Exported on: 19/03/2023

Clinical guidelines - Diagnosis and treatment

manual
For curative programmes in hospitals and dispensaries
Guidance for prescribing

 
© Médecins Sans Frontières
All rights reserved for all countries. No reproduction, translation and adaptation may be done without the prior
permission of the Copyright owner.
 
Médecins Sans Frontières. Clinical guidelines - Diagnosis and treatment manual.
December 2022
ISBN 978-2-37585-200-2
Table of contents
Authors/Contributors

Preface

Abbreviations and acronyms

Chapter 1: A few symptoms and syndromes

Shock
Seizures
Hypoglycaemia
Fever
Pain
Anaemia
Dehydration
Severe acute malnutrition

Chapter 2: Respiratory diseases

Acute upper airway obstruction
Rhinitis and rhinopharyngitis (common cold)
Acute sinusitis
Acute pharyngitis
Diphtheria
Other upper respiratory tract infections
Laryngotracheitis and laryngotracheobronchitis (croup)
Epiglottitis
Bacterial tracheitis
Otitis
Acute otitis externa
Acute otitis media (AOM)
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM)
Whooping cough (pertussis)
Bronchitis
Acute bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis
Bronchiolitis
Acute pneumonia
Pneumonia in children under 5 years of age
Pneumonia in children over 5 years and adults
Persistent pneumonia
Staphylococcal pneumonia
 Asthma
Asthma attack (acute asthma)
Chronic asthma
Pulmonary tuberculosis

Chapter 3: Gastrointestinal disorders

Acute diarrhoea
Shigellosis
Amoebiasis
Disorders of the stomach and duodenum
Gastro-oesophageal reflux
Gastric and duodenal ulcers in adults
Dyspepsia
Stomatitis
Oral and oropharyngeal candidiasis
Oral herpes
Other infectious causes
Stomatitis from scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
Other lesions resulting from a nutritional deficiency

Chapter 4: Skin diseases

Dermatology
Scabies
Lice (pediculosis)
Superficial fungal infections
Bacterial skin infections
Impetigo
Furuncles and carbuncles
Erysipelas and cellulitis
Cutaneous anthrax
Endemic treponematoses
Leprosy
Herpes simplex and herpes zoster
Herpes simplex
Herpes zoster (shingles)
Other skin disorders
Eczema
Seborrheic dermatitis
Urticaria
Pellagra

Chapter 5: Eye diseases

 Xerophthalmia (vitamin A deficiency)
Conjunctivitis
Neonatal conjunctivitis
Viral epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
Trachoma
Periorbital and orbital cellulitis
Other pathologies
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Loiasis
Pterygium
Cataract

Chapter 6: Parasitic diseases

Malaria
Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)
American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)
Leishmaniases
Intestinal protozoan infections (parasitic diarrhoea)
Flukes
Schistosomiases
Cestodes
Nematode infections
Filariasis
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Loiasis
Lymphatic filariasis (LF)

Chapter 7: Bacterial diseases

Bacterial meningitis
Tetanus
Enteric (typhoid and paratyphoid) fevers
Brucellosis
Plague
Leptospirosis
Relapsing fever (borreliosis)
Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF)
T ick-borne relapsing fever (T BRF)
Eruptive rickettsioses

Chapter 8: Viral diseases

Measles
Poliomyelitis
 Rabies
Viral hepatitis
Dengue
Viral haemorrhagic fevers
HIV infection and AIDS

Chapter 9: Genito-urinary diseases

Nephrotic syndrome in children
Urolithiasis
Acute cystitis
Acute pyelonephritis
Acute prostatitis
Genital infections
Urethral discharge
Abnormal vaginal discharge
Genital ulcers
Lower abdominal pain in women
Upper genital tract infections (UGT I)
Venereal warts
Major genital infections (summary)
Abnormal uterine bleeding (in the absence of pregnancy)

Chapter 10: Medical and minor surgical procedures

Dressings
Treatment of a simple wound
Burns
Cutaneous abscess
Pyomyositis
Leg ulcers
Necrotising infections of the skin and soft tissues
Venomous bites and stings
Dental infections

Chapter 11: Mental disorders in adults

Anxiety
Insomnia
Agitation
Acute confusional state (delirium)
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Depression
Psychotic disorders
Acute psychotic episode
 Chronic psychoses
Bipolar disorder

Chapter 12: Other conditions

Sickle cell disease
Diabetes type 2 in adults
Essential hypertension in adults
Heart failure in adults
Chronic heart failure
Acute heart failure (acute pulmonary oedema)
Endemic goitre and iodine deficiency

Appendices
Appendix 1. Normal daily maintenance IV fluids in children > 1 month

Main references
Authors/Contributors
 
 
T he Clinical guidelines  has been developed by Médecins Sans Frontières.
 
MSF would like to express its sincere gratitude to everyone who has contributed to developing these guidelines.
 
Co-authors: Grace Dubois, Blandine Vasseur-Binachon, Cedric Yoshimoto
 
Contributors: Gabriel Alcoba, Beatriz Alonso, Mohana Amirtharajah, Haydar Alwash, Catherine Bachy, Roberta
Caboclo, Severine Caluwaerts, Cristina Carreno, Arlene Chua, Kate Clezy, Anne-Sophie Coutin, Marcio da Fonseca,
Martin De Smet, Eva Deplecker, Carolina Echeverri, Sylvie Fagard-Sultan, Roopan Gill, Sonia Guinovart, Jarred Halton,
Kerstin Hanson, Christian Heck, Caroline Henry-Ostian, Cathy Hewison, Yves-Laurent Jackson, Carolina Jimenez, John
Johnson, Rupa Kanapathipillai, Mohamad Khalife, Nadia Lafferty, Amin Lamrous, James Lee, Helen McColl, Natasha
Mlakar, Juno Min, Miguel Palma, Isabella Panunzi, Roberta Petrucci, Nicolas Peyraud, Ernestina Repetto, Jean Rigal,
Koert Ritmeijer, Julia Sander, Raghda Sleit, Erin Stratta, Alex Telnov, Malcolm Townsend, Clara Van Gulik.
 
Specific support has been given by the International Guidelines Publication team:
Editor: Véronique Grouzard
Language editors: Mohamed Elsonbaty Ramadan, Carolina López, Anna Romero
Lay-out designer: Evelyne Laissu
 
Preface
 
 
T his guide is designed for use by medical professionals involved in curative care at the dispensary and primary hospital.
 
We have tried to respond in the simplest and most practical way possible to the questions and problems faced by field
medical staff, using the accumulated field experience of Médecins Sans Frontières, the recommendations of reference
organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO) and specialized works in each field.
 
T his edition touches on the curative and, to a lesser extent, the preventive aspects of the main diseases encountered
in the field. T he list is incomplete, but covers the essential needs.
 
T his guide is used not only in programmes supported by Médecins Sans Frontières, but also in other programmes and in
other contexts. It is notably an integral part of the WHO Emergency Health Kit.
Médecins Sans Frontières has also issued French, Spanish and Arabic editions. Editions in other languages have also
been produced in the field.
 
T his guide is a collaborative effort of medical professionals from many disciplines, all with field experience.
 
Despite all efforts, it is possible that certain errors may have been overlooked in this guide. Please inform the authors
of any errors detected. It is important to remember, that if in doubt, it is the responsibility of the prescribing medical
professional to ensure that the doses indicated in this manual conform to the manufacturer ’s specifications.
 
To ensure that this guide continues to evolve while remaining adapted to field realities, please send any comments or
suggestions. 
 
As treatment protocols are regularly revised, please check the monthly updates.
Abbreviations and acronyms
 
Last update : November 2022
 
ACE angiotensin converting enzyme

ACT   artemisinin-based combination therapy 

AFB acid-fast bacillus

ALT alanine aminotransferase

ARV antiretroviral

AST aspartate aminotransferase

BCG  bacillus Calmette-Guérin 

BMI body mass index

BP  blood pressure 

°C  degree Celsius 

co-amoxiclav amoxicillin + clavulanic acid

co-trimoxazole sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim

CRT capillary refill time

CSF cerebrospinal fluid

CMV cytomegalovirus

D1 (D2, D3, etc.)  Day 1 or first day (Day 2 or 2nd  day, Day 3 or 3rd  day, etc.)

dl  decilitre 

(e)FAST (extended) focused assessment with sonography for trauma

g  gram 

HBP high blood pressure (hypertension)

HF heart failure

HIV  human immunodeficiency virus 

HR heart rate

Ig immunoglobulin
IM  intramuscular 

IO intraosseous

IU  international unit 

IV  intravenous

kcal kilocalorie

kg  kilogram 

LP lumbar puncture

mg  milligram 

MIU million of international units

ml  millilitre 

mmHg  millimetre of mercury 

mmol  millimole 

MSF Médecins Sans Frontières

NSAID nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug

ORS oral rehydration solution or salts

PCP pneumocystosis

PCR polymerase chain reaction

PO  per os – oral administration 

POCUS point-of-care ultrasound

RR respiratory rate

SAM severe acute malnutrition

SC  subcutaneous

SMX sulfamethoxazole

SMX + T MP sulfamethoxazole + trimethoprim = co-trimoxazole

SpO2 arterial blood oxygen saturation measured by pulse oximetry

 tab  tablet 

T B  tuberculosis 

T MP trimethoprim

WHO  World Health Organization 

 
Chapter 1: A few symptoms and syndromes
Shock

Seizures

Hypoglycaemia

Fever

Pain

Anaemia

Dehydration

Severe acute malnutrition

 
 
 
Shock
Acute circulatory failure leading to inadequate tissue perfusion which, if prolonged, results in irreversible organ failure.
Mortality is high without early diagnosis and treatment.

Aetiology and pathophysiology

Hypovolaemic shock
Absolute hypovolaemia due to significant intravascular fluid depletion:
Internal or external haemorrhage: post-traumatic, peri or postoperative, obstetrical (ectopic pregnancy, uterine
rupture, etc.), blood loss due to an underlying condition (gastrointestinal ulcer, etc.). A loss of greater than 30% of
blood volume in adults will lead to haemorrhagic shock.
Dehydration: severe diarrhoea and vomiting, intestinal obstruction, diabetic ketoacidosis or hyperosmolar coma,
etc.
Plasma leaks: extensive burns, crushed limbs, etc.
 
Relative hypovolaemia due to vasodilation without concomitant increase in intravascular volume:
Anaphylactic reaction: allergic reaction to insect bites or stings; drugs, mainly neuromuscular blockers, antibiotics,
acetylsalicylic acid, colloid solutions (dextran, modified gelatin fluid); equine sera; vaccines containing egg protein;
food, etc.
Acute haemolysis: severe malaria, drug poisoning (rare).

Septic shock
By a complex mechanism, often including vasodilation, heart failure and absolute hypovolaemia.

Cardiogenic shock
By decrease of cardiac output:
Direct injury to the myocardium: infarction, contusion, trauma, poisoning.
Indirect mechanism: arrhythmia, constrictive pericarditis, haemopericardium, pulmonary embolism, tension
pneumothorax, valvular disease, severe anaemia, beri beri, etc. 

Clinical features
Signs common to most forms of shock
Pallor, mottled skin, cold extremities, sweating and thirst.
Rapid and weak pulse often only detected on major arteries (femoral or carotid).
Low blood pressure (BP), narrow pulse pressure, BP sometimes undetectable.
Capillary refill time (CRT ) > 3 seconds.
Cyanosis, dyspnoea, tachypnoea are often present in varying degrees depending on the mechanism.
Consciousness usually maintained, but anxiety, confusion, agitation or apathy are common.
Oliguria or anuria.

Signs specific to the mechanism of shock

Hypovolaemic shock
T he common signs of shock listed above are typical of hypovolaemic shock.
Do not underestimate hypovolaemia. Signs of shock may not become evident until a 50% loss of blood volume in
adults.

Anaphylactic shock
Significant and sudden drop in BP
Tachycardia
Frequent cutaneous signs: rash, urticaria, angioedema
Respiratory signs: dyspnoea, bronchospasm

Septic shock
High fever or hypothermia (< 36 °C), rigors, confusion
BP may be initially maintained, but rapidly, same pattern as for hypovolaemic shock.

Cardiogenic shock
Respiratory signs of left ventricular failure (acute pulmonary oedema) are dominant: tachypnoea, crepitations on
auscultation.
Signs of right ventricular failure: raised jugular venous pressure, hepatojugular reflux, sometimes alone, more often
associated with signs of left ventricular failure.
 
T he aetiological diagnosis is oriented by:
T he context: trauma, insect bite, ongoing medical treatment, etc.
T he clinical examination:
fever
skin pinch consistent with dehydration
thoracic pain from a myocardial infarction or pulmonary embolus
abdominal pain or rigidity of the abdominal wall from peritonitis, abdominal distension from intestinal obstruction
blood in stools, vomiting blood in intestinal haemorrhage
subcutaneous crepitations, likely anaerobic infection 

Management
Symptomatic and aetiological treatment must take place simultaneously.

In all cases
Emergency: immediate attention to the patient.
Warm the patient, lay him flat, elevate legs (except in respiratory distress, acute pulmonary oedema).
Insert a peripheral IV line using a large calibre catheter (16G in adults). If no IV access, use intraosseous route.
Oxygen therapy, assisted ventilation in the event of respiratory distress.
Assisted ventilation and external cardiac compression in the event of cardiac arrest.
Intensive monitoring: consciousness, heart rate, BP, CRT, respiratory rate, hourly urinary output (insert a urinary
catheter) and skin mottling.

Management according to the cause

Haemorrhage
Control bleeding (compression, tourniquet, surgical haemostasis).
Determine blood group.
 Priority: restore vascular volume as quickly as possible: 
Insert 2 peripheral IV lines (2 catheters 16G in adults).
Ringer lactate or 0.9% sodium chloride: replace 3 times the estimated losses
and/or plasma substitute: replace 1.5 times the estimated losses
Transfuse: classically once estimated blood loss represents approximately 30 to 40% of blood volume (25% in
children). T he blood must be tested (HIV, hepatitis B and C, syphilis, malaria in endemic areas, etc.) 

Severe acute dehydration due to bacterial/viral gastroenteritis

Urgently restore circulating volume using IV therapy with Ringer lactate:
Children under 5 years: 20 ml/kg over 15 minutes (to be repeated 2 times if necessary) then 70 ml/kg over 3 hours
Children 5 years and over and adults: 30 ml/kg over 30 minutes (to be repeated once if necessary) then 70 ml/kg
over 3 hours
As soon as the patient is able to drink (often within 2 hours), provide oral rehydration solution (ORS) as the patient
tolerates.
Closely monitor the patient; be careful to avoid fluid overload in young children and elderly patients.
For aetiological treatment, see Acute diarrhoea, Chapter 3.
 
Note: in severely malnourished children the IV rate is different than those for healthy children (see Severe acute
malnutrition, Chapter 1).

Severe anaphylactic reaction

Determine the causal agent and remove it, e.g. stop ongoing injections or infusions, but if in place, maintain the IV
line.
Administer epinephrine (adrenaline) IM, into the anterolateral part of the thigh, in the event of hypotension,
pharyngolaryngeal oedema, or breathing difficulties:
Use undiluted solution (1:1000 = 1 mg/ml) and a 1 ml syringe graduated in 0.01 ml:
Children under 6 years: 0.15 ml
Children from 6 to 12 years: 0.3 ml
Children over 12 years and adults: 0.5 ml
In children, if 1 ml syringe is not available, use a diluted solution, i.e. add 1 mg epinephrine to 9 ml of 0.9% sodium
chloride to obtain a 0.1 mg/ml solution (1:10 000):
Children under 6 years: 1.5 ml
Children from 6 to 12 years: 3 ml
At the same time, administer rapidly Ringer lactate or 0.9% sodium chloride: 1 litre in adults (maximum rate); 20
ml/kg in children, to be repeated if necessary.
If there is no clinical improvement, repeat IM epinephrine every 5 to 15 minutes.
In shock persists after 3 IM injections, administration of IV epinephrine at a constant rate by a syringe pump is
necessary:
Use a diluted solution, i.e. add 1 mg epinephrine (1:1000) to 9 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride to obtain a 0.1 mg/ml
solution (1:10 000):
Children: 0.1 to 1 microgram/kg/minute
Adults: 0.05 to 0.5 microgram/kg/minute
If syringe pump is not available, see box.
In patients with bronchospasm, epinephrine is usually effective. If the spasm persists give 10 puffs of
inhaled salbutamol.
 
Note: corticosteroids are not indicated in the initial treatment of anaphylaxis. T hey may be administered once the
patient is stabilised to prevent recurrence in the short term (prednisolone PO: 0.5 to 1 mg/kg once daily for 1 to 2
days).
Septic shock
Vascular fluid replacement with Ringer lactate or 0.9% sodium chloride or plasma substitute.
Use of vasoconstrictors:
dopamine IV at a constant rate by syringe pump (see box): 10 to 20 micrograms/kg/minute
or
epinephrine IV at a constant rate by syringe pump:
Use a diluted solution, i.e. add 1 mg epinephrine (1:1000) to 9 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride to obtain a 0.1 mg/ml
solution (1:10 000). Start with 0.1 microgram/kg/minute. Increase the dose progressively until a clinical improvement
is seen.
If syringe pump is not available, see box.
Look for the origin of the infection (abscess; ENT, pulmonary, digestive, gynaecological or urological infection etc.).
Antibiotic therapy according to the origin of infection:
 
Origin Antibiotic therapy Alternative

Cutaneous  
staphylococci, streptococci cloxacillin + gentamicin

Pulmonary
pneumococci, Haemophilus influenzae ampicillin or ceftriaxone co-amoxiclav or ceftriaxone
+/- gentamicin + ciprofloxacin

Intestinal or biliary
enterobacteria, anaerobic bacteria, co-amoxiclav + gentamicin ceftriaxone + gentamicin
enterococci + metronidazole

Gynaecological
streptococci, gonococci, anaerobic bacteria, co-amoxiclav + gentamicin ceftriaxone + gentamicin
E. coli + metronidazole

Urinary
enterobacteria, enterococci ampicillin + gentamicin ceftriaxone + ciprofloxacin

Other or undetermined ampicillin + gentamicin ceftriaxone + ciprofloxacin

 
ampicillin IV
Children over 1 month: 50 mg/kg every 6 to 8 hours 
Adults: 1 to 2 g every 6 to 8 hours
 
cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
Children over 1 month: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours (max. 8 g daily)
Adults: 3 g every 6 hours
 
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) slow IV injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
Doses are expressed in amoxicillin:
Children less than 3 months: 50 mg/kg every 12 hours
Children ≥ 3 months and < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 6 g daily)
Children 40 kg and adults: 2 g every 8 hours
 
 ceftriaxone slow IV
a
 (3 minutes) 
Children: 100 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 2 g once daily
 
ciprofloxacin PO (by nasogastric tube)
Children: 15 mg/kg 2 times daily
Adults: 500 mg 2 times daily
 
gentamicin IM or slow IV (3 minutes) 
Children ≥ 1 month and adults: 6 mg/kg once daily
 
metronidazole IV infusion (30 minutes)
Children over 1 month: 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 1500 mg daily)
Adults: 500 mg every 8 hours
 
Corticosteroids: not recommended, the adverse effects outweigh the benefits.

Cardiogenic shock
T he objective is to restore efficient cardiac output. T he treatment of cardiogenic shock depends on its mechanism.
Acute left heart failure with pulmonary oedema
Acute pulmonary oedema (for treatment, see Heart failure in adults, Chapter 12).
In the event of worsening signs with vascular collapse, use a strong cardiotonic:
dopamine IV at a constant rate by syringe pump (see box): 3 to 10 micrograms/kg/minute
Once the haemodynamic situation allows (normal BP, reduction in the signs of peripheral circulatory failure),
nitrates or morphine may be cautiously introduced.
Digoxin should no longer be used for cardiogenic shock, except in the rare cases when a supraventricular
tachycardia has been diagnosed by ECG. Correct hypoxia before using digoxin.
digoxin slow IV
Adults: one injection of 0.25 to 0.5 mg, then 0.25 mg 3 or 4 times per 24 hours if necessary
Children: one injection of 0.010 mg/kg (10 micrograms/kg), to be repeated up to 4 times per 24 hours if
necessary
Cardiac tamponade: restricted cardiac filling as a result of haemopericardium or pericarditis.
Requires immediate pericardial tap after restoration of circulating volume.
Tension pneumothorax: drainage of the pneumothorax.
Symptomatic pulmonary embolism: treat with an anticoagulant in a hospital setting.
 
 
 
Administration of dopamine or epinephrine at a constant rate requires the following conditions:

close medical supervision in a hospital setting;

use of a dedicated vein (no other infusion/injection in this vein), avoid the antecubital fossa if possible;
use of an electric syringe pump;
progressive increase and adaptation of doses according to clinical response;
intensive monitoring of drug administration, particularly during syringe changes.
 
Example:

dopamine: 10 micrograms/kg/minute in a patient weighing 60 kg

Hourly dose: 10 (micrograms) x 60 (kg) x 60 (min) = 36 000 micrograms/hour = 36 mg/hour

In a 50 ml syringe, dilute one 200 mg-ampoule of dopamine with 0.9% sodium chloride to obtain 50 ml of solution
containing 4 mg of dopamine per ml.

For a dose of 36 mg/hour, administer the solution (4 mg/ml) at 9 ml/hour.

 
If there is no electric syringe pump, dilution in an infusion bag may be considered. However, it is important to
consider the risks related to this type of administration (accidental bolus or insufficient dose). T he infusion must
be constantly monitored to prevent any, even small, change from the prescribed rate of administration.
 
Example for epinephrine:
In adults:

Dilute 10 ampoules of 1 mg epinephrine (10 000 micrograms) in 1 litre of 5% glucose or 0.9% sodium chloride
to obtain a solution containing 10 micrograms of epinephrine per ml.

Knowing that 1 ml = 20 drops, in an adult weighing 50 kg:

0.1 microgram/kg/minute = 5 micrograms/minute = 10 drops/minute
1 microgram/kg/minute = 50 micrograms/minute = 100 drops/minute, etc.
In children:
Dilute 1 ampoule of 1 mg epinephrine (1000 micrograms) in 100 ml of 5% glucose or 0.9% sodium chloride to
obtain a solution containing 10 micrograms of epinephrine per ml.

For administration, use a paediatric infusion set; knowing that 1 ml = 60 drops, in a child weighing 10 kg:
0.1 microgram/kg/minute = 1 microgram/minute = 6 drops/minute
0.2 microgram/kg/minute = 2 micrograms/minute = 12 drops/minute, etc.
 
Note: account for all infused volumes when recording ins and outs.

 
 

Footnotes
(a) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.
Seizures
Involuntary movements of cerebral origin (stiffness followed by clonic movements), accompanied by a loss of
consciousness, and often urinary incontinence (generalized tonic-clonic seizures).
In pregnant women, eclamptic seizures require specific medical and obstetrical care. Refer to the guide Essential
obstetric and newborn care, MSF. 

Initial treatment
During a seizure
Protect from trauma, maintain airway, place patient in ‘recovery position’, loosen clothing.
Most seizures are quickly self-limited. Immediate administration of an anticonvulsant is not systematic. If
generalized seizure lasts more than 5 minutes, use diazepam to stop it: 
diazepam
Children: 0.5 mg/kg preferably rectally
a
 without exceeding 10 mg
IV administration is possible (0.3 mg/kg over 2 or 3 minutes), only if means of ventilation are available (Ambu bag and
mask).
Adults: 10 mg rectally or by slow IV
 
In all cases:
If seizure continues, repeat dose once after 10 minutes.
In infants and elderly patients, monitor respiratory rate and blood pressure.
If seizure continues after the second dose, treat as status epilepticus.

The patient is no longer seizing

Look for the cause of the seizure and evaluate the risk of recurrence.
Keep diazepam and glucose available in case the patient starts seizing again.

Status epilepticus
Several distinct seizures without complete restoration of consciousness in between or an uninterrupted seizure lasting
more than 30 minutes.
Protect from trauma, loosen clothing, maintain airway and administer oxygen as required.
Insert an intravenous or intraosseus line.
Treat for hypoglycaemia (see Hypoglycaemia, Chapter 1).
 If 2 doses of diazepam have not stopped the seizures, use phenytoin or phenobarbital if phenytoin is not available
or if seizures persist despite phenytoin.
 
  T here is a high risk of hypotension, bradycardia and respiratory depression, especially in children and elderly  
patients. Never administer these drugs by rapid IV injection. Monitor heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory
rate every 15 minutes during and after administration. Reduce the infusion rate in the event of a drop in blood
pressure or bradycardia. Ensure that respiratory support (Ambu bag via face mask or intubation, etc.) and IV
solutions for fluid replacement are ready at hand.
 
 phenytoin Children 1 month and over and adults: one dose of 15 to 20 mg/kg administered over 20 minutes
slow IV minimum and 60 minutes maximum
infusion T he concentration of the diluted solution should be between 5 and 10 mg/ml. T he infusion rate
250 mg in 5 ml should not exceed 1 mg/kg/minute or 50 mg/minute (25 mg/minute in elderly patients or patients
ampoule with cardiac disorders).
 
(50 mg/ml)
For example:
Child weighing 8 kg: 160 mg (20 mg x 8 kg), i.e. 3.2 ml of phenytoin in 17 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride
over 30 minutes
Adult weighing 50 kg: 1 g (20 mg x 50 kg), i.e. 20 ml of phenytoin in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium
chloride over 30 minutes
 
  Do not dilute phenytoin in glucose. Do not administer via a line used for glucose solution
administration. Use a large catheter. Check the insertion site and for blood backflow (risk of
necrosis in the event of extravasation). After each infusion, rinse with 0.9% sodium chloride
to limit local venous irritation.

phenobarbital Children 1 month to < 12 years: one dose of 15 to 20 mg/kg (max. 1 g) administered over 20
slow IV minutes minimum
infusion If necessary, a second dose of 10 mg/kg may be administered 15 to 30 minutes after the first
200 mg in 1 ml dose.
ampoule Children ≥ 12 years and adults: one dose of 10 mg/kg (max. 1 g) administered over 20 minutes
(200 mg/ml) minimum
If necessary, a second dose of 5 to 10 mg/kg may be administered 15 to 30 minutes after the
first dose.
Do not administer more than 1 mg/kg/minute.
 
For example:
Child weighing 8 kg: 120 mg (15 mg x 8 kg), i.e. 0.6 ml of phenobarbital in 20 ml of 0.9% sodium
chloride over 20 minutes
Adult weighing 50 kg: 500 mg (10 mg x 50 kg), i.e. 2.5 ml of phenobarbital in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9%
sodium chloride over 20 minutes
 
  For doses less than 1 ml, use a 1 ml syringe graduated 0.01 ml to draw the phenobarbital.

Further treatment
Febrile seizures
Determine the cause of the fever. Give paracetamol (see Fever, Chapter 1).
In children under 3 years, there is usually no risk of later complications after simple febrile seizures and no treatment
is required after the crisis. For further febrile episodes, give paracetamol PO.

Infectious causes
Severe malaria (Chapter 6), meningitis (Chapter 7), meningo-encephalitis, cerebral toxoplasmosis (HIV infection and
AIDS, Chapter 8), cysticercosis (Cestodes, Chapter 6), etc.

Metabolic causes
Hypoglycaemia: administer glucose by slow IV injection to all patients who do not regain consciousness, to patients
with severe malaria and to newborns and malnourished children. When possible, confirm hypoglycaemia (reagent
strip test).

Iatrogenic causes
Withdrawal of antiepileptic therapy in a patient being treated for epilepsy should be managed over a period of 4-6
months with progressive reduction of the doses. An abrupt stop of treatment may provoke severe recurrent seizures.

Epilepsy
A first brief seizure does not need further protective treatment. Only patients with chronic repetitive seizures require
further regular protective treatment with an antiepileptic drug, usually over several years.
Once a diagnosis is made, abstention from treatment may be recommended due to the risks associated with
treatment. However, these risks must be balanced with the risks of aggravation of the epilepsy, ensuing seizure-
induced cerebral damage and other injury if the patient is not treated.
It is always preferable to start with monotherapy. T he effective dose must be reached progressively and symptoms
and drug tolerance evaluated every 15 to 20 days.
An abrupt interruption of treatment may provoke status epilepticus. T he rate of dose reduction varies according to
the length of treatment; the longer the treatment period, the longer the reduction period (see Iatrogenic causes). In
the same way, a change from one antiepileptic drug to another must be made progressively with an overlap period
of a few weeks.
First line treatments for generalised tonic-clonic seizures in children under 2 years are carbamazepine or
phenobarbital, in older children and adults sodium valproate or carbamazepine.
For information:
sodium valproate PO
Adults: initial dose of 300 mg 2 times daily; increase by 200 mg every 3 days if necessary until the optimal dose
has been reached (usually 500 mg to 1 g 2 times daily).
Children over 20 kg: initial dose of 200 mg 2 times daily irrespective of weight; increase the dose progressively
if necessary until the optimal dose has been reached (usually 10 to 15 mg/kg 2 times daily).
carbamazepine PO
Adults: initial dose of 100 to 200 mg once or 2 times daily; increase the dose every week by 100 to 200 mg, up
to 400 mg 2 to 3 times daily (max. 1600 mg daily) 
Children 1 month and over: initial dose of 5 mg/kg once daily or 2.5 mg/kg 2 times daily; increase the dose every
week by 2.5 to 5 mg/kg, up to 5 mg/kg 2 to 3 times daily (max. 20 mg/kg daily) 
phenobarbital PO
Adults: initial dose of 2 mg/kg once daily (max. 100 mg); increase the dose progressively up to 6 mg/kg daily if
necessary
Children: initial dose of 3 to 4 mg/kg once daily at bedtime; increase the dose progressively up to 8 mg/kg daily if
necessary
 

Footnotes
(a) For rect al administ rat ion, use a syringe wit hout a needle, or cut a nasogast ric t ube, CH8, t o a lengt h of 2-3 cm and at t ach it
t o t he t ip of t he syringe.
Hypoglycaemia
Last update: November 2022
 
Hypoglycaemia is an abnormally low concentration of blood glucose. Severe hypoglycaemia can be fatal or lead to
irreversible neurological damage.
Blood glucose levels should be measured whenever possible in patients presenting symptoms of hypoglycaemia. If
hypoglycaemia is suspected but blood glucose measurement is not available, glucose (or another available sugar)
should be given empirically.
Always consider hypoglycaemia in patients presenting impaired consciousness (lethargy, coma) or seizures.
For diagnosis and treatment of hypoglycaemia in neonates, refer to the guide Essential obstetric and newborn care,
MSF.

Clinical features
Rapid onset of non-specific signs, mild to severe depending on the degree of the hypoglycaemia: sensation of hunger
and fatigue, tremors, tachycardia, pallor, sweats, anxiety, blurred vision, difficulty speaking, confusion, convulsions,
lethargy, coma.

Diagnosis
Capillary blood glucose concentration (reagent strip test):
Non-diabetic patients:
Hypoglycaemia: < 3.3 mmol/litre (< 60 mg/dl)
Severe hypoglycaemia: < 2.2 mmol/litre (< 40 mg/dl)
Diabetic patients on home treatment: < 3.9 mmol/litre (< 70 mg/dl)
[1]
 
If blood glucose measurement is not available, diagnosis is confirmed when symptoms resolve after the administration
of sugar or glucose.

Symptomatic treatment
Conscious patients:
Children: a teaspoon of powdered sugar in a few ml of water or 50 ml of fruit juice, maternal or therapeutic milk or
10 ml/kg of 10% glucose by oral route or nasogastric tube.
Adults: 15 to 20 g of sugar (3 or 4 cubes) or sugar water, fruit juice, soda, etc.
Symptoms improve approximately 15 minutes after taking sugar by oral route.
Patients with impaired consciousness or prolonged convulsions:
Children: 2 ml/kg of 10% glucose by slow IV (2 to 3 minutes)
a
 
Adults: 1 ml/kg of 50% glucose by slow IV (3 to 5 minutes)
Neurological symptoms improve a few minutes after the injection.
 
Check blood glucose after 15 minutes. If it is still low, re-administer glucose by IV route or sugar by oral route according
to the patient’s clinical condition.
If there is no clinical improvement, differential diagnoses should be considered: e.g. serious infection (severe malaria,
meningitis, etc.), epilepsy, unintentional alcohol intoxication or adrenal insufficiency in children.
In all cases, after stabilisation, give a meal or snack rich in complex carbohydrates and monitor the patients for a few
hours.
If patient does not return to full alertness after an episode of severe hypoglycaemia, monitor blood glucose levels
regularly.

Aetiological treatment
Other than diabetes:
Treat severe malnutrition, neonatal sepsis, severe malaria, acute alcohol intoxication, etc.
End prolonged fast.
Replace drugs inducing hypoglycaemia (e.g. quinine IV, pentamidine, ciprofloxacin, enalapril, beta-blockers, high-
dose aspirin, tramadol), or anticipate hypoglycaemia (e.g. administer quinine IV in a glucose infusion).
In diabetic patients:
Avoid missing meals, increase intake of carbohydrates if necessary.
Adjust dosage of insulin according to blood glucose levels and physical activity.
Adjust dosage of oral antidiabetics, taking into account possible drug interactions.
 

Footnotes
(a) If ready-made 10% glucose solut ion is not available: remove 100 ml of 5% glucose f rom a 500 ml bot t le or bag, t hen add 50
ml of 50% glucose t o t he remaining 400 ml of 5% glucose t o obt ain 450 ml of 10% glucose solut ion.

References
1. American Diabet es Associat ion St andards of Medical Care in Diabet es, 2017.
ht t p://care.diabet esjournals.org/cont ent /diacare/suppl/2016/12/15/40.Supplement _1.DC1/DC_40_S1_final.pdf [Accessed 24
May 2018]
Fever
Fever is defined as an axillary temperature higher than or equal to 37.5 °C.
Fever is frequently due to infection. In a febrile patient, first look for signs of serious illness then, try to establish a
diagnosis.

Signs of severity
Severe tachycardia, tachypnoea, respiratory distress, SpO2 ≤ 90%.
Shock, altered mental status, petechial or purpuric rash, meningeal signs, seizures, heart murmur, severe abdominal
pain, dehydration, critically ill appearance
a
; a bulging fontanel in young children.

Infectious causes of fever according to localizing symptoms

Signs or symptoms Possible aetiology

Meningeal signs, seizures Meningitis/meningoencephalitis/severe malaria

Abdominal pain or peritoneal signs Appendicitis/peritonitis/typhoid fever

Diarrhoea, vomiting Gastroenteritis/typhoid fever

Jaundice, enlarged liver Viral hepatitis

Cough Pneumonia/measles/tuberculosis if persistent

Ear pain, red tympanic membrane Otitis media

Sore throat, enlarged lymph nodes Streptococcal pharyngitis, diphtheria

Dysuria, urinary frequency, back pain Urinary tract infection

Red, warm, painful skin Erysipelas, cellulitis, abscess

Limp, difficulty walking Osteomyelitis/septic arthritis

Rash Measles/dengue/haemorrhagic fever/chikungunya

Bleeding (petechiae, epistaxis, etc.) Dengue/haemorrhagic fever

Joint pain Rheumatic fever/chikungunya/dengue

 
In endemic area, always consider malaria.
If the patient is ill appearing
a
and has a persistent fever, consider HIV infection and tuberculosis, according to
clinical presentation.
Laboratory and other examinations
Children less than 2 months with a temperature higher than or equal to 37.5 °C without a focus:
Urinary dipstick;
Lumbar puncture (LP) if child less than 1 month or if any of the following: meningeal signs, coma, seizures,
critically ill appearance
a
, failure of prior antibiotic therapy, suspicion of staphylococcal infection;
Chest X-Ray (if available) in case of signs of respiratory disease.
Children 2 months to 3 years with a temperature higher than or equal to 38 °C without a focus:
Urine dipstick;
White blood cell count (WBC) if available;
LP if meningeal signs.
Children over 3 years and adults with a temperature higher than or equal to 39 °C:
According to clinical presentation.

Aetiological treatment
Antibiotherapy according to the cause of fever.
For patients with sickle cell disease, see Sickle cell disease, Chapter 12.
If no source of infection is found, hospitalise and treat the following children with empiric antibiotics:
Children less than 1 month;
Children 1 month to 3 years with WBC ≥ 15000 or ≤ 5000 cells/mm3;
All critically ill appearing
a
 patients or those with signs of serious illness;
For antibiotic doses according to age, see Acute pneumonia, Chapter 2.

Symptomatic treatment
Undress the patient. Do not wrap children in wet towels or cloths (not effective, increases discomfort, risk of
hypothermia).
Antipyretics may increase the patient’s comfort but they do not prevent febrile convulsions. Do not treat for more
than 3 days with antipyretics.
paracetamol PO 
Children less than 1 month: 10 mg/kg 3 to 4 times daily (max. 40 mg/kg daily)
Children 1 month and over: 15 mg/kg 3 to 4 times daily (max. 60 mg/kg daily)
Adults: 1 g 3 to 4 times daily (max. 4 g daily)
or
ibuprofen PO
Children over 3 months and < 12 years: 5 to 10 mg/kg 3 to 4 times daily (max. 30 mg/kg daily)
Children 12 years and over and adults: 200 to 400 mg 3 to 4 times daily (max. 1200 mg daily)
or
acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) PO
Children over 16 years and adults: 500 mg to 1 g 3 to 4 times daily (max. 4 g daily)

Prevention of complications
Encourage oral hydration. Continue frequent breastfeeding in infants.
Look for signs of dehydration.
Monitor urine output.
 
Notes:
In pregnant or breast-feeding women use paracetamol only.
 In case of haemorrhagic fever and dengue: acetylsalicylic acid and ibuprofen are contraindicated; use paracetamol
with caution in the presence of hepatic dysfunction.
 

Footnotes
(a) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsiness, dif ficult t o arrouse, does not smile, unconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.
Pain
Pain results from a variety of pathological processes. It is expressed differently by each patient depending on cultural
background, age, etc. It is a subjective experience meaning that only the individual is able to assess his/her level of pain.
Regular assessment of the intensity of pain is indispensable in establishing effective treatment.

Clinical features
Pain assessment
Intensity: use a simple verbal scale in children over 5 years and adults, and NFCS or FLACC scales in children less
than 5 years (see Pain evaluation scales).
Pattern: sudden, intermittent, chronic; at rest, at night, on movement, during care procedures, etc.
Character: burning, cramping, spasmodic, radiating, etc.
Aggravating or relieving factors, etc.

Clinical examination
Of the organ or area where the pain is located.
Specific signs of underlying disease (e.g. bone or osteoarticular pain may be caused by a vitamin C deficiency) and
review of all systems.
Associated signs (fever, weight loss, etc.).

Synthesis
T he synthesis of information gathered during history taking and clinical examination allows aetiological diagnosis and
orients treatment. It is important to distinguish:
Nociceptive pain: it presents most often as acute pain and the cause-effect relationship is usually obvious (e.g.
acute post-operative pain, burns, trauma, renal colic, etc.). T he pain may be present in different forms, but
neurological exam is normal. Treatment is relatively well standardized.
Neuropathic pain, due to a nerve lesion (section, stretching, ischaemia): most often chronic pain. On a background
of constant, more or less localized pain, such as paraesthesia or burning, there are recurrent acute attacks such as
electric shock-like pain, frequently associated with disordered sensation (anaesthesia, hypo or hyperaesthesia).
T his type of pain is linked to viral infections directly affecting the CNS (herpes simplex, herpes zoster), neural
compression by tumors, post- amputation pain, paraplegia, etc.
Mixed pain (cancer, HIV) for which management requires a broader approach.

