Curvature%20correction(Cc),this%20is%20called%20curvature%20correction.
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Thank You!
Department of Geodetic Engineering
College of Engineering and Geosciences
Caraga State University, Ampayon, Butuan City