Pain evaluation scales

Self-evaluation scale - Children over 5 years and adults
Simple verbal scale (SVS)

Intensity No
Mild Moderate
Severe pain
of pain pain pain pain

Scoring 0 1 2 3

Write down 0 + ++ +++

 

Observational evaluation scale - Children 2 months-5 years

FLACC scale (Face Limb Activity Cry Consolability)

Scoring
Items
0 1 2

Face No particular Occasional grimace or frown, withdrawn, Frequent to constant frown,

expression or smile disinterested clenched jaw, quivering chin

Legs Normal position or Uneasy, restless, tense Kicking, or legs drawn up

relaxed

Activity Lying quietly, normal Squirming, shifting back and forth, tense Arched, rigid or jerking
position, moves easily

Cry No cry (awake or Moans or whimpers, occasional Crying steadily, screams or

asleep) complaint sobs, frequent complaints

Consolability Content, relaxed Reassured by occasional touching, Difficult to console or comfort

hugging or being talked to, distractible

 
Each category is scored from 0 to 2, giving a final score between 0 and 10.
0 to 3: mild pain, 4 to 7: moderate pain, 7 to 10: severe pain

Observational evaluation scale - Children under 2 months

NFCS scale (Neonatal Facial Coding System)

Scoring

Items
0 1

Brow bulge no yes

Eye squeeze no yes

Nasolabial furrow no yes

Open lips no yes

 
A score of 2 or more signifies significant pain, requiring analgesic treatment.

Treatment
Treatment depends on the type and intensity of the pain. It may be both aetiological and symptomatic if a treatable
cause is identified. Treatment is symptomatic only in other cases (no cause found, non-curable disease).
Nociceptive pain
T he WHO classifies analgesics used for this type of pain on a three-step ladder:
Step 1: non-opioid analgesics such as paracetamol and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
Step 2: weak opioid analgesics such as codeine and tramadol. T heir combination with one or two Step 1 analgesics
is recommended.
Step 3: strong opioid analgesics, first and foremost morphine. T heir combination with one or two Step 1 analgesics
is recommended.
 
T he treatment of pain is based on a few fundamental concepts:
Pain can only be treated correctly if it is correctly evaluated. T he only person who can evaluate the intensity of pain
is the patient himself. T he use of pain assessment scales is invaluable.
T he pain evaluation observations should be recorded in the patient chart in the same fashion as other vital signs.
Treatment of pain should be as prompt as possible.
It is recommended to administer analgesics in advance when appropriate (e.g. before painful care procedures).
Analgesics should be prescribed and administered at fixed time intervals (not on demand).
Oral forms should be used whenever possible.
T he combination of different analgesic drugs (multimodal analgesia) is advantageous.
Start with an analgesic from the level presumed most effective: e.g., in the event of a fractured femur, start with a
Step 3 analgesic.
T he treatment and dose chosen are guided by the assessment of pain intensity, but also by the patient’s response
which may vary significantly from one person to another.

Treatment of acute pain

Mild pain Paracetamol + /- NSAID

Moderate pain Paracetamol + /- NSAID + tramadol or codeine

Severe pain Paracetamol + /- NSAID + morphine

 
   Adults (except
Analgesics Children pregnant/breast-feeding Remarks
women)

Level paracetamol < 1 month: 10 mg/kg 1 g every 6 to 8 hours (max. T he efficacy of IV paracetamol
1 PO every 6 to 8 hours (max. 4 g daily) is not superior to the efficacy of
40 mg/kg daily) oral paracetamol; the IV route is
≥ 1 month: 15 mg/kg restricted to situations where
every 6 to 8 hours (max. oral administration is impossible.
60 mg/kg daily)
 

paracetamol < 1 month: 7.5 mg/kg < 50 kg: 15 mg/kg every 6

IV every 6 hours (max. 30 hours (max. 60 mg/kg daily)
mg/kg daily) ≥ 50 kg: 1 g every 6 hours
≥ 1 month and < 10 kg: 10 (max. 4 g daily)
mg/kg every 6 hours (max.
30 mg/kg daily)
≥ 10 kg: 15 mg/kg every 6
hours (max. 60 mg/kg
daily)

acetylsalicylic – 300 mg to 1 g every 4 to 6 Avoid in children less than 16

acid (aspirin) hours (max. 4 g daily) years.
PO

diclofenac IM – 75 mg once daily Treatment must be as short as

possible.
ibuprofen PO > 3 months: 5 to 10 mg/kg 200 to 400 mg every 6 to 8 Respect contra-indications.
every 6 to 8 hours (max. hours (max. 1200 mg daily)
30 mg/kg daily)
> 12 years: as for adults

Level codeine PO > 12 years: 30 to 60 mg 30 to 60 mg every 4 to 6 Add a laxative if treatment > 48

2 every 4 to 6 hours (max. hours (max. 240 mg daily) hours.
  240 mg daily)
 
tramadol PO > 12 years: 50 to 100 mg 50 to 100 mg every 4 to 6  
every 4 to 6 hours (max. hours (max. 400 mg daily) 25 to 50 mg every 12 hours in
400 mg daily) elderly patients and in patients
with severe renal or hepatic
tramadol IM, > 12 years: 50 to 100 mg 50 to 100 mg every 4 to 6 impairment.
slow IV or every 4 to 6 hours (max. hours (max. 600 mg daily)  
infusion 600 mg daily)

Level morphine PO > 6 months: 0.15 mg/kg 10 mg every 4 hours, to be • Reduce the dose by half in
3 immediate every 4 hours, to be ajusted in relation to pain elderly patients and patients
release (MIR) ajusted in relation to pain intensity with renal or hepatic impairment.
intensity
 • Add a laxative if treatment >
48 hours.

morphine PO T he daily dose is T he daily dose is • Do not initiate treatment with

sustained determined during the determined during the initial the MSR in elderly patients and
release (MSR) initial treatment with treatment with immediate patients with renal or hepatic
immediate release release morphine (MIR). impairment. Begin treatment
morphine (MIR). If treatment is initiated with MIR.
If treatment is initiated directly with MSR: • Add a laxative if treatment >
directly with MSR: 30 mg every 12 hours, to 48 hours.
> 6 months: 0.5 mg/kg be ajusted in relation to
every 12 hours, to be pain intensity
ajusted in relation to pain
intensity

morphine SC, > 6 months: 0.1 to 0.2 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg every 4 • Reduce doses by half and
IM mg/kg every 4 hours hours administer less frequently,
according to clinical response, in
morphine IV > 6 months: 0.1 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg administered in elderly patients and patients
administered in fractionated doses (0.05
with severe renal or hepatic
fractionated doses (0.05 mg/kg every 10 minutes)
impairment.
mg/kg every 10 minutes) every 4 hours if necessary
• Add a laxative if treatment >
every 4 hours if necessary
48 hours.

 
Notes on the use of morphine and derivatives:
Morphine is an effective treatment for many types of severe pain. Its analgesic effect is dosedependent. Its
adverse effects have often been exaggerated and should not be an obstacle to its use.
T he most serious adverse effect of morphine is respiratory depression, which may be fatal. T his adverse effect
results from overdose. It is, therefore, important to increase doses gradually. Respiratory depression is preceded by
drowsiness, which is a warning to monitor respiratory rate (RR). 
T he RR should remain equal to or greater than the thresholds indicated below:

Children 1 to 12 months RR ≥ 25 respirations/minute

Children 1 to 2 years RR ≥ 20 respirations/minute

Children 2 to 5 years RR ≥ 15 respirations/minute

Children > 5 years and adults RR ≥ 10 respirations/minute

 
Respiratory depression must be identified and treated quickly: verbal and physical stimulation of the patient;
administration of oxygen; respiratory support (bag and mask) if necessary. If no improvement, administer naloxone
(antagonist of morphine) in bolus to be repeated every minute until RR normalises and the excessive drowsiness
resolves: 5 micrograms/kg in children and 1 to 3 micrograms/kg in adults.
Morphine and codeine always cause constipation. A laxative should be prescribed if the opioid treatment continues
more than 48 hours. Lactulose PO is the drug of choice: children < 1 year: 5 ml daily; children 1-6 years: 5 to 10 ml
daily; children 7-14 years: 10 to 15 ml daily; adults: 15 to 45 ml daily.
 If the patient’s stools are soft, a stimulant laxative (bisacodyl PO: children > 3 years: 5 to 10 mg once daily; adults:
10 to 15 mg once daily) is preferred.
Nausea and vomiting are common at the beginning of treatment.
Children:
ondansetron PO: 0.15 mg/kg (max. 4 mg per dose) up to 3 times daily
Do not use metoclopramide in children.
Adults:
haloperidol PO (2 mg/ml oral solution): 1 to 2 mg up to 6 times daily or metoclopramide PO: 5 to 10 mg 3 times
daily with an interval of at least 6 hours between each dose
Do not combine haloperidol and metoclopramide.
For chronic pain in late stage disease (cancer, AIDS etc.), morphine PO is the drug of choice. It may be necessary to
increase doses over time according to pain assessment. Do not hesitate to give sufficient and effective doses.
Morphine, tramadol and codeine have similar modes of action and should not be combined.
Buprenorphine, nalbuphine and pentazocine must not be combined with morphine, pethidine, tramadol or codeine
because they have competitive action.

Treatment of nociceptive pain in pregnant and breast-feeding women

Pregnancy

Breast-feeding
Analgesics 0-5 From 6th month
months

paracetamol first first choice first choice
Level choice
1
aspirin avoid contra-indicated avoid

ibuprofen avoid contra-indicated possible

codeine possible T he neonate may develop withdrawal Use with caution, for a short period

symptoms, respiratory depression and (2-3 days), at the lowest effective

drowsiness in the event of prolonged dose. Monitor the mother and the
Level administration of large doses at the child: in the event of excessive
2 end of the thirdtrimester. Closely drowsiness, stop treatment.
monitor the neonate.

tramadol possible T he child may develop drowsiness when the mother receives tramadol at the
end of the thirdtrimester and during breast-feeding. Administer with caution, for
a short period, at the lowest effective dose, and monitor the child.

morphine possible T he child may develop withdrawal symptoms, respiratory depression and
Level drowsiness when the mother receives morphine at the end of the third trimester
3 and during breast-feeding.
Administer with caution, for a short period, at the lowest effective dose, and
monitor the child.

Neuropathic pain
Commonly used analgesics are often ineffective in treating this type of pain.
Treatment of neuropathic pain is based on a combination of two centrally acting drugs:
amitriptyline PO
Adults: 25 mg once daily at bedtime (Week 1); 50 mg once daily at bedtime (Week 2); 75 mg once daily at bedtime (as
of Week 3); max.150 mg daily. Reduce the dose by half in elderly patients.
carbamazepine PO
Adults: 200 mg once daily at bedtime (Week 1); 200 mg 2 times daily (Week 2); 200 mg 3 times daily (as of Week 3)
Given its teratogenic risk, carbamazepine should only be used in women of childbearing age when covered
by effective contraception (intrauterine device or injectable progestogen). It is not recommended in pregnant women.

Mixed pain
In mixed pain with a significant component of nociceptive pain, such as in cancer or AIDS, morphine is combined with
antidepressants and antiepileptics.

Chronic pain
In contrast to acute pain, medical treatment alone is not always sufficient in controlling chronic pain. A multidisciplinary
approach including medical treatment, physiotherapy, psychotherapy and nursing is often necessary to allow good pain
relief and encourage patient selfmanagement.

Co-analgesics
T he combination of certain drugs may be useful or even essential in the treatment of pain: antispasmodics, muscle
relaxants, anxiolytics, corticosteroids, local anaesthesia, etc.
Anaemia
Anaemia is defined as a haemoglobin (Hb) level below reference values, which vary depending on sex, age and
pregnancy status (see Table 2).
 
Anaemia may be caused by:
Decreased production of red blood cells: iron deficiency, nutritional deficiencies (folic acid, vitamin B 12, vitamin A),
depressed bone marrow function, certain infections (HIV, visceral leishmaniasis), renal failure;
Loss of red blood cells: acute or chronic haemorrhage (ancylostomiasis, schistosomiasis, etc.);
Increased destruction of red blood cells (haemolysis): parasitic (malaria), bacterial and viral (HIV) infections;
haemoglobinopathies (sickle cell disease, thalassaemia); intolerance to certain drugs (primaquine, dapsone, co-
trimoxazole, etc.) in patients with G6PD deficiency.
 
In tropical settings, the causes of anaemia are often interlinked.

Clinical features
Common signs: pallor of the conjunctivae, mucous membranes, palms of hands and soles of feet; fatigue,
dizziness, dyspnoea, tachycardia, heart murmur.
Signs that anaemia may be immediately life threatening: sweating, thirst, cold extremities, oedema in the lower
limbs, respiratory distress, angina, shock.
Significant signs: cheilosis and glossitis (nutritional deficiency), jaundice, hepatosplenomegaly, dark coloured urine
(haemolysis), bleeding (maelena, haematuria, etc.), signs of malaria.

Laboratory
Hb levels
Rapid test or systematic thick and thin blood films in areas where malaria is endemic.
Urinary dipstick: check for haemoglobinuria or haematuria.
Emmel test if sickle cell disease is suspected.
Blood cell count if available to guide diagnosis.
 
Table 1 - Possible diagnoses with blood cell count
 
 Characteristics Possible diagnoses

Macrocytic  Deficiency (folic acid, vitamin B 12), chronic alcoholism

Microcytic Iron deficiency (malnutrition, chronic haemorrhage), chronic inflammation (HIV

infection, cancer), thalassaemia

Normocytic  Acute haemorrhage, renal failure, haemolysis

Reduced number of Deficiency (iron, folic acid, vitamin B 12), spinal tumour, renal failure
reticulocytes

Increased or normal number of Haemolysis, sickle cell disease, thalassaemia

reticulocytes

Eosinophilia Ancylostomiasis, trichuriasis, schistosomiasis, HIV infection, malignant

haemopathies

Aetiological treatment
Anaemia in itself is not an indication for transfusion. Most anaemias are well tolerated and can be corrected with simple
aetiological treatment.
Aetiological treatment may be given alone or together with transfusion.
Iron deficiency
ferrous salts PO for 3 months. Doses are expressed in elemental iron
a
:
Neonates: 1 to 2 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children 1 month to < 6 years: 1.5 to 3 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children 6 to < 12 years: 65 mg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 12 years and adults: 65 mg 2 to 3 times daily
 
Treatment
Age Weight
45 mg/5 ml syrup 65 mg tablet

< 1 month < 4 kg 0.5 ml x 2 –

1 month to < 1 year 4 to < 10 kg 1.5 ml x 2 –

1 to < 6 years 10 to < 20 kg 2.5 ml x 2 –

6 to < 12 years 20 to < 40 kg – 1 tab x 2

 
or preferably,
ferrous salts + folic acid  PO based on elemental iron dosages.
Helminthic infections: see Schistosomiasis and Nematode infections (Chapter 6).
Folic acid deficiency (rarely isolated)
folic acid PO for 4 months
 Children < 1 year: 0.5 mg/kg once daily
Children ≥ 1 year and adults: 5 mg once daily
Malaria: see Malaria (Chapter 6). In the event of associated iron deficiency, wait 4 weeks after malaria treatment
before prescribing iron supplements.
Suspected haemolytic anaemia: stop any drug that causes haemolysis in patients with (or that may possibly have)
G6PD deficiency.

Blood transfusion
Indications
To decide whether to transfuse, several parameters should be taken into account:
Clinical tolerance of anaemia
Underlying conditions (cardiovascular disease, infection, etc.)
Rate at which anaemia develops.
Hb levels
If transfusion is indicated, it should be carried out without delay
b
. For transfusion thresholds, see Table 2.

Volume to be transfused
In the absence of hypovolaemia or shock:
Children < 20 kg: 15 ml/kg of red cell concentrate in 3 hours or 20 ml/kg of whole blood in 4 hours
Children ≥ 20 kg and adults: start with an adult unit of whole blood or red cell concentrate; do not exceed a transfusion
rate of 5 ml/kg/hour
Repeat if necessary, depending on clinical condition.

Monitoring
Monitor the patient’s condition and vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, temperature):
During the transfusion: 5 minutes after the start of transfusion, then every 15 minutes during the first hour, then
every 30 minutes until the end of the transfusion.
After the transfusion: 4 to 6 hours after the end of the transfusion.
 
If signs of circulatory overload appear:
Stop temporarily the transfusion.
Sit the patient in an upright position.
Administer oxygen.
Administer furosemide by slow IV:
Children: 0.5 to 1 mg/kg
Adults: 20 to 40 mg
Repeat the injection (same dose) after 2 hours if necessary.
Once the patient has been stabilised, start the transfusion again after 30 minutes.

Prevention
Iron (and folic acid) deficiency:
Drug supplements
ferrous salts PO as long as the risk of deficiency persists (e.g. pregnancy
[1]
, malnutrition). Doses are expressed
in elemental iron:
Neonates: 4.5 mg once daily
 Children 1 month to < 12 years: 1 to 2 mg/kg once daily (max. 65 mg daily)
Children ≥ 12 years and adults: 65 mg once daily

Prevention
Age Weight
45 mg/5 ml syrup 65 mg tablet

< 1 month < 4 kg 0.5 ml –

1 month to < 1 year 4 to < 10 kg 1 ml –

1 to < 6 years 10 to < 20 kg 2.5 ml –

6 to < 12 years 20 to < 40 kg 5 ml –

≥ 12 years and adults ≥ 40 kg – 1 tab

 
or preferably,
ferrous salts + folic acid PO based on elemental iron dosages.
Nutritional supplements (if the basic diet is insufficient)
In the event of sickle cell anaemia: see Sickle cell disease (Chapter 12).
Early treatment of malaria, helminthic infections, etc.
 
Table 2 - Definition of anaemia and transfusion thresholds
 
 Hb levels
Patients Transfusion threshold
defining anaemia

Children 2-6 months < 9.5 g/dl Hb < 4 g/dl, even if there are no signs of decompensation
Hb ≥ 4 g/dl and < 6 g/dl if there are signs of decompensation
Children 6 months-5 years < 11 g/dl or sickle cell disease or severe malaria or serious bacterial
infection or pre-existing heart disease
Children 6-11 years < 11.5 g/dl

Children 12-14 years < 12 g/dl

Men < 12 g/dl Hb < 7 g/dl if there are signs of decompensation or sickle cell
disease or severe malaria or serious bacterial infection or
Women < 13 g/dl pre-existing heart disease

Pregnant women < 11 g/dl < 36 weeks

st rd
  (1 and 3 Hb ≤ 5 g/dl, even if there are no signs of decompensation
trimester) Hb > 5 g/dl and < 7 g/dl if there are signs of decompensation
< 10.5 g/dl or sickle cell disease or severe malaria or serious bacterial
(2nd trimester) infection or pre-existing heart disease
 
≥ 36 weeks
Hb ≤ 6 g/dl, even if there are no signs of decompensation
Hb > 6 g/dl and < 8 g/dl if there are signs of decompensation
or sickle cell disease or severe malaria or serious bacterial
infection or pre-existing heart disease

Footnotes
(a) Available in 140 mg/5 ml syrup of f errous f umarat e cont aining approximat ely 45 mg/5 ml of element al iron and 200 mg
f errous sulf at e t ablet s or f errous sulf at e + f olic acid t ablet s cont aining 65 mg of element al iron. Tablet s of  185 or 200 mg
f errous f umurat e or sulf at e + f olic acid (60 or 65 mg of element al iron) cont ain 400 micrograms f olic acid.

(b) Bef ore t ransf using: det ermine t he recipient ’s and pot ent ial donors’ blood groups/rhesus and carry out screening t est s on
t he donor’s blood f or HIV-1 and 2, syphilis and, in endemic areas, malaria and Chagas disease.

References
1. WHO. Daily iron and f olic acid supplement at ion in pregnant women. Geneva, 2012.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/10665/77770/1/9789241501996_eng.pdf ?ua=1
Dehydration
Dehydration results from excessive loss of water and electrolytes from the body. If prolonged, dehydration can
compromise organ perfusion, resulting in shock.
It is principally caused by diarrhoea, vomiting and severe burns.
Children are particularly susceptible to dehydration due to frequent episodes of gastroenteritis, high surface area to
volume ratio and inability to fully communicate, or independently meet their fluid needs.
 
T he protocols below are focused on treatment of dehydration caused by diarrhoea and vomiting. Alternative treatment
protocols should be used for children with malnutrition (see Severe acute malnutrition, Chapter 1) or in patients with
severe burns (see Burns, Chapter 10).

Clinical features and assessment

History of diarrhoea and/or vomiting and concomitant reduced urine output.
Clinical features depend on the degree of dehydration (see table below). Features such as dry mouth, absence of
tears may also be noted.
Patients with severe dehydration should be assessed for shock (tachycardia, low blood pressure and delayed
capillary refill time etc.).
Electrolyte disorders may cause tachypnoea, muscle cramps or weakness, cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heart rate,
palpitation), confusion and/or seizures.
 
Classification of degree of dehydration (adapted from the WHO)
[1]
[2]
 
  Severe dehydration Some dehydration No dehydration
  At least 2 of the At least 2
No signs of "severe"
following signs: of the following signs: or "some" dehydration.

Lethargic or
Mental status Restless or irritable Normal
unconscious

Radial pulse Weak or absent Palpable Easily palpable

Eyes
(a) Sunken Sunken Normal

Goes back very slowly

Goes back slowly Goes back quickly
Skin pinch
(b)
(> 2 seconds) (< 2 seconds) (< 1 second)

Drinks poorly T hirst,

No thirst,
Thirst
or not able to drink drinks quickly drinks normally

(a) Sunken eyes may be a normal f eat ure in some children. Ask t he mot her if t he child's eyes are t he same as usual or if t hey are
more sunken t han usual.
(b) Skin pinch is assessed by pinching t he skin of t he abdomen bet ween t he t humb and f orefinger wit hout t wist ing. In older
people t his sign is not reliable as normal aging diminishes skin elast icit y.

Treatment of dehydration
Severe dehydration
Treat shock if present (see Shock, Chapter 1).
If able to drink, administer oral rehydration solution (ORS) PO whilst obtaining IV access.
 according to WHO Treatment Plan C, monitoring infusion rate closely:
Insert peripheral IV line using large caliber catheter (22-24G in children or 18G in adults) or intraosseous needle.
Administer Ringer lactate (RL)
a
 
WHO Treatment Plan C
[1]
[2]
 
Age First, give 30 ml/kg over
(c)
: Then, give 70 ml/kg over:

Children < 1 year 1 hour 5 hours

Children ≥ 1 year and adults 30 minutes 2 ½ hours

(c) Repeat once if radial pulse remains weak or absent af t er first bolus.

In case of suspected severe anaemia, measure haemoglobin and treat accordingly (see Anaemia, Chapter 1).
b
As soon as the patient is able to drink safely (often within 2 hours), provide ORS as the patient tolerates. ORS
contains glucose and electrolytes which prevent development of complications.
Monitor ongoing losses closely. Assess clinical condition and degree of dehydration at regular intervals to ensure
continuation of appropriate treatment.
 

If over the course of treatment the patient:

remains or becomes lethargic: measure blood glucose level and/or treat hypoglycaemia (see Hypoglycaemia,
Chapter 1).
develops muscle cramps/weakness and abdominal distention: treat for moderate hypokalaemia with 7.5%
potassium chloride syrup (1 mmol of K+/ml) PO for 2 days:
Children under 45 kg: 2 mmol/kg (2 ml/kg) daily (according to weight, the daily dose is divided into 2 or 3 doses)
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 30 mmol (30 ml) 3 times daily
T his treatment should only be given as an inpatient
c
.
develops peri-orbital or peripheral oedema: reduce the infusion rate to a minimum, auscultate the lungs, re-
evaluate the stage of dehydration and the necessity of continuing IV rehydration. If IV rehydration is still required,
continue the infusion at a slower rate and observe the patient closely. If IV rehydration is no longer required,
change to oral treatment with ORS.
develops dyspnoea, cough and bibasal crepitations are heard on auscultation of the lungs: sit the patient up,
reduce the infusion rate to a minimum and administer one dose of furosemide IV (1 mg/kg in children; 40 mg in
adults). Monitor the patient closely over 30 minutes and assess for underlying cardiorespiratory or renal disease.
Once the patient is stabilised, reassess the degree of dehydration and the necessity of continuing IV rehydration.
If IV rehydration is still required, re-start at half the previous infusion rate and monitor closely. If IV rehydration is
no longer required, change to oral treatment with ORS.

Some dehydration
Administer ORS according to WHO Treatment Plan B which equates to 75 ml/kg ORS given over 4 hours.
 
WHO Treatment Plan B
[1]
d
 
< 4 4 to 12 to 5 to
Age 2 to 4 years ≥ 15 years
months 11 months 23 months 14 years

5 to
8 to
11 to 15.9 16 to 29.9
Weight < 5 kg ≥ 30 kg
7.9 kg 10.9 kg kg kg

Quantity of ORS over 200 to 400 400 to

600 to
800 to 1200 1200 to 2200 to
4 hours ml 600 ml 800 ml ml 2200 ml 4000 ml

 
Encourage additional age-appropriate fluid intake, including breastfeeding in young children. Give additional ORS
after each loose stool (see below).
Monitor ongoing losses closely. Assess clinical condition and degree of dehydration at regular intervals to ensure
continuation of appropriate treatment.

No dehydration
Prevent dehydration:
Encourage age-appropriate fluid intake, including breastfeeding in young children.
Administer ORS according to WHO Treatment Plan A after any loose stool.
 
WHO Treatment Plan A
[1]
[2]
 
Age Quantity of ORS

Children < 2 years 50 to 100 ml (10 to 20 teaspoons)

Children 2 to 10 years 100 to 200 ml (½ to 1 glass)

Children > 10 years and adults at least 250 ml (at least 1 glass)

Treatment of diarrhoea
In addition to the WHO treatment plan corresponding to patient's degree of dehydration:
Administer aetiologic treatment if required.
Administer zinc sulfate to children under 5 years (see Acute diarrhoea, Chapter 3).
 

Footnotes
(a) If RL not available, 0.9% sodium chloride can be used.

(b) If t ransf usion is required, it should be provided in parallel t o IV fluids, using a separat e IV line. The blood volume administ ered
should be deduct ed f rom t he t ot al volume of Plan C.

(c) If available, t ake blood t est s t o monit or urea and elect rolyt e levels.

(d) For more det ailed inf ormat ion on ORS recommendat ions by age and weight , ref er t o t he guide Management of a cholera
epidemic, MSF.
References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. The t reat ment of diarrhoea : a manual f or physicians and ot her senior healt h workers, 4t h
rev. World Healt h Organizat ion. 2005. 
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/handle/10665/43209

2. World Healt h Organizat ion. Pocket book of Hospit al Care f or children. Guidelines f or t he Management of Common
Childhood Illnesses. 2013.
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/81170/9789241548373_eng.pdf ?sequence=1
Severe acute malnutrition
Last update: December 2022
 
Severe acute malnutrition (SAM) results from insufficient energy (kilocalories), fat, protein and/or other nutrients
(vitamins and minerals, etc.) to cover individual needs.
 
SAM is frequently associated with medical complications due to metabolic disturbances and compromised immunity. It
is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in children globally.
 
T he protocols below are focused on the diagnosis and management of SAM in children 6 to 59 months only. For
further details regarding this age group, and guidance for other age groups, refer to national recommendations and/or
specialised protocols. 

Clinical assessment
Characteristic physical signs
In marasmus: skeletal appearance resulting from significant loss of muscle mass and subcutaneous fat.
In kwashiorkor:
Bilateral oedema of the lower limbs sometimes extending to other parts of the body (e.g. arms and hands, face).
Discoloured, brittle hair; shiny skin which may crack, weep, and become infected.

Diagnostic and admission criteria

Diagnostic criteria for SAM are both anthropometric and clinical:
Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC)
a
measures the degree of muscle wasting. MUAC < 115 mm indicates
SAM and significant mortality risk.
Weight-for-height z-score (WHZ) indicates the degree of weight loss by comparing the weight of the child with the
median weight of non-malnourished children of the same height and sex. SAM is defined as WHZ < –3 with
reference to the WHO Child Growth Standards
b
.
T he presence of bilateral pitting oedema of the lower limbs (when other causes of oedema have been ruled out)
indicates SAM, regardless of MUAC and WHZ.
 
Admission criteria for SAM treatment programmes vary with context. Refer to national recommendations.

Medical complications
Children with any of the following severe medical conditions should receive hospital-based medical management:
Pitting oedema extending from the lower limbs up to the face;
Anorexia (observed during appetite test);
Other severe complications: persistent vomiting, shock, altered mental status, seizures, severe anaemia
(clinically suspected or confirmed), persistent hypoglycaemia, eye lesions due to vitamin A deficiency, frequent
or abundant diarrhoea, dysentery, dehydration, severe malaria, pneumonia, meningitis, sepsis, severe cutaneous
infection, fever of unknown origin, etc.
In the absence of these conditions, children should be treated as outpatients with regular follow-up.

Nutritional treatment
All children with SAM should receive nutritional treatment.
 Nutritional treatment is based on the use of specialised nutritious foods enriched with vitamins and minerals: F-75
and F-100 therapeutic milks, and ready-to-use therapeutic food (RUT F).
Nutritional treatment is organised into phases:
Phase 1 (inpatient) intends to restore metabolic functions and treat or stabilize medical complications. Children
receive F-75 therapeutic milk. T his phase may last 1 to 7 days, after which children usually enter transition
phase. Children with medical complications generally begin with phase 1.
Transition phase (inpatient) intends to ensure tolerance of increased food intake and continued improvement of
clinical condition. Children receive F-100 therapeutic milk and/or RUT F. T his phase usually lasts 1 to 3 days, after
which children enter phase 2.
Phase 2 (outpatient or inpatient) intends to promote rapid weight gain and catch-up growth. Children receive
RUT F. T his phase usually lasts 1 to 3 days when inpatient, after which children are discharged for outpatient
care. Children without medical complications enter directly into this phase as outpatients. T he outpatient
component usually lasts several weeks.
Breastfeeding should be continued in breastfed children.
Drinking water should be given in addition to meals, especially if the ambient temperature is high, or the child has a
fever or is receiving RUT F.

Routine medical management 

T he following should be provided to all inpatients and outpatients with SAM:
 
Antibiotic From D1, unless specific signs of infection are present:
treatment amoxicillin PO: 50 mg/kg (max. 1 g) 2 times daily for 5 to 7 days

Malaria On D1, rapid diagnostic test in endemic areas and treatment for malaria according to results or if
testing is not available (see Malaria, Chapter 6).

Intestinal In transition phase or upon outpatient admission, albendazole PO:

parasites Children 12 to 23 months: 200 mg single dose
Children 24 months and over: 400 mg single dose

Vaccination In transition phase or upon outpatient admission, measles vaccine for children 6 months to 5
years, unless a document shows that the child received 2 doses of vaccine administered as
follows: one dose at or after 9 months and one dose at least 4 weeks after the first dose. 
Children vaccinated between 6 and 8 months should be re-vaccinated as above (i.e. with 2
doses) once they reach 9 months of age, provided that an interval of 4 weeks from the first dose
is respected.
Other vaccines included in the EPI: check vaccination status and refer the child to vaccination
services at discharge.

Tuberculosis At D1 then regularly during treatment, screen for T B. For a child screening positive, perform
(TB) complete diagnostic evaluation.
  For more information, refer to the guide Tuberculosis, MSF.

HIV infection Perform HIV counselling and testing (unless the mother explicitly declines testing).
  Children under 18 months: test the mother with rapid diagnostic tests. For a mother testing
positive, request PCR test for the child.
Children 18 months and over: test the child with rapid diagnostic tests.

 
Management of complications
Infections
Respiratory, cutaneous and urinary infections are common. However, classic signs of infection, such as fever, may
be absent
[1]
.
Severe infection or sepsis should be suspected in children that are lethargic or apathetic or suffering from an acute
complication such as hypothermia, hypoglycaemia, seizures, difficulty breathing, or shock. Immediately
administer ampicillin IV 50 mg/kg every 8 hours + gentamicin IV 7.5 mg/kg once daily. Continue this treatment
unless the source of infection is identified and different antibiotic treatment is required.
If circulatory impairment or shock, immediately administer ceftriaxone IV, one dose of 80 mg/kg, then assess the
source of infection to determine further antibiotic treatment. See also Shock, Chapter 1. Transfuse urgently as for
severe anaemia (see below) if haemoglobin (Hb)  is < 6 g/dl. 
In less severe infections, assess the source of infection (see Fever, Chapter 1) and treat accordingly.
If fever is present and causes discomfort, undress the child. If insufficient, administer paracetamol PO in low dose:
10 mg/kg, up to 3 times maximum per 24 hours. Encourage oral fluids (including breast milk).
If hypothermia is present, place the child skin-to-skin against the mother's body and cover with a warm blanket.
Treat for infection as above. Check blood glucose level and treat for hypoglycaemia if necessary (see
Hypoglycaemia, Chapter 1).
In children with kwashiorkor, infection of cutaneous lesions is common and may progress to soft tissue or systemic
infection. If cutaneous infection is present, stop amoxicillin and start amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO. Use
formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily for 7 days.

Severe anaemia
Children with Hb < 4 or < 6 with signs of decompensation such as respiratory distress require transfusion within the
first 24 hours (preferably with packed red blood cells, PRBC).
Transfusion volume is based on presence or absence of fever at time of ordering blood
[2]
:
No fever (< 37.5 °C): 30 ml/kg of whole blood or 15 ml/kg of PRBC over 4 hours
Fever present (≥ 37.5 °C): 20 ml/kg of whole blood or 10 ml/kg of PRBC over 4 hours
Monitor closely for transfusion reactions and for signs of fluid overload (see box below).
After the transfusion is completed: measure Hb at 8, 24 and 48 hours.

Diarrhoea and dehydration

Diarrhoea is common. T herapeutic foods facilitate the recovery of physiological function of the gastrointestinal
tract. Amoxicillin administered as part of routine treatment reduces intestinal bacterial overgrowth. Diarrhoea
generally resolves without additional treatment. If an aetiological treatment is necessary, see Acute diarrhoea,
Chapter 3.
Zinc supplementation is not needed if children consume recommended amounts of therapeutic foods.
 
T he diagnosis of dehydration is based on history and clinical features.
Clinical assessment is difficult in children with SAM as delayed skin pinch test and sunken eyes are often present
even in the absence of dehydration.
For classification of degree of dehydration adapted for children with SAM, see table below:
 Clinical features No Some Severe
(2 or more of the following signs)
dehydration dehydration dehydration

Lethargic or
Mental status Normal Restless, irritability
unconscious

No thirst, drinks Unable to drink or drinks

Thirst T hirsty, drinks eagerly
normally poorly

Absent for
Urine output Normal Reduced
several hours

Recent frequent watery

Yes Yes Yes
diarrhoea and/or vomiting

Recent obvious rapid weight

No Yes Yes
loss

Acute diarrhoea with no dehydration (Plan A SAM)

Stools are neither frequent nor abundant (outpatient): oral rehydration solution (ORS) PO: 5 ml/kg after each loose
stool to prevent dehydration.
Stools are frequent and/or abundant (inpatient): ReSoMal
c
PO or by nasogastric tube (NGT ): 5 ml/kg after each
loose stool to prevent dehydration.
In all cases, continue feeding and breastfeeding, encourage oral fluids.

Acute diarrhoea with some dehydration (Plan B SAM)

Determine the target weight (weight before the onset of diarrhoea) before starting rehydration. If not feasible (e.g.
new admission), estimate target weight as current weight x 1.06.
ReSoMal
c
PO or by NGT: 20 ml/kg/hour for 2 hours. In addition, administer 5 ml/kg of ReSoMal after each loose
stool if tolerated.
Assess after 2 hours (clinical evaluation and weight):
If improvement (diarrhoea and signs of dehydration regress):
Reduce ReSoMal to 10 ml/kg/hour until the signs of dehydration and/or weight loss (known or estimated)
have been corrected.
Assess every 2 hours.
Once there are no signs of dehydration and/or the target weight is reached, change to Plan A SAM to
prevent dehydration.
If no improvement after 2 to 4 hours or if oral rehydration cannot compensate for losses: change to Plan C SAM
"with circulatory impairment".
Continue feeding including breastfeeding.
Monitor for signs of fluid overload (see box below). Regardless of the target weight, stop rehydration if signs
of fluid overload appear.

Acute diarrhoea with severe dehydration (Plan C SAM)

In all patients:
Assess for circulatory impairment (see Shock, Chapter 1).
Estimate target weight as current weight x 1.1.
 Measure blood glucose level and treat hypoglycaemia (Chapter 1) if necessary.
Monitor vital signs and signs of dehydration every 15 to 30 minutes.
Monitor urine output.
Monitor for signs of fluid overload (see box below).
If there is no circulatory impairment:
ReSoMal PO or by NGT: 20 ml/kg over 1 hour
If the child is alert, continue feeding including breastfeeding.
Assess after 1 hour:
If improvement: change to Plan B SAM, but keep the same target weight.
If rehydration PO/NGT not tolerated (e. g. vomiting):
Stop ReSoMal. Administer glucose 5%-Ringer lactate (G5%-RL)
d
IV infusion: 10 ml/kg/hour for 2 hours.
Assess after 2 hours of IV fluids:
If improvement and/or not vomiting, stop G5%-RL IV infusion and change to Plan B SAM.
If no improvement or still vomiting, continue G5%-RL IV infusion: 10 ml/kg/hour for 2 hours.
If deterioration with circulatory impairment: see below.
If there is circulatory impairment:
Stabilize (see Shock, Chapter 1).
Administer ceftriaxone IV, one dose of 80 mg/kg. Subsequent antibiotic treatment depends on assessment of
underlying cause.
Administer G5%-RL IV infusion: 10 ml/kg/hour for 2 hours. Stop ReSoMal if the child was taking it.
Assess after 1 hour of IV fluids:
If improvement and no vomiting: stop IV fluid and change to Plan B SAM, but keep the same target weight.
If no improvement:
Continue G5%-RL IV infusion: 10 ml/kg/hour.
Prepare for blood transfusion.
Assess after 2 hours of IV fluids:
If improvement: change to Plan B SAM, but keep the same target weight.
If no improvement or deterioration:
Check Hb as baseline and administer whole blood: 10 ml/kg over at least 3 hours
[3]
(max. 4 hours) using a
separate IV line.
While transfusing, continue G5%-RL IV infusion 10 ml/kg/hour for another 2 hours.
 
During rehydration, monitor continuously for signs of fluid overload. T hese include:
RR ≥ 10 breaths/minute compared to initial RR, or
HR ≥ 20 beats/minute compared to initial HR
Plus any one of the following:
New or worsening hypoxia (decrease in SpO2 by > 5%)
New onset of rales and/or fine crackles in lung fields
New galloping heart rhythm
Increased liver size (must have marked liver border with pen before rehydration)
New peripheral or eyelid oedema
 

Other complications
For other complications (to be treated as inpatient), see:
Hypoglycaemia, seizures, Chapter 1.
Acute pneumonia, Chapter 2.
Stomatitis, Chapter 3.
Xerophthalmia (vitamin A deficiency), Chapter 5.
Discharge criteria
In general:
Children can be discharged from hospital and be treated as outpatients if the following criteria are met:
clinically well;
medical complications controlled; 
able to eat RUT F (observed during appetite test);
reduction or absence of oedema;
caregiver feels able to provide care as outpatient;
vaccinations up to date or referral to vaccination service organised.
Children can be discharged from nutritional treatment if the following criteria are met:
co-existing medical conditions stable and outpatient treatment organised if necessary (e.g. dressing changes,
follow-up for chronic diseases);
vaccinations up to date or referral to vaccination service organised;
absence of oedema and WHZ > –2 or MUAC > 125 mm for at least 2 weeks.
 
Discharge criteria vary with context. Refer to national recommendations.
 

Footnotes
(a) MUAC is measured at t he mid-point of t he lef t upper arm. The arm should be relaxed. The measuring t ape should be in
cont act wit h t he skin all around t he arm, wit hout exert ing pressure.

(b) For WHZ , see WHO simplified field t ables in z-scores f or girls and f or boys:
ht t ps://www.who.int /t ools/child-growt h-st andards/st andards/weight -f or-lengt h-height

(c) ReSoMal is a specific oral rehydrat ion solut ion f or malnourished children, cont aining less sodium and more pot assium t han
st andard ORS. It should be administ ered under medical supervision t o avoid overdosing and hyponat remia.

(d) Remove 50 ml of Ringer lact at e (RL) f rom a 500 ml RL bot t le or bag, t hen add 50 ml of 50% glucose t o t he remaining 450 ml
of RL t o obt ain 500 ml of 5% glucose-RL solut ion.

References
1. Jones KDJ, Berkley JA. Severe acut e malnut rit ion and inf ect ion. Paediat rics and Int ernat ional Child Healt h 2014; 34(sup1):
S1-S29.
ht t ps://www.t andf online.com/doi/f ull/10.1179/2046904714Z .000000000218 [Accessed 24 August 2022]

2. Mait land K, Olupot -Olupot P, Kiguli S, Chagaluka G, Alaroker F, Opoka RO, Mpoya A, Engoru C, Nt eziyaremye J, Mallewa M,
Kennedy N, Nakuya M, Namayanja C, Kayaga J, Uyoga S, Kyeyune Byabazaire D, M'baya B, Wabwire B, Frost G, Bat es I, Evans
JA, Williams TN, Saramago Goncalves P, George EC, Gibb DM, Walker AS; TRACT Group. Transf usion Volume f or Children wit h
Severe Anemia in Af rica. N Engl J Med. 2019 Aug 1;381(5):420-431. 
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC7610610/pdf /EMS118816.pdf  [Accessed 30 Sept ember 2022]

3. Word Healt h Organizat ion. Guideline: Updat es on t he management of severe acut e malnut rit ion in inf ant s and children.
Geneva: World Healt h Organizat ion; 2013. 
ht t ps://www.who.int /publicat ions/i/it em/9789241506328 [Accessed 26 August 2022]
Chapter 2: Respiratory diseases
Acute upper airway obstruction

Rhinitis and rhinopharyngitis (common cold)

Acute sinusitis

Acute pharyngitis

Diphtheria

Other upper respiratory tract infections

Laryngotracheitis and laryngotracheobronchitis (croup)
Epiglottitis
Bacterial tracheitis

Otitis
Acute otitis externa
Acute otitis media (AOM)
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM)

Whooping cough (pertussis)

Bronchitis
Acute bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis

Bronchiolitis

Acute pneumonia
Pneumonia in children under 5 years of age
Pneumonia in children over 5 years and adults
Persistent pneumonia

Staphylococcal pneumonia

Asthma
Asthma attack (acute asthma)
Chronic asthma

Pulmonary tuberculosis
 
 
 
Acute upper airway obstruction
Acute upper airway obstruction can be caused by foreign body aspiration, viral or bacterial infections (croup,
epiglottitis, tracheitis), anaphylaxis, burns or trauma.
Initially stable and partial obstruction may worsen and develop into a life-threatening emergency, especially in young
children.

Clinical features
Clinical signs of the severity of obstruction:
 
Danger
Obstruction Signs
signs

Complete Respiratory distress followed by cardiac arrest

Imminent Severe respiratory distress with cyanosis or SpO2 < 90%

complete Agitation or lethargy
Tachycardia, capillary refill time > 3 seconds

Severe Stridor (abnormal high pitched sound on inspiration) at rest Yes

Severe respiratory distress:
Severe intercostal and subcostal retractions
Nasal flaring
Substernal retractions (inward movement of the breastbone during
inspiration)
Severe tachypnoea

Moderate Stridor with agitation

Moderate respiratory distress:
Mild intercostal and subcostal retractions
No
Moderate tachypnoea

Mild Cough, hoarse voice, no respiratory distress

Management in all cases

Examine children in the position in which they are the most comfortable.
Evaluate the severity of the obstruction according to the table above.
Monitor SpO2, except in mild obstruction.
Administer oxygen continuously:
to maintain the SpO2 between 94 and 98% if it is ≤ 90%
a
or if the patient has cyanosis or respiratory distress;
if pulse oxymeter is not available: at least 5 litres/minute or to relieve the hypoxia and improve respiration.
Hospitalize (except if obstruction is mild), in intensive care if danger signs.
Monitor mental status, heart and respiratory rate, SpO2 and severity of obstruction.
Maintain adequate hydration by mouth if possible, by IV if patient unable to drink.
Management of foreign body aspiration
Acute airway obstruction (the foreign body either completely obstructs the pharynx or acts as a valve on the laryngeal
inlet), no warning signs, most frequently in a child 6 months-5 years playing with a small object or eating. Conscience is
initially maintained.
 
Perform maneuvers to relieve obstruction only if the patient cannot speak or cough or emit any sound:
Children over 1 year and adults:
Heimlich manoeuvre: stand behind the patient. Place a closed fist in the pit of the stomach, above the navel and
below the ribs. Place the other hand over fist and press hard into the abdomen with a quick, upward thrust. Perform
one to five abdominal thrusts in order to compress the lungs from the below and dislodge the foreign body.
Children under 1 year:
Place the infant face down across the forearm (resting the forearm on the leg) and support the infant’s head with
the hand. With the heel of the other hand, perform one to five slaps on the back, between shoulder plates.
If unsuccessful, turn the infant on their back. Perform five forceful sternal compressions as in cardiopulmonary
resuscitation: use 2 or 3 fingers in the center of the chest just below the nipples. Press down approximately one-
third the depth of the chest (about 3 to 4 cm).
 
Repeat until the foreign body is expelled and the patient resumes spontaneous breathing (coughing, crying, talking). If
the patient loses consciousness ventilate and perform cardiopulmonary rescucitation. Tracheostomy if unable to
ventilate.

Differential diagnosis and management of airway obstructions of

infectious origin
Timing of
Infections Symptoms Appearance
symptoms

Viral croup Stridor, cough and moderate respiratory Prefers to sit Progressive
difficulty

Epiglottitis Stridor, high fever and severe respiratory Prefers to sit, drooling (cannot Rapid
distress swallow their own saliva)

Bacterial tracheitis Stridor, fever, purulent secretions and severe Prefers to lie flat Progressive
respiratory distress

Retropharyngeal or Fever, sore throat and painful swallowing, Prefers to sit, drooling Progressive
tonsillar abscess earache, trismus and hot potato voice

 
Croup, epiglottitis, and tracheitis: see Other upper respiratory tract infections.
Abscess: refer for surgical drainage.

Management of other causes

Anaphylactic reaction (angioedema): see Anaphylactic shock (Chapter 1)
Burns to the face or neck, smoke inhalation with airway oedema: see Burns (Chapter 10).
 
Footnotes
(a) If possible it is bet t er t o t reat all pat ient s wit h a SpO2 < 95% wit h oxygen.
Rhinitis and rhinopharyngitis (common cold)
Rhinitis (inflammation of the nasal mucosa) and rhinopharyngitis (inflammation of the nasal and pharyngeal mucosa) are
generally benign, self-limited and most often of viral origin. However, they may be an early sign of another infection (e.g.
measles or influenza) or may be complicated by a bacterial infection (e.g. otitis media or sinusitis).

Clinical features
Nasal discharge or obstruction, which may be accompanied by sore throat, fever, cough, lacrimation, and diarrhoea
in infants. Purulent nasal discharge is not indicative of a secondary bacterial infection.
In children under 5 years, routinely check the tympanic membranes to look for an associated otitis media.

Treatment
Antibiotherapy is not recommended: it does not promote recovery nor prevent complications.
Treatment is symptomatic:
Clear the nose with 0.9% sodium chloride
a
.
Fever, throat soreness: paracetamol PO for 2 to 3 days (Fever, Chapter 1).
 

Footnotes
(a) For a child: place him on his back, head t urned t o t he side, and inst il 0.9% sodium chloride int o each nost ril.
Acute sinusitis
Acute sinusitis is an inflammation of one or more of the sinus cavities, caused by an infection or allergy.
Most acute sinus infections are viral and resolve spontaneously in less than 10 days. Treatment is symptomatic.
Acute bacterial sinusitis may be a primary infection, a complication of viral sinusitis or of dental origin. T he principal
causative organisms are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae and Moraxella catarrhalis.
It is essential to distinguish between bacterial sinusitis and common rhinopharyngitis (see Rhinitis and rhinopharyngitis).
Antibiotic therapy is required in case of bacterial sinusitis only.
Without treatment, severe sinusitis in children may cause serious complications due to the spread of infection to the
neighbouring bony structures, orbits or the meninges.

Clinical features
Sinusitis in adults
Purulent unilateral or bilateral discharge, nasal obstruction
and
Facial unilateral or bilateral pain that increases when bending over; painful pressure in maxillary area or behind the
forehead.
Fever is usually mild or absent.
 
Sinusitis is likely if symptoms persist for longer than 10 to 14 days or worsen after 5 to 7 days or are severe (severe
pain, high fever, deterioration of the general condition).

Sinusitis in children
Same symptoms; in addition, irritability or lethargy or cough or vomiting may be present.
In the event of severe infection: deterioration of the general condition, fever over 39 °C, periorbital or facial
oedema.

Treatment
Symptomatic treatment
Fever and pain (Chapter 1).
Clear the nose with 0.9% sodium chloride
a
.

Antibiotherapy
In adults:
Antibiotherapy is indicated if the patient meets the criteria of duration or severity of symptoms. Oral amoxicillin is
the first-line treatment.
If the diagnosis is uncertain (moderate symptoms < 10 days) and the patient can be reexamined in the next few
days, start with a symptomatic treatment, as for rhinopharyngitis or viral sinusitis.
 
In children:
Antibiotic therapy is indicated if the child has severe symptoms or mild symptoms associated with risk factors (e.g.
immunosuppression, sickle cell disease, asthma).
Oral amoxicillin is the first-line treatment.
amoxicillin PO for 7 to 10 days:
 Children: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily)
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily
In the event of failure to respond within 48 hours of therapy:
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO for 7 to 10 days. Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose
is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults:
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily)
In penicillin-allergic patients:
erythromycin PO for 7 to 10 days:
Children: 30 to 50 mg/kg daily
b

Adults: 1 g 2 to 3 times daily

 
In infants with ethmoiditis, see Periorbital and orbital cellulitis (Chapter 5).

Other treatments
For sinusitis secondary to dental infection: dental extraction while under antibiotic treatment.
In the event of ophthalmologic complications (ophthalmoplegia, mydriasis, reduced visual acuity, corneal
anesthesia), refer for surgical drainage.
 

Footnotes
(a) For a child: place him on his back, head t urned t o t he side, and inst il 0.9% sodium chloride int o each nost ril.

(b) For dosage according t o age or weight , see eryt hromycin in t he guide Essent ial drugs, MSF.
Acute pharyngitis
Last updated: November 2020
 
Acute inflammation of the tonsils and pharynx. T he majority of cases are of viral origin and do not require antibiotic
treatment. Group A streptococcus (GAS) is the main bacterial cause, and mainly affects children aged 3 to 14 years.
Acute rheumatic fever (ARF), a serious late complication of GAS pharyngitis, can be prevented with antibiotic
treatment.
One of the main objectives of assessing acute pharyngitis is to identify patients requiring antibiotic treatment.

Clinical features
Features common to all types of pharyngitis: throat pain, dysphagia (difficulty swallowing), inflammation of the
tonsils and pharynx, tender anterior cervical lymph nodes, with or without fever.
 
Specific features, depending on the cause:
 
Common forms:
Erythematous (red throat) or exudative (red throat and whitish exudate) pharyngitis: this appearance is
common to both viral and GAS pharyngitis. Centor criteria help assessment and decrease the empirical use of
antibiotics in settings where rapid testing for GAS is not available. A Centor score of less than 2 rules out GAS
infection
[1]
[2]
. Nevertheless, in patients with risk factors (immunosuppression, personal or family history of ARF)
for poststreptococcal complications, or for local or general complications, do not use Centor score and
prescribe empirical antibiotic treatment.
Centor criteria

Criteria Score

Temperature > 38 °C 1

Absence of cough 1

Tender anterior cervical lymph node(s) 1

Tonsillar swelling or exudate 1

 
In patients over 14 years, the probability of GAS pharyngitis is low. Infectious mononucleosis (IM) due to the
Epstein-Barr virus should be suspected in adolescents and young adults with extreme fatigue, generalized
adenopathy and often splenomegaly.
Erythematous or exudative pharyngitis may also be associated with gonococcal or primary HIV infection. In
these cases, the diagnosis is mainly prompted by the patient's history.
Pseudomembranous pharyngitis (red tonsils/pharynx covered with an adherent greyish white false membrane):
see Diphtheria, Chapter 2.
Vesicular pharyngitis (clusters of tiny blisters or ulcers on the tonsils): always viral (coxsackie virus or primary
herpetic infection).
Ulcero-necrotic pharyngitis: hard and painless syphilitic chancre of the tonsil; tonsillar ulcer soft on palpation in
a patient with poor oral hygiene and malodorous breath (Vincent tonsillitis).
 
Other forms of pharyngitis:
 Spots on oral mucosa (Koplik’s spots) accompanied by conjunctivitis and skin rash (see Measles, Chapter 8).
“Strawberry” (red and bumpy) tongue accompanied by a skin rash: scarlet fever caused by GAS.
 
Local complications:
Peritonsillar, retropharyngeal or lateral pharyngeal abscess: fever, intense pain, dysphagia, hoarse voice, trismus
(limitation of mouth opening), unilateral deviation of the uvula.
 
General complications:
Complications due to the toxin: diphtheria (see Diphtheria, Chapter 2).
Poststreptococcal complications: ARF, acute glomerulonephritis.
Signs of serious illness in children: severe dehydration, severe difficulty swallowing, upper airway compromise,
deterioration of general condition.
 
Differential diagnosis: epiglottitis (see Epiglottitis, Chapter 2).

Treatment
Symptomatic treatment (fever and pain): paracetamol or ibuprofen PO (Fever, Chapter 1).
 
Centor score ≤ 1: viral pharyngitis, which typically resolves within a few days (or weeks, for IM): no antibiotic
treatment.
 
Centor score ≥ 2 or scarlet fever: antibiotic treatment for GAS infections
[3]
:
If single-use injection equipment is available, benzathine benzylpenicillin is the drug of choice as streptococcus
A resistance to penicillin remains rare; it is the only antibiotic proven effective in reducing the incidence of
rheumatic fever; and the treatment is administered as a single dose.
benzathine benzylpenicillin IM
Children under 30 kg (or under 10 years): 600 000 IU single dose
Children 30 kg and over (or 10 years and over) and adults: 1.2 MIU single dose
Penicillin V is the oral reference treatment, but poor adherence is predictable due to the length of treatment.
phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V) PO for 10 days
Children 1 to < 6 years: 250 mg 2 times daily
Children 6 to < 12 years: 500 mg 2 times daily
Children 12 years and over and adults: 1 g 2 times daily
Children under 1 year: 125 mg 2 times daily
Amoxicillin is an alternative and the treatment has the advantage of being relatively short. However, it can
cause adverse skin reactions in patients with undiagnosed IM and thus should be avoided when IM has not been
excluded
amoxicillin PO for 6 days
Children: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Adults: 1 g 2 times daily
Macrolides should be reserved for penicillin allergic patients as resistance to macrolides is frequent and their
efficacy in the prevention of rheumatic fever has not been studied. 
azithromycin PO for 3 days
Children: 20 mg/kg once daily (max. 500 mg daily)
Adults: 500 mg once daily
 
Gonococcal or syphilitic pharyngitis: as for genital gonorrhoea (Chapter 9) and syphilis (Chapter 9).
 
Diphtherial pharyngitis: see Diphtheria (Chapter 2).
 
Vincent tonsillitis: metronidazole or amoxicillin.
 
Peritonsillar retropharyngeal or lateral pharyngeal abscess: refer for surgical drainage.
 
 If signs of serious illness or epiglottitis are present in children: hospitalise.
 

References
1. Fine AM, Nizet V, Mandl KD. Large-scale validat ion of t he Cent or and McIsaac scores t o predict group A st rept ococcal
pharyngit is. Arch Intern Med. 2012;172(11):847-852.
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC3627733/ [Accessed 20 Oct ober 2020]

2. Nat ional Inst it ut e f or Healt h and Care Excellence. Sore t hroat (acut e): ant imicrobial prescribing. 2018.
ht t p://www.nice.org.uk/ng84 [Accessed 20 Oct ober 2020]

3. Group A St rept ococcal Disease, Cent ers f or Disease Cont rol and Prevent ion. At lant a (GA): CDC; 2020. 
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/groupast rep/diseases-hcp/st rep-t hroat .ht ml [Accessed 20 Oct ober 2020]
Diphtheria
Last updated: October 2022
 
 
Diphtheria is a bacterial infection due to Corynebacterium diphtheriae, spread from person to person through
inhalation of infected respiratory droplets of symptomatic or asymptomatic individuals, or direct contact with
contaminated objects or diphtheria skin lesions
[1]
[2]
a
.
After infection, C. diphtheriae has an incubation period of 1 to 5 days (max. 10 days)
[1]
during which time it multiplies in
the upper respiratory tract. T he bacteria secretes a toxin which causes severe local as well as systemic effects. Death
can occur from airway obstruction or as a result of systemic complications, including damage to the myocardium and
nervous system, caused by the toxin. 
Cases can remain infectious up to 8 weeks after initial infection
[2]
. Antibiotic treatment can reduce infectiousness to 6
days
[3]
.
Vaccination is the key to prevention and control of diphtheria. It protects individuals from severe disease (fewer and
less severe symptoms) but does not prevent the spread of C. diphtheriae. Clinical disease does not confer protective
immunity and vaccination is an integral part of case management.

Clinical features
During clinical examination respect standard, contact, and droplet precautions (handwashing, gloves, gown, mask,
etc.). Conduct a careful examination of the throat.
Signs of respiratory diphtheria
a
:
pharyngitis, rhinopharyngitis, tonsillitis or laryngitis with tough, greyish, firmly adherent pseudo-membranes of the
pharynx, nasopharynx, tonsils, or larynx;
dysphagia and cervical adenitis, at times progressing to massive swelling of the neck;
airway obstruction and possible suffocation when the infection extends to the nasal passages, larynx, trachea
and bronchi;
fever is generally low-grade
[2]
.
Generalised signs due to effects of the toxin:
cardiac dysfunction (tachycardia, arrhythmias), severe myocarditis with heart failure and possibly cardiogenic
shock (see Shock, Chapter 1) 3 to 7 days or 2 to 3 weeks after onset of the disease;
neuropathies in 2 to 8 weeks after the onset of disease leading to nasal voice and difficulty with swallowing
(paralysis of the soft palate), vision (ocular motor paralysis), breathing (paralysis of respiratory muscles) and
ambulation (limb paralysis);
oliguria, anuria and acute renal failure.
Differential diagnoses: Epiglottitis and Acute pharyngitis, Chapter 2, Stomatitis, Chapter 3.

Laboratory
Diagnosis is confirmed by isolation of toxigenic C. diphtheriae by culture (and antibiotic susceptibility test) of swab
specimens collected from the affected areas: throat (tonsils, pharyngeal mucosa, soft palate, exudate, ulcer, etc.),
nasopharynx.
T he presence of the toxin is confirmed by PCR testing (detection of diphtheria toxin gene).

Treatment
Isolation of patients; standard, droplet, and contact precautions for medical staff.
 Diphtheria antitoxin (DAT)
b
derived from horse serum: 
Administer DAT as soon as possible after disease onset. Do not wait for bacteriological confirmation
[1]
; administer
DAT under close monitoring in a hospital setting, according to the Besredka method to assess possibility of allergy.
Any delay can diminish efficacy.
  T here is a risk of anaphylactic reaction, especially in patients with asthma. Close monitoring of the patient is
essential, with immediate availability of equipment for manual ventilation (Ambu bag, face mask) and
intubation, Ringer lactate and epinephrine (see Shock, Chapter 1).
Besredka method: inject 0.1 ml SC and wait 15 minutes. If there is no allergic reaction (no erythema at the injection
site or a flat erythema of less than 0.5 cm in diameter), inject a further 0.25 ml SC. If there is no reaction after 15
minutes, inject the rest of the product IM or IV depending on the volume to be administered.
Doses are given as a function of the severity of illness, and the delay in treatment:

Clinical signs Dose in units Administration route

Laryngitis or pharyngitis
20 to 40 000
or duration < 48 hours

IM or IV infusion in 250 ml of 0.9% sodium

Rhinopharyngitis 40 to 60 000
chloride in 2 to 4 hours for doses of more
than 20 000 units.
Severe disease (respiratory distress,
shock), cervical oedema or duration ≥ 48 80 to 100 000
hours

 
Antibiotic treatment (as soon as possible without waiting for bacteriological confirmation ) for 14 days or according
to length of treatment recommended by the national protocol:
if the patient can swallow:
azithromycin PO (first-line)
Children: 10 to 12 mg/kg once daily (max. 500 mg daily)
Adults: 500 mg once daily
or
erythromycin PO
Children under 40 kg: 10 to 15 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) 4 times daily
Children 40 kg and over and adults: 500 mg 4 times daily
or
phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V) PO
Children under 40 kg: 10 to 15 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) 4 times daily
Children 40 kg and over and adults: 500 mg 4 times daily
If the patient cannot swallow, start with one of the treatments below and change as soon as possible to oral
route with one of the oral treatments above to complete 14 days of treatment:
procaine benzylpenicillin IM
Children under 25 kg: 50 000 IU/kg (= 50 mg/kg) once daily (max. 1.2 MIU = 1.2 g daily)
Children 25 kg and over and adults: 1.2 MIU (= 1.2 g) once daily
  Never administer procaine benzylpenicillin by IV injection or infusion.

In penicillin-allergic patients, use erythromycin IV

c
.
Intubation/tracheotomy if necessary (airway obstruction, respiratory failure, etc.).
If the event of shock, see Shock, Chapter 1, for complementary treatment.
Update every patient's vaccination status before hospital discharge (or during first visit, if receiving home-based
care). If the patient has been administered DAT and can receive adequate home-based follow up after hospital
discharge, wait 3 weeks after administration of DAT before vaccination.
Management of close contacts 
Close contacts include household members living under the same roof and people who were directly exposed (less than
one metre) to nasopharyngeal secretions of the patient on a regular basis (e.g. family or close friends, children in the
same class, medical personnel) during the 5 days or nights prior to onset of symptoms of the case
[4]
.
Collect nasal and pharyngeal swabs for culture before starting antibiotic prophylaxis; temperature and throat
examination daily (10 days); exclusion from school or work until 48 hours after starting antibiotic prophylaxis. If
symptoms of respiratory infection appear: treat immediately as a case of diphtheria.
Antibiotic prophylaxis:
benzathine benzylpenicillin IM
Children under 30 kg: 600 000 IU single dose
Children 30 kg and over and adults: 1.2 MIU single dose
  Benzathine benzylpenicillin should never be administered by IV route.

or azithromycin PO or erythromycin PO as above for 7 days.

Check vaccination status:
if less than 3 injections received: complete vaccination schedule (see Prevention below);
if 3 injections received, with the last injection over one year ago: administer a booster dose immediately;
if 3 injections received, with the last injection less than one year ago: a booster dose is not immediately
necessary.

Outbreak surveillance measures

A suspected case of diphtheria is defined as a person with:
pharyngitis, rhinopharyngitis, tonsillitis and/or laryngitis
AND 
an adherent pseudo-membrane of the pharynx, nose, tonsils and/or larynx
[1]
.
Isolate and treat suspect cases without delay. Collect swab samples before starting antibiotic treatment. Submit
case notification to the public health authorities within 24 hours
[1]
.

Prevention 
Routine vaccination (EPI), for information: 3 doses of conjugate vaccine containing the higher potency (D)
formulation of diphtheria toxoid as soon as possible as of 6 weeks of age and at 4 week intervals; D booster
between 12 and 23 months, then between 4 and 7 years; booster with a vaccine containing a reduced dose (d) of
diphtheria toxoid between 9 and 15 years
[5]
.
Catch-up vaccination (individuals who have not received routine vaccination), for information:
children 1 to 6 years: 3 doses of conjugate vaccine containing the higher potency (D) formulation of diphtheria
toxoid at least 4 weeks apart;
children 7 years and over and adults (including medical staff): 3 doses of conjugate vaccine containing a reduced
dose (d) of diphtheria toxoid. Administer with a minimum interval of 4 weeks between first and second dose and
an interval of at least 6 months between second and third dose (in the event of an outbreak this interval may be
reduced to 4 weeks to achieve protection quicker).
Administer 2 subsequent booster doses containing d at least 4 weeks apart
[5]
.​​
 

Footnotes
(a) This guide f ocuses on respirat ory dipht heria and signs due t o t he t oxin. It should be not ed t hat cut aneous dipht heria is st ill
a significant reservoir of  C. diphtheriae. 
(b) DAT reduces mort alit y and should be given t o all dipht heria pat ient s. However, as supply is very limit ed, it may be necessary
t o define crit eria and reserve DAT f or t he t reat ment of pat ient s who will benefit t he most f rom it . DAT can be administ ered
t o pregnant women.

(c) erythromycin IV inf usion (60 minut es)

Children: 12.5 mg/kg every 6 hours (max. 2 g daily); adult s: 500 mg every 6 hours
Eryt hromycin powder (1 g) should be reconst it ut ed in 20 ml of wat er f or inject ion only. Then, dilut e each dose of
eryt hromycin in 10 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 250 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride
in children 20 kg and over and in adult s. Do not dilut e in glucose.

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Dipht heria. Vaccine-Prevent able Diseases Surveillance St andards. 2018.
ht t ps://www.who.int /immunizat ion/monit oring_surveillance/burden/vpd/WHO_SurveillanceVaccinePrevent able_04_Dipht heria
_R2.pdf ?ua=1 [Accessed 11 August 2020]

2. Tiwari TSP, Whart on M. Chapt er 19: Dipht heria Toxoid. In: Plot kin SA, Orenst ein WA, Of fit PA, edit ors. Vaccines. 7t h ed.
Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2018. p. 261–275.

3. Truelove SA, Keegan LT, Moss WJ, Chaisson LH, Macher E, Azman AS, Lessler J. Clinical and Epidemiological Aspect s of
Dipht heria: A Syst emat ic Review and Pooled Analysis. Clin Inf ect Dis. 2020 Jun 24;71(1):89-97. 
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC7312233/ [Accessed 24 November 2020]

4. Pan American Healt h Organizat ion, World Healt h Organizat ion. Dipht heria in t he Americas - Summary of t he sit uat ion 2018.
Epidemiological Updat e Dipht heria. 16 April 2018.
ht t ps://www.paho.org/hq/index.php?opt ion=com_docman&view=download&cat egory_slug=dipht heria-
%098968&alias=44497-16-april-2018-dipht heria-epidemiological-updat e-497&It emid=270&lang=en [Accessed 11 August
2020]

5. World Healt h Organizat ion. Dipht heria vaccine: WHO posit ion paper - August 2017. Weekly epidemiological record 2017;
92/(31):417–436.
ht t ps://www.who.int /immunizat ion/policy/posit ion_papers/wer_31_dipht heria_updat ed_posit ion_paper.pdf ?ua=1 [Accessed
11 August 2020]
Other upper respiratory tract infections
 
 
Laryngotracheitis and laryngotracheobronchitis (croup)
Epiglottitis
Bacterial tracheitis
 
Laryngotracheitis and laryngotracheobronchitis
(croup)
Viral infection in children aged 3 months to 4 years.

Clinical features
Typical barking cough, hoarse voice or cry.
Inspiratory stridor (abnormal high pitched sound on inspiration):
Croup is considered mild or moderate if the stridor only occurs with agitation;
Croup is considered severe if there is stridor at rest, especially when it is accompanied by respiratory distress.
Wheezing may also be present if the bronchi are involved.

Treatment
In the absence of inspiratory stridor or retractions, treat symptomatically: ensure adequate hydration, seek medical
attention if symptoms worsen (e.g. respiratory difficulty, noisy breathing and inability to tolerate oral fluids).
 
If stridor is only present with agitation (moderate croup):
Hospitalize for treatment and observation (risk of worsening).
Assure adequate hydration.
dexamethasone
a
PO (use IV preparation flavoured with sugar water, 10% or 50% glucose or juice) or IM if child
is vomiting: 0.6 mg/kg single dose (see table).
 
If danger signs are present (stridor at rest, respiratory distress), admit in intensive care:
Oxygen continuously: at least 5 litres/minute or to maintain the SpO2 between 94 and 98%.
Insert a peripheral IV line and provide IV hydration.
epinephrine (adrenaline) via nebulizer (1 mg/ml, 1 ml ampoule): 0.5 mg/kg (max. 5 mg) to be repeated every 20
minutes if danger signs persist.
Monitor heart rate during nebulization (if heart rate greater than 200, stop the nebulization).
 
Age 3 months 4-6 months 7-9 months 10-11 months 1-4 years

Weight 6 kg 7 kg 8 kg 9 kg 10-17 kg

Dose in mg 3 mg 3.5 mg 4 mg 4.5 mg 5 mg

Dose in ml 3 ml 3.5 ml 4 ml 4.5 ml 5 ml

NaCl 0.9%
(a) 1 ml 1 ml – – –

(a) Add suf ficient NaCl 0.9% t o obt ain a t ot al volume of 4 t o 4.5 ml in t he nebulizing chamber.

  Epinephrine is intended exclusively for nebulized administration and should not be given IV or IM in croup.

 
dexamethasone
a
(4 mg/ml, 1 ml ampoule) IM or IV: 0.6 mg/kg single dose
 Age 3-11 months 1-2 years 3-4 years

Weight 6-9 kg 10-13 kg 14-17 kg

Dose in mg 4 mg 8 mg 10 mg

Dose in ml 1 ml 2 ml 2.5 ml

 
Suspect bacterial tracheitis in a critically ill appearing child
b
with croup who does not improve with the above
treatment.
 
If wheezing is present:
salbutamol aerosol (using a spacer): 2 to 3 puffs every 20 to 30 minutes as needed
 
If the patient has a complete airway obstruction, intubation if possible or emergency tracheotomy.
 

Footnotes
(a) Administ er orally if possible in order t o avoid causing agit at ion in t he child as t his may worsen sympt oms. 

(b) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsiness, dif ficult t o arrouse, does not smile, unconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.
Epiglottitis
Bacterial infection of the epiglottis in young children caused by Haemophilus influenzae (Hib), it is rare when Hib
vaccine coverage is high. It can be caused by other bacteria and occur in adults.

Clinical features
Rapid (less than 12-24 hours) onset of high fever.
Typical “tripod or sniffing” position, preferring to sit, leaning forward with an open mouth, anxious appearing.
Difficulty swallowing, drooling, and respiratory distress.
Stridor may be present (as opposed to croup, hoarse voice and cough are usually absent).
Critically ill appearing
a
.
 
  Allow the child to sit in a comfortable position or on the parent’s lap. Do not force them to lie down (may
precipitate airway obstruction). Avoid any examination that will upset the child including examination of the
mouth and throat.

Treatment
In case of imminent airway obstruction, emergency intubation or tracheotomy is indicated. T he intubation is
technically difficult and should be performed under anaesthesia by a physician familiar with the procedure. Be
prepared to perform a tracheotomy if intubation is unsuccessful.
In all cases:
Insert a peripheral IV line and provide IV hydration.
Antibiotherapy:
ceftriaxone slow IV (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
b
. Avoid IM route (may agitate the child and precipitate
a respiratory arrest).
Children: 50 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 1 g once daily
T he IV treatment is administered for at least 5 days then, if the clinical condition has improved
c
and oral
treatment can be tolerated, change to:
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO to complete a total of 7 to 10 days of treatment. Use
formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adult:
Ratio 8:1: 3000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 3 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 2625 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 3 times daily)
 

Footnotes
(a) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsiness, dif ficult t o arrouse, does not smile, unconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.

(b) For administ rat ion by IV rout e, cef t riaxone powder should t o be reconst it ut ed in wat er f or inject ion only. For administ rat ion
by IV inf usion, dilut e each dose of cef t riaxone in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg
and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children over 20 kg and in adult s.

(c) Improvement crit eria include: f ever reduct ion, diminished respirat ory dist ress, improved SpO2, improved appet it e and/or
act ivit y.
Bacterial tracheitis
Bacterial infection of the trachea in children, occurring as a complication of a previous viral infection (croup, influenza,
measles, etc.).

Clinical features
Fever in a critically ill appearing child
a
.
Stridor, cough and respiratory distress.
Copious purulent secretions.
As opposed to epiglottitis the onset of symptoms is gradual and the child prefers to lie flat.
In severe cases there is a risk of complete airway obstruction, especially in very young children.

Treatment
Suction purulent secretions.
Insert a peripheral IV line and provide IV hydration.
Antibiotherapy:
ceftriaxone slow IV
b
(3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes). Do not administer by IM route (may agitate the child and
precipitate a respiratory arrest).
Children: 50 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 1 g once daily
+
cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
Children less than 12 years: 25 to 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
Children 12 years and over and adults: 2 g every 6 hours
T he IV treatment is administered for at least 5 days then, if the clinical condition has improved
c
and oral treatment
can be tolerated, change to :
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment, as in epiglottitis.
If the event of complete airway obstruction, intubation if possible or emergency tracheotomy.
 

Footnotes
(a) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsiness, dif ficult t o arrouse, does not smile, unconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.

(b) For administ rat ion by IV rout e, cef t riaxone powder should t o be reconst it ut ed in wat er f or inject ion only. For administ rat ion
by IV inf usion, dilut e each dose of cef t riaxone in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg
and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children over 20 kg and in adult s.

(c) Improvement crit eria include: f ever reduct ion, diminished respirat ory dist ress, improved SpO2, improved appet it e and/or
act ivit y.
Otitis
 
 
Acute otitis externa
Acute otitis media (AOM)
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM)
 
Acute otitis externa
Diffuse inflammation of the external ear canal, due to bacterial or fungal infection. Common precipitants of otitis
externa are maceration, trauma of the ear canal or presence of a foreign body or dermatologic diseases (such as
eczema, psoriasis).
 

Clinical features
Ear canal pruritus or ear pain, often severe and exacerbated by motion of the pinna; feeling of fullness in the ear;
clear or purulent ear discharge or no discharge
Otoscopy (remove skin debris and secretions from the auditory canal by gentle dry mopping (use a dry cotton bud
or a small piece of dry cotton wool):
diffuse erythema and edema, or infected eczema, of the ear canal
look for a foreign body
if visible, the tympanic membrane is normal (swelling and pain very often prevent adequate visualization of the
tympanic membrane)

Treatment
Remove a foreign body, if present.
Treatment of pain: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1, Pain).
Local treatment:
Remove secretions from the auditory canal by gentle dry mopping (use a dry cotton bud or a small piece of dry
cotton wool). Consider ear irrigation (0.9% sodium chloride, using a syringe) only if the tympanic membrane can
be fully visualised and is intact (no perforation). Otherwise, ear irrigation is contra-indicated.
Apply ciprofloxacin ear drops in the affected ear(s) for 7 days:
Children ≥ 1 year: 3 drops 2 times daily
Adults: 4 drops 2 times daily
Acute otitis media (AOM)
Acute inflammation of the middle ear, due to viral or bacterial infection, very common in children under 3 years, but
uncommon in adults.
T he principal causative organisms of bacterial otitis media are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae,
Moraxella catarrhalis and in older children, Streptococcus pyogenes.

Clinical features
Rapid onset of ear pain (in infants: crying, irritability, sleeplessness, reluctance to nurse) and ear discharge
(otorrhoea) or fever.
Other signs such as rhinorrhoea, cough, diarrhoea or vomiting are frequently associated, and may confuse the
diagnosis, hence the necessity of examining the tympanic membranes.
Otoscopy: bright red tympanic membrane (or yellowish if rupture is imminent) and presence of pus, either
externalised (drainage in ear canal if the tympanic membrane is ruptured) or internalised (opaque or bulging tympanic
membrane). T he combination of these signs with ear pain or fever confirms the diagnosis of AOM.
Note:
T he following otoscopic findings are not sufficient to make the diagnosis of AOM:
A red tympanic membrane alone, with no evidence of bulging or perforation, is suggestive of viral otitis in a
context of upper respiratory tract infection, or may be due to prolonged crying in children or high fever.
T he presence of air bubbles or fluid behind an intact tympanic membrane, in the absence of signs and symptoms
of acute infection, is suggestive of otitis media with effusion (OME).
Complications, particularly in high-risk children (malnutrition, immunodeficiency, ear malformation) include chronic
suppurative otitis media, and rarely, mastoiditis, brain abscess or meningitis.

Treatment
In all cases:
Treatment of fever and pain: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).
Ear irrigation is contra-indicated if the tympanic membrane is ruptured, or when the tympanic membrane cannot
be fully visualised. Ear drops are not indicated.
 
Indications for antibiotic therapy:
Antibiotics are prescribed in children less than 2 years, children whose assessment suggests severe infection
(vomiting, fever > 39 °C, severe pain) and children at risk of unfavourable outcome (malnutrition,
immunodeficiency, ear malformation).
For other children:
If the child can be re-examined within 48 to 72 hours: it is preferable to delay antibiotic prescription.
Spontaneous resolution is probable and a short symptomatic treatment of fever and pain may be sufficient.
Antibiotics are prescribed if there is no improvement or worsening of symptoms after 48 to 72 hours.
If the child cannot be re-examined: antibiotics are prescribed.
For children treated with antibiotics: advise the mother to bring the child back if fever and pain persist after 48
hours.
 
Choice of antibiotherapy:
Amoxicillin is the first-line treatment:
amoxicillin PO for 5 days
Children: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily)
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily
Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid is used as second-line treatment, in the case of treatment failure. Treatment failure is
defined as persistence of fever and/or ear pain after 48 hours of antibiotic treatment.
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO for 5 days
Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adult:
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily)
Persistence of a ear drainage alone, without fever and pain, in a child who has otherwise improved (reduction in
systemic symptoms and local inflammation) does not warrant a change in antibiotic therapy. Clean ear canal by
gentle dry mopping until no more drainage is obtained.
Macrolides should be reserved for very rare penicillin-allergic patients, as treatment failure (resistance to
macrolides) is frequent.
azithromycin PO
Children over 6 months: 10 mg/kg once daily for 3 days
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM)
Chronic bacterial infection of the middle ear with persistent purulent discharge through a perforated tympanic
membrane.
T he principal causative organisms are Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus sp, staphylococcus, other Gram negative
and anaerobic bacteria.

Clinical features
Purulent discharge for more than 2 weeks, often associated with hearing loss or even deafness; absence of pain
and fever
Otoscopy: perforation of the tympanic membrane and purulent exudate
Complications:
Consider a superinfection (AOM) in the case of new onset of fever with ear pain, and treat accordingly.
Consider mastoiditis in the case of new onset of high fever, severe ear pain and/or tender swelling behind the
ear, in a patient who appears significantly unwell.
Consider brain abscess or meningitis in the case of impaired consciousness, neck stiffness and focal
neurological signs (e.g. facial nerve paralysis).

Treatment
Remove secretions from the auditory canal by gentle dry mopping (use a dry cotton bud or a small piece of dry
cotton wool).
Apply ciprofloxacin ear drops until no more drainage is obtained (approximately 2 weeks, max. 4 weeks):
Children 1 year and over: 3 drops 2 times daily
Adults: 4 drops 2 times daily
Complications:
Chronic mastoiditis is a medical emergency that requires prompt hospitalisation, prolonged antibiotherapy that
covers the causative organisms of CSOM (ceftriaxone IM for 10 days + ciprofloxacin PO for 14 days),
atraumatic cleaning of the ear canal; surgical treatment may be required. Before transfer to hospital, if the
patient needs to be transferred, administer the first dose of antibiotics.
Meningitis (Chapter 7).
Whooping cough (pertussis)
Whooping cough is a highly contagious bacterial infection of the lower respiratory tract, of prolonged duration, due
to  Bordetella pertussis.
B. pertussis is transmitted through inhalation of droplets spread by infected individuals (coughing, sneezing).
T he majority of cases arise in non-vaccinated or incompletely vaccinated individuals. Whooping cough affects all age
groups. Signs and symptoms are usually minor in adolescents and adults. As a result the infection may be ignored, thus
contributing to the spread of B. pertussis and infection in infants and young children, in whom the illness is severe.

Clinical features
After an incubation period of 7 to 10 days, the illness evolves in 3 phases:
 
Catarrhal phase (1 to 2 weeks): coryza and cough. At this stage, the illness is indistinguishable from a minor upper
respiratory infection.
 
Paroxysmal phase (1 to 6 weeks):
Typical presentation: cough of at least 2 weeks duration, occurring in characteristic bouts (paroxysms), followed
by a laboured inspiration causing a distinctive sound (whoop), or vomiting. Fever is absent or moderate, and the
clinical exam is normal between coughing bouts; however, the patient becomes more and more fatigued.
Atypical presentations:
Infants under 6 months: paroxysms are poorly tolerated, with apnoea, cyanosis; coughing bouts and whoop
may be absent.
Adults: prolonged cough, often without other symptoms.
Complications:
Major: in infants, secondary bacterial pneumonia (new-onset fever is an indicator); malnutrition and
dehydration triggered by poor feeding due to cough and vomiting; rarely, seizures, encephalopathy; sudden
death.
Minor: subconjunctival haemorrhage, petechiae, hernias, rectal prolapse.
 
Convalescent phase: symptoms gradually resolve over weeks or months.

Management and treatment

Suspect cases
Routinely hospitalise infants less than 3 months, as well as children with severe cases. Infants under 3 months must
be monitored 24 hours per day due to the risk of apnoea.
 
When children are treated as outpatients, educate the parents about signs that should lead to re-consultation
(fever, deterioration in general condition, dehydration, malutrition, apnoea, cyanosis).
 
Respiratory isolation (until the patient has received 5 days of antibiotic treatment):
at home: avoid contact with non-vaccinated or incompletely vaccinated infants;
in congregate settings: exclusion of suspect cases;
in hospital: single room or grouping together of cases away from other patients (cohorting).
 
Hydration and nutrition: ensure children < 5 years are well hydrated; breastfeeding should continue. Advise mothers
to feed the child frequently in small quantities after coughing bouts and the vomiting which follows. Monitor the
weight of the child during the course of the illness, and consider food supplements for several weeks after recovery.
 
Antibiotherapy:
 Antibiotic treatment is indicated in the first 3 weeks after onset of cough. Infectivity is virtually nil after 5 days of
antibiotherapy.
 
  Antibiotic Children Adults

First line azithromycin PO 10 mg/kg once daily D1 500 mg

for 5 days (max. 500 mg daily) D2 to D5 250 mg once daily

Alternative
(a) co-trimoxazole PO 20 mg/kg SMX + 4 mg/kg T MP 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP 2
for 14 days 2 times daily times daily
(if macrolides contra- (avoid in infant < 1 month, and
indicated or not tolerated) in the last month of pregnancy)

(a) Eryt hromycin (7 days) is a possible alt ernat ive but azit hromycin is bet t er t olerat ed and simpler t o administ rat e (short er
t reat ment durat ion, f ewer daily doses). For dosage according t o age or weight , see eryt hromycin in t he guide Essent ial
drugs, MSF.

For hospitalised children:

Place the child in a semi-reclining position (± 30°).
Oro-pharyngeal suction if needed.

Post-exposure prophylaxis
Antibiotic prophylaxis (same treatment as for suspect cases) is recommended for unvaccinated or incompletely
vaccinated infants of less than 6 months, who have had contact with a suspect case.
Isolation of contacts is not necessary.
 
Note: pertussis vaccination should be updated in all cases (suspects and contacts). If the primary series has been
interrupted, it should be completed, rather than restarted from the beginning.

Prevention
Routine vaccination with polyvalent vaccines containing pertussis antigens (e.g. DT P, or DT P + Hep B, or DT P + Hib +
Hep B) from the age of 6 weeks or according to national protocol.
Neither vaccination nor natural disease confers lasting immunity. Booster doses are necessary to reinforce immunity
and reduce the risk of developing disease and transmitting it to young children.
Bronchitis
 
 
Acute bronchitis
Chronic bronchitis
 
Acute bronchitis
An acute inflammation of the bronchial mucosa, most commonly of viral origin. In older children it can be caused
by Mycoplasma pneumoniae. In children over 2 years of age with repetitive acute bronchitis or ‘wheezing’ bronchitis,
consider asthma (see Asthma). In children under 2 years of age, consider bronchiolitis (see Bronchiolitis).

Clinical features
Often begins with a rhinopharyngitis that descends progressively: pharyngitis, laryngitis, tracheitis.
Heavy cough, dry at the beginning then becoming productive
Low-grade fever
No tachypnoea, no dyspnoea
On pulmonary auscultation: bronchial wheezing

Treatment
Fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).
Keep the patient hydrated, humidify air (with a bowl of water or a wet towel).
Children: nasal irrigation with 0.9% sodium chloride or Ringer lactate, 4 to 6 times daily to clear the airway.
Antibiotherapy is not useful for patients in good overall condition with rhinopharyngitis or influenza.
Antibiotherapy is indicated only if:
the patient is in poor general condition: malnutrition, measles, rickets, severe anaemia, cardiac disease, elderly
patient etc.
if the patient has dyspnoea, fever greater than 38.5 °C and purulent expectorations: a secondary infection
with Haemophilus influenzae or with pneumococcus is probable.
amoxicillin PO
Children: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily) for 5 days
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily for 5 days
Chronic bronchitis
A chronic inflammation of the bronchial mucosa due to irritation (tobacco, pollution), allergy (asthma) or infection
(repetitive acute bronchitis). It may develop into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Clinical features
Productive cough for 3 consecutive months per year for 2 successive years.
No dyspnoea at onset. Dyspnoea develops after several years, first on exertion, then becoming persistent.
On pulmonary auscultation: bronchial wheeze (always exclude tuberculosis).
 
A patient with an acute exacerbation of chronic bronchitis presents with:
Onset or increase of dyspnoea.
Increased volume of sputum.
Purulent sputum.

Treatment
Antibiotic treatment is not useful in treating simple chronic bronchitis.
Antibiotic treatment may be useful, for patients in a poor general condition only, for acute exacerbations of chronic
bronchitis (see Acute bronchitis).
Discourage smoking and other irritating factors.
Bronchiolitis
Bronchiolitis is an epidemic and seasonal viral infection of the lower respiratory tract in children less than 2 years of
age, characterised by bronchiolar obstruction.
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is responsible for 70% of cases of bronchiolitis. Transmission of RSV is direct,
through inhalation of droplets (coughing, sneezing), and indirect, through contact with hands or materials contaminated
by infected secretions.
In the majority of cases, bronchiolitis is benign, resolves spontaneously (relapses are possible), and can be treated on
an outpatient basis.
Severe cases may occur, which put the child at risk due to exhaustion or secondary bacterial infection. Hospitalisation
is necessary when signs/criteria of severity are present (10 to 20% of cases).

Clinical features
Tachypnoea, dyspnoea, wheezing, cough; profuse, frothy, obstructive secretions.
On auscultation: prolonged expiration with diffuse, bilateral wheezes; sometimes diffuse fine, end-inspiratory
crackles.
Rhinopharyngitis, with dry cough, precedes these features by 24 to 72 hours; fever is absent or moderate.
 
Signs of severity:
Significant deterioration in general condition, toxic appearance (pallor, greyish colouration)
Apnoea, cyanosis (check lips, buccal mucosa, fingernails)
Respiratory distress (nasal flaring, sternal and chest wall indrawing)
Anxiety and agitation (hypoxia), altered level of consciousness
Respiratory rate > 60/minute
Decreased respiratory distress and slow respirations (< 30/minute below the age of 1 year and < 20/minute
below the age of 3 years, exhaustion). Exercise caution in interpreting these signs as indicators of clinical
improvement.
Sweats, tachycardia at rest and in the absence of fever
Silence on auscultation (severe bronchospasm)
Difficulty drinking or sucking (reduced tolerance for exertion)

Treatment
Treatment is symptomatic. Obstructive signs and symptoms last for about 10 days; cough may persist for 2 weeks
longer.
 
Hospitalise children with one of the following criteria:
Presence of any sign of severity
Pre-existing pathology (cardiac or pulmonary disease, malnutrition, HIV, etc.)
 
Consider hospitalisation on a case-by-case basis in the following situations:
Associated acute pathology (viral gastro-enteritis, bacterial infection, etc.)
Age less than 3 months
 
In all other cases, the child may be treated at home, provided the parents are taught how to carry out treatment, and
what signs of severity should lead to re-consultation.

Outpatient treatment
Nasal irrigation with 0.9% NaCl before each feeding (demonstrate the technique to the mother)
a
.
 Small, frequent feedings to reduce vomiting triggered by bouts of coughing.
Increased fluids if fever and/or significant secretions are present.
Treat fever (Chapter 1).
Handle the patient the patient as little as possible and avoid unnecessary procedures.

Hospitalisation
In all cases:
Place the infant in a semi-reclining position (± 30°).
Nasal irrigation, small, frequent feeds, treatment of fever: as for outpatient treatment.
Gentle oro-pharyngeal suction if needed.
Monitor fluid intake: normal requirements are 80 to 100 ml/kg/day + 20 to 25 ml/kg/day with high fever or very
profuse secretions.
 
According to symptoms:
Humidified nasal oxygen (1 to 2 litres/minute).
When there is vomiting or significant fatigue when sucking, fluid requirements may be administered by
nasogastric tube (small volumes on a frequent basis) or the IV route, for the shortest possible time. Avoid
breastfeeding or oral feeds in children with severe tachypnoea, but do not prolong NG feeds (respiratory
compromise) or IV infusions any longer than necessary.
Bronchodilator therapy: this therapy may be considered after a trial treatment has been given
(salbutamol inhaler, 100 micrograms/puff: 2 to 3 puffs with spacer, repeated twice at an interval of 30 minutes).
If inhaled salbutamol appears effective in relieving symptoms, the treatment is continued (2 to 3 puffs every 6
hours in the acute phase, then gradual reduction as recovery takes place). If the trial is ineffective, the treatment
is discontinued.
Antibiotics are not indicated unless there is concern about complications such as secondary bacterial
pneumonia.

Prevention and control

T he risk of transmission of the virus is increased in hospital settings:
Children with bronchiolitis should be grouped together, away from other children (cohorting).
As infection is most commonly transmitted by the hands, the most important prevention measure is hand-washing
after any contact with patients, and objects or surfaces in contact with patients on which the virus may survive for
several hours.
In addition, staff should wear gowns, gloves and surgical masks when in contact with patients.
 

Footnotes
(a) Lie t he child on his back, head t urned t o t he side and inst il 0.9% NaCl int o t he nose, one nost ril at a t ime.
Acute pneumonia
 
 
Pneumonia in children under 5 years of age
Pneumonia in children over 5 years and adults
Persistent pneumonia
 
 
Acute pneumonia is a viral, bacterial (pneumococcus, Haemophilus influenzae, staphylococcus, atypical bacteria) or
parasitic (pneumocystosis) infection of the pulmonary alveoli.
Pneumonia in children under 5 years of age
T he most common causes are viruses, pneumococcus and Haemophilus influenzae.

Clinical features
Cough or difficulty breathing
Fever often high (> 39 °C), but the child may present with low-grade fever or may have no fever (often a sign of
serious illness)
 
Clinical examination must be done on a calm child in order to correctly count the respiratory rate and look for signs of
serious illness.
 
A child has tachypnoea (increased respiratory rate) if:
RR ≥ 60 breaths/minute in children under 1 months
RR ≥ 50 breaths/minute in children from 1 to 11 months
RR ≥ 40 breaths/minute in children from 12 months to 5 years
On pulmonary auscultation: dullness with diminished vesicular breath sounds, crepitations and sometimes bronchial
breathing or normal pulmonary auscultation.
Signs of serious illness (severe pneumonia):
Chest indrawing: the inferior thoracic wall depresses on inspiration as the superior abdomen expands
Cyanosis (lips, oral mucosa, fingernails) or SpO2 < 90%
Nasal flaring
Altered consciousness (child is abnormally sleepy or difficult to wake)
Stridor (hoarse noise on inspiration)
Grunting (a short repetitive noise produced by a partial closure of the vocal cords) on expiration
Refusal to drink or feed
Children under 2 months
Severe malnutrition
 
Notes:
In malnourished children, the RR thresholds should be decreased by 5 breaths/minute from those listed above.
Chest indrawing is significant if it is clearly visible and present at all times. If it is observed when a child is upset or
feeding and is not visible when the child is resting, there is no chest indrawing.
In children under 2 months of age, moderate chest indrawing is normal as the thoracic wall is flexible.
If only the soft tissues between the ribs or above the clavicles depress, there is no chest indrawing.
 
Consider also:
Malaria in endemic areas, as it may also cause cough and tachypnoea.
Staphylococcal pneumonia in patients with empyema or painful abdominal swelling and diarrhoea.
Pneumocystosis in children with confirmed or suspected HIV infection (see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8).
Tuberculosis:
in a child with cough, fever and poor weight gain and a history of close contact with a tuberculous patient
a
 . For
the diagnosis, refer to the MSF handbook, Tuberculosis.
in the event of pneumonia complicated with empyema (pus in the pleural space).

Treatment
Severe pneumonia (inpatient treatment)
Children under 2 months 
T he first line treatment is the combination ampicillin slow IV (3 minutes) for 10 days + gentamicin slow IV (3 minutes)
or IM for 5 days:
 
ampicillin 50 mg/kg every 12 hours
  < 2 kg
+ gentamicin 3 mg/kg once daily
Children
0 - 7 days
ampicillin 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
  ≥ 2 kg
+ gentamicin 5 mg/kg once daily

Children ampicillin 50 mg/kg every 8 hours

8 days - < 1 month + gentamicin 5 mg/kg once daily

Children ampicillin 50 mg/kg every 6 hours

1 month - < 2 months + gentamicin 6 mg/kg once daily

 
For ampicillin, IV route is preferred but IM route may be an alternative.
 
If ampicillin is not available, alternatives may be cefotaxime slow IV (3 minutes) or infusion (20 minutes) or IM for 10
days (for doses, see Meningitis, Chapter 7), or, as a last resort: ceftriaxone slow IV
b
(3 minutes) or infusion (30 minutes;
60 minutes in neonates) or IM: 50 mg/kg once daily for 10 days.
 
If the child's condition does not improve
c
after 48 hours of well administered treatment, add cloxacillin IV for 10 to 14
days:
 
< 2 kg cloxacillin 50 mg/kg every 12 hours

Children 0 - 7 days
≥ 2 kg cloxacillin 50 mg/kg every 8 hours

< 2 kg cloxacillin 50 mg/kg every 8 hours

Children > 7 days

≥ 2 kg cloxacillin 50 mg/kg every 6 hours

Children from 2 months to 5 years

T he first line treatment is:
ceftriaxone IM or slow IV
b
(3 minutes): 50 mg/kg once daily
or
ampicillin slow IV (3 minutes) or IM: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
+ gentamicin slow IV (3 minutes) or IM: 6 mg/kg once daily
Ampicillin is preferably administered in 4 divided doses. If the context does not permit it, the daily dose must be divided
in at least 3 doses.
 
T he treatment is administered by parenteral route for at least 3 days then, if the clinical condition has improved
c
and
oral treatment can be tolerated, switch to amoxicillin PO: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily to complete 10 days of treatment.
 
If the child's condition deteriorates or does not improve after 48 hours of correct administration, add cloxacillin IV: 25
to 50 mg/kg every 6 hours. After clinical improvement and 3 days with no fever, switch to amoxicillin/clavulanic
acid (co-amoxiclav) PO to complete 10 to 14 days of treatment. Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1
exclusively. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily.
 
If the child's condition does not improve after 48 hours with ceftriaxone + cloxacillin, consider tuberculosis. For the
diagnosis, refer to the guide Tuberculosis, MSF.

If tuberculosis is unlikely, continue with ceftriaxone + cloxacillin and add azithromycin (see Atypical pneumonia).

Notes:
For malnourished children, refer to specific protocol.
In the event of moderate-large empyema, assess if drainage is required. Administer antibiotics active against
pneumococci and staphylococci (see Staphylococcal pneumonia).

Adjuvant therapy
Fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).
Infants: keep warm.
Install on an incline (head elevated) or in semi-sitting position.
Clear the airway (nasal irrigation with 0.9% sodium chloride if needed).
Oxygen at the flow rate required to maintain SpO2 ≥ 90% or, if pulse oxymeter is not available, minimum 1
litre/minute.
Maintain adequate hydration and nutrition:
In children with severe respiratory difficulty: place an IV line and give 70% of normal maintenance fluids. Resume
oral feeding as soon as possible (no severe respiratory difficulty, ability to eat normally).
Use a nasogastric tube only if an IV line cannot be established: children under 12 months: 5 ml/kg/hour; children
over 12 months: 3 to 4 ml/kg/hour; alternate milk and water. Resume normal oral feeding as soon as possible.
In the absence of severe respiratory difficulty: breastfeed on demand; milk/food and water by spoon on
demand.
ORS when required (Dehydration, Chapter 1).

Pneumonia with no signs of serious illness

Children under 2 months
Admit the child for inpatient care and treat for severe pneumonia.

Children from 2 months to 5 years

Treat as outpatient, except infants.
amoxicillin PO: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily for 5 days
 
Follow-up in 48 to 72 hours or sooner if the child’s condition deteriorates:
If the condition is improving
c
: continue with the same antibiotic to complete treatment.
If there is no improvement after 3 days of correct administration: add azithromycin (see Atypical pneumonia).
If the condition is deteriorating: hospitalise and treat as severe pneumonia.
 

Footnotes
(a) Cont act is defined as living in t he same household, or in close and regular cont act wit h any known or suspect ed t uberculous
case wit hin t he last 12 mont hs.

(b) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used. 

(c) Improvement crit eria include: f ever reduct ion, diminished respirat ory dist ress, improved SpO2, improved appet it e and/or
act ivit y. 
Pneumonia in children over 5 years and adults
T he most common causes are viruses, pneumococcus, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

Clinical features
Cough, with or without purulent sputum, fever, thoracic pain, tachypnoea
On pulmonary auscultation: decreased vesicular breath sounds, dullness, localised foci of crepitations, sometimes
bronchial wheeze.
 
Sudden onset with high fever (higher than 39 °C), thoracic pain and oral herpes are suggestive of pneumococcal
infection. Symptoms may be confusing, particularly in children with abdominal pain, meningeal syndrome, etc.
 
Signs of serious illness (severe pneumonia) include:
Cyanosis (lips, oral mucosa, fingernails)
Nasal flaring
Intercostal or subclavial indrawing
RR > 30 breaths/minute
Heart rate > 125 beats/minute
Altered level of consciousness (drowsiness, confusion)
 
Patients at risk include the elderly, patients suffering from heart failure, sickle cell disease or severe chronic bronchitis;
immunocompromised patients (severe malnutrition, HIV infection with CD4 < 200).

Treatment
Severe pneumonia (inpatient treatment)
ceftriaxone IM or slow IV
a
(3 minutes)
Children: 50 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 1 g once daily
T he treatment is given by parenteral route for at least 3 days then, if the clinical condition has improved
b
and oral
treatment can be tolerated, switch to amoxicillin PO to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment:
Children: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily)
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily
or
ampicillin slow IV (3 minutes) or IM
Children: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
Adults: 1 g every 6 to 8 hours
Ampicillin is preferably administered in 4 divided doses. If the context does not permit it, the daily dose must be divided
in at least 3 doses.
T he treatment is given by parenteral route for at least 3 days then, if the clinical condition has improved
b
and oral
treatment can be tolerated, switch to the oral route with amoxicillin PO as above, to complete 7 to 10 days of
treatment.
 
If the clinical condition deteriorates or does not improve after 48 hours of correct administration, administer
ceftriaxone as above + cloxacillin IV infusion:
Children: 25 to 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
Adults: 2 g every 6 hours
After clinical improvement and 3 days with no fever, switch to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO to
complete 10 to 14 days of treatment. Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in
amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults:
Ratio 8:1: 3000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 3 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 2625 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 3 times daily)
 
If the clinical condition does not improve after 48 hours with ceftriaxone + cloxacillin, consider tuberculosis. For the
diagnosis, refer to the guide Tuberculosis, MSF.
 
If tuberculosis is unlikely, continue with ceftriaxone + cloxacillin and add azithromycin (see Atypical pneumonia).

Adjuvant therapy
Fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).
Clear the airway (nasal irrigation with 0.9% sodium chloride if needed).
Oxygen at the flow rate required to maintain SpO2 ≥ 90% or, if pulse oxymeter is not available, minimum 1
litre/minute.
Maintain adequate hydration and nutrition.

Pneumonia without signs of serious illness (outpatient treatment)

amoxicillin PO
Children: 30 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily) for 5 days
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily for 5 days
 
Follow-up in 48 to 72 hours or sooner if the child’s condition deteriorates:
If the condition is improving
b
: continue with the same antibiotic to complete treatment.
If there is no improvement after 3 days of correct administration: add azithromycin (see Atypical pneumonia).
If the condition is deteriorating: hospitalise and treat as severe pneumonia.
 

Footnotes
(a) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.

(b) Improvement crit eria include: f ever reduct ion, diminished respirat ory dist ress, improved SpO2, improved appet it e and/or
act ivit y. 
Persistent pneumonia
 
 
Last update: November 2022
 
In patients not responding to therapy, consider atypical pneumonia, tuberculosis, pneumocystosis (HIV infection and
AIDS, Chapter 8).
 
Bacteria responsible for atypical pneumonia are mainly Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydophila pneumoniae. If
suspected, one of the following antibiotics may be used:
 
First choice, azithromycin PO
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) once daily for 5 days
Adults: 500 mg on D1 then, 250 mg once daily from D2 to D5
 
If not available,
erythromycin PO
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) 4 times daily for 10 to 14 days
Adults: 500 mg 4 times daily for 10 to 14 days
or
doxycycline PO (except in pregnant or breastfeeding women)
Children under 45 kg: 2 to 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily for 10 to 14 days
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily for 10 to 14 days
Staphylococcal pneumonia
Pneumonia due to  Staphylococcus aureus affecting young children, often those in a poor general condition
(malnutrition, skin lesions, etc.). Staphylococcal pneumonia is a classic complication of measles.

Clinical features
General signs: change in overall condition, pallor, high fever or hypothermia, frequently signs of shock; presence of
skin lesions (point of bacterial entry), however, skin lesions may be absent.
Gastrointestinal signs: nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, painful abdominal distention.
Respiratory signs: dry cough, tachypnoea, signs of distress (nasal flaring, chest indrawing). Pulmonary auscultation is
often normal; sometimes dullness indicating pleural effusion.

Paraclinical investigations
Chest x-ray (if available): may show multilobar consolidation, cavitation, pneumatoceles, spontaneous
pneumothorax.

Treatment
Treatment is urgent as patients deteriorate quickly: hospitalise.
 
Antibiotic treatment: if staphylococcal aetiology cannot be confirmed or while waiting for confirmation, a broad
spectrum antibiotic therapy is recommended:
ceftriaxone IM or slow IV
a
(at least 3 minutes): 50 mg/kg once daily
+ cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
b

Neonates 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 12 hours

Neonates 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
Children 1 month and over: 25 to 50 mg/kg every 6 hours (max. 8 g daily)
 
After clinical improvement
c
, 3 days with no fever, and drain removal if any, switch to amoxicillin/clavulanic
acid PO to complete 10 to 14 days. Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in
amoxicillin: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily
 
In the event of large empyema: same treatment but switch to the oral route after 7 days with no fever and treat for
3 weeks.
 
Clindamycin IV may be an alternative to cloxacillin: 10 mg/kg every 8 hours then switch to clindamycin PO at the
same dose, according to the criteria above.
 
Fever: paracetamol (Chapter 1).
 
Hydration by oral route or infusion or nasogastric tube depending on clinical condition.
 
Oxygen at the flow rate required to maintain SpO2 ≥ 90% or, if pulse oxymeter is not available, minimum 1
litre/minute.
 
Local disinfection of skin lesions.
 
 If there is significant pleural effusion: pleural tap with drainage (for pyopneumothorax; insert 2 drains, one anterior
and one posterior) or without drainage (for suppurative pleurisy, make repetitive taps with an IV catheter).

Clinical evolution
T here is a serious risk of decompensation from pneumothorax or suppurative pleurisy or pyopneumothorax.
On a paediatric ward, adequate equipment for urgent pleural drainage should always be available.
 

Footnotes
(a) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.

(b) Cloxacillin powder f or inject ion should be reconst it ut ed in 4 ml of wat er f or inject ion. Then dilut e each dose of cloxacillin in
5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5 % glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(c) Improvement crit eria include: f ever reduct ion, diminished respirat ory dist ress, improved SpO2, improved appet it e and/or
act ivit y.
Asthma
 
 
Asthma attack (acute asthma)
Chronic asthma
 
 
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways associated with airway hyperresponsiveness that leads to
recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness and coughing. T hese episodes are usually associated
with airflow obstruction within the lung, often reversible, either spontaneously or with treatment.
 
Factors that precipitate/aggravate asthma include: allergens, infection, exercise, drugs (aspirin), tobacco, etc.
 
In young children, most initial episodes of asthma-like symptoms are associated with a respiratory tract infection, with
no symptoms between infections. Wheezing episodes usually become less frequent with time; most of these children
do not develop asthma.
Asthma attack (acute asthma)
Asthma attack is a substantial worsening of asthma symptoms. T he severity and duration of attacks are variable and
unpredictable.

Assessment of the severity of asthma attack

T he severity of the asthma attack must be rapidly evaluated by the following clinical criteria. Not all signs are
necessarily present.
 
Assessment of severity in children over 2 years and adults
 
Mild to moderate attack Severe attack Life threatening attack

Able to talk in sentences Cannot complete sentences in Altered level of consciousness

Respiratory rate (RR) one breath (drowsiness, confusion, coma)
Children 2-5 years ≤ 40/minute or Exhaustion
Children > 5 years ≤ 30/minute Too breathless to talk or feed Silent chest
Heart rate RR Paradoxical thoracoabdominal
Children 2-5 years ≤ 140/minute Children 2-5 years > 40/minute movement
Children > 5 years ≤ 125/minute Children > 5 years > 30/minute Cyanosis
and Adults ≥ 25/minute Collapse
No criteria of severity Heart rate Bradycardia in children or
Children 2-5 years > 140/minute arrhythmia/hypotension in adults
Children > 5 years > 125/minute SpO2 < 92%
Adults ≥ 110/minute
SpO2 ≥ 92%

Treatment
Treatment and follow-up depend on the severity of the attack and the patient’s response:

Mild to moderate attack

Reassure the patient; place him in a 1/2 sitting position.
Administer:
salbutamol (aerosol): 2 to 4 puffs every 20 to 30 minutes, up to 10 puffs if necessary during the first hour. In
children, use a spacer
a
to ease administration (use face mask in children under 3 years). Single puffs should be
given one at a time, let the child breathe 4 to 5 times from the spacer before repeating the procedure.
prednisolone PO: one dose of 1 to 2 mg/kg
If the attack is completely resolved: observe the patient for 1 hour (4 hours if he lives far from the health centre)
then give outpatient treatment: salbutamol for 24 to 48 hours (2 to 4 puffs every 4 to 6 hours depending on clinical
evolution) and prednisolone PO (1 to 2 mg/kg once daily) to complete 3 days of treatment.
If the attack is only partially resolved, continue with salbutamol 2 to 4 puffs every 3 to 4 hours if the attack is mild;
6 puffs every 1 to 2 hours if the attack is moderate, until symptoms subside, then when the attack is completely
resolved, proceed as above.
If symptoms worsen or do not improve, treat as severe attack.
Severe attack
Hospitalise the patient; place him in a 1/2 sitting position.
Administer:
oxygen continuously, at least 5 litres/minute or maintain the SpO2 between 94 and 98%.
salbutamol (aerosol): 2 to 4 puffs every 20 to 30 minutes, up to 10 puffs if necessary in children under 5 years,
up to 20 puffs in children over 5 years and adults. Use a spacer to increase effectiveness, irrespective of age.
or salbutamol (solution for nebulisation), see Life-threatening attack.
prednisolone PO: one dose of 1 to 2 mg/kg
In the case of vomiting, until the patient can tolerate oral prednisolone, use hydrocortisone IV:
Children 1 month to < 5 years: 4 mg/kg every 6 hours (max. 100 mg per dose)
Children 5 years and over and adults: 100 mg every 6 hours 
If the attack is completely resolved, observe the patient for at least 4 hours. Continue the treatment
with salbutamol for 24 to 48 hours (2 to 4 puffs every 4 hours) and prednisolone PO (1 to 2 mg/kg once daily) to
complete 3 days of treatment.
Reassess after 10 days: consider long-term treatment if the asthma attacks have been occurring for several
months. If the patient is already receiving long-term treatment, reassess the severity of the asthma (see table) and
review compliance and correct use of medication and adjust treatment if necessary.
If symptoms worsen or do not improve, see Life-threatening attack.

Life-threatening attack (intensive care)

Insert an IV line.
Administer:
oxygen continuously, at least 5 litres/minute or maintain the SpO2 between 94 and 98%.
salbutamol + ipratropium nebuliser solutions using a nebuliser:

Children 1 month to < 5 years salbutamol 2.5 mg + ipratropium 0.25 mg every 20 to 30 minutes

Children 5 to < 12 years salbutamol 2.5 to 5 mg + ipratropium 0.25 mg every 20 to 30 minutes

Children 12 years and over

salbutamol 5 mg + ipratropium 0.5 mg every 20 to 30 minutes
and adults

 
T he two solutions can be mixed in the nebuliser reservoir.
corticosteriods (prednisolone PO or hydrocortisone IV) as for severe attack.
 
If the attack is resolved after one hour: switch to salbutamol aerosol and continue prednisolone PO as for severe
attack.
If symptoms do not improve after one hour:
administer a single dose of magnesium sulfate by IV infusion in 0.9% sodium chloride over 20 minutes,
monitoring blood pressure:
Children over 2 years: 40 mg/kg
Adults: 1 to 2 g
continue salbutamol by nebulisation and corticosteriods, as above.
 
Notes:
In pregnant women, treatment is the same as for adults. In mild or moderate asthma attacks, administering oxygen
reduces the risk of foetal hypoxia.
For all patients, irrespective of the severity of the asthma attack, look for underlying lung infection and treat
accordingly.
 

Footnotes
(a) If a convent ional spacer is not available, use a 500 ml plast ic bot t le: insert t he mout hpiece of t he inhaler int o a hole made in
t he bot t om of t he bot t le (t he seal should be as t ight as possible). The child breat hes f rom t he mout h of t he bot t le in t he
same way as he would wit h a spacer. The use of a plast ic cup inst ead of a spacer is not recommended (inef f ect ive).
Chronic asthma
Clinical features
Asthma should be suspected in patients with episodic respiratory symptoms (wheezing, chest tightness, shortness
of breath and/or cough) of variable frequency, severity and duration, disturbing sleep, and causing the patient to sit
up to breathe. T hese symptoms may appear during or after exercise.
Chest auscultation may be normal or demonstrate diffuse sibilant wheezes.
Atopic disorders or a personal or family history of atopy (eczema, allergic rhinitis/conjunctivitis) or a family history of
asthma increases probability of asthma but their absence does not exclude asthma.
 
Patients with typical symptoms of asthma and a history of disease that is characteristic of asthma should be
considered as having asthma after exclusion of other diagnoses.
 
T he assessment of the frequency of daytime and nigthtime symptoms and limitations of physical activity determines
whether asthma is intermittent  or persistent.

Treatment
Only patients with persistent asthma need long-term treatment. T he mainstay of treatment is inhaled corticosteroids.
Treatment is started at the step most appropriate to initial severity then, re-evaluated and adjusted according to
clinical response. It aims to abolish symptoms with the lowest possible dose of inhaled corticosteroids. An intervening
severe exacerbation or loss of control necessitates reassessment to re-evaluate treatment.
 
Long-term treatment does not mean treatment for life. Asthma attacks may occur over months or years, with
intervening asymptomatic intervals when long-term treatment is not required.
 
Long-term treatment of asthma according to severity
 
 Categories Treatment

Intermittent asthma No long term treatment

Day time symptoms < once weekly Inhaled salbutamol when symptomatic
Night time symptoms < 2 times monthly
Normal physical activity

Mild persistent asthma Continuous treatment with inhaled beclometasone

Day time symptoms > once weekly, but +
< once daily Inhaled salbutamol when symptomatic
Night time symptoms > 2 times monthly
Symptoms may affect activity

Moderate persistent asthma Continuous treatment with inhaled beclometasone

Daily symptoms +
Symptoms affect activity Inhaled salbutamol (1 puff 4 times daily)
Night time symptoms > once weekly
Daily use of salbutamol

Severe persistent asthma Continuous treatment with inhaled beclometasone

Daily symptoms +
Frequent night time symptoms Inhaled salbutamol (1-2 puff/s 4 to 6 times daily)
Physical activity limited by symptoms

 
Inhaled corticosteroid treatment: beclometasone dose varies according to the severity of asthma. Find the minimum
dose necessary to both control the symptoms and avoid local and systemic adverse effects:
Children: 50 to 100 micrograms 2 times daily depending on the severity; increase to 200 micrograms 2 times daily if
necessary (max. 800 micrograms daily)
Adults: 100 to 250 micrograms 2 times daily depending on the severity; increase to 500 micrograms 2 times daily if
necessary (max. 1500 micrograms daily)
  T he number of puffs of beclometasone depends on its concentration in the inhaled aerosol: 50, 100 or 250
micrograms per puff.
 
Do not restrict exercise. If exercise is a trigger for asthma attacks, administer 1 or 2 puffs of salbutamol 10 minutes
beforehand.
 
In pregnant women, poorly controlled asthma increases the risk of pre-eclampsia, eclampsia, haemorrhage, in utero
growth retardation, premature delivery, neonatal hypoxia and perinatal mortality. Long-term treatment remains inhaled
salbutamol and beclometasone at the usual dosage for adults. Whenever possible, avoid oral corticosteroids.
 
If symptoms are not well controlled during a period of at least 3 months, check the inhalation technique and adherence
before changing to a stronger treatment.
 
If symptoms are well controlled for a period of at least 3 months (the patient is asymptomatic or the asthma has
become intermittent): try a step-wise reduction in medication, finally discontinuing treatment, if it seems possible.
Provide patients with a salbutamol inhaler for any possible attacks. Evaluate after 2 weeks. If the results are
satisfactory, continue for 3 months and then re-evaluate. If the patient has redeveloped chronic asthma, restart long-
term treatment, adjusting doses, as required.
Pulmonary tuberculosis
Pulmonary tuberculosis is a bacterial infection due to Mycobacterium tuberculosis, spread from person to person
through inhalation of infected respiratory droplets.
After infection, M. tuberculosis multiplies slowly in the lungs and is usually eliminated spontaneously or lies dormant.
Only 10% of cases develop active tuberculosis. T he risk of progressing to active tuberculosis is higher in
immunocompromised patients. In certain countries, half of newly diagnosed tuberculosis patients are co-infected with
HIV
[1]
.
 
For more information on tuberculosis, refer to the guide Tuberculosis, MSF.

Clinical features
Prolonged cough (> 2 weeks) with or without sputum production and/or haemoptysis, prolonged fever, night sweats,
anorexia, weight loss, chest pain and fatigue.
Differential diagnosis includes pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, pulmonary
distomatosis (Flukes, Chapter 6) and melioidosis (Southeast Asia).
 
In an endemic area, the diagnosis of tuberculosis is to be considered, in any patient consulting for respiratory
symptoms for over 2 weeks who does not respond to non-specific antibacterial treatment.

Laboratory
In the general population: Xpert® MT B/RIF test which simultaneously detects M. tuberculosis (MT B) in sputum and
resistance to rifampicin (RIF). If not available perform sputum smear microscopy
[2]
.
If HIV co-infection suspected or diagnosed: Xpert® MT B/RIF test and point-of-care, urine LF-LAM (lateral flow
urine lipoarabinomannan assay)
[2]
.

Treatment
For pulmonary tuberculosis, the standard treatment is a combination of four antituberculosis drugs (isoniazid,
rifampicin, pyrazinamide, ethambutol). T he regimen is organised into 2 phases (initial phase and continuation phase) and
lasts 6 months.
 
If the strain is drug-resistant, the treatment is longer and different drug combinations are used.
 
It takes significant investment to cure tuberculosis, both from the patient and the medical team. Only uninterrupted
treatment will lead to cure and prevent the development of resistance. It is essential that the patient understands the
importance of treatment adherence and has access to correct case management until treatment is completed.

Prevention
BCG vaccination in neonates: provides 59% protection against pulmonary tuberculosis
[3]
.
Infection control in healthcare settings: standard precautions and airborne precautions for confirmed or suspected
cases.
Close contacts: isoniazid preventive therapy for 6 months.
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Global t uberculosis report 2018. 
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/handle/10665/274453 [Accessed 21 Oct ober 2019]

2. Global Laborat ory Init iat ive. GLI model TB diagnost ic algorit hms. 2018. 
ht t p://www.st opt b.org/wg/gli/asset s/document s/GLI_algorit hms.pdf  [Accessed 21 Oct ober 2019]

3. World Healt h Organizat ion. Weekly epidemiological record/Relevé épidémiologique hebdomadaire 23rd February 2018,
93rd year/23 Février 2018, 93e année. No 8, 2018, 93, 73–96.
ht t ps://www.who.int /immunizat ion/policy/posit ion_papers/bcg/en/ [Accessed 21 Oct ober 2019]
Chapter 3: Gastrointestinal disorders
Acute diarrhoea

Shigellosis

Amoebiasis

Disorders of the stomach and duodenum

Gastro-oesophageal reflux
Gastric and duodenal ulcers in adults
Dyspepsia

Stomatitis
Oral and oropharyngeal candidiasis
Oral herpes
Other infectious causes
Stomatitis from scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
Other lesions resulting from a nutritional deficiency
 
 
 
Acute diarrhoea
Acute diarrhoea is defined as at least 3 liquid stools per day for less than 2 weeks.
T here are 2 clinical types of acute diarrhoea:
Diarrhoea without blood, caused by viruses in 60% of cases (rotavirus, enterovirus), bacteria (Vibrio cholerae,
enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, non Typhi Salmonella, Yersinia enterocolitica) or parasites (giardiasis).
Diseases, such as malaria, acute otitis media, respiratory tract infections, etc. can be accompanied by this type
of diarrhoea.
Diarrhoea with blood, caused by bacteria (Shigella in 50% of cases, Campylobacter jejuni, enteroinvasive or
enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Salmonella) or parasites (intestinal amoebiasis).
Infectious diarrhoeas are transmitted by direct (dirty hands) or indirect (ingestion of contaminated water or food)
contact.
T he high mortality rate from diarrhoeal diseases, even benign, is due to acute dehydration and malnutrition. T his can
be prevented by adequate rehydration and nutrition.

Clinical features
First assess for signs of dehydration (see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
T hen look for other signs:
profuse watery diarrhoea (cholera, enterotoxigenic E. coli),
repeated vomiting (cholera),
fever (salmonellosis, viral diarrhoea),
presence of red blood in stools: see also Shigellosis and Amoebiasis (Chapter 3).
In a patient over 5 years with severe and rapid onset of dehydration, suspect cholera.

Treatment
General principles:
Prevent or treat dehydration: rehydration consists of prompt replacement of fluid and electrolyte losses as
required, until the diarrhoea stops.
Administer zinc sulfate to children under 5 years.
Prevent malnutrition.
Do not systematically administer antimicrobials: only certain diarrhoeas require antibiotics (see Antimicrobial
treatment).
Do not administer anti-diarrhoeal drugs or antiemetics.
Treat the underlying condition if any (malaria, otitis, respiratory infection, etc.).

Prevention and treatment of dehydration 

See Dehydration, Chapter 1.
Adapted treatment protocols are recommended for children with malnutrition (see Severe acute malnutrition, Chapter
1).

Prevention of malnutrition
Continue unrestricted normal diet. In breastfed children, increase the frequency of feeds. Breast milk does not replace
ORS. ORS should be given between feeds.

Zinc supplementation
Zinc sulfate is given in combination with oral rehydration solution in order to reduce the duration and severity of
diarrhoea, as well as to prevent further occurrences in the 2 to 3 months after treatment:
zinc sulfate PO
Children under 6 months: 10 mg (½ tablet) once daily for 10 days
Children from 6 months to 5 years: 20 mg (1 tablet) once daily for 10 days
 
Place the half-tablet or full tablet in a teaspoon, add a bit of water to dissolve it, and give the entire spoonful to the
child.

Antimicrobial treatment
Diarrhoea without blood
Most acute diarrhoeas are caused by viruses unresponsive to antimicrobials. Antimicrobials can be beneficial in the
event of cholera or giardiasis.
Cholera: the most important part of treatment is rehydration. In the absence of resistance (perform antibiotic-
sensitivity testing at the beginning of an outbreak), antibiotic treatment shortens the duration of diarrhoea. See the
guide Management of a cholera epidemic, MSF.
Giardiasis: see Intestinal protozoan infections, Chapter 6.

Diarrhoea with blood

Shigellosis is the most frequent cause of bloody diarrhoea (amoebiasis is much less common). If there is no
laboratory diagnosis to confirm the presence of amoebae, first line treatment is for shigellosis (Chapter 3).
Amoebiasis: antiparasitic treatment only if motile Entamoeba histolytica amoebae are found in stools or if a
correct shigellosis treatment has been ineffective (see Amoebiasis, Chapter 3).

Prevention
Breastfeeding reduces infant morbidity and mortality from diarrhoea and the severity of diarrhoea episodes.
When the child is weaned preparation and storage of food are associated with the risk of contamination by faecal
micro-organisms: discourage bottle-feeding; food must be cooked well; milk or porridge must never be stored at
room temperature.
Access to sufficient amounts of clean water and personal hygiene (washing hands with soap and water before food
preparation and before eating, after defecation etc.) are effective methods of reducing the spread of diarrhoea.
In countries with a high rotavirus diarrhoea fatality rate, the WHO recommends routine rotavirus vaccination in
children between 6 weeks and 24 months of age
[1]
.
 
 

References
1. Weekly epidemiological record/Relevé épidémiologique hebdomadaire 1st  February 2013, 88t h year/1er Février 2013, 88e
année No. 5, 2013, 88, 49–64.
ht t ps://www.who.int /wer/2013/wer8805.pdf  [Accessed 02 January 2019]
Shigellosis
Shigellosis is a highly contagious bacterial infection resulting in bloody diarrhoea. T here are 4 serogroups of shigella: S.
dysenteriae, S. sonnei, S. flexneri, S. boydii.
S. dysenteriae type 1 (Sd1) is the only strain that causes large scale outbreaks. It has the highest case fatality rate (up
to 10%). 
Patients at risk of death are children under 5 years, malnourished patients, children after measles, adults over 50 years.

Clinical features
Diarrhoea with bright red blood visible in stool
a
, with or without fever 
Abdominal and rectal pain frequent
Signs of serious illness: fever above 39 °C; severe dehydration; seizures, altered mental status
Complications (more frequent with Sd1): febrile seizures (5 to 30% of children), rectal prolapse (3%), septicaemia,
intestinal obstruction or perforation, moderate to severe haemolytic uraemic syndrome

Laboratory
Shigellosis in an epidemic context:
Confirm the causal agent (stool culture) and perform antibiotic sensitivity tests.
Perform monthly culture and sensitivity tests (antibiotic resistance can develop rapidly, sometimes during the course
of an outbreak).

Treatment
Patients with signs of serious illness or with life-threatening risk factors must be admitted as inpatients.
 
Treat patients with neither signs of serious illness nor risk factors as outpatients.
 
Antibiotherapy:

First-line treatment

ciprofloxacin PO for 3 days if the strain is sensitive

Children: 15 mg/kg 2 times daily if there is no antibiotic sensitivity test
(max. 1 g daily) if oral administration is possible
Adults: 500 mg 2 times daily

ceftriaxone IM for 3 days in patients with severe infection and/or oral

Children: 50 to 100 mg/kg once daily administration is not possible
(max. 1 g daily) in pregnant women
b
Adults: 1 to 2 g once daily

 
If resistance or contra-indication to ciprofloxacin or if no improvement within 48 hours of starting first-line
treatment:
 azithromycin PO for 5 days
Children: one dose of 12 mg/kg on D1 then 6 mg/kg once daily from D2 to D5
Adults: one dose of 500 mg on D1 then 250 mg once daily from D2 to D5
or
cefixime PO for 5 days
Children: 8 mg/kg once daily (max. 400 mg daily)
Adults: 400 mg once daily
 
If there is no improvement 48 hours after starting second-line treatment, treat for amoebiasis
[1]
[2]
.
 
For pain and/or fever:
paracetamol PO (see Pain, Chapter 1). All opioid analgesics are contra-indicated as they slow peristalsis.
 
Supportive therapy:
nutrition: nutritional supplement with frequent meals 
+ 2500 kcal daily during hospitalisation 
+ 1000 kcal daily as outpatients 
rehydration: administration of ORS according to WHO protocols (see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
zinc supplement in children under 5 years (see Acute diarrhoea, Chapitre 3).
 
Never give loperamide or any other antidiarrhoeal.
 
Management of complications: rectal prolapse reduction, septicaemia (see Septic shock, Chapter 1), etc.

Shigellosis in an epidemic context 

Isolation of hospitalised patients; school exclusion of children treated as outpatients.
Hygiene (handwashing, hygienic preparation and storage of food, home hygiene, etc.).
Management if signs worsen or bloody diarrhoea in entourage (seek medical attention).
 

Footnotes
(a) This definit ion excludes: blood det ect ed on microscope examinat ion; st ool cont aining digest ed blood (melaena); st reaks of
blood on t he surf ace of normal st ool (haemorrhoids, anal or rect al lesion, et c.).

(b) Ciprofloxacin should be avoided in pregnant women. Nevert heless, if cef t riaxone is not available, t he ot her ant ibiot ics can
be used, including ciprofloxacin if necessary.
 

References
1. Karen L. Kot lof f et al. Seminar: Shigellosis. The Lancet , Volume 391, ISSUE 10122, P801-812, February 24, 2018.

2. Word Healt h Organizat ion. Pocket book f or hospit al care in children: guidelines f or t he management of common childhood
illnesses, 2013.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/81170/9789241548373_eng.pdf ;jsessionid=CE5C46916607EF413AA9FCA89B
84163F?sequence=1 [Accessed 20 Sept ember 2018]
Amoebiasis
Amoebiasis is a parasitic infection due to the intestinal protozoa Entamoeba histolytica. Transmission is faecal-oral,
by ingestion of amoebic cysts from food or water contaminated with faeces. Usually, ingested cysts release non-
pathogenic amoebae and 90% of carriers are asymptomatic.
In 10% of infected patients, pathogenic amoebae penetrate the mucous of the colon: this is the intestinal amoebiasis
(amoebic dysentery). T he clinical picture is similar to that of shigellosis, which is the principal cause of dysentery.
Occasionally, the pathogenic amoebae migrate via the blood stream and form peripheral abscesses. Amoebic liver
abscess is the most common form of extra-intestinal amoebiasis.

Clinical features
Amoebic dysentery
diarrhoea containing red blood and mucus
abdominal pain, tenesmus
no fever or moderate fever
possibly signs of dehydration
Amoebic liver abscess
painful hepatomegaly; mild jaundice may be present
anorexia, weight loss, nausea, vomiting
intermittent fever, sweating, chills; change in overall condition

Investigations
Amoebic dysentery: identification of mobile trophozoites (E. histolytica histolytica) in fresh stool samples
Amoebic liver abscess: indirect haemoagglutination and ELISA
POCUS
a
: perform an EFAST (extended focused assessment with sonography for trauma) examination, with
additional views of the liver and spleen to evaluate for signs of amoebic lesions. Contact an expert (local or via
telemedicine services) to help interpret the images and differentiate amoebic abscesses from other pathologies
with similar characteristics.

Treatment
Amoebic dysentery
T he presence of cysts alone should not lead to the treatment of amoebiasis.
Amoebiasis confirmed with a parasitological stool examination: 
tinidazole PO
Children: 50 mg/kg once daily for 3 days (max. 2 g daily)
Adults: 2 g once daily for 3 days
or metronidazole PO
Children: 15 mg/kg 3 times daily for 5 days
Adults: 500 mg 3 times daily for 5 days
If there is no laboratory, first line treatment for dysentery is for shigellosis. Treat for amoebiasis if correct
treatment for shigellosis has been ineffective.
Oral rehydration salts (ORS) if there is risk of, or if there are signs of dehydration (see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
Amoebic liver abscess
tinidazole PO: same treatment for 5 days
metronidazole PO: same treatment for 5 to 10 days
 

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.
Disorders of the stomach and duodenum
 
 
Gastro-oesophageal reflux
Gastric and duodenal ulcers in adults
Dyspepsia
 
 
Gastro-oesophageal reflux
Clinical features
Burning stomachache or heartburn, generally relieved by antacids; acid regurgitation (often postural: while sitting
forward or lying down). In the absence of dysphagia (oesophageal stenosis), these signs are benign.

Treatment
First instance: encourage the patient to avoid alcohol and tobacco use.
Give aluminium hydroxide/magnesium hydroxide PO (400 mg/400 mg tablet)
a
: 1 to 2 tablets 3 times daily 20
minutes to one hour after meals, or 1 tablet during painful attacks.
If antacids are insufficient:
omeprazole PO: 20 mg once daily in the morning for 3 days
In young children: no drug treatment, rest and sleep on an incline (30° to 45°).

Footnotes
(a) Aluminium hydroxide/magnesium hydroxide may decrease int est inal absorpt ion of drugs t aken at t he same t ime:
•  at azanavir, chloroquine, digoxin, doxycycline, iron  salt s, gabapent in, it raconazole, levot hyroxine (t ake at least 2 hours
apart ).
•  ciprofloxacin (t ake ciprofloxacin 2 hours bef ore or 4 hours af t er ant acids), dolut egravir (t ake dolut egravir 2 hours bef ore
or 6 hours af t er ant acids), velpat asvir (t ake 4 hours apart ). 
Gastric and duodenal ulcers in adults
Clinical features
Burning epigastric pain or epigastric cramps between meals, that wake the patient at night. Recurrent episodes
characteristically last a few days and are often accompanied by nausea and even vomiting.
T he most common complications are perforation and bleeding.

Treatment of non-complicated ulcers

For an isolated episode: 
identify patients taking NSAID or acetylsalicylic acid; stop treatment;
encourage patients to avoid alcohol and tobacco use;
omeprazole PO: 20 mg once daily in the morning for 7 to 10 days. In severe or recurrent cases, dose can be
increased to 40 mg once daily and the treatment can be prolonged for up to 8 weeks.
If the patient has frequent recurrences unrelated to NSAID use, that require repeated treatment with antiulcer drugs:
see eradication of  Helicobacter pylori.

Treatment of complicated ulcers

Perforation
Perforation should be considered in patients presenting with sudden onset intense epigastric pain, particularly if there is
rigidity of the abdominal wall. T he risk of peritonitis is increased if the perforation occurs on a full stomach.
To start: 
place the patient on a strict fast (NPO); insert a nasogastric tube and aspirate if possible;
insert an intravenous line and hydrate (Ringer lactate);
treat acute pain (see Pain, Chapter 1);
omeprazole IV infusion: 40 mg once daily over 20 to 30 minutes
Refer to a surgeon.
If referral not possible, risk of mortality is high:
Continue conservative management including maintenance fluid (alternate 5% glucose and Ringer lactate).
Start IV antibiotics (see Shock, Chapter 1).
If after 3 days, the patient's clinical condition has improved, cautiously restart oral feeding, remove the
nasogastric tube and start PO treatment to eradicate Helicobacter pylori (see eradication of  Helicobacter
pylori).

Gastrointestinal bleeding
Passing of black stool (maelena) and/or vomiting blood (haematemesis). In 80% of cases the bleeding stops
spontaneously.
Insert a nasogastric tube for aspiration and insert an IV line (16G).
If the haemodynamic state is stable (pulse and blood pressure are normal):
Hydrate (Ringer lactate), monitor, keep NPO for 12 hours.
If there is no active haemorrhage, restart oral feeding after 12 hours.
Gastric lavage with cold water is not essential, but may help evaluate persistence of bleeding.
If the haemorrhage continues (haematemesis) and/or if the haemodynamic state deteriorates (pulse increases, BP
drops):
 Intensive care and transfusion according to the severity of the bleeding (see haemorrhagic shock, Chapter 1).
Emergency surgical intervention.

Eradication of Helicobacter pylori

Most peptic ulcers are caused by Helicobacter pylori infection. If a diagnosis of ulcer is probable, treatment to
eradicate H. pylori should be considered if the patient has frequent attacks requiring repeated and/or prolonged
treatments with antiulcer drugs over 8 weeks or in cases of complicated ulcers (perforation or gastrointestinal
bleeding). Infection should be confirmed with a test where possible.
 
H. pylori resistance to antibiotics varies globally, follow national recommendations where available. If not, for
information, administer a triple therapy for 7 days:
omeprazole PO 20 mg 2 times daily + clarithromycin PO 500 mg 2 times daily + amoxicillin PO 1 g 2 times daily
a
.
 
In immunocompromised patients, consider mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) infection or other nontuberculous
mycobacterium (NT M) infection prior to starting a clarithromycin-containing triple therapy.
 
If symptoms continue despite treatment, consider the differential diagnosis of gastric cancer. Refer for investigations
if possible.
 
Notes:
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) and NSAID (ibuprofen, diclofenac, etc.) are contra-indicated in patients suffering from
or with a history of ulcers.
Omeprazole is as effective PO as IV.
 

Footnotes
(a) In penicillin-allergic pat ient s, amoxicillin PO can be subst it ut ed wit h metronidazole PO 500 mg 2 t imes daily.
Dyspepsia
Last updated: December 2020
 

Clinical features
Epigastric pain or discomfort following meals, often accompanied by bloating, sensation of fullness and nausea.
Dyspepsia is most commonly functional. T he diagnosis of functional dyspepsia is based on clinical assessment after
ruling out organic causes (Gastro-oesophageal reflux, Gastric and duodenal ulcers, drug-induced symptoms, gastric
cancer). If possible, test for Helicobacter pylori.

Treatment
In adults:
In case of patients who test positive for H. pylori, see Eradication of Helicobacter pylori
[1]
.
Omeprazole PO (10 mg once daily) for 4 weeks may help even in H. pylori-negative patients
[2]
[3]
.
 
 
Note: consider and treat possible intestinal parasites (see Intestinal protozoan infections, Cestodes, Nematode
infections, Chapter 6; Amoebiasis, Chapter 3).
 

References
1. Ford AC, Mahadeva S, Carbone MF, Lacy BE, Talley NJ. Funct ional dyspepsia. Lancet . 2020 Nov 21;396(10263):1689-1702.

2. Moayyedi PM, Lacy BE, Andrews CN, et al. ACG and CAG clinical guideline: management of dyspepsia. Am J Gast roent erol.
2017 Jul;112(7):988-1013.
ht t p://www.cag-acg.org/images/publicat ions/CAG_CPG_Dyspepsia_AJG_Aug2017.pdf [Accessed 24 November 2020]

3. Nat ional Inst it ut e f or Healt h and Care Excellence. Gast ro-oesophageal reflux disease and dyspepsia in adult s: invest igat ion
and management . Sept 2014.  
ht t ps://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG184/chapt er/1-Recommendat ions#int ervent ions-f or-f unct ional-
dyspepsia [Accessed 24 November 2020]
Stomatitis
 
 
Oral and oropharyngeal candidiasis
Oral herpes
Other infectious causes
Stomatitis from scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
Other lesions resulting from a nutritional deficiency
 
 
Stomatitis is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the mouth caused by a fungal, viral or bacterial infection, a
vitamin deficiency, an injury, etc.
Prolonged or painful stomatitis may contribute to dehydration or may cause loss of appetite with denutrition,
particularly in children.
In infants, examine routinely the mouth in the event of breast refusal or difficulties in sucking.
 
In all cases:
Maintain adequate hydration and feeding; offer foods that will not irritate the mucosa (soft, non-acidic). Use a
nasogastric tube for a few days if pain is preventing the patient from eating.
Keep the mouth clean to prevent complications and recurrence.
Oral and oropharyngeal candidiasis
Infection due to Candida albicans, common in infants, immunocompromised or diabetic patients. Other risk factors
include treatment with oral antibiotics or high-dose inhaled corticosteroids.

Clinical features
White patches on the tongue, inside the cheeks, that may spread to the pharynx.
In patients with frequent recurrences or extensive forms invading the esophagus (swallowing difficulty and pain),
consider HIV infection.

Treatment
nystatin oral suspension for 7 days
Children and adults: 400 000 IU daily, i.e. 1 ml of the oral suspension (100 000 IU) 4 times daily
or
miconazole oral gel for 7 days
Children 6 months to 2 years: 1.25 ml 4 times daily
Children over 2 years and adults: 2.5 ml 4 times daily
 
Apply the oral suspension of nystatin or the oral gel of miconazole between meals; keep in the mouth for 2 to 3
minutes, then swallow. In young children, apply to the tongue and inside of each cheek.
 
Show the mother how to treat since, in most cases, candidiasis will be treated at home.
 
In immunocompromised patients: see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8.
Oral herpes
Infection due to the herpes simplex virus. Primary infection typically occurs in children aged 6 months to 5 years and
may cause acute gingivostomatitis, sometimes severe. After primary infection, the virus remains in the body and
causes in some individuals periodic recurrences which are usually benign (herpes labialis).

Clinical features
Primary herpetic gingivostomatitis
Multiple vesicles on the oral mucosa and lips which rupture to form painful, yellowish, at times extensive ulcers.
Local lesions are usually associated with general malaise, regional lymphadenopathy and fever.
Recurrent herpes labialis
Clusters of vesicles at the junction between the lip and the skin.
 
In patients with frequent recurrences or extensive forms, consider HIV infection (see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter
8).

Treatment
Primary herpetic gingivostomatitis
Treat pain: paracetamol or ibuprofen PO (Chapter 1)
In the event of severe lesions, inability to drink and significant pain:
Admit the child to hospital (high risk of dehydration).
If the child presents within the first 96 hours of symptoms onset, aciclovir PO for 5 to 7 days:
Children under 2 years: 200 mg 5 times daily
Children 2 years and over and adults: 400 mg 5 times daily
In the event of secondary bacterial infection: amoxicillin PO 7 days.
 
In immunocompromised patients: see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8.

Recurrent herpes labialis

Spontaneous resolution within 7 to 10 days. An antiseptic (chlorhexidine or povidone iodine) may be applied;
paracetamol PO if necessary.
 
Both forms of herpes are contagious: do not touch lesions (or wash hands afterwards); avoid oral contact.
Other infectious causes
 
 
See Pharyngitis (Chapter 2), Diphtheria (Chapter 2), Measles (Chapter 8).
 
Stomatitis from scurvy (vitamin C deficiency)
Clinical features
Bleeding gums, associated in infants with lower limb pain caused by subperiosteal haemorrhage. It is common in
contexts of poor food quality or in populations completely dependent on food aid (refugee camps).

Treatment
ascorbic acid (vitamin C) PO
T he optimal dose has not been established. For information:
Children 1 month to 11 years: 100 mg 3 times daily 
Children 12 years and over and adults: 250 mg 3 times daily 
or
Children 1 month to 3 years: 100 mg 2 times daily
Children 4 to 11 years: 250 mg 2 times daily 
Children 12 years and over and adults: 500 mg 2 times daily 
 
Treatment is administred at least 2 weeks or longer (until symptoms resolve), then preventive treatment is
given (children and adults: 50 mg daily as long as the situation requires).
Other lesions resulting from a nutritional
deficiency
 
 
Other vitamin deficiencies may provoke mouth lesions: angular stomatitis of the lips and glossitis from vitamin
B 2 (riboflavin), niacin (see Pellagra, Chapter 4) or vitamin B 6 (pyridoxine) deficiencies.
 
Iron deficiency may also provoke angular stomatitis (see Anaemia, Chapter 1).
 
Give the corresponding vitamins at curative doses. Multivitamins are insufficient to treat true vitamin deficiencies.
Chapter 4: Skin diseases
Dermatology

Scabies

Lice (pediculosis)

Superficial fungal infections

Bacterial skin infections

Impetigo
Furuncles and carbuncles
Erysipelas and cellulitis

Cutaneous anthrax

Endemic treponematoses

Leprosy

Herpes simplex and herpes zoster

Herpes simplex
Herpes zoster (shingles)

Other skin disorders

Eczema
Seborrheic dermatitis
Urticaria
Pellagra
 
 
 
 
Dermatology
 
 
Skin diseases, particularly infectious skin diseases, are very common. T hey must be treated individually or collectively,
but must also be considered as indicators of the sanitary condition of a population. A high prevalence of infectious skin
diseases may reflect a problem of insufficient water quantity and lack of hygiene in a population.

Dermatological examination
Observe the type of lesion:
Macule: flat, non palpable lesion that is different in colour than the surrounding skin
Papule: small (< 1 cm) slightly elevated, circumscribed, solid lesion
Vesicle (< 1 cm), bulla (> 1 cm): clear fluid-filled blisters
Pustule: vesicle containing pus
Nodule: firm, elevated palpable lesion (> 1 cm) that extend into the dermis or subcutaneous tissue
Erosion: loss of the epidermis that heals without leaving a scar
Excoriation: erosion caused by scratching
Ulcer: loss of the epidermis and at least part of the dermis that leaves a scar
Scale: flake of epidermis that detaches from the skin surface
Crust: dried serum, blood, or pus on the skin surface
Atrophy: thinning of the skin
Lichenification: thickening of the skin with accentuation of normal skin markings
Look at the distribution of the lesions over the body; observe their arrangement: isolated, clustered, linear, annular
(in a ring). Ask if the lesions are itchy.
Look for a possible cause: insect bites; scabies, lice, other parasitic skin infections; contact with plants, animals,
jewellery, detergents, etc.
Ask about any past or ongoing treatment: topical, oral or parenteral.
Look for local or regional signs (secondary infection, lymphangitis, adenopathy, erysipelas) and/or systemic signs
(fever, septicaemia, secondary focus).
Consider the sanitary conditions of the family, particularly for contagious skin diseases (scabies, scalp ringworm,
lice).
Check tetanus vaccination status.
 
Patients with skin disease often present late. At this stage, primary lesions and specific signs may be masked by
secondary infection. In these cases, it is necessary to re-examine the patient, after treating the secondary infection, in
order to identify and treat the underlying skin disease.
Scabies
Scabies is a cutaneous parasitosis due to the presence of the mite Sarcoptes scabiei hominis within the epidermis. It
exists in two forms: ordinary scabies, relatively benign and moderately contagious; and crusted scabies, favoured by
immune deficiency, extremely contagious and refractory to conventional treatment.
Person to person transmission takes place chiefly through direct skin contact, and sometimes by indirect contact
(sharing clothing, bedding). T he challenge in management is that it must include simultaneous treatment of both the
patient and close contacts, and at the same time, decontamination of clothing and bedding of all persons undergoing
treatment, in order to break the transmission cycle.

Clinical features
Ordinary scabies
In older children and adults
Itching, worse at night, very suggestive of scabies if close contacts have the same symptom
and
Typical skin lesions:
Scabies burrows (common): fine wavy lines of 5 to 15 mm, corresponding to the tunnels made by the parasite
within the skin. Burrows are most often seen in the interdigital spaces of the hand and flexor aspect of the wrist,
but may be present on the areolae, buttocks, elbows, axillae. T he back and the face are spared. Burrows may
be associated with vesicles, corresponding to the entry point of the parasite in the skin.
Scabies nodules (less common): reddish-brown nodules, measuring 2 to 20 mm, on the genitals in men, persisting
after effective treatment (they are not necessarily indicative of active infection).
and/or
Secondary skin lesions: resulting from scratching (excoriations, crusts) or super-infection (impetigo).
 
Typical lesions and secondary lesions may co-exist, or specific lesions may be entirely masked by secondary lesions.

In infants and young children

Vesicular eruption; often involving palms and soles, back, face, and limbs. Secondary infection or eczematisation is
frequent. Isolated scabies nodules in the axillae may be the only manifestation.
Examination of the mother’s hands may support the diagnosis. 

Crusted (Norwegian) scabies

T hick, scaly, erythematous plaques, generalised or localised, resembling psoriasis, with or without itching (50% of
cases). Delay in diagnosis may lead to a scabies epidemic.

Treatment
In all cases
Close contacts of the patient are treated simultaneously, even in the absence of symptoms.
Clothing and bedding (including that of contacts) are changed after each treatment. T hey are washed at ≥ 60 °C
then dried in the sun, or exposed to sunlight for 72 hours, or sealed in a plastic bag for 72 hours.

Ordinary scabies
Topical treatment
Topical scabicides are applied over the entire body (including the scalp, post-auricular areas, umbilicus, palms and
soles), avoiding mucous membranes and face, and the breasts in breastfeeding women. Particular attention should be
paid to common infestation sites. T he recommended contact time should not be shortened or exceeded; the patient
must not wash his hands while the product is in use (or the product should be reapplied if the hands are washed). In
children under 2 years, the hands must be wrapped to prevent accidental ingestion of the product and contact with
eyes. Topical scabicides should not be applied to broken or inflamed skin. Treatment of secondary bacterial infection,
if present, should be initiated 24 to 48 hours before use of topical scabicides (see Impetigo).
 
T he preferred treatment is 5% permethrin cream:
Children 2 months and over and adults: one application, with a contact time of 8 hours, then rinse thoroughly. Repeat
the application after 7 days.
 
or, if not available, 25% benzyl benzoate lotion:
See the table below for dilution (depending on age), contact time and number of applications.

Children
Children Children Pregnant
  > 12 years
< 2 years 2 to 12 years women
and adults

Lotion must be
Lotion must be diluted before
diluted before use: use: Use undiluted Use undiluted
Dilution
1 part 25% lotion + 1 part 25% 25% lotion 25% lotion
3 parts water lotion + 1 part
water

12 hours (6 hours
for infants
24 hours then 24 hours then 12 hours then
Contact time < 6 months)
rinse thoroughly rinse thoroughly rinse thoroughly
then rinse
thoroughly

Two applications (e.g. 24 hours

apart, with a rinse between the 2
applications; or 2 successive
Number of applications One application One application
applications, 10 minutes apart,
when the first application has dried
with a rinse after 24 hours) 

Oral treatment
Treatment with ivermectin PO (200 micrograms/kg single dose) is an alternative: it is more practical than topical
treatment (e.g. in the case of an epidemic or for treating contacts) and can be started right away in the case of
secondary infection. A single dose may be sufficient; a second dose 7 days later reduces the risk of treatment failure.
 
Ivermectin is not recommended for children < 15 kg or pregnant women (safety not established)
a
.
Administration of ivermectin to patients with loiasis carries a risk of severe neurological complications when significant
Loa loa microfilaraemia is present (see Filariasis, Chapter 6)
b
 .
 
ivermectin PO single dose:
 Weight 15 to 24 kg 25 to 35 kg 36 to 50 kg 51 to 65 kg

Ivermectin 3 mg tab 1 tab 2 tab 3 tab 4 tab

 
Treatment effectiveness is judged on clinical grounds. Itching may persist for 1 to 3 weeks after elimination of the
parasite.
 
Persistence of typical burrows beyond 4 weeks should lead to suspicion of treatment failure (insufficient treatment,
e.g. the scalp was not included in topical treatment or the patient washed his hands during the treatment period), or
early re-infestation (contacts and environment not treated). In these cases, patient and contacts should be retreated.
 
Persistent itching may be due to another condition, initially masked by scabies.

Crusted scabies
Treatment combines simultaneous administration of oral ivermectin and topical scabicide at regular intervals, e.g. every
week for 2 to 3 weeks or more, according to severity and clinical response.
 
Crusts should be softened (salicylic acid ointment) and removed before applying local treatment (otherwise, local
treatment is ineffective).
 
As exfoliated skin scales may spread the parasite, the patient should be isolated during the treatment, staff should use
protection (gloves, gowns and hand washing after contact), and environment (bedding, floors and surfaces) should be
decontaminated.
 

Footnotes
(a) Treat ment wit h ivermect in in t hese pat ient s is reserved f or severe cases f or which no alt ernat ive exist s (see Crust ed
scabies).

(b) In areas where loiasis is endemic, cert ain precaut ions are recommended bef ore administ ering ivermect in: e.g. measure t he
Loa loa microfilaraemia, if possible, or ensure t hat t he pat ient has no hist ory of loiasis (migrat ion of an adult worm under t he
conjunct iva or t ransient « Calabar » swellings), nor hist ory of severe adverse react ions f ollowing a previous t reat ment wit h
ivermect in, or if in doubt , use t opical t reat ment in pref erence t o oral.
Lice (pediculosis)
Pediculosis is a benign contagious parasitic infection due to 3 species of lice specific to humans: head lice, body lice
and pubic lice. Transmission from person to person occurs through direct or indirect contact.
Body lice are potential vectors of relapsing fever (Chapter 7), typhus (Eruptive rickettsioses, Chapter 7) and trench
fever.

Clinical features
Head lice mainly affect children: itching and scratch marks (nape of neck and around the ears), which may become
secondarily infected (impetigo) in prolonged infestation; presence of live lice and/or live (shiny, grey) nits attached to
the hair shaft within 5 mm of the scalp.
Body lice mainly affect populations living under poor conditions (refugees, prisoners, the homeless): itching and
scratch marks (back, belt line and armpits), often inflamed and infected; presence of lice and nits in the clothing
(parasites are not found on the body).
Pubic lice are considered to be a sexually transmitted infection (ST I): itching and scratch marks (pubic and perianal
area), but other hairy areas may also be affected (armpits, thighs, eyelashes); lice and nits at the base of the hair
shaft, rarely visible.
Examine contacts; check for associated systemic infection (body lice) or ST I (pubic lice).

Treatment
Head lice
Apply lotion to scalp and dry hair, paying particular attention to the areas behind the ears and around the nape of the
neck. Do not reduce or exceed the recommended duration of application.
4% dimeticone lotion
Children 6 months and over and adults: leave on hair for 8 hours, then rinse thoroughly. 
Keep away from flames and/or intense heat sources (including cigarettes) during application and until rinsing (risk of
ignition).
or, if dimeticone is not available or in children 2 to 6 months:
1% permethrin lotion. 
Children 2 months and over and adults: leave on hair for 10 minutes, then rinse thoroughly.
Repeat application of either treatment after 7 days.
Decontaminate combs, headwear and bedding (wash ≥ 60 °C/30 minutes, iron or dry in the sun or, if not feasible,
seal in a plastic bag for 2 weeks).
Treat as above contacts with live lice and/or live nits. Do not treat those with dead nits alone (dull, white, > 1 cm
from scalp).

Body lice
Mass treatment (outbreak)
Apply 30 to 60 g (2 to 4 heaped soup spoons) of 0.5% permethrin powder to the inside of the clothes and
underclothes in contact with the skin (front and back, neck and waistline, sleeves and socks) in a fully clothed patient,
then rub in the powder by hand. Leave for 12 to 24 hours.
Treat other clothing (including headwear) and bedding in a plastic bag with 0.5% permethrin powder. Repeat in 8 to 10
days if the infestation persists.
Individual treatment
Disinfection of clothing and bedding as above or as for head lice.

Pubic lice
Shave and/or apply 1% permethrin lotion to hairy areas (as for head lice). Treat the partner at the same time.
Decontaminate clothing and bedding (as for head lice). Repeat the application after 7 days.
Treatment of secondary bacterial infection, if present, should begin 24 to 48 hours before local antiparasitic treatment
(see Impetigo); local treatment is applied later when tolerated.
Superficial fungal infections
Superficial fungal infections are benign infections of the skin, scalp and nails caused by Candida albicans or
dermatophytes.

Clinical features and treatment

Candidiasis
Candidal diaper dermatitis
Erythema of the perianal area with peripheral desquamation and sometimes pustules. Secondary infection may
develop.
Buttocks must be kept clean (ordinary soap and water) and dry.
Avoid humidity: according to the context, expose the buttocks to air or change diapers more frequently; remove
plastic pants.
Protect the skin with zinc oxide ointment if diarrhoea is present.
If diaper dermatitis is severe and persistent despite these measures, consider an intestinal infection (nystatin PO:
100 000 IU 4 times daily for 20 days).

Other candidiasis
Candidiasis of skin folds: miconazole 2% cream, one application 2 times daily for 2 to 4 weeks
Oral candidiasis: see Stomatitis, Chapter 3.
Vulvovaginal candidiasis: see Abnormal vaginal discharge, Chapter 9.

Dermatophytoses
Dermatophytes cause various clinical lesions, depending on the anatomic site involved: scalp, glabrous (hairless) skin,
folds or nails.
 
 Anatomic
Clinical features Treatment
site
(a)

Scalp Common in children. Depending on the species: • Shave or cut hair short on and around
Scalp ringworm • One or more round, scaly, erythematous plaques with the lesions.
Tinea capitis the ends of broken hairs. • Local treatment: 2 times daily, clean
• Inflammation, suppuration, crusting and peripheral with soap and water, dry and apply
lymphadenopathy (kerion). miconazole 2% cream or Whitfield’s
• Permanent hair loss (favus). ointment for 2 weeks or longer if
Some scalp ringworms are contagious: necessary.
simultaneously examine (and treat) symptomatic • Administer systemic treatment as
contacts. local treatment alone does not cure
scalp ringworm:
griseofulvin PO for 6 weeks minimum
(up to 8 to 12 weeks)
Children 1 to 12 years: 10 to 20 mg/kg
once daily (max. 500 mg daily)
Children ≥ 12 years and adults: 500 mg
to 1 g once daily, depending on
severity
or itraconazole PO
Children: 3 to 5 mg/kg once daily for 4
to 6 weeks (max. 200 mg daily)
Adults: 200 mg once daily for 2 to 4
weeks
• Suppurative lesions: treat
superinfection (see Impetigo) before
applying local antifungal treatment.
• For painful kerion: paracetamol PO.
In pregnant lactating/breastfeeding
women: oral antifungals are
contraindicated. Apply a topical
treatment (miconazole 2% cream or
Whitfield’s ointment) to limit the
spread of infection until it is possible
to treat orally.

Glabrous skin Erythematous, scaly, pruritic macule with a well- • For non widespread, localised tinea:
Ringworm of the demarcated, raised, vesicular border and central Local treatment: 2 times daily, clean
body healing. with soap and water, dry and apply
Tinea corporis miconazole 2% cream or Whitfield’s
ointment for 2 to 4 weeks or for 2
weeks after clinical resolution.
• Reserve oral antifungals for
particularly extensive lesions:
griseofulvin PO for 4 to 6 weeks or
itraconazole for 2 weeks.

Folds • Interdigital spaces (Tinea pedis): Topical treatment as above. If oozing

 Tinea pedis Pruritus, fissure and whitish scales in the 3rd and/or 4th lesions, use miconazole 2% cream
(athlete’s foot) (b)   only (do not use Whitfield’s ointment).
interdigital spaces

.
Tinea cruris • Groin (Tinea cruris):
Circumscribed, pruritic, erythematous plaque, with a
pale centre surrounded by vesiculo- pustules, extending
outward from the groin.

(a) Dermat ophyt osis may af f ect t he nails (Tinea unguium, onychomycosis). Treat ment is prolonged (12 t o 18 mont hs wit h
griseof ulvin) t hus, in pract ice, dif ficult . Failures and relapses are f requent .
(b) In candidal int ert rigo, lesions are usually locat ed in t he 1st and 2nd int erdigit al spaces.
Bacterial skin infections
 
 
Impetigo
Furuncles and carbuncles
Erysipelas and cellulitis
 
 
Impetigo
Impetigo is a benign, contagious infection of the epidermis due to group A ß-haemolytic streptococcus
and Staphylococcus aureus. Co-infection is common. Transmission is by direct contact. Lack of water, and poor
hygiene, increase spread.
Primary infections are most common in children. Secondary infections complicating preexisting pruritic dermatoses
(lice, scabies, eczema, herpes, chickenpox, etc.) are more common in adults.

Clinical features
Non bullous impetigo (classic form): flaccid vesicle on erythematous skin which becomes pustular and forms a
yellowish crust. Different stages o the infection may be present simultaneously. T he lesion does not leave a scar.
T he most common sites of infection are around the nose and mouth, on the limbs or on the scalp.
Bullous impetigo: large flaccid bullae and erosions of the skin in the ano-genital region in newborns and infants.
Ecthyma: an ulcerative form of impetigo that leaves scars. T his form is most common in the immunocompromised
(e.g. HIV infection, malnutrition), diabetics and alcoholics.
Regardless of the type of impetigo: absence of fever or systemic signs.
Possible complications:
abscess, pyodermitis, cellulitis, lymphangitis, osteomyelitis, septicaemia;
acute glomerulonephritis (routinely look for signs of glomerulonephritis).

Treatment
Localised non bullous impetigo (max. 5 lesions in a single skin area):
Clean with soap and water and dry before applying mupirocin.
2% mupirocin ointment: one application 3 times daily for 7 days. Reassess after 3 days. If there is no response,
switch to oral antibiotic therapy (see below).
Keep fingernails short. Avoid touching the lesions, keep them covered with gauze if possible.
 
Extensive non bullous impetigo (more than 5 lesions or impetigo involving more than one skin area), bullous
impetigo, ecthyma, impetigo with abscess; immunocompromised patient; topical treatment failure:
Clean with soap and water and dry 2 to 3 times daily.
Keep fingernails short. Avoid touching the lesions, keep them covered with gauze if possible.
Incise abscesses if present.
Administer oral antibiotic therapy
a
: 
cefalexin PO for 7 days
Neonates under 7 days: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Neonates 7 to 28 days: 25 mg/kg 3 times daily
Children 1 month to 12 years: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children 12 years and over and adults: 1 g 2 times daily
or
cloxacillin PO for 7 days
Children over 10 years: 15 mg/kg 3 times daily (max. 3 g daily)
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily
Note: in newborns with lesions located around the umbilicus, administer cloxacilllin IV.
 
For all patients:
Quarantine from school (children can return to school after 24 to 48 hours of antibiotic therapy).
 Look for and treat any underlying dermatosis: lice, scabies, eczema, herpes, scalp ringworm, or an ENT
infection.
Trace and treat contacts.
Check for proteinuria (use urine dipstick) 3 weeks after the infection.
 

Footnotes
(a) In penicillin-allergic pat ient s only (resist ance t o macrolides is common), azithromycin PO f or 3 days (children: 10 mg/kg once
daily; adult s: 500 mg once daily).
Furuncles and carbuncles
Necrotising perifollicular infection, usually due to Staphylococcus aureus. Risk factors include: nasal carriage of S.
aureus, maceration, breaks in the skin, poor hygiene; diabetes mellitus, malnutrition, iron deficiency or
immunodeficiency.

Clinical features
Furuncle: red, warm, painful nodule with a central pustule, usually around a hair follicle. It becomes fluctuant,
discharges a core of purulent exudate, and leaves a depressed scar. It occurs most frequently on the thighs, groin,
buttocks, armpits, neck and back. T here is no fever.
Carbuncle: a cluster of interconnected furuncles, sometimes with fever and peripheral lymphadenopathy. It leaves a
depressed scar.

Treatment
Single furuncle:
Clean with soap and water 2 times daily and cover with a dry dressing.
Apply warm moist compresses to the furuncle in order to encourage it to drain.
After drainage, clean and apply a dry dressing until the lesion has healed.
 
Furuncle on the face, multiple furuncles, carbuncles or in immunocompromised patients:
Same local care.
Add systematically an antibiotic for 7 days
a
: 
cefalexin PO
Neonates under 7 days: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Neonates 7 to 28 days: 25 mg/kg 3 times daily
Children 1 month to 12 years: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children 12 years and over and adults: 1 g 2 times daily
or 
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO. Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1. T he dose is expressed
in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily)
 
In all cases: wash hand frequently, wash bedding.
 

Footnotes
(a) For penicillin-allergic pat ient s:
clindamycin PO (children: 10 mg/kg 3 t imes daily; adult s: 600 mg 3 t imes daily)
Erysipelas and cellulitis
Last updated: October 2020
 
 
Acute skin infections, due to bacteria (usually Group A beta-haemolytic streptococcus and sometimes
Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin resistant S. aureus–MRSA) that enter through a break in the skin.
T he main risk factors are: venous insufficiency, obesity, oedema or lymphoedema, history of erysipelas or cellulitis,
immunosuppression and cutaneous inflammation (e.g. dermatosis, wound).
Erysipelas is a superficial infection (affecting the dermis and superficial lymph vessels), while cellulitis affects the deeper
tissues (deep dermis layers and subcutaneous fat).
Generally, these infections affect the lower extremities and sometimes the face. If the orbital and periorbital tissues
are infected, see Periorbital and orbital cellulitis, Chapter 5. If the infection is perifollicular, see Furuncles and
carbuncles, Chapter 4.

Clinical signs
Warm, tender, swollen well–demarcated erythematous plaque.
Fever, lymphadenopathy and lymphangitis.
Look for a portal of entry (bite, ulcer, wound, intertrigo, eczema, fungal infection, etc.).
In case of intense pain disproportionate to the skin lesion, hypoesthesia, rapidly progressing local signs, crepitation,
skin necrosis or critically ill appearing patient, consider necrotising fasciitis that is a surgical emergency
(see Necrotising infections of the skin and soft tissues, Chapter 10).
Other complications: septicaemia (see Septic shock, Chapter 1), acute glomerulonephritis, osteomyelitis, septic
arthritis.
T he main differential diagnoses include: contact dermatitis, stasis dermatitis due to venous insufficiency, venous
thrombosis and erythema migrans characteristic of Lyme disease.

Paraclinical investigations
Ultrasound: can detect signs of cellulitis and rule out an underlying abscess, deep vein thrombosis or a foreign body.
Radiography: can detect a foreign body, underlying osteomyelitis (or gas in the subcutaneous tissue in case of a
necrotising infection, nevertheless the absence of gas does not rule out this diagnosis).
Test for proteinuria with urine dipstick 3 weeks after infection to look for glomerulonephritis.

Treatment
In all cases:
Outline the area of erythema with a pen in order to follow the infection
a
.
Bed rest, elevation of affected area (e.g. leg). 
Treatment of pain (Chapter 1). Avoid NSAIDs that may increase the risk of necrotising fasciitis.
Administer antibiotics: either orally or IV depending on severity.
Treat portal of entry and comorbidities.
Check and/or catch up tetanus vaccination (see Tetanus, Chapter 7).
In case of necrotising fasciitis, septic arthritis or osteomyelitis: urgent transfer to a surgical centre, initiate IV
antibiotic treatment while awaiting transfer.
 
 Hospitalize for the following: children younger than 3 months, critically ill appearing patient
b
, local complications,
debilitated patient (chronic conditions, the elderly) or if there is a risk of non-compliance with or failure of outpatient
treatment. Treat other patients as outpatients.
 
Outpatient antibiotherapy
c
 : 
cefalexin PO for 7 to 10 days
Children 1 month to under 12 years: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children 12 years and over and adults: 1 g 2 times daily
or
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO for 7 to 10 days. 
Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults:
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily)
 
In the event of worsening clinical signs after 48 hours of antibiotic treatment, consider IV route.
 
Inpatient antibiotherapy
d
:
First line therapy: 
cloxacillin IV infusion over 60 minutes
e

Children 1 month to under 12 years: 12.5 to 25 mg/kg every 6 hours

Children 12 years and over and adults: 1 g every 6 hours 
or
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) by slow IV injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes). T he dose
is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children under 3 months: 30 mg/kg every 12 hours 
Children 3 months and over: 20 to 30 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 3 g daily)
Adults: 1 g every 8 hours
If there is clinical improvement after 48 hours (afebrile and erythema and oedema have improved) switch to
cefalexin or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO at the doses indicated above to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment.
If there is no clinical improvement after 48 hours, consider MRSA: 
clindamycin IV infusion over 30 minutes
f

Children 1 month and over: 10 mg/kg every 8 hours

Adults: 600 mg every 8 hours
After 48 hours, change to clindamycin PO at the doses indicated above to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment.
 

Footnotes
(a) The eryt hema will regress if t he t reat ment is ef f ect ive. If t he eryt hema spreads consider a t reat ment f ailure (MRSA or a
necrot ising inf ect ion).

(b) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsy and dif ficult t o arouse, does not smile, disconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.

(c) For penicillin-allergic pat ient s, clindamycin PO f or 7 t o 10 days (children: 10 mg/kg 3 t imes daily; adult s: 600 mg 3 t imes daily).

(d) For penicillin-allergic pat ient s, clindamycin IV inf usion (children: 10 mg/kg 3 t imes daily; adult s: 600 mg 3 t imes daily).

(e) Cloxacillin powder f or inject ion should be reconst it ut ed in 4 ml of wat er f or inject ion. Then dilut e each dose of cloxacillin in
5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.
(f ) Dilut e each dose of clindamycin in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of
100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.
Cutaneous anthrax
Last updated: September 2022
 
 
Anthrax is caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis that primarily affects herbivores (sheep, goats, cows, camels,
horses, etc.). Humans may become infected through contact of broken skin with a dead or sick animal. People at risk
include livestock farmers and those that manipulate skins, wool or carcasses of infected animals.
T he disease is found in Eastern Europe, Central Asia, the Mediterranean Basin, Africa and South America.
Pulmonary (acquired by inhalation) and intestinal (acquired by eating infected meat) forms also exist.

Clinical features
Papule, then pruritic vesicle on uncovered skin surfaces (face, neck, arms, legs). T he vesicle ulcerates and becomes
a painless black eschar surrounded by oedema, often associated with with lymphangitis and regional
lymphadenopathy.
T he following are criteria of severity:
lesion located on the head or neck, or
presence of systemic symptoms (fever, malaise, headache, tachycardia, tachypnoea, hypotension,
hyper/hypothermia), or
presence of extensive oedema, or
multiple, extensive or bullous lesions.

Laboratory
From vesicular fluid
a
: culture and drug susceptibility testing (rarely available) or Gram stain for microscopic
examination.
PCR testing (reference laboratory).

Treatment
Uncomplicated cutaneous anthrax 
Do not excise the eschar; daily dry dressings.
Antibiotic treatment for 7 to 10 days:
First-line antibiotics:
ciprofloxacin PO (including in pregnant or breastfeeding women and children)
Children: 15 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) 2 times daily
Adults: 500 mg 2 times daily
or
doxycycline PO (except in pregnant or breastfeeding women)
Children under 45 kg: 2 to 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily
Alternatives include:
clindamycin PO (in patients allergic to first-line antibiotics)
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 600 mg) 3 times daily
Adults: 600 mg 3 times daily
or
 amoxicillin PO, if penicillins are effective (documented susceptibility)
Children: 30 mg/kg (max. 1 g) 3 times daily
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily

Severe cutaneous anthrax

Combined antibiotic treatment for 14 days:
 
Do not mix the two antibiotics in the same infusion bag (incompatibility).
First-line:
ciprofloxacin IV infusion over 60 minutes
b

Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 400 mg) every 8 hours 

Adults: 400 mg every 8 hours 
+ clindamycin IV infusion over 30 minutes
b

Children 1 month and over: 10 to 13 mg/kg (max. 900 mg) every 8 hours
Adults: 900 mg every 8 hours
Alternative, if penicillins are effective (documented susceptibility):
ampicillin IV infusion over 30 minutes
b

Children 1 month and over: 50 mg/kg (max. 3 g) every 6 hours or 65 mg/kg (max. 4 g) every 8 hours 
Adults: 3 g every 6 hours or 4 g every 8 hours
+ clindamycin IV infusion as above.
Change to oral treatment as soon as possible to complete 14 days of treatment with ciprofloxacin + clindamycin or
amoxicillin + clindamycin as for uncomplicated cutaneous anthrax.
Intensive care: symptomatic treatment of shock (see Shock, Chapter 1); tracheostomy and ventilatory support may
be necessary.

Prevention
Antibiotic prophylaxis in case of known skin exposure: treat for 10 days PO as for uncomplicated cutaneous
anthrax.
Livestock vaccination; burial or burning of animal carcasses.
 

Footnotes
(a) Samples can be st ored (including t ransport t ime) f or 7 days max. in cold chain (if not available, at a t emperat ure < 30 °C).

(b) Dilut e each dose of ciprofloxacin, clindamycin or ampicillin in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less
t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children 20 kg and above and in adult s.
Administ er ciprofloxacin more slowly t han clindamycin or ampicillin.
Endemic treponematoses
 Endemic treponematoses are bacterial infections caused by 3 different types of treponema (other than Treponema
pallidum). Human-to-human transmission may be direct or indirect.
T he 3 endemic treponematoses result in positive syphilis serology (T PHA-VDRL), but these tests are not necessary as
diagnosis is clinical. T here is no laboratory test that can distinguish between the different treponematoses.
For the diagnosis and treatment of syphilis, see Genital infections, Chapter 9.

Clinical features
   Yaws Pinta Bejel

Pathogen Treponema pertenue Treponema carateum Treponema pallidum type M

Geographic Tropical and humid Tropical zones of Latin America Arid areas, semi-desert of the Middle
distribution forests East and Africa

Population Children between 4 and Children and adults Nomadic populations, particularly
14 years children

First stage Yaws chancre: skin Annular, erythematous, scaly Discrete chancre: moist papule, most
coloured lesion, non- plaques, usually on uncovered commonly on the mucous membranes
indurated, itchy, on the body parts (face, extremities), or in dermal folds, with peripheral
lower limbs in 95% of resemble dermatophytes. adenopathy.
cases, with peripheral Lesions heal sponta- neously
adenopathy. leaving scars.
Spontaneous healing or
development of a large
yaw surrounded by
smaller yaws.

Second Lesions appear 3 Pintids: plaques of various • Mucous patches of the mouth
stage weeks after the initial colours (bluish, reddish, whitish). common: very contagious ulcerated,
chancre, occur in crops May occur anywhere on the round in form, indurated, with white
and heal spontaneously: body. coating, bleed easily, usually occur on
• Frambesioma the inside of the lips, cheek and tongue
(papillomatous lesion, or labial folds
vegetal, very • Condyloma in the anogenital region
contagious) (rare)
• Isolated or associated • Cutaneous lesions are rare: vegetal
with yaws (round, aspect, in dermal folds
squamous papules, not • Bone destruction identical to that of
very contagious) yaws, in the legs and forearms
• Osteoperiostitis of the
long bones (phalanges,
nasal process of the
maxilla, tibia)

Late stage After some years of Symmetrical white patches on After several years of latency:
latency: the limbs. T he depigmentation is • Gummatous lesions of skin and long
• Periostitis; painful, permanent, remaining after bones
debilitating osteitis treatment. • Plantar and palmar keratosis
• Ulcerating and • Juxta-articular nodules
disfiguring • Hyper- and hypo-pigmented patches
rhinopharyngitis (as in pinta)
• Juxta-articular nodules

 
Treatment
Yaws
azithromycin PO
[1]

Children and adults: 30 mg/kg single dose (max. 2 g)

or, if not available,
benzathine benzylpenicillin IM
[2]
[3]

Children under 10 years: 1.2 MIU single dose

Children 10 years and over and adults: 2.4 MIU single dose

Pinta and bejel

benzathine benzylpenicillin IM.
As for yaws.
 
For patients allergic to penicillin:
doxycycline PO (except in children under 8 years and pregnant or lactating women)
Children 8 years and over: 50 mg 2 times daily for 14 days
Adults: 100 mg 2 times daily for 14 days
 
Notes:
Antibiotic treatment will cure early stage cases and may relieve the pain of osteitis. It may be ineffective for late
stage infections.
Syphilis serology will remain positive despite clinical cure.

Treatment of contacts and latent cases

T he same treatment should be administered to all symptomatic and asymptomatic contacts and to all latent cases
(asymptomatic individuals with positive serologic test for syphilis) in endemic zones. 
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion (‎2012)‎. Yaws: recognit ion booklet f or communit ies. Reprint ed wit h changes, 2014. 
ht t p://www.who.int /iris/handle/10665/75360 [Accessed 15 May 2018]

2. Oriol Mit jà, David Mabey. Yaws, bejel, and pint a (last updat ed. May 07, 2018). UpToDat e [Accessed 15 May 2018].

3. Michael Marks, Ant hony W Solomon, David C Mabey. Endemic t reponemal diseases. Transact ions of The Royal Societ y of
Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Volume 108, Issue 10, 1 Oct ober 2014, Pages 601–607.
ht t ps://doi.org/10.1093/t rst mh/t ru128 [Accessed 15 May 2018]
Leprosy
Leprosy is a chronic bacterial infection due to Mycobacterium leprae.
It is transmitted by frequent close contact, mainly between household members.
It mainly affects young adults. 94% of reported cases globally were in Bangladesh, Brazil, Democratic Republic of
Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and the United
Republic of Tanzania.
[1]

Clinical features
Leprosy should be considered in any patient presenting with:
Hypopigmented or erythematous skin lesion(s) with partial or complete loss of sensation to touch, pain, heat; 
Infiltrated pigmented nodules, initially with no sensory loss, on the face, ear lobes and the upper and lower limbs;
Tender, infiltrated and hypertrophied peripheral nerve (ulnar, radial, median, popliteal, tibial etc.) with possible
paraesthesia of the extremities, trophic changes (perforating ulcer of the foot) or paralysis (steppage gait,
deformaties of hands and feet, facial nerve paralysis).
 
T here are different clinical forms and classification systems of leprosy.

Ridley-Jopling classification 
T his classification differentiates 5 forms based on the bacteriological index. T hese forms correlate with the
immunological response to  M. leprae. Patients with tuberculoid leprosy (T T ) are resistant to the bacillus and infection
is localised. Patients with lepromatous leprosy (LL) are extremely sensitive to the bacillus and the infection is
disseminated. Borderline forms (BT, BB, BL) are between the two ends of the spectrum (T T and LL).
 
Paucibacillary forms
Multibacillary forms

(least contagious forms) (most contagious forms)

Tuberculoid Borderline Borderline Borderline Lepromatous

Tuberculoid Lepromatous

T.T. B.T. B.B. B.L. L.L.

WHO classification
In order to simplify diagnosis and to promote rapid implementation of treatment, the WHO has simplified clinical
classification of leprosy and differentiates only 2 forms:
Multibacillary leprosy: more than 5 skin lesions
Paucibacillary leprosy: 1 to 5 skin lesions
 
Multibacillary leprosy includes LL, BL and BB forms and paucibacillary leprosy includes the T T and BT forms of the
Ridley-Jopling classification system.

Laboratory
Laboratory diagnosis is based on the detection of acid-fast bacilli in a Ziehl-Neelsen stained nasal smear and skin-
split smear taken from the ear lobe or from a skin lesion. In T T leprosy bacilli are not found.
In practice, in most endemic countries diagnosis is based on the WHO clinical classification (number of lesions).
Treatment
Countries where leprosy is endemic have a control programme. Check national recommendations.
 
First-line treatment regimens recommended by the WHO
 
Multibacillary leprosy Paucibacillary leprosy

 Age
(more than 5 skin lesions) (1 to 5 skin lesions)

Children 10 to 14 years rifampicin PO: 450 mg once monthly rifampicin PO: 450 mg once monthly
+ clofazimine PO: 150 mg once monthly + clofazimine PO: 150 mg once monthly
and 50 mg on alternate days and 50 mg on alternate days
+ dapsone PO: 50 mg once daily + dapsone PO: 50 mg once daily

Children 15 years and rifampicin PO: 600 mg once monthly rifampicin PO: 600 mg once monthly
over and adults + clofazimine PO: 300 mg once monthly + clofazimine PO: 300 mg once monthly
and 50 mg once daily and 50 mg once daily
+ dapsone PO: 100 mg once daily + dapsone PO: 100 mg once daily

Duration 12 months 6 months

 
Note: the monthly doses of rifampicin and clofazimine are administered under direct observation by medical staff
whereas the daily doses of clofazimine and dapsone are taken by the patient at home. Rifampicin should be taken on
an empty stomach to improve absorption.
 
Teach the patient to recognise and quickly report a lepra reaction or relapse in order to modify or restart treatment.

Leprosy reactions
T hese reactions usually occur during the course of treatment in patients with multibacillary leprosy (BL and LL). T hey
are associated with the immunological response to M. leprae antigens. Urgent treatment is required to avoid
irreversible disability. Do not interrupt ongoing leprosy treatment. 

Clinical features
Reversal reactions: 
Exacerbation of the skin lesions that become erythematous and oedematous and risk or ulceration. Onset or
worsening of numbness of skin lesions; 
Onset of acute painful hypertrophic neuritis.
 
Erythema nodosum leprosum:
Fever, asthenia, alteration of the general state;
Crops of purplish-red, tender subcutaneous nodules, warmer than the surrounding skin. 

Treatment
Reversal reactions: 
prednisolone (or prednisone) PO: 0.5 to 1 mg/kg once daily for 2 weeks. Re-examine the patient every 2 weeks
and decrease the dosage if the neurological signs recede. According to clinical response, treatment may last 3 to 6
months.
[2]

For example, for an adult:

[3]
 
Week 1 and 2: 40 mg once daily 
 Week 3 and 4: 30 mg once daily 
Week 5 and 6: 20 mg once daily 
Week 7 and 8: 15 mg once daily 
Week 9 and 10: 10 mg once daily 
Week 11 and 12: 5 mg once daily
 
Erythema nodosum leprosum:
prednisolone (or prednisone) PO as for reversal reactions, for 3 months.
[2]
 
Fever: paracetamol PO (see Fever, Chapter 1)
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Global Leprosy Programme. Global leprosy st rat egy 2016-2020. Accelerat ing t owards a leprosy-
f ree world, 2016.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/208824/9789290225096_en.pdf ?sequence=14&isAllowed=y [Accessed 17
Oct ober 2018]

2. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO Expert Commit t ee on Leprosy. Eight h report . WHO t echnical report series, n° 968. Geneva,
2012.
ht t p://www.searo.who.int /ent it y/global_leprosy_programme/publicat ions/8t h_expert _comm_2012.pdf  [Accessed 17 Oct ober
2018]

3. World Healt h Organizat ion. A guide t o eliminat ing leprosy as a public healt h problem. Leprosy Eliminat ion Group, 2000.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/66612/WHO_CDS_CPE_CEE_2000.14.pdf ?sequence=1 [Accessed 17
Oct ober 2018]
Herpes simplex and herpes zoster
 
 
Herpes simplex
Herpes zoster (shingles)
 
 
Herpes simplex
Recurrent viral infection of the skin and mucous membranes due to the Herpes simplex virus. Recurrent lesions have a
different presentation than primary infection.

Clinical features
Recurrent herpes labialis: tingling feeling followed by an eruption of vesicles on an erythematous base, located on
the lips (‘fever blisters’) and around the mouth, they may extend onto the face. Recurrence corresponds to a
reactivation of the latent virus after a primary infection. No associated malaise, adenopathy or fever.
Carefully consider other sites: buccal (Stomatitis, Chapter 3), genital (Genital ulcers, Chapter 9), ophthalmic, and
secondary bacterial infections.

Treatment
Clean with soap and water 2 times daily until the lesions have healed.
For patients with secondary bacterial infections: antibiotic treatment as for impetigo.
Herpes zoster (shingles)
Acute viral infection due to the varicella-zoster virus. Chickenpox is the primary infection and herpes zoster the
reactivation of the latent virus.

Clinical features
Unilateral neuralgic pain followed by an eruption of vesicles on a erythematous base, that follow the distribution of a
nerve pathway.
Lesions most commonly occur on the thorax, but herpes zoster may also develop on the face with a risk of
ophthalmic complications.
Herpes zoster is more common in adults than in children.

Treatment
Similar to that of herpes simplex, with the addition of systematic analgesics: paracetamol PO (see Pain, Chapter 1).
Aciclovir PO given within the first 48 hours after the eruption of lesions is only indicated for severe forms: necrotic
or extensive lesions or lesion on the face which may spread to the eyes (see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8).
Other skin disorders
 
 
Eczema
Seborrheic dermatitis
Urticaria
Pellagra
 
 
Eczema
Acute eczema: erythematous plaque, pruritic, vesicular, oozing, with poorly demarcated and crumbly borders.
Chronic eczema: erythematous plaque, scaly, dry, poorly demarcated and pruritic.
Look for a cause (contact allergic dermatitis, fungal or bacterial infection with a distant focus, malnutrition) and ask
about family history.

Treatment
Clean with soap and water 2 times daily.
T hen:
for acute eczema: calamine lotion, one application 2 times daily 
for chronic eczema: zinc oxide ointment, one application 2 times daily
Look for and treat any pre-existing condition (scabies, lice etc.).
For patients with secondary infections: treat as impetigo.
For patients with intense pruritus, antihistamines for a few days (see Urticaria).
Seborrheic dermatitis
Seborrheic dermatitis is an inflammatory chronic dermatosis that can be localized on areas rich with sebaceous glands.
T his dermatosis is more common in infected patients with HIV.

Clinical features
Erythematous plaques covered by greasy yellow scales that can be localized on the scalp, the face (nose wings,
eyebrows, edge of the eyelids), sternum, spine, perineum, and skin folds.

Treatment
Clean with soap and water 2 times daily; shampooing the scalp.
Hydrocortisone 1% cream: one application once daily or 2 times daily to the affected area only, in thin layer, for 7
days maximum
Do not apply if pre-existing bacterial infection; treat first the infection (see Impetigo).
Urticaria
Last updated: July 2022
 
Papules: transient, erythematous, oedematous, pruritic, resembling nettle stings.
Look for a cause: food or drug (particularly antibiotic) allergy, insect bites; the invasive stage of a bacterial or parasitic
infection (ascariasis, strongylodiasis, ancylostomiasis, schistosomiasis, loiasis), viral infection (hepatitis B or C);
generalised disease (cancer, lupus, dysthyroidism, vasculitis).

Treatment
If the pruritus is intense, antihistamines for a few days:
loratadine PO
Children over 2 years and under 30 kg: 5 mg (5 ml) once daily
Children over 30 kg and adults: 10 mg (1 tab) once daily
In the event of anaphylactic reaction, see Shock (Chapter 1).
Pellagra
Pellagra is a dermatitis resulting from niacin and/or tryptophane deficiency (in persons whose staple food is sorghum;
patients with malabsorption, or during famine).

Clinical features
Classically, disease of the ‘three Ds’: dermatitis, diarrhoea and dementia.
Dark red plaques, well demarcated, symmetric, located on exposed areas of the body (forehead, neck, forearms,
legs). T he skin becomes very scaly, pigmented, sometimes with haemorrhagic bullae.
Gastrointestinal (glossitis, stomatitis and diarrhoea) and neuropsychiatric symptoms are seen in more serious forms.

Treatment
nicotinamide (vitamin PP) PO
[1]
Children and adults: 100 mg 3 times daily, give with a diet rich in protein until the patient is fully cured.
In the event of an epidemic of pellagra, for example in a refugee camp, it is vital that the food ration be modified
(add groundnuts or dry vegetables) in order to meet the daily requirements (approximately 15 mg daily for adults).
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion, Unit ed Nat ions High Commissions f or Ref ugees. Pellagra and it s prevent ion and cont rol in major
emergencies. World Healt h Organizat ion, 2000.
ht t p://www.who.int /nut rit ion/publicat ions/en/pellagra_prevent ion_cont rol.pdf [Accessed 23 May 2018]
Chapter 5: Eye diseases
Xerophthalmia (vitamin A deficiency)

Conjunctivitis
Neonatal conjunctivitis
Viral epidemic keratoconjunctivitis

Trachoma

Periorbital and orbital cellulitis

Other pathologies
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Loiasis
Pterygium
Cataract
 
 
 
 
Xerophthalmia (vitamin A deficiency)
T he term xerophthalmia covers all the ocular manifestations of vitamin A deficiency. Xerophthalmia can progress to
irreversible blindness if left untreated.
 
In endemic areas, vitamin A deficiency and xerophthalmia affect mainly children (particularly those suffering from
malnutrition or measles) and pregnant women.
 
Disorders due to vitamin A deficiency can be prevented by the routine administration of retinol.

Clinical features
T he first sign is hemeralopia (crepuscular blindness): the child cannot see in dim light, may bump into objects and/or
show decreased mobility.
T hen, other signs appear gradually:
Conjunctival xerosis: bulbar conjunctiva appears dry, dull, thick, wrinkled and insensitive
Bitot’s spots: greyish foamy patches on the bulbar conjunctiva, usually in both eyes (specific sign, however not
always present)
Corneal xerosis: cornea appears dry and dull
Corneal ulcerations
Keratomalacia (the last and most severe sign of xerophthalmia): softening of the cornea, followed by
perforation of the eyeball and blindness (extreme care must be taken during ophthalmic examination due to risk
of rupturing cornea)

Treatment
Treat early symptoms to avoid the development of severe complications. Vision can be saved provided that
ulcerations affect less than a third of the cornea and the pupil is spared. Even if deficiency has already led to
keratomalacia and irreversible loss of sight, it is imperative to administer treatment, in order to save the other eye and
the life of the patient.
 
retinol (vitamin A) PO:
Treatment is the same regardless of the clinical stage, except in pregnant women.

Age 200 000 IU capsule

(a)

Children < 6 months

(b) 50 000 IU (2 drops) once daily on D1, D2 and D8

Children 6 months to < 1 year 100 000 IU (4 drops) once daily on D1, D2 and D8

Children ≥ 1 year and adults 200 000 IU (one capsule) once daily on D1, D2 and D8

(a) Capsules must not be swallowed whole. Cut t he end of t he capsule and deliver t he dose direct ly int o t he mout h.
(b) Vit amin A deficiency is rare in breast f ed inf ant s under 6 mont hs.

In pregnant women, treatment varies according to the stage of illness:

Hemeralopia or Bitot's spots: 10 000 IU once daily or 25 000 IU once weekly for at least 4 weeks. Do not
exceed indicated doses (risk of foetal malformations).
 If the cornea is affected, risk of blindness outweighs teratogenic risk. Administer 200 000 IU once daily on D1,
D2 and D8.
 
Corneal lesions are a medical emergency. In addition to the immediate administration of retinol, treat or prevent
secondary bacterial infections with 1% tetracycline eye ointment, one application 2 times daily (do not apply eye
drops containing corticosteroids) and protect the eye with an eye-pad after each application.

Prevention
Systematically administer retinol PO to children suffering from measles (one dose on D1 and D2).
In areas where vitamin A deficiency is endemic
a
, routine supplementation of retinol PO:

Age 200 000 IU capsule

(c)

Children < 6 months 50 000 IU (2 drops) single dose

Children 6 months to < 1 year 100 000 IU (4 drops) every 4 to 6 months

Children 1 to < 5 years 200 000 IU (one capsule) every 4 to 6 months

Women after delivery 200 000 IU (one capsule) single dose

(c) Capsules must not be swallowed whole. Cut t he end of t he capsule and deliver t he dose direct ly int o t he mout h.

To avoid excessive dosage, record any doses administered on the health/immunisation card and do not exceed
indicated doses. Vitamin A overdose may cause raised intracranial pressure (bulging fontanelle in infants; headache,
nausea, vomiting) and, in severe cases, impaired consciousness and convulsions. T hese adverse effects are transient;
they require medical surveillance and symptomatic treatment if needed.
 

Footnotes
(a) For more inf ormat ion count ry-specific prevalence of vit amin A deficiency, see:
ht t ps://www.t helancet .com/act ion/showPdf ?pii=S2214-109X%2815%2900039-X
Conjunctivitis
Neonatal conjunctivitis
Viral epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
 
 
Conjunctivitis is an acute inflammation of the conjunctiva due to a bacterial or viral infection, allergy, or irritation.
Conjunctivitis may be associated with measles or rhinopharyngitis in children.
In the absence of hygiene and effective treatment, secondary bacterial infections may develop, affecting the cornea
(keratitis).

Clinical features
Clinical signs of all conjuctivites include: redness of the eye and irritation. Visual acuity is not affected.
Depending on the cause:
abundant and purulent secretions, eyelids stuck together on waking, unilateral infection at onset: bacterial
conjunctivitis;
watery (serous) secretions, no itching: viral conjunctivitis;
excessive lacrimation, eyelid oedema, intense itching: allergic conjunctivitis.
In endemic areas, turn both upper eyelids up to check for signs of trachoma (see Trachoma).
Suspect keratitis if patient reports intense pain (more than is usually associated with conjunctivitis) and
photophobia. Instill one drop of 0.5% fluorescein to check for possible ulcerations.
Always check for foreign bodies (subconjunctival or corneal) and remove after administering 0.4%
oxybuprocaine anaesthetic eye drops. Never give bottle of eye drops to the patient.

Treatment
Bacterial conjunctivitis
Clean eyes 4 times daily with boiled water or 0.9% sodium chloride.
Apply into both eyes 1% tetracycline eye ointment: one application 2 times daily for 7 days
Never use corticosteroid drops or ointment.

Viral conjunctivitis
Clean eyes 4 times daily with boiled water or 0.9% sodium chloride.
Apply local antibiotics if there is a (risk of) secondary bacterial infection (see above).

Allergic conjunctivitis
Local treatment as for viral conjunctivitis.
Antihistamines PO for one to 3 days (see Urticaria, Chapter 4).
 
Note: in the event of a foreign body, check tetanus immunisation status.
Neonatal conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis due to Neisseria gonorrhoeae and/or Chlamydia trachomatis in neonates born to mothers with genital
gonococcal and/or chlamydial infections at the time of delivery.
Neonatal conjunctivitis is a medical emergency. Without prompt treatment, risk of corneal lesions and visual
impairment.

Clinical features
Unilateral or bilateral purulent conjunctivitis in the first 28 days of life.

Treatment
Clean eyes with isotonic sterile solution (0.9% sodium chloride or Ringer lactate) 4 times daily to remove secretions.
Antibiotic treatment:
for all neonates with conjunctivitis in the first 28 days of life
for all neonates born to mothers with a genital infection (purulent cervical discharge) at the time of delivery 
 
  0 to 7 days 8 to 28 days

First line ceftriaxone IM: 50 mg/kg single dose ceftriaxone IM: 50 mg/kg single dose
  (max. 125 mg) (max. 125 mg)
  +
azithromycin PO: 20 mg/kg once daily for
3 days

Alternatives If ceftriaxone contra-indicated: If azithromycin unavailable:

cefotaxime IM: 100 mg/kg single dose erythromycin PO: 12.5 mg/kg 4 times daily for
14 days

 
If symptoms persist 48 hours after parenteral treatment alone, administer azithromycin PO (or erythromycin PO
as above).
 
Notes:
When systemic treatment is not immediately available, clean both eyes and apply 1% tetracycline eye
ointment every hour, until systemic treatment is available.
In all cases, treat the genital infection of the mother and partner (see Genital infections, Chapter 9).
Azithromycin and erythromycin are associated with an increased risk of pyloric stenosis in neonates. T he risk is
higher with erythromycin
[1]
[2]
[3]
. Adverse effects should be monitored.

Prevention
Apply as soon as possible and preferably within one hour after birth:
1% tetracycline eye ointment: application of 1 cm in each eye.
 

References
1. Lund M et al. Use of macrolides in mot her and child and risk of inf ant ile hypert rophic pyloric st enosis: nat ionwide cohort
st udy. BMJ. 2014; 348: g1908.
ht t ps://www.bmj.com/cont ent /348/bmj.g1908 [Accessed 16 April 2021]

2. Murchison L et al. Post -nat al eryt hromycin exposure and risk of inf ant ile hypert rophic pyloric st enosis: a syst emat ic review
and met a-analysis. Pediat r Surg Int . 2016 Dec; 32(12): 1147-1152. 
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC5106491/ [Accessed 16 April 2021]

3. Almaramhy HH et al. The associat ion of prenat al and post nat al macrolide exposure wit h subsequent development of
inf ant ile hypert rophic pyloric st enosis: a syst emat ic review and met a-analysis. It al J Pediat r. 2019 Feb 4; 45(1)20. 
ht t ps://ijponline.biomedcent ral.com/art icles/10.1186/s13052-019-0613-2 [Accessed 16 April 2021]
Viral epidemic keratoconjunctivitis
 

Corneal and conjunctival lesions

 
Treat as viral conjunctivitis. If possible, refer to an ophthalmologist.
Protect the eye with a compress as long as photophobia lasts. Remove as soon as possible.
If necessary, administer a preventive dose of vitamin A.
Trachoma
Trachoma is a highly contagious keratoconjunctivitis due to Chlamydia trachomatis. T he disease is endemic in the
poorest rural areas of Africa, Asia, Central and South America and the Middle East.
Infection is usually first contracted early in childhood by direct or indirect contact (dirty hands, contaminated towels,
flies). In the absence of hygiene and effective treatment, the inflammation intensifies with successive infections,
causing scars and deformities on the upper tarsal conjunctiva. T he resulting ingrowing eyelashes (trichiasis) cause
corneal lesions followed by permanent blindness, usually in adulthood.
T he WHO classifies trachoma into 5 stages. Early diagnosis and treatment of first stages is essential to avoid the
development of trichiasis and associated complications.

Clinical features
Several stages can occur simultaneously
[1]
[2]
:
 
Stage 1: trachomatous inflammation - follicular (T F)
Presence of five or more follicles in the upper tarsal conjunctiva. Follicles are whitish, grey or yellow elevations,
paler than the surrounding conjunctiva.
 
Stage 2: trachomatous inflammation - intense (T I)
T he upper tarsal conjunctiva is red, rough and thickened. T he blood vessels, normally visible, are masked by a
diffuse inflammatory infiltration or follicles.
 
Stage 3: trachomatous scarring (T S)
Follicles disappear, leaving scars: scars are white lines, bands or patches in the tarsal conjunctiva.
 
Stage 4: trachomatous trichiasis (T T )
Due to multiple scars the margin of the eyelid, usually the upper lid, turns inwards (entropion); the eyelashes rub
against the cornea and cause ulcerations and chronic inflammation.
 
Stage 5: corneal opacity (CO)
Cornea gradually loses its transparency, leading to visual impairment and blindness.

Treatment
Stages 1 and 2:
Clean eyes and face several times per day.
Antibiotic treatment
[3]
:
T he treatment of choice is azithromycin PO:
Children: 20 mg/kg single dose
Adults: 1 g single dose
Failing the above, 1% tetracycline eye ointment: one application 2 times daily for 6 weeks, or, as a last resort,
erythromycin PO: 20 mg/kg (max. 1 g) 2 times daily for 14 days.
 
Stage 3: no treatment
 
Stage 4: surgical treatment
While waiting for surgery, if regular patient follow-up is possible, taping eyelashes to the eyelid is a palliative
measure that can help protect the cornea. In certain cases, this may lead to permanent correction of the trichiasis
within a few months.
T he method consists in sticking the ingrowing eyelashes to the external eyelid with a thin strip of sticking-plaster,
making sure that the eyelid can open and close perfectly. Replace the plaster when it starts to peel off (usually once
a week); continue treatment for 3 months.
 Note: epilation of ingrowing eyelashes is not recommended since it offers only temporary relief and regrowing
eyelashes are more abrasive to the cornea.
 
Stage 5: no treatment

Prevention
Cleaning of the eyes, face and hands with clean water reduces direct transmission and the development of secondary
bacterial infections.
 

References
1. Solomon AW et al. The simplified t rachoma grading syst em, amended. Bull World Healt h Organ. 2020;98(10):698-705. 
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC7652564/ [Accessed 20 April 2021]

2. Thylef ors B et al. A simple syst em f or t he assessment of t rachoma and it s complicat ions. Bull World Healt h Organ.
1987;65(4):477–83.
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC2491032/ [Accessed 20 April 2021]

3. Evans JR et al. Ant ibiot ics f or t rachoma. Cochrane Dat abase Syst Rev. 2019 Sep 26;9:CD001860. 
ht t ps://www.cochranelibrary.com/cdsr/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD001860.pub4/f ull [Accessed 20 April 2021]
Periorbital and orbital cellulitis
Periorbital cellulitis is a common, usually benign, bacterial infection of the eyelids. It arises principally following trauma
to the eyelids (insect bite or abrasion).
Orbital cellulitis is a serious infection involving the contents of the orbit (fat and ocular muscles) that may lead to loss of
vision or a brain abscess. It usually arises secondary to spread from sinusitis (e.g. as a complication of ethmoid
sinusitis).
Periorbital and orbital cellulitis are more common in children than in adults.
T he most common organisms causing periorbital and orbital cellulitis are Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
pneumoniae and other streptococci, as well as Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) in children living in countries where
rates of immunisation with Hib remain low.

Clinical features
Signs common to both periorbital and orbital cellulitis: acute eyelid erythema and oedema; the oedema has a
violaceous hue if secondary to H. influenzae.
In case of orbital cellulitis only:
Pain with eye movements;
Ophthalmoplegia (paralysis of eye movements) often with diplopia (double vision);
Protrusion of the eye (eye bulges out of the socket);
High fever, systemic signs.

Treatment
Hospitalize for the following: orbital cellulitis, children younger than 3 months, critically ill appearing patient
a
, local
complications, debilitated patient (chronic conditions, the elderly), if there is a risk of non-compliance with or failure
of outpatient treatment. Treat the other patients as outpatients.
 
Outpatient antibiotic therapy
b
:
cefalexin PO for 7 to 10 days
Neonates 0 to 7 days: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily 
Neonates 8 days to 1 month: 25 mg/kg 3 times daily 
Children over 1 month: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily (max. 2 g daily)
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 1 g 2 times daily
or
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO for 7 to 10 days
Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults:
Ratio 8:1: 3000 mg daily (2 tab of 500/62.5 mg 3 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 2625 mg daily (1 tab of 875/125 mg 3 times daily)
 
Inpatient antibiotic therapy
c
:
ceftriaxone slow IV
d
(3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes; 60 minutes in neonates) for at least 5 days
Children: one dose of 100 mg/kg on the first day, then 50 mg/kg 2 times daily
Adults: 1 to 2 g once daily
+
cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
e

Neonates 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 12 hours

 Neonates 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
Children 1 month and over: 25 to 50 mg/kg every 6 hours (max. 8 g daily)
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 2 g every 6 hours
If there is clinical improvement (patient afebrile and erythema and oedema have improved) after 5 days, change to
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO at the doses indicated above to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment.
 
If there is no improvement in the first 48 hours (suspicion of methicillin resistant S. aureus), replace cloxacillin with:
clindamycin IV infusion (30 minutes)
f

Neonates 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 12 hours

Neonates 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (< 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (≥ 2 kg): 10 mg/kg every 8 hours
Children 1 month and over: 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 1800 mg daily)
Adults: 600 mg every 8 hours
After 5 days, change to clindamycin PO at the same doses to complete 7 to 10 days of treatment.
 
If orbital cellulitis is unresponsive to IV antibiotics, consider an abscess. Transfer patient to a surgical centre for
drainage.
 

Footnotes
(a) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsy and dif ficult t o arrouse, does not smile, disconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.

(b) For penicillin-allergic pat ient s, clindamycin PO f or 7 t o 10 days:

Children: 10 mg/kg 3 t imes daily; adult s: 600 mg 3 t imes daily

(c) For penicillin-allergic pat ient s, clindamycin IV inf usion (doses as above).

(d) For administ rat ion by IV rout e, cef t riaxone powder should t o be reconst it ut ed in wat er f or inject ion only. For administ rat ion
by IV inf usion, dilut e each dose of cef t riaxone in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg
and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children over 20 kg and in adult s.

(e) Cloxacillin powder f or inject ion should be reconst it ut ed in 4 ml of wat er f or inject ion. Then dilut e each dose of cloxacillin in
5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5 % glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose in children over 20 kg and in adult s.

(f ) Dilut e each dose of clindamycin in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of
100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children over 20 kg and in adult s.
Other pathologies
 
 
Onchocerciasis
Loiasis
Pterygium
Cataract
 
 
 
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Ocular lesions result from the invasion of the eye by microfilariae. T hey generally develop in adults and progress to
blindness in the absence of early treatment.

Clinical features and treatment

Ocular lesions are always associated with onchocercal skin lesions (see Onchocerciasis, Chapter 6).
Pruritus, hemeralopia (crepuscular blindness), decrease in visual acuity, narrowing of the visual field, awareness of
microfilariae in the visual field (the patient sees “little wiggling worms before his eyes”).
Lesions of the cornea (punctuate, then sclerosing, keratitis), iris (iridocyclitis) or posterior segment
(chorioretinopathy and optic atrophy); microfilariae within the anterior chamber or vitreous humor (slit lamp).
 
For treatment, see Onchocerciasis, Chapter 6. Ivermectin treatment may improve anterior segment lesions (sclerosing
keratitis, iridocyclitis) and visual acuity. Severe lesions (chorioretinal lesions, optic atrophy) continue to progress despite
treatment.
Loiasis
Clinical features and treatment
Migration of an adult worm under the palpebral or bulbar conjunctiva (white, filiform worm, measuring 4 to 7 cm in
length, mobile) and ocular pruritus, lacrimation, photophobia or eyelid oedema.
 
For treatment, see Loiais, Chapter 6. T he migration of the worm is often of very brief duration. Do not attempt to
extract it, or administer anaesthetic drops; simply reassure the patient, the event is harmless. Surgical removal is
likewise futile if the worm is dead/calcified.
Pterygium
A whitish, triangular growth of fibrovascular tissue extending slowly from the conjunctiva to the cornea. It occurs most
frequently in patients who are exposed to wind, dust, or arid climates and never disappears spontaneously.

Clinical features and treatment

Two stages:
Benign pterygium develops slowly, does not reach the pupil: no treatment.
Progressive vascularized pterygium: red and inflamed growth covers the pupil and may impair vision:
Clean eye with sterile water or 0.9% sodium chloride.
Surgical removal if facilities are available.
Cataract
 
 
Opacity of the lens that causes a progressive loss of visual acuity. Cataract is common in the tropics and can occur at
a younger age than in Europe. T he presence of cataract in both eyes leads to blindness. Surgery is the only treatment.
Chapter 6: Parasitic diseases
Malaria

Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness)

American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)

Leishmaniases

Intestinal protozoan infections (parasitic diarrhoea)

Flukes

Schistosomiases

Cestodes

Nematode infections

Filariasis
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Loiasis
Lymphatic filariasis (LF)
 
 
 
Malaria
Malaria is a parasitic infection due to protozoa of the genus Plasmodium, transmitted to humans by the bite of
Anopheles mosquitoes. Transmission by transfusion of parasite infected blood and transplacental transmission are
also possible.
5 species of Plasmodium cause malaria in humans: P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae and P. knowlesi. All
species may cause uncomplicated malaria. Severe malaria (defined by the presence of complications) is almost always
due to P. falciparum. and, less frequently, P. vivax and P. knowlesi.
Uncomplicated malaria can rapidly progress to severe malaria, and severe malaria may cause death within a few hours
if left untreated.

Clinical features
Malaria should always be considered in patients living in or coming from, an endemic area, who presents with fever (or
history of fever in the previous 48 hours). 

Uncomplicated malaria
Fever is frequently associated with chills, sweating, headache, muscular ache, malaise, anorexia or nausea. In children,
fever may be associated with abdominal pain, diarrhoea and vomiting. Mild to moderate anaemia is frequent in children
and pregnant women.

Severe malaria
In addition to the above, patients presenting with one or more of the following complications
[1]
 should be hospitalised
immediately:
Impaired consciousness, including coma.
Seizures: more than 2 episodes of generalised or focal (e.g. abnormal eye movements) seizures within 24 hours.
Prostration: extreme weakness; in children: inability to sit or drink/suck.
Respiratory distress: rapid, laboured breathing or slow, deep breathing.
Shock: cold extremities, weak or absent pulse, capillary refill time ≥ 3 seconds, cyanosis.
Jaundice: yellow discolouration of mucosal surfaces of the mouth, conjunctivae and palms.
Haemoglobinuria: dark red urine.
Abnormal bleeding: skin (petechiae), conjunctivae, nose, gums; blood in stools.
Acute renal failure: oliguria (urine output < 12 ml/kg/day in children and < 400 ml/day in adults) despite adequate
hydration.

Laboratory
Parasitological diagnosis
[2]
Diagnosis of malaria should be confirmed, whenever possible. If testing is not available, treatment of suspected malaria
should not be delayed. 
 
Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs)
a

Rapid tests detect parasite antigens. T hey give only a qualitative result (positive or negative) and may remain positive
several days or weeks following elimination of parasites.
 
Microscopy
T hin and thick blood films enable parasite detection, species identification, quantification and monitoring of
parasitaemia.
Blood films may be negative due to sequestration of the parasitized erythrocytes in peripheral capillaries in severe
malaria, as well as in placental vessels in pregnant women.
 
Note: even with positive diagnostic results, rule out other causes of fever.

Additional examinations
Haemoglobin (Hb) level
To be measured routinely in all patients with clinical anaemia, and in all patients with severe malaria.
 
Blood glucose level
To be measured routinely to detect hypoglycaemia in patients with severe malaria and those with malnutrition (see
Hypoglycaemia, Chapter 1).

Treatment of malaria due to P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. knowlesi

chloroquine (CQ) PO
b

Children and adults:

Day 1: 10 mg base/kg
Day 2: 10 mg base/kg
Day 3: 5 mg base/kg
 
In general P. vivax remains sensitive to CQ but resistance is found in several countries. Where such resistance is high
(>10%), or in countries which have de-registered CQ due to P. falciparum resistance, an artemisinin-based combination
therapy (ACT )
c
 should be used instead
[1]
. For dosing information, see Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria.
 
Relapses can occur with P. vivax and P. ovale due to activation of dormant parasites in the liver. Primaquine PO for 14
days (0.25 to 0.5 mg/kg once daily in children ≥ 15 kg; 15 mg once daily in adults) can be given to eliminate these
parasites, after the initial treatment with CQ or an ACT. However, this treatment is only recommended for patients living
in areas where reinfection is unlikely, i.e. non-endemic, low transmission areas or in countries aiming for elimination of
malaria. T his treatment is contra-indicated in individuals with G6PD deficiency. If G6PD deficiency cannot be tested
individually, the decision to prescribe primaquine must take into account the prevalence of deficiency in the population.

Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria

Antimalarial treatment
During pregnancy, see Antimalarial treatment in pregnant women.
 
Treatment is an artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT )
c
 given by the oral route for 3 days
[1]
. T he first-line ACT
is chosen according to therapeutic efficacy in the area where the patient is living. If the first line ACT is unavailable,
contra-indicated or has failed despite being correctly administered, use another ACT. For dosing information, see table
below.
 
Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria
b

In low malaria endemic areas, in addition to ACT, all individuals (except in children < 30 kg,  pregnant women or
breastfeeding women of infants aged < 6 months) diagnosed with P. falciparum malaria, should be given a single dose
of 0.25 mg/kg primaquine to reduce the risk of transmission
[3]
.
 
Notes:
In infants below the age/weight mentioned in the table above, there is little data on efficacy and safety of ACTs.
T he combinations AL, AS/AQ and DHA/PPQ can be used. T he dose should be calculated so as to correspond to
10-16 mg/kg/dose of lumefantrine; 10 mg/kg daily of amodiaquine; 20 mg/kg daily of piperaquine.
Clinical condition of young children can deteriorate rapidly; it may be preferable to start parenteral treatment
straight away (see below).
 
Quinine PO is not recommended as standard treatment, however still remains in some national protocols:
quinine PO for 7 days
b

Children and adults under 50 kg: 10 mg/kg 3 times daily

Adults 50 kg and over: 600 mg 3 times daily

Symptomatic treatment
Paracetamol PO in the event of high fever only (Fever, Chapter 1).

Treatment of severe malaria

T he patient must be hospitalised.

Antimalarial treatment
During pregnancy, see Antimalarial treatment in pregnant women.

Pre-referral treatment
If the patient needs to be transferred, administer before transfer:
At community level, for children under 6 years: one dose of rectal artesunate
d
 (10 mg/kg)
Children 2 months to < 3 years (≤ 10 kg): 1 rectal capsule (100 mg)
Children 3 to < 6 years (≤ 20 kg): 2 rectal capsules (200 mg)
or
At dispensary level, for children and adults: the first dose of artesunate or, if unavailable, the first dose of
artemether. For dosing information, see below.
 
In either case, provide patients, especially children, with some sugar prior to or during transfer.

Inpatient treatment
T he drug of choice is artesunate, preferably IV, or if not possible IM.
For patients in shock: IM route is not appropriate, use artesunate IV only. 
 
artesunate slow IV injection (3 to 5 minutes) or, if not possible, slow IM injection, into the anterior thigh:
Children under 20 kg: 3 mg/kg/dose
Children 20 kg and over and adults: 2.4 mg/kg/dose
One dose on admission (H0)
One dose 12 hours after admission (H12)
One dose 24 hours after admission (H24)
T hen one dose once daily
Treat parenterally for at least 24 hours (3 doses), then, if the patient can tolerate the oral route, change to a complete
3-day course of an ACT. If not, continue parenteral treatment once daily until the patient can change to oral route
(without exceeding 7 days of parenteral treatment).
 
If artesunate is not unavailable, artemether may be an alternative:
artemether IM into the anterior thigh (never administer by IV route)
Children and adults: 3.2 mg/kg on admission (D1) then 1.6 mg/kg once daily
Treat parenterally for at least 24 hours (2 doses), then, if the patient can tolerate the oral route, change to a complete
3-day course of an ACT. If not, continue parenteral treatment once daily until the patient can change to oral route
(without exceeding 7 days of parenteral treatment).
 
Note: if patient is still on parenteral treatment on Day 5, continue on the same treatment until Day 7. In this case it is
not necessary to start an ACT.
 
Quinine IV is still recommended in some national protocols. It may be used in treatment of malaria with shock if
artesunate IV is not available. T he dose is expressed in quinine salt:
Loading dose: 20 mg/kg to be administered over 4 hours, then, keep the vein open with an infusion of 5% glucose
over 4 hours; then
Maintenance dose: 8 hours after the start of the loading dose, 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (alternate quinine over 4
hours and 5% glucose over 4 hours).
For adults, administer each dose of quinine in 250 ml of glucose. For children under 20 kg, administer each dose of
quinine in a volume of 10 ml/kg of glucose.
Do not administer a loading dose to patients who have received oral quinine, or mefloquine within the previous 24
hours: start with maintenance dose.
Treat parenterally for at least 24 hours, then, if the patient can tolerate the oral route, change to a complete 3-day
course of an ACT (or if not available, oral quinine to complete 7 days of quinine treatment). If not, continue parenteral
treatment until the patient can change to oral route (without exceeding 7 days of parenteral treatment).
Symptomatic treatment and management of complications
Hydration
Maintain adequate hydration. As a guide, for volume to be administered per 24 hours by oral or IV route, see Appendix
1.
Adjust the volume according to clinical condition in order to avoid dehydration or fluid overload (risk of pulmonary
oedema).

Fever
Paracetamol in the event of high fever only (Fever, Chapter 1).

Severe anaemia
For treatment, see Anaemia, Chapter 1.

Hypoglycaemia
For treatment, see Hypoglycaemia, Chapter 1.
 
Notes: 
In an unconscious or prostrated patient, in case of emergency or when venous access is unavailable or awaited, use
granulated sugar by the sublingual route to correct hypoglycaemia
e
.
T he risk of hypoglycaemia is higher in patients receiving IV quinine. 

Coma
Check/ensure the airway is clear, measure blood glucose level and assess level of consciousness.
In the event of hypoglycaemia or if blood glucose level cannot be measured, administer glucose.
If the patient does not respond to administration of glucose, or if hypoglycaemia is not detected:
Insert a urinary catheter; place the patient in the recovery position.
Monitor vital signs, blood glucose level, level of consciousness, fluid balance (urine output and fluid input) hourly until
stable, then every 4 hours.
Rule out meningitis (lumbar puncture) or proceed directly to administration of an antibiotic (see Meningitis, Chapter
7).
Reposition the patient every 2 hours; ensure eyes and mouth are kept clean and moist, etc.

Seizures
See Seizures, Chapter 1. Address possible causes (e.g. hypoglycaemia; fever in children).

Respiratory distress
Rapid laboured breathing:
Check for pulmonary oedema (crepitations on auscultation), which may occur with or without fluid overload: reduce
IV infusion rate if the patient is receiving IV therapy, nurse semi-sitting, oxygen, furosemide IV: 1 mg/kg in children,
40 mg in adults. Repeat after 1 to 2 hours if necessary.
Associated pneumonia should also be considered (see Acute pneumonia, Chapter 2).
 
Slow, deep breathing (suspected metabolic acidosis):
Look for dehydration (and correct if present), decompensated anaemia (and transfuse if present).

Oliguria and acute renal failure

Look first for dehydration (Dehydration, Chapter 1), especially due to inadequate fluid intake or excessive fluid losses
(high fever, vomiting, diarrhoea). Treat dehydration if present. Be aware of the risk of fluid overload and acute
pulmonary oedema. Monitor for the return of urine output.
 
Acute renal failure (ARF) is found almost exclusively in adults and is more common in Asia than Africa. Insert a urinary
catheter, measure output. Restrict fluids to 1 litre/day (30 ml/kg/day in children), plus additional volume equal to urine
output. Renal dialysis is often necessary.

Antimalarial treatment in pregnant women

Uncomplicated P. vivax, P. ovale, P. malariae, P. knowlesi malaria
As other patients.
Primaquine should not be given in pregnancy.

Uncomplicated falciparum malaria

All ACT  included in the table Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria can be used in all trimesters.
If ACTs are not available, quinine PO (for dosing, see Treatment of uncomplicated falciparum malaria)
combined with clindamycin PO if possible (10 mg/kg 2 times daily for 7 days) may be an alternative to ACT.
Primaquine should not be given in pregnancy.

Severe malaria
Artesunate, or if unavailable artemether, is recommended in all trimesters.
Quinine IV is not recommended as standard treatment, however it still remains in some national protocols.

Prevention
For pregnant women in areas with high risk of infection with P. falciparum, refer to the guide Essential obstetric and
newborn care, MSF.
In areas with seasonal malaria transmission (in particular across the Sahel sub-region), seasonal malaria
chemoprevention in children < 5 years reduces mortality: administer amodiaquine + SP at monthly intervals for 4
months during the transmission period
[4]
.
In malaria endemic areas and in epidemic-prone contexts, all in-patient facilities (including HIV treatment centres
and feeding centres), should be furnished with long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs). For more information, refer to
the guide Public health engineering, MSF.
See specialised literature for information regarding anti-vector measures and prevention in travellers.
 

Footnotes
(a) Most rapid t est s det ect t he f ollowing ant igens alone or in combinat ion: HRP2 prot ein specific t o P. falciparum; an enzyme
(Pf pLDH) specific t o P. falciparum; an enzyme (pan pLDH) common t o all 4 plasmodium species. HRP2 may cont inue t o be
det ect able f or 6 weeks or more af t er parasit e clearance; pLDH remains det ect able f or several days (up t o 2 weeks) af t er
parasit e clearance.
Use pan pLDH t est s as first choice in hyper and holo-endemic areas, as well as in areas of int ense seasonal t ransmission and
during out breaks or complex emergencies. In ot her cont ext s, HRP2 t est s (P. falciparum > 95%) or HRP2 + pLDH combinat ion
t est s (P. falciparum < 95%) are pref erred.

(b) If t he pat ient vomit s wit hin 30 minut es af t er administ rat ion: re-administ er t he f ull dose. If t he pat ient vomit s bet ween 30
minut es and 1 hour af t er administ rat ion, re-administ er half of t he dose. If severe vomit ing precludes oral t herapy, manage as
severe malaria, see Treat ment of severe malaria.
(c) ACT: a combinat ion of art emisinin or one of it s derivat ives (e.g. art esunat e, art emet her) wit h anot her ant imalarial of a
dif f erent class.

(d) If it is impossible t o ref er a pat ient t o a cent er capable of providing parent eral t reat ment , rect al art esunat e should be given
according t o t he same schedule as art esunat e slow IV inject ion (H0, H12, H24, t hen once daily).

(e) Place a level t easpoon of sugar, moist ened wit h a f ew drops of wat er, under t he t ongue, t hen place t he pat ient in t he
recovery posit ion. Repeat af t er 15 minut es if t he pat ient has not regained consciousness. As wit h ot her met hods f or
t reat ing hypoglycaemia, maint ain regular sugar int ake, and monit or.

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Guidelines f or t he t reat ment of malaria, 3rd ed. World Healt h Organizat ion. 2015.
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/handle/10665/162441

2. World Healt h Organizat ion. Compendium of WHO malaria guidance: prevent ion, diagnosis, t reat ment , surveillance and
eliminat ion. 2019.
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/handle/10665/312082

3. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO policy brief on single-dose primaquine as gamet ocyt ocide in Plasmodium f alciparum
malaria. 2015.
ht t ps://www.who.int /malaria/publicat ions/at oz/who_ht m_gmp_2015.1.pdf ?ua=1

4. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO Policy Recommendat ion: Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevent ion (SMC) f or Plasmodium
falciparum malaria cont rol in highly seasonal t ransmission areas of t he Sahel sub-region in Af rica. 2012.
ht t ps://www.who.int /malaria/publicat ions/at oz/smc_policy_recommendat ion_en_032012.pdf ?ua=1
Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping
sickness)
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT ) is a zoonosis caused by protozoa (trypanosomes), transmitted to humans
through the bite of a tsetse fly (Glossina). Transmission by contaminated blood transfusion and transplacental
transmission are also possible.
T he disease is found only in sub-Saharan Africa. T here are two forms: Trypanosoma brucei gambiense HAT in western
and central Africa and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense HAT in eastern and southern Africa.

Clinical features
Inoculation may be followed by an immediate local reaction (trypanosomal chancre). T his chancre arises in about 50%
of all rhodesiense but rarely in gambiense.

Gambiense HAT
Incubation lasts from a few days to several years.
T he first stage (haemolymphatic stage) corresponds to the haematogenous and lymphatic dissemination of the
parasite. Signs include intermittent fever, joint pain, lymphadenopathy (firm, mobile, painless lymph nodes, mainly
cervical), hepatosplenomegaly and skin signs (facial oedema, pruritus).
T he second stage (meningoencephalitic stage) corresponds to the invasion of the central nervous system. Signs of
the haemolymphatic stage recede or disappear and varying neurological signs progressively develop: sensory
disturbances (deep hyperaesthesia), psychiatric disorders (apathy or agitation), disturbance of the sleep cycle (with
daytime somnolence alternating with insomnia at night), impaired motor functions (paralysis, seizures, tics) and
neuroendocrine disorders (amenorrhoea, impotence).
In the absence of treatment: cachexia, lethargy, coma and death.

Rhodesiense HAT
T he first stage is the same as above, but the incubation period is shorter (< 3 weeks), the disease evolves more rapidly
and symptoms are more severe. Patients often die of myocarditis in 3 to 6 months without having developed signs of
the meningo-encephalitic stage.

In practice, gambiense and rhodesiense HAT can be difficult to differentiate: e.g., there exist cases of acute
gambiense infection and others of chronic rhodesiense infection.

Laboratory
Diagnosis involves 3 steps for gambiense HAT (screening test, diagnostic confirmation and stage determination)
and 2 steps for rhodesiense HAT (diagnostic confirmation and stage determination).
T he recommended screening test for T.b. gambiense infection is the CAT T (Card Agglutination Test for
Trypanosomiasis). It detects the presence of specific antibodies in the patient’s blood or serum.
Diagnostic confirmation: presence of trypanosomes in lymph node aspirates or in blood using concentration
techniques: capillary tube centrifugation technique (Woo test), quantitative buffy coat (QBC), mini-anion exchange
centrifugation technique (mAEC).
Stage determination: detection of trypanosomes (after centrifugation) and white cell count in the cerebrospinal fluid
(lumbar puncture):
Haemolymphatic stage: no trypanosomes AND ≤ 5 white cells/mm3
 Meningoencephalitic stage: evidence of trypanosomes OR > 5 white cells/mm3

Treatment (except in pregnant women)

Due to the toxicity of trypanocides, detection of the parasite is essential before initiating treatment. In the absence
of parasitological confirmation, treatment may nevertheless be justified in certain cases: very strong clinical
suspicion, patients in life-threatening condition, strong serological suspicion (CAT T 1:16 positive) in a population
where the disease is highly prevalent (> 2%).
Several treatment regimens exist. Check national recommendations and local resistance levels.
Treatment must be administered under close medical supervision. Patients receiving pentamidine can be treated as
outpatients but those receiving suramin, eflornithine (with or without nifurtimox) or melarsoprol should be
hospitalised.
After treatment, patients should be checked every 6 months (clinical examination, lumbar puncture and examination
for trypanosomes) over 24 months, to look for relapse.

Haemolymphatic stage (Stage I)

Gambiense HAT
pentamidine isetionate deep IM
Children and adults: 4 mg/kg once daily for 7 to 10 days
Patients should receive a source of glucose (meal, sweet tea) one hour before injection (risk of hypoglycaemia); they
should remain supine during administration and one hour after injection (risk of hypotension).

Rhodesiense HAT
suramin slow IV
Children and adults:
D1: test dose of 4 to 5 mg/kg
D3, D10, D17, D24, D31: 20 mg/kg (max. 1 g per injection)
Suramin may cause anaphylactic reactions, a test dose is recommended prior to starting treatment. In the event of an
anaphylactic reaction after the test dose, the patients must not be given suramin again.

Meningoencephalitic stage (Stage II)

Before administrating trypanocides, the priority is to improve the patient’s general condition (rehydration, treatment of
malaria, intestinal worms, malnutrition, bacterial infections). It is nonetheless recommended not to postpone the
trypanocidal treatment for more than 10 days.

Gambiense HAT
First choice: nifurtimox-eflornithine combination therapy (NECT )
nifurtimox PO
Children and adults: 5 mg/kg 3 times daily for 10 days
+ eflornithine IV infusion over 2 hours
Children and adults: 200 mg/kg every 12 hours for 7 days
T he catheter must be handled with great attention to avoid local or general bacterial infections: thoroughly disinfect
the insertion site, ensure secure catheter fixation, protect the insertion site with a sterile dressing, systematically
change the catheter every 48 hours or earlier in case of signs of phlebitis.
 
Second choice:
eflornithine IV infusion over 2 hours
 Children under 12 years: 150 mg/kg every 6 hours for 14 days
Children 12 years and over and adults: 100 mg/kg every 6 hours for 14 days
 
In the event of a relapse after NECT or eflornithine:
melarsoprol slow IV
Children and adults: 2.2 mg/kg once daily for 10 days
Melarsoprol is highly toxic: reactive encephalopathy (coma, or recurrent or prolonged seizures) in 5 to 10% of
treated patients, fatal in around 50% of cases; peripheral neuropathy, invasive diarrhoea, severe skin rash, phlebitis,
etc.
Prednisolone PO (1 mg/kg once daily) is frequently combined throughout the duration of treatment.

Rhodesiense HAT
melarsoprol slow IV
Children and adults: 2.2 mg/kg once daily for 10 days
Prednisolone PO (1 mg/kg once daily) is frequently combined throughout the duration of treatment.

Treatment in pregnant women

All trypanocides are potentially toxic for the mother and the foetus (risk of miscarriage, malformation, etc.). However,
due to the life-threatening risk for the mother and the risk of mother-to-child transmission, treatment must be initiated
as follows:
 
Haemolymphatic stage:
pentamidine for gambiense HAT as of the second trimester and suramin for rhodesiense HAT.
 
Meningoencephalitic stage: treatment depends on the mother's condition:
If in immediately life-threatening condition: treatment with NECT or eflornithine cannot be deferred until after
delivery.
If not immediately life-threatening condition: pentamidine for gambiense HAT and suramin for rhodesiense HAT.
Treatment with NECT or eflornithine is to be administered after delivery.

Prevention and control

Individual protection against tsetse fly bites: long sleeves and trousers, repellents, keeping away from risk areas
(e.g. near rivers).
Disease control: mass screening and treatment of patients (T.b. gambiense), trypanocide treatment of cattle (T.b.
rhodesiense), vector control using tsetse fly traps or insecticides.
American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)
Chagas disease is a zoonosis caused by the protozoa Trypanosoma cruzi. It is transmitted to humans by contact of
triatomine bug faeces with a break in the skin (often caused by a bite from the triatomine bug), or with mucous
membranes. Transmission by contaminated blood transfusion, accidental exposure to blood, mother-to-child (during
pregnancy or childbirth) or consumption of contaminated food and water is also possible. 
Chagas disease has two phases: an acute phase, which lasts approximately 4 to 6 weeks, and a chronic phase, which
is lifelong if left untreated.
T he disease is primarily found on the American continent
a
. It is significantly underdiagnosed.
[1]

Clinical features
Acute phase
Most cases are asymptomatic.
If transmitted through a break in the skin: a red swelling on the skin (chagoma) or unilateral painless purplish
periorbital oedema (Romaña's sign) with local lymphadenopathy, headache and fever.
Rarely: multiple lymphadenopathies, hepatosplenomegaly, myocarditis (chest pain, dyspnoea), meningoencephalitis
(seizures, paralysis).

Chronic phase
Many cases remain asymptomatic (indeterminate phase).
Up to 30% of cases develop organ damage:
[2]
cardiac lesions (conduction disorders, dilated cardiomyopathy): arrhythmia, dyspnoea, chest pain, heart failure;
gastrointestinal lesions (dilation of the oesophagus or colon i.e. megaoesophagus, megacolon): difficulty
swallowing, severe constipation.
Individuals with immunosuppression have a higher risk of developing organ damage than the general population.

Diagnosis
Laboratory
[1]
Acute phase:
Identification of Trypanosoma cruzi by direct microscopy of fresh blood or blood concentrated by
microhematocrit method.
In case of strong clinical suspicion despite no definitive diagnosis from direct microscopy, perform serologic
tests after a delay of approximately 1 month (see "Chronic phase").
Chronic phase:
Identification of anti- Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies by serologic tests, e.g. enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA), hemagglutination inhibition assay (HAI), indirect immunofluorescence (IIF) or rapid diagnostic test (RDT ).
For a definitive diagnosis, two different serological tests should be performed simultaneously; in case of
conflicting results, a third test is recommended.
b

Other investigations
ECG may demonstrate conduction disorders.
Chest or abdominal x-ray may demonstrate cardiomegaly, megaoesophagus or megacolon.

Treatment
Aetiologic treatment
Acute or chronic Chagas disease can be treated with either benznidazole or nifurtimox. However, treatment is not
recommended if patient has already developed cardiac or digestive complications.
Close clinical monitoring should be provided due to the frequent occurrence of adverse effects. Where available,
blood tests (complete blood count, liver and renal function tests) should be performed before, during and after
treatment.
Protocols vary according to the country, follow national recommendations.
For information:

  Age Dose and duration

2 to 12 years
[3] 5 to 8 mg/kg daily in 2 divided doses for 60 days
benznidazole
(a)
PO(

> 12 years and adults

[4] 5 to 7 mg/kg daily in 2 divided doses for 60 days

≤ 10 years 15 to 20 mg/kg daily in 3 to 4 divided doses for 90 days

nifurtimox
11 to 16 years 12.5 to 15 mg/kg daily in 3 to 4 divided doses for 90 days
PO
(b)
[3]

≥ 17 years and adults 8 to 10 mg/kg daily in 3 to 4 divided doses for 90 days

(a) Benznidazole is cont ra-indicat ed in pregnancy, breast f eeding and in pat ient wit h severe hepat ic/renal impairment .
(b) Nif urt imox is cont ra-indicat ed in pregnancy, breast f eeding, pat ient s wit h severe hepat ic/renal impairment or hist ory of
severe ment al disorders or seizures. Adverse ef f ect s (gast roint est inal dist urbances, agit at ion, sleeping disorders, seizure)
are f requent and reversible and should not necessarily result in discont inuat ion of t reat ment . Avoid alcohol and f at t y meals
during t reat ment .

Symptomatic treatment
See Seizures (Chapter 1), Pain (Chapter 1) and Heart failure (Chapter 12).

Prevention
Individual protection against bite from triatomine bugs: use of long-lasting insecticidal net.
In healthcare settings: standard precautions to avoid contamination with soiled materials or potentially infected
body fluids.
Blood transfusions: advise patients with Chagas disease not to donate blood. In endemic areas, screen donor
blood for Trypanosoma cruzi antibodies. 
 

Footnotes
(a) For more inf ormat ion on geographical dist ribut ion of cases of  T. cruzi inf ect ion:
ht t p://gamapserver.who.int /mapLibrary/Files/Maps/Global_chagas_2009.png

(b) If resources are limit ed, ELISA alone can be perf ormed. If t he result is posit ive, a second serologic t est should t hen be
perf ormed t o confirm t he diagnosis bef ore st art ing t reat ment . 

References
1. Pan American Healt h Organizat ion. Guidelines f or diagnosis and t reat ment of Chagas disease. Washingt on, D.C. 2019.
ht t p://iris.paho.org/xmlui/bit st ream/handle/123456789/49653/9789275120439_eng.pdf ?sequence=6&isAllowed=y

2. Rassi A, Marin-Net o J. Seminar: Chagas disease. The Lancet , Volume 375, ISSUE 9723, P1388-1402, April 17, 2010.

3. Cent ers f or Disease Cont rol and Prevent ion. Parasit es - American Trypanosomiasis.
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/parasit es/chagas/ [Accessed 17 February 2020]

4. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO Model Prescribing Inf ormat ion: Drugs Used in Parasit ic Diseases - Second Edit ion. Geneva.
1995. 
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/handle/10665/41765 [Accessed 6 May 2020]
Leishmaniases
T he leishmaniases are a group of parasitic diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania, transmitted by the
bite of a sandfly. Over 20 species cause disease in man.
Cutaneous leishmaniasis is endemic in more than 70 countries in South and Central America, Middle East, Central
Asia, and Africa.
Mucocutaneous leishmaniasis occurs in Latin America and, more rarely, in Africa (Ethiopia, Sudan).
Visceral leishmaniasis occurs in more than 60 countries in East and North Africa, South and Central Asia, Southern
Europe, and South and Central America.

Clinical features
Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
Single or multiple lesions on the uncovered parts of the body: an erythematous papule begins at the sandfly bite,
enlarges to a nodule and extends in surface and depth to form a scabbed ulcer. Ulcers are painless, unless there is
secondary bacterial or fungal infection.
Usually, lesions heal spontaneously, leaving a scar, and result in lifelong protection from disease.
Lesions may also spread to the mucosa (mouth, nose, conjunctiva) giving rise to the mucocutaneous form, which
may cause severe disfigurement.

Visceral leishmaniasis
Visceral leishmaniasis (kala azar) is a systemic disease, resulting in pancytopenia, immunosuppression, and death if left
untreated.
Prolonged (> 2 weeks) irregular fever, splenomegaly, and weight loss are the main signs.
Other signs include: anaemia, diarrhoea, epistaxis, lymphadenopathy, moderate hepatomegaly.
Bacterial diarrhoea, pneumonia, and tuberculosis may develop due to immunosuppression.

Post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis

Macular, nodular or papular skin rash of unknown aetiology, particularly on the face, and typically occurring after
apparent cure of visceral leishmaniasis.

Laboratory
Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis
Parasitological diagnosis: identification of Giemsa-stained parasites in smears of tissue biopsy from the edge of
the ulcer.
No useful serological tests.

Visceral leishmaniasis
Parasitological diagnosis: identification of Giemsa-stained parasites in smears of splenic, bone marrow, or lymph
node aspiration-biopsy. Splenic aspiration is the most sensitive technique but carries a theoretical risk of potentially
fatal haemorrhage.
Serological diagnosis: rK39 dipstick test and direct agglutination test (DAT ) can be used for diagnosis of primary
visceral leishmaniasis in clinically suspect cases. Diagnosis of relapse is only by parasitological confirmation.
Treatment
T he various species of Leishmania respond differently to drugs. Follow national recommendations.
For information:

Cutaneous and mucocutaneous leishmaniasis

Cutaneous lesions generally heal spontaneously in 3 to 6 months. Treatment is only indicated if lesions are
persistent (> 6 months), disfiguring, ulcerating, or disseminated.
Forms with a single lesion or few lesions: start with local treatment with a pentavalent antimonial: sodium
stibogluconate or meglumine antimoniate, 1 to 2 ml infiltrated into the lesion if it is a nodule and into the edges
and base around the crust if it is an ulcer.
It should be repeated every 3 to 7 days for 2 to 4 weeks. Once healing begins, the treatment can be stopped and
healing will continue.
IM treatment with a pentavalant antimonial (20 mg/kg daily for 10 to 20 days) is restricted to severe cases and must
be administered under close medical supervision.
Miltefosine PO (as for visceral leishmaniasis) for 28 days is effective in many forms of cutaneous leishmaniasis.
Ulcers are often secondarily infected with streptococci and staphylococci: administer suitable antibiotics.
Mucocutaneous forms: as for visceral leishmaniasis.

Visceral leishmaniasis
Visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa
First-line treatment:
a pentavalent antimonial IM or slow IV: 20 mg/kg daily for 17 days
+ paromomycin IM: 15 mg (11 mg base)/kg daily for 17 days
 
Second-line treatment for relapse and for specific vulnerable groups: severe disease, pregnant women, patients
over 45 years:
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 3 to 5 mg/kg once daily for 6 to 10 days up to a total dose of 30 mg/kg
 
Treatment in HIV co-infected patients:
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 3 to 5 mg/kg once daily for 6 to 10 days up to a total dose of 30 mg/kg
+ miltefosine PO for 28 days:
Children 2 to 11 years: 2.5 mg/kg once daily
Children ≥ 12 years and < 25 kg: 50 mg once daily
Children ≥ 12 years and adults 25 to 50 kg: 50 mg 2 times daily
Adults > 50 kg: 50 mg 3 times daily

Visceral leishmaniasis in South Asia

First-line treatment:
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 3 to 5 mg/kg once daily for 3 to 5 days up to a total dose of 15 mg/kg
or
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 10 mg/kg single dose
 
Second-line treatment for relapse:
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 3 to 5 mg/kg once daily for 5 to 8 days up to a total dose of 25 mg/kg
 
For all patients with visceral leishmaniasis, hydration, nutritional support and treatment of intercurrent infections
(malaria, dysentery, pneumonia, etc.) are essential.
Tuberculosis and/or HIV infection may also be present and should be suspected if relapse occurs more than once or in
the event of treatment failure.
Post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL)
Only patients with severe or disfiguring disease or with lesions remaining for > 6 months, and young children with oral
lesions that interfere with feeding, are treated.

PKDL in East Africa

a pentavalent antimonial IM or slow IV: 20 mg/kg daily for 17 to 60 days
+ paromomycin IM: 15 mg (11 mg base)/kg daily for 17 days
or
liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 2.5 mg/kg once daily for 20 days
or
miltefosine PO for 28 days (as for visceral leishmaniasis) may be beneficial in HIV co-infected patients

PKDL in South Asia

liposomal amphotericin B IV infusion: 5 mg/kg 2 times weekly up to a total dose of 30 mg/kg

Prevention
Insecticide-treated mosquito nets.
Vector control and elimination of animal reservoir hosts.
Intestinal protozoan infections (parasitic
diarrhoea)
T he most important intestinal protozoan infections are amoebiasis (Entamoeba histolytica), giardiasis (Giardia
lamblia), cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium sp), cyclosporiasis (Cyclospora cayetanensis) and isosporiasis (Isospora
belli).
 
Intestinal protozoa are transmitted by the faecal-oral route (soiled hands, ingestion of food or water contaminated
with faeces) and may cause both individual cases of diarrhoea and epidemic diarrhoea outbreaks.

Clinical features
Amoebiasis gives rise to bloody diarrhoea (see Amoebiasis, Chapter 3).
 
Clinical presentation of giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis and isosporiasis is very similar:
Diarrhoea is usually mild and self-limiting, except in children and patients with advanced HIV disease (CD4 < 200).
T hese patients are likely to develop severe, intermittent or chronic diarrhoea that may be complicated by
malabsorption with significant wasting (or failure to gain weight in children) or severe dehydration.
Stools are usually watery, but steatorrhoea (pale, bulky, fatty stools) may be found in the event of secondary fat
malabsorption; stools may contain mucus.
Diarrhoea is usually associated with non-specific gastrointestinal symptoms (abdominal distension and cramps,
flatulence, nausea, anorexia), but patients have low-grade fever or no fever.

Laboratory
Definitive diagnosis relies on parasite identification in stool specimens (trophozoites and cysts for giardia; oocysts for
cryptosporidium, cyclospora, isospora). Two to three samples, collected 2 to 3 days apart are necessary, as
pathogens are shed intermittently.

Treatment
Correct dehydration if present (for clinical features and management, see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
 
If the causal agent has been identified in the stool:
 Giardiasis tinidazole PO single dose
Children: 50 mg/kg (max. 2 g) 
Adults: 2 g
or
metronidazole PO for 3 days
Children: 30 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 2 g once daily

Cryptosporidiosis In immunocompetent patients, no aetiological treatment; spontaneous

resolution in 1 to 2 weeks.

Cyclosporiasis co-trimoxazole PO for 7 days

Children: 25 mg SMX + 5 mg T MP/kg 2 times daily
Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP 2 times daily
In immunocompetent patients, symptoms usually resolve spontaneous in 1 to 3
weeks. Treatment is given in case of severe or prolonged symptoms.

Isoporiasis co-trimoxazole PO for 7 to 10 days

Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP 2 times daily
In immunocompetent patients, symptoms usually resolve spontaneous in 2 to 3
weeks. Treatment is given in case of severe or prolonged symptoms.

 
If reliable stool examination cannot be carried out: parasitic diarrhoeas cannot be differentiated on clinical grounds,
nor is it possible to distinguish these from non- parasitic diarrhoeas. An empirical treatment (using tinidazole or
metronidazole and co-trimoxazole as above, together or in succession) may be tried in the case of prolonged
diarrhoea or steatorrhoea. In patients with HIV infection, see empirical treatment (HIV infections and AIDS, Chapter
8).
 
In patients with advanced HIV disease, cryptosporidiosis, cyclosporiasis and isosporiasis are opportunistic
infections; the most effective intervention is the treatment of the underlying HIV infection with antiretrovirals.
Patients remain at high risk for dehydration/death until immunity is restored.
Flukes
 
 
Infection/Epidemiology Clinical features/Diagnosis Treatment

Lung flukes T he two most prominent symptoms are prolonged (> 2 weeks) praziquantel
Paragonimus sp productive cough and intermittent haemoptysis (rusty-brown sputum). PO
Distribution: South-East In endemic areas, paragonimosis should be considered whenever Children 4 years
Asia, China, parts of pulmonary tuberculosis is suspected as the clinical and radiological and over and
Cameroon, Nigeria, features overlap. Paragonimosis is confirmed when eggs are adults:
Gabon, Congo, Colombia, detected in sputum (or possibly in stools). 25 mg/kg 3
Peru times daily for 2
Transmission: eating raw days
freshwater crustaceans

Hepatobiliary flukes    
Fasciola hepatica and During migration phase: asthenia, prolonged fever, myalgia, right triclabendazole
gigantica upper quadrant pain, mild hepatomegaly; sometimes, allergic signs PO
Distribution: worldwide, in (e.g. pruritus). At this stage, the diagnosis is rarely considered and can Children and
areas where sheep and only be confirmed through serology; parasitological examination of adults:
cattle are raised stools is always negative. 10 mg/kg single
Transmission: eating Once adult flukes are present in the biliary tract: presentation dose
uncooked aquatic plants resembles cholelithiasis: right upper quadrant pain, recurrent episodes May repeat in
of obstructive jaundice/ febrile cholangitis. T he diagnosis is 24 hours in the
confirmed when parasite eggs are detected in stools (or flukes are event of severe
seen in the biliary tract with sonography). infection

Opisthorchis felineus Abdominal pain and diarrhoea. With heavy infection, hepatobiliary praziquantel
(Asia, Eastern Europe) symptoms: hepatomegaly, right upper quadrant pain, jaundice or PO
Opisthorchis viverrini episodes of febrile cholangitis. T he diagnosis is confirmed when Children 4 years
(Cambodia, Laos, parasite eggs are detected in stools. and over and
Vietnam, T hailand) adults:
Clonorchis sinensis 25 mg/kg 3
(China, Koera, Vietnam) times daily for 2
Transmission: eating days
raw/undercooked
freshwater fish

Intestinal flukes Symptoms are limited to diarrhoea and epigastric or abdominal pain. praziquantel
Fasciolopsis buski With massive infection, F. buski can cause oedematous allergic PO
(India, Bangladesh, reactions (including ascites, anasarca). Children 4 years
South-East Asia) T he diagnosis is confirmed when parasite eggs are detected in and over and
Heterophyes stools. adults:
heterophyes 25 mg/kg 3
(South-East Asia, Nile times daily, 1
delta) day
Metagonimus yokogawai
(Siberia, China, Korea)
Transmission: eating
uncooked aquatic plants
(F. buski),
 raw/undercooked fish
(other species)

 
 
 
Schistosomiases
Schistosomiases are acute or chronic visceral parasitic diseases due to 5 species of trematodes (schistosomes). T he
three main species infecting humans are Schistosoma haematobium, Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma
japonicum. Schistosoma mekongi and Schistosoma intercalatum have a more limited distribution.
 
Humans are infected while wading/bathing in fresh water infested with schistosome larvae. Symptoms occurring during
the phases of parasite invasion (transient localized itching as larvae penetrate the skin) and migration (allergic
manifestations and gastrointestinal symptoms during migration of schistosomules) are frequently overlooked. In
general, schistosomiasis is suspected when symptoms of established infection become evident. Each species gives
rise to a specific clinical form: genito-urinary schistosomiasis due to S. haematobium, intestinal schistosomiasis due S.
mansoni, S. japonicum, S. mekongi and S. intercalatum.
 
T he severity of the disease depends on the parasite load. Heavily infected patients are prone to visceral lesions with
potentially irreversible sequelae. Children aged 5 to 15 years are particularly at risk: prevalence and parasite load are
highest in this age group.
 
An antiparasitic treatment should be administered to reduce the risk of severe lesions, even if there is a likelihood of re-
infection.

Clinical features
   Clinical features/Diagnosis
Parasite/Epidemiology
a
(established infection)

Genito-urinary S. haematobium Urinary manifestations:

schistosomiasis Distribution: Africa, In endemic areas, urinary schistosomiasis should be
Madagascar and the suspected in any patients who complain of macroscopic
Arabian peninsula haematuria (red coloured urine throughout, or at the end of,
micturition). Haematuria is frequently associated with
polyuria/dysuria (frequent and painful micturition).
In patients, especially children and adolescents, with urinary
symptoms, visual inspection of the urine (and dipstick test
for microscopic haematuria if the urine appears grossly
normal) is indispensible.
Presumptive treatment is recommended in the presence of
macro- or microscopic haematuria, when parasitological
confirmation (parasite eggs detected in urine) cannot be
obtained.
Genital manifestations:
In women, symptoms of genital infection (white-yellow or
bloody vaginal discharge, itching, lower abdominal pain,
dyspareunia) or vaginal lesions resembling genital warts or
ulcerative lesions on the cervix; in men, haematospermia
(blood in the semen).
If left untreated: risk of recurrent urinary tract infections,
fibrosis/calcification of the bladder and ureters, bladder
cancer; increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted
infections and risk of infertility.
In endemic areas, genito-urinary schistosomiasis may be a
differential diagnosis to the genito-urinary tuberculosis, and in
women, to the sexually transmitted infections (especially in
women with an history of haematuria).

Intestinal S. mansoni Non-specific digestive symptoms (abdominal pain; diarrhoea,

schistosomiasis Distribution: tropical intermittent or chronic, with or without blood) and
Africa, Madagascar, the hepatomegaly.
Arabian peninsula, South For S. intercalatum: digestive symptoms only (rectal pain,
America (especially Brazil) tenesmus, rectal prolapse, bloody diarrhoea).
S. japonicum If left untreated: risk of hepatic fibrosis, portal hypertension,
Distribution: China, cirrhosis, gastrointestinal haemorrhage (hematemesis, melena,
Indonesia, the Philippines etc.), except with S. intercalatum (less pathogenic than other
S. mekongi intestinal schistosomes, no severe hepatic lesions).
Distribution: parts of Lao T he diagnosis is confirmed when parasite eggs are detected
PDR, Cambodia (along the in stools.
Mekong River) In the absence of reliable parasitological diagnosis: in areas
S. intercalatum where intestinal schistosomiasis is common, diarrhoea
Distribution: parts of DRC, (especially bloody diarrhoea) with abdominal pain and/or
Congo, Gabon, Cameroon, hepatomegaly may be a basis for presumptive diagnosis and
Chad treatment.
 

Treatment
praziquantel PO
[1]
[2]

Children 4 years and over and adults

b
 :
S. haematobium, S. mansoni, S. intercalatum: 40 mg/kg single dose or 2 doses of 20 mg/kg administered 4 hours
apart
S. japonicum, S. mekongi: 2 doses of 30 mg/kg or 3 doses of 20 mg/kg administered 4 hours apart
 

Footnotes
(a) For more inf ormat ion on geographic dist ribut ion of schist osomiasis:
ht t ps://www.who.int /schist osomiasis/Schist osomiasis_2012-01.png?ua=1

(b) For t he t reat ment of schist osomiasis, praziquant el may me administ ered t o pregnant women.

References
1. Treat ment Guidelines f rom The Medical Let t er. Vol. 11 (Suppl). Drugs f or Parasit ic Inf ect ions. 2013.
ht t ps://www.uab.edu/medicine/gorgas/images/docs/syllabus/2015/03_Parasit es/RxParasit esMedicalLet t er2013.pdf  [Accesse
d 25 May 2020]

2. Cent ers f or Disease Cont rol and Prevent ion (CDC). Schist osomiasis. Resources f or Healt h Prof essionals. 2018.
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/parasit es/schist osomiasis/healt h_prof essionals/index.ht ml#t x [Accessed 25 May 2020]
Cestodes
Cestodes (adult forms)
Clinical
Parasites Treatment Transmission/Prevention
features/Laboratory

Taeniasis Often asymptomatic praziquantel PO

(a)
Transmission by eating
Taenia saginata Segments expelled in the Children 4 years and raw or under-cooked meat:
Taenia solium stools, sometimes over and adults: beef for T. saginata
(worldwide) gastrointestinal disturbances 5 to 10 mg/kg single pork for T. solium
(epigastric or abdominal dose Prevention:
pain, nausea, diarrhoea) individual: cook meat
Laboratory: eggs in stools thoroughly
or collected from perianal collective:
skin (scotch tape method), slaughterhouse
segments in stools monitoring

Diphyllobothriasis Often asymptomatic praziquantel PO

(a)
Transmission by eating
Diphyllobothrium latum In the event of heavy Children 4 years and raw or under- cooked
(temperate or cold lake infection: mild over and adults: freshwater fish
areas) gastrointestinal 5 to 10 mg/kg single Prevention:
disturbances, anaemia due dose individual: cook fish
to vitamin B 12 deficiency If anaemia: vitamin B12 thoroughly
associated with (rare) + folic acid
neurological sequelae
Laboratory: eggs in stools

Hymenolepiasis Often asymptomatic praziquantel PO

(a)
Transmission by faecal-
Hymenolepis nana In the event of heavy Children 4 years and oral route or auto-infection
(worldwide) infection: gastrointestinal over and adults: Prevention:
disturbances (epigastric 15 to 25 mg/kg single individual: hand washing,
pain) dose nail cutting
Laboratory: eggs in stools collective: hygiene and
sanitation (water,
latrines, etc.)

(a) Praziquant el may be administ ered t o pregnant women wit h T. solium t aeniasis. For t he ot her indicat ions, t reat ment can
usually be def erred unt il af t er delivery.

Cestodes (larvae)
 Parasites Clinical features/Laboratory Treatment Transmission/Prevention

Cysticercosis Muscular: asymptomatic or Neurological and ocular Transmission by eating

Taenia solium myalgia cysticercosis should be food contaminated with T.
(worldwide) Subcutaneous: nodules managed in specialized solium eggs or auto-
Neurological facilities. infection
(neurocysticercosis): headache, Antiparasitic treatment Prevention:
convulsions, coma, etc. without diagnosis of individual: treat T. solium
Ocular: exophthalmia, location by carriers, hygiene, cook
strabismus, iritis, etc. computerirsed meat thoroughly
Laboratory: hypereosinophilia in tomography and/or
blood and cerebrospinal fluid magnetic resonance
imaging can worsen the
symptoms even threat
the life. Neurosurgical
treatment can be
required.

Hydatid cyst Cysts located in the liver (60% of First-line treatment: Transmission:
Echinococcus cases); lungs (30% of cases), and, surgical excision direct: contact with
granulosus less frequently, in other sites (b) dogs
albendazole PO

 is
(South America, including the brain. useful in addition to, or indirect: water and food
North, East and South Long asymptomatic period. T he instead of, surgery: contaminated by dog
Africa, Western cyst becomes symptomatic when Children over 2 years faeces
Europe) complications develop (biliary and adults under 60 kg: Prevention:
obstruction; anaphylactic shock in 7.5 mg/kg 2 times daily individual: avoid contact
the event of rupture into peritoneal Adults over 60 kg: with dogs
cavity, vessels or an organ; febrile 400 mg 2 times daily collective: eliminate
painful jaundice in the event of Treatment duration: stray dogs, monitor
rupture into the biliary tree, etc.). In addition to surgery slaughterhouses
(pre-operatively or
post- operatively):
continuous course of
minimum 2 months or at
least two 28-day
courses with a drug-
free interval of 14 days.
Inoperable cases: 28-
day courses with drug-
free intervals of 14
days, for 3 to 6 months
(on average), possibly
up to 1 year.

(b) Albendazole is cont ra-indicat ed during t he first t rimest er of pregnancy.

Nematode infections
 
 
 Infection/Epidemiology Clinical features/Diagnosis Treatment

Ascariasis (roundworms)(a) During larval migration albendazole PO single dose

Ascaris lumbricoides Loeffler ’s syndrome: transient pulmonary Children > 6 months and adults:
Distribution: worldwide, symptoms (dry cough, dyspnoea, wheezing) and 400 mg
mainly in tropical and mild fever. (200 mg in children > 6 months
subtropical Once adult worms are present in the intestine but < 10 kg)
Transmission: ingestion of Abdominal pain and distension. In general, the or
ascaris eggs diagnosis is made when adult worms are mebendazole PO for 3 days
expelled from the anus (or occasionally from the Children > 6 months and adults:
mouth). Ascaris are large (15-30 cm), cylindrical 100 mg 2 times daily
worms, pinkish-white, with slightly tapered ends. (50 mg 2 times daily in children
Complications > 6 months but < 10 kg)
Ascariasis is usually benign, but massive
infestation may cause intestinal obstruction
(abdominal pain, vomiting, constipation),
especially in children < 5 years. Worms may
accidentally migrate to gall bladder, liver or
peritoneum, causing jaundice, liver abscess, or
peritonitis.
Ascaris eggs may be detected through
parasitological examination of stools.

Trichuriasis (whipworms)(a) In heavy infection: abdominal pain and diarrhoea. albendazole PO for 3 days
Trichuris trichiura In massive infection: chronic bloody diarrhea, Children > 6 months and adults:
Distribution and tenesmus, rectal prolapse due to frequent 400 mg once daily
transmission: attempts to defecate, especially in children. (200 mg once daily in children >
as for A. lumbricoides Worms may sometimes be seen on the rectal 6 months but < 10 kg)
mucosa when prolapsed: these are grayish- or
white, 3-5 cm in length, in the shape of a whip, mebendazole PO for 3 days,
with a thickened body and a long, threadlike as for ascariasis.
extremity. A single dose of albendazole
Trichuris eggs may be detected through or mebendazole is often
parasitological examination of stools. insufficient.

Ankylostomiase(a) During larval penetration/migration albendazole single dose (as

Ancylostoma duodenale Cutaneous signs (pruritic papulo-vesicular rash for ascariasis) is much more
Necator americanus at the site of penetration, usually the feet) and effective than mebendazole
Distribution: tropical and pulmonary symptoms (similar to ascariasis). single dose.
subtropical regions Once adult worms are present in the intestine When using mebendazole, a 3-
Transmission: larval skin Mild abdominal pain. Attachment of the parasite day treatment (as for
penetration following to the mucosa leads to chronic blood loss and ascariasis) is recommended.
contact (feet, hands) with anaemia (in endemic areas, antihelminthic Treatment of anaemia
contaminated soil treatment is recommended for patients with (Chapter 1).
iron-deficiency anaemia).
Hookworm eggs may be detected through
parasitological examination of stools.

Strongyloidiasis Acute strongyloidiasis First line treatment is:

Strongyloides stercoralis During larval penetration/migration: ivermectin PO(b)  single dose
Distribution: humid tropical cutaneous signs (erythema and pruritus at the Children > 15 kg and adults:
regions site of penetration, which may persist several 200 micrograms/kg, on an
Transmission: larval skin weeks) and pulmonary symptoms (similar to empty stomach
penetration and auto- ascariasis). While less effective, a 3-day
infection Once larvae are present in the intestine: treatment with albendazole
gastrointestinal symptoms (bloating, PO (as for trichuriasis) may be
abdominal and epigastric pain, vomiting, an alternative.
diarrhoea). Hyperinfections are refractory
Chronic strongyloidiasis to conventional therapy.
Intestinal larvae may re-infect their host (auto- Prolonged or intermittent
infection) by penetrating through the intestinal multiple-dose regimens are
wall or by migrating transcutaneously from required.
perianal skin. Chronic infections result in
prolonged or recurrent pulmonary and
gastrointestinal symptoms. Transcutaneous
migration of intestinal larvae gives rise to a
typical rash (larva currens), mainly in the anal
region and on the trunk: sinuous, raised, linear,
migrating lesion, intensely pruritic, moving rapidly
(5 to 10 cm/hour) and lasting several hours or
days.
Complications
Hyperinfection (massive infestation) results in
exacerbation of pulmonary and gastrointestinal
symptoms, and possible dissemination of larvae
to atypical locations, (CNS, heart, etc.). T his
form occurs mainly in patients receiving
immunosuppressive therapy (e.g.
corticosteroids).
Strongyloides larvae may be detected through
parasitological examination of stools.

Enterobiasis (pinworms) Anal pruritus, more intense at night, vulvovaginitis albendazole PO single dose,
Enterobius vermicularis in girls (rare). In practice, the diagnosis is most as for ascariasis
Distribution: worldwide often made when worms are seen on the or
Transmission: faecal-oral perianal skin (or in the stool in heavy infestation). mebendazole PO single dose
route or auto-infection Pinworms are small (1 cm), mobile, white, Children > 6 months and adults:
cylindrical worms with slightly tapered ends. 100 mg
Pinworm eggs may be collected from the anal (50 mg in children > 6 months
area (scotch tape method) and detected under but < 10 kg)
the microscope. A second dose may be given
after 2 to 4 weeks.

Trichinellosis Enteric phase (1 to 2 days after ingestion of albendazole PO for 10 to 15

Trichinella sp infected meat) days
Distribution: worldwide, Self-limited episode of diarrhoea and abdominal Children > 2 years:
particularly frequent in Asia pain lasting several days. 5 mg/kg 2 times daily
(T hailand, Laos, China, etc.) Adults:
 Transmission: consumption Muscular phase (about 1 week after ingestion) 400 mg 2 times daily
of raw or undercooked High fever; muscular pain (ocular [pain on eye or
meat containing trichinella movement], masseters [limitation of mouth mebendazole PO for 10 to 15
larvae (pork, wart-hog, bear, opening], throat and neck [pain with swallowing days
dog, etc.) and speech], trunk and limbs); facial or bilateral Children > 2 years:
peri-orbital oedema; conjunctival haemorrhage, 2.5 mg/kg 2 times daily
subungual haemorrhage; headache. Typical Adults:
features are not always present and the patient 200 mg 2 times daily
may present with a non-specific flu-like plus, regardless of which anti-
syndrome. helminthic is chosen:
Other features, such as dietary habits prednisolone PO
(consuming pork/raw meat), suggestive 0.5 to 1 mg/kg once daily for
symptoms (fever > 39 °C and myalgia and facial the duration of treatment
oedema) in several individuals who have shared
the same meal (e.g. ceremony) or
hypereosinophilia > 1000/mm3, reinforce the
clinical suspicion.
Definitive diagnosis: muscle biopsy; serology
(ELISA, Western Blot).

 
(a)
 Roundworms, whipworms and hookworms frequently co-infect the same host. T his should be taken into account
when prescribing antihelminthic treatment.
 
(b)  T he migrating larvae of Ancylostoma braziliense  and caninum (hookworms of cats and dogs) also present as a

pruritic, inflammatory, creeping eruption in humans (cutaneous larva migrans) but with a slower rate of progression and a
longer duration (several weeks or months). Treatment is with albendazole (400 mg single dose or once daily for 3 days
in children > 6 months and adults; 200 mg in children > 6 months but < 10 kg) or ivermectin (200 micrograms/kg single
dose).
Filariasis
 
 
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
Loiasis.
Lymphatic filariasis (LF)
 
 
Filariases are helminthiases due to tissue-dwelling nematode worms (filariae). Human to human transmission takes
place through the bite of an insect vector.
 
T he most important pathogens are outlined in the table below. Mixed infections are common in co-endemic regions.
 
Each filarial species is found in 2 principal developmental stages: macrofilariae (adult worms) and microfilariae (larval
offspring). T he treatment depends on the pathogenic stage of the species considered and targets microfilariae for O.
volvulus and macrofilariae for the other species.
 

Location of Location of
Pathogenic
Presence
Species/Infections
macrofilariae microfilariae stage of Wolbachia

Onchocerca volvulus Subcutaneous

Skin and eye Microfilariae Yes
(onchocerciasis) nodules

Loa loa Subcutaneous

Blood Macrofilariae No
(loiasis) tissue

Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia

malayi and Brugia timori Lymph vessels Blood Macrofilariae Yes
(lymphatic filariasis)

Classical antifilarial agents include diethylcarbamazine (DEC), ivermectin and albendazole. Doxycycline is used solely in
the treatment of O. volvulus and lymphatic filarial worms, which harbour an endosymbiotic bacterium (Wolbachia)
sensitive to doxycycline.
Onchocerciasis (river blindness)
T he distribution of onchocerciasis is linked to that of its vector (Simulium), which reproduces near rapidly flowing rivers
in intertropical Africa (99% of cases), Latin America (Guatemala, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil) and
Yemen.

Clinical features
In endemic areas, the following signs, alone or in combination, are suggestive of onchocerciasis:
Onchocercomas: painless subcutaneous nodules containing adult worms, usually found over a bony prominence
(iliac crest, trochanters, sacrum, rib cage, skull, etc.), measuring several mm or cm in size, firm, smooth, round or
oval, mobile or adherent to underlying tissue; single, or multiple and clustered.
Acute papular onchodermatitis: papular rash, sometimes diffuse but often confined to the buttocks or lower
extremities, intensely itchy, associated with scratch marks, often superinfected (“filarial scabies”)
a
. T his arises from
dermal invasion by microfilariae.
Late chronic skin lesions: patchy depigmentation on the shins (“leopard skin”), skin atrophy or areas of dry,
thickened, peeling skin (lichenification; “lizard skin”).
Visual disturbances and ocular lesions: see Onchocerciasis, Chapter 5.

Laboratory
Detection of the microfilariae in the skin (skin snip biopsy, iliac crest).
If the skin biopsy is positive, look for loiasis in regions where loiasis is co-endemic (mainly in Central Africa).

Treatment
Antiparasitic treatment
Diethylcarbamazine is contra-indicated (risk of severe ocular lesions).
Doxycycline PO (200 mg once daily for 4 weeks; if possible 6 weeks) kills a significant percentage of adult worms
and progressively reduces the number of O. volvulus microfilariae
b
. It is contraindicated in children < 8 years and
pregnant or breast-feeding women.
Ivermectin PO is the drug of choice: 150 micrograms/kg single dose; a 2nd  dose should be administered after 3
months if clinical signs persist. Repeat the treatment every 6 or 12 months to maintain the parasite load below the
threshold at which clinical signs appear
c
. Ivermectin is not recommended in children < 5 years or < 15 kg and
pregnant women.
In case of co-infection with Loa loa or in regions where loiasis is co-endemic, ivermectin should be administered
with caution (risk of severe adverse reactions in patients with high L. loa microfilarial load):
If it is possible to test for Loa loa (thick blood film):
Confirm and quantify the microfilaraemia. Administer the appropriate treatment according to the microfilarial
load (see Loiasis).
If it is not possible to perform a thick film examination, take a history from the patient:
If the patient has received a previous treatment with ivermectin without developing serious adverse reactions
(see Loiasis), administer the treatment.
If the patient has never received ivermectin nor developed signs of loiasis (migration of an adult worm under the
conjunctiva, or « Calabar » swellings), administer the treatment.
If the patient already has developed signs of loiaisis and if onchocerciasis has a significant clinical impact,
administer ivermectin under close supervision (see Loiasis) or use an alternative (doxycycline, as above).
 In the case of concomitant lymphatic filariasis: administer ivermectin first then start treatment for lymphatic
filariasis with doxycycline PO (see Lymphatic filariasis) one week later.

Nodulectomy (surgical removal of onchocercomas)

Nodules are benign, often deep, and their ablation does not treat onchocerciasis. T hus, nodulectomy is reserved for
cranial nodules (their proximity to the eye is a risk factor for visual compromise) or nodules which are cosmetically
unacceptable. In other cases, refrain from nodulectomy. Nodulectomy is performed under local anaesthesia, in an
appropriately equipped facility.
 

Footnotes
(a) Dif f erent ial diagnosis is sarcopt ic scabies (Scabies, Chapt er 4).

(b) Eliminat ion of Wolbachia reduces t he longevit y and f ert ilit y of t he macrofilariae, and t hus t he product ion of new microfilariae
wit hin t he organism.

(c) Ivermect in kills microfilariae and disrupt s product ion of microfilariae by adult worms. However t he t reat ment must be
administ ered at regular int ervals since it does not kill adult worms.
Loiasis
T he distribution of loiasis is linked to that of its vector (Chrysops) in forests or savannah with gallery forests in West or
Central Africa (limits West: Benin; East: Uganda; North: Sudan and South: Angola).

Clinical features
T he subconjunctival migration of an adult worm is pathognomonic of Loa loa infection. 
Localised subcutaneous swellings, allergic in origin, transient (several hours or days), painless, non-pitting, appearing
anywhere on the body, frequently the upper extremities and face, often associated with localised or generalised
pruritus (« Calabar swellings »).
Onset of pruritus, in the absence of other signs.
Subcutaneous migration of an adult worm: pruritic, palpable red cord-like linear lesion, sinuous, advancing (1
cm/hour), disappearing rapidly with no trace
a
. Such migration generally arises following treatment with
diethylcarbamazine, rarely spontaneously.

Laboratory
Detection of microfilariae in the peripheral blood (thick film, stained with Giemsa). Blood specimens should be
collected between 10 am and 5 pm. Quantify microfilaraemia even if the diagnosis is certain, since treatment is
determined by the intensity of the parasite load.
If the thick film is positive, look for onchocerciasis in regions where onchocerciasis is coendemic (mainly in Central
Africa).

Treatment
Antiparasitic treatment
Diethylcarbamazine (DEC) is the only macrofilaricide available but is contra-indicated in:
Patients with microfilaraemia > 2000 mf/ml (risk of severe encephalopathy, with poor prognosis).
Patients co-infected with O. volvulus (risk of severe eye lesions).
Pregnant women, infants, and patients in poor general condition.
 
Ivermectin (and possibly albendazole) is used to reduce microfilaraemia before administration of DEC; however,
ivermectin administration may trigger encephalopathy in patients with very high Loa loa microfilaraemia (> 30 000
mf/ml).
 
Doxycycline is not indicated since Loa loa does not harbour Wolbachia.
 
Management:
 
1)  L. loa microfilaraemia is < 1,000-2,000 mf/ml
A 28-day treatment of DEC may be started using a small dose: 6 mg on D1, i.e. 1/8 of a 50 mg tablet 2 times
daily.
Double the dose every day up to 200 mg 2 times daily in adults (1.5 mg/kg 2 times daily in children).
If microfilaraemia or symptoms persist, a second treatment is given 4 weeks later.
If DEC is contra-indicated due to possible or confirmed co-infection with O. volvulus, ivermectin (150
microgams/kg single dose) treats onchocerciasis, and reduces pruritus and frequency of Calabar swellings.
T he treatment may be repeated every month or every 3 months.
 
 2)  L. loa microfilaraemia is between 2,000 and 8,000 mf/ml
Reduce microfilaraemia with ivermectin (150 micrograms/kg single dose); repeat the treatment every month if
necessary; administer DEC when the microfilaraemia is < 2000 mf/ml.
 
3)  L. loa microfilaraemia is between 8,000 and 30,000 mf/ml
Treatment with ivermectin (150 micrograms/kg single dose) may cause marked functional impairment for
several days. Close supervision and support from family member(s) are necessary
b
. Prescribe paracetamol as
well for 7 days.
 
4)  L. loa microfilaraemia is > 30,000 mf/ml
If the loiasis is well tolerated, it is preferable to refrain from treatment: the disease is benign and treatment
with ivermectin may cause very severe adverse reactions (encephalopathy), albeit rarely.
If loiasis has a significant clinical impact and/or the patient presents with symptomatic onchocerciasis
requiring treatment, ivermectin (150 micrograms/kg single dose) is administered for 5 days under supervision
in hospital
c
. An attempt to first reduce L. loa microfilaraemia using albendazole (200 mg 2 times daily for 3
weeks) is an option. When L. loa microfilaraemia is < 30 000 mf/ml, treat with ivermectin under close
supervision and support, then DEC when the microfilaraemia is < 2000 mf/ml.

Extraction of macrofilariae
Subcutaneous migration of a microfilaria usually results from treatment with DEC; the worm will die beneath the skin
and extracting it serves no purpose.
 
Removal of an adult worm from the conjunctiva: see Loasis, Chapter 5.
 

Footnotes
(a) For dif f erent ial diagnosis, see cut aneous larva migrans.

(b) Pat ient s may present wit h various pain syndromes, be unable t o move wit hout help or unable t o move at all. Monit oring is
necessary t o det ermine whet her t he pat ient can manage act ivit ies of daily living, and provide assist ance if necessary. If t he
pat ient remains bedridden f or several days, ensure pressure sores do not develop (mobilisat ion, reposit ioning).

(c) A severe react ion may occur on D2-D3. It is usually preceded by haemorrhages of t he palpebral conjunct iva on D1-D2.
Rout inely check f or t his sign by t urning back t he eyelids. Sympt oms of post ivermect in encephalopat hy are reversible and
t he prognosis f avourable, if t he pat ient is correct ly managed; t he t reat ment is sympt omat ic unt il sympt oms resolve. Avoid
t he use of st eroids due t o adverse ef f ect s.
Lymphatic filariasis (LF)
T he distribution of LF is linked to that of its mosquito vectors (Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, etc.):
W. bancrofti: sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, Egypt, India, South East Asia, Pacific region, South America, T he
Caribbean
B. malayi: South East Asia, China, India, Sri Lanka
B. timori: T imor
90% of LF is due to W. bancrofti and 10% to Brugia spp.

Clinical features
Acute recurrent inflammatory manifestations
Adenolymphangitis: lymph node(s) and red, warm, tender oedema along the length of a lymphatic channel, with or
without systemic signs (e.g. fever, nausea, vomiting). T he inflammation may involve the lower limbs, external
genitalia and breast.
 In men: acute inflammation of the spermatic cord (funiculitis), epididymis and testicle (epididymo-orchitis).
Attacks resolve spontaneously within a week and recur regularly in patients with chronic disease.
 
Chronic manifestations
Lymphoedema: oedema of the lower extremity or external genitalia or breast, secondary to obstruction of the
lymphatics by macrofilariae. T he oedema is reversible initially but then becomes chronic and increasingly severe:
hypertrophy of the area affected, progressive thickening of the skin (fibrous thickening with formation of
creases, initially superficial, but then deep, and verrucous lesions). T he final stage of lymphoedema is
elephantiasis.
In men: increase in volume of fluid due to accumulation within the tunica vaginalis (hydrocoele, lymphocoele,
chylocoele); chronic epididymo-orchitis.
Chyluria: milky or rice-water urine (disruption of a lymphatic vessel in the urinary tract).
In patients parasitized by Brugia spp, genital lesions and chyluria are rare: lymphoedema is usually confined to
below the knee.

Laboratory
Detection of microfilariae in the peripheral blood (thick film)
a
; blood specimens should be collected between 9 pm
and 3 am.
In regions where loiasis and/or onchocerciasis are co-endemic, check for co-infection if the LF diagnosis is
positive.

Treatment
Antiparasitic treatment
Treatment is not administered during an acute attack.
Doxycycline PO, when administered as a prolonged treatment, eliminates the majority of macrofilariae and reduces
lymphoedema: 200 mg once daily for 4 weeks minimum. It is contraindicated in children < 8 years and pregnant or
breast-feeding women.
Diethylcarbamazine PO single dose (400 mg in adults; 3 mg/kg in children) may be an alternative but eliminates a
variable proportion of adult worms (up to 40%) and does not relieve symptoms; a prolonged treatment is no more
effective than single dose therapy. In addition, DEC is contra-indicated in patients with onchocerciasis or Loa
loa microfilarial load > 2000 mf/ml and in pregnant and breast-feeding women.
 Ivermectin (weak or absent macrofilaricidal effect) and albendazole should not be used for the treatment of
individual cases (no effect on symptoms).
In the case of confirmed or probable co-infection with O. volvulus: treat onchocerciasis first, then administer
doxycycline.

Control/prevention of inflammatory manifestations and infectious complications

Acute attacks: bed rest, elevation of the affected limb without bandaging, cooling of the affected limb (wet cloth,
cold bath) and analgesics; antibacterial or antifungal cream if necessary; antipyretics if fever (paracetamol) and
hydration.
Prevention of episodes of lymphangitis and lymphoedema: hygiene of the affected extremity
b
, comfortable
footwear, immediate attention to secondary bacterial/fungal infections and wounds.
Established lymphoedema: bandaging of the affected limb by day, elevation of the affected extremity (after
removal of the bandage) when at rest, simple exercises (flexion-extension of the feet when recumbent or upright,
rotation of the ankles); skin hygiene, as above.

Surgery
May be indicated in the treatment of chronic manifestations: advanced lymphoedema (diversion-reconstruction),
hydrocoele and its complications, chyluria.
 

Footnotes
(a) When t est result s are negat ive in a clinically suspect case, consider det ect ion of ant igens (ICT rapid t est ) and/or ult rasound
of t he inguinal area in search of t he « filarial dance sign ».

(b) Wash at least once daily (soap and wat er at room t emperat ure), paying special at t ent ion t o f olds and int erdigit al areas;
rinse t horoughly and dry wit h a clean clot h; nail care.
Chapter 7: Bacterial diseases
Bacterial meningitis

Tetanus

Enteric (typhoid and paratyphoid) fevers

Brucellosis

Plague

Leptospirosis

Relapsing fever (borreliosis)

Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF)
T ick-borne relapsing fever (T BRF)

Eruptive rickettsioses
 
 
 
Bacterial meningitis
Meningitis is an acute bacterial infection of the meninges, which may affect the brain and lead to irreversible
neurological damage and auditory impairment.
Bacterial meningitis is a medical emergency. T he treatment is based on early parenteral administration of antibiotics
that penetrates well into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Empiric antibiotic therapy is administered if the pathogen cannot
be identified or while waiting for laboratory results.
T he main bacteria responsible vary depending on age and/or context:

Meningitis in a non-epidemic context

Children 0 to 3 months:
Children ≤ 7 days: Gram-negative bacilli (Klebsiella spp, E. coli, S.
marcescens, Pseudomona spp, Salmonella spp) and group B streptococcus
Children > 7 days: S. pneumoniae accounts for 50% of all bacterial meningitis
L. monocytogenes is occasionally responsible for meningitis during this period.
Children 3 months-5 years: S. pneumoniae, H. influenza B and N. meningitidis
Children > 5 years and adults: S. pneumoniae and N. meningitidis
 
Special conditions:
Immunodepressed patients (HIV, malnourished): high percentage of Gram- negative bacilli (specially Salmonella spp)
and also M. tuberculosis.
Sickle cell anaemia: Salmonella spp and Staphylococcus aureus are frequent causes.
Meningitis may be related to S. aureus when associated with skin infection or skull fracture.

Meningitis in an epidemic context

In the Sahelian region (but not exclusively, e.g. Rwanda, Angola, Brazil), during the dry season, epidemics of
meningococcal meningitis (Neisseria meningitidis A or C or W135) affect children from 6 months of age, adolescents
and adults. In these regions, whether during epidemics or not, all the above pathogens can be found, especially in young
children.

Clinical features
T he clinical presentation depends on the patient's age.

Children over 1 year and adults

Fever, severe headache, photophobia, neck stiffness
Brudzinski's sign (neck flexion in a supine patient results in involuntary flexion of the knees) and Kernig's sign
(attempts to extend the knee from the flexed-thigh position are met with strong passive resistance).
Petechial or ecchymotic purpura (usually in meningococcal infections)
In severe forms: coma, seizures, focal signs, purpura fulminans

Children under 1 year

T he classic signs of meningitis are usually absent.
T he child is irritable, appears sick with fever or hypothermia, poor feeding or vomiting.
Other features include: seizures, apnoea, altered consciousness, bulging fontanelle (when not crying); occasionally,
neck stiffness and purpuric rash.
Laboratory
Lumbar puncture (LP):
Macroscopic examination of CSF: antibiotic therapy should be initiated immediately if the LP yields a turbid CSF.
Microscopic examination: Gram stain (but a negative examination does not exclude the diagnosis) and white
blood cell count (WBC).
In an epidemic context, once the meningococcal aetiology has been confirmed, there is no need for routine LP
for new cases.

WBC Other
  Pressure Aspect Protein
(leucocytes/mm 3) tests

Pandy–
Normal CSF   Clear <5 –
< 40 mg/dl

100-20 000

mainly neutrophiles
In neonates:
Pandy+
Bacterial meningitis ++++ Cloudy, turbid > 20 100-500 Gram stain +
In mg/dl
immunocompromised,

the WBC may be < 100

Normal to 10-700
Viral meningitis Clear Pandy– –
+ mainly lymphocytes

Clear or < 500

TB meningitis +++ Pandy+ AFB

yellowish mainly lymphocytes

Cryptococcal < 800

++++ Clear Pandy– India ink

meningitis mainly lymphocytes

 
Rapid test for detection of bacterial antigens.
 
Note: in an endemic area, it is essential to test for severe malaria (rapid test or thin/thick films).

Treatment in a non-epidemic context

Antibiotic therapy
For the choice of antibiotic therapy and dosages according to age, see table below.
 
 Associated skin infection (including umbilical
  No associated skin infection
cord infection)

  First line Alternative First line Alternative

0 to 7 ampicillin IV ampicillin IV cloxacillin IV cloxacillin

days 100 mg/kg every 12 hours 100 mg/kg 50 mg/kg every 12 hours IV
< 2 kg + every 12 + 50 mg/kg
cefotaxime IV hours cefotaxime IV every 12
50 mg/kg every 12 hours + 50 mg/kg every 12 hours hours
gentamicin +
IV gentamicin
3 mg/kg IV
once daily 3 mg/kg
once daily

0 to 7 ampicillin IV ampicillin IV cloxacillin IV cloxacillin

days 100 mg/kg every 8 hours 100 mg/kg 50 mg/kg every 8 hours IV
≥ 2 kg + every 8 + 50 mg/kg
cefotaxime IV hours cefotaxime IV every 8
50 mg/kg every 8 hours + 50 mg/kg every 8 hours hours
gentamicin +
IV gentamicin
5 mg/kg IV
once daily 5 mg/kg
once daily

8 days ampicillin IV ampicillin IV cloxacillin IV cloxacillin

to 100 mg/kg every 8 hours 100 mg/kg 50 mg/kg every 6 hours IV
<1 + every 8 + 50 mg/kg
month cefotaxime IV hours cefotaxime IV every 6
≥ 2 kg 50 mg/kg every 8 hours + 50 mg/kg every 8 hours hours
gentamicin +
IV gentamicin
5 mg/kg IV
once daily 5 mg/kg
once daily

1 to 3 ampicillin IV ampicillin IV cloxacillin IV cloxacillin

months 100 mg/kg every 8 hours 100 mg/kg 50 mg/kg every 6 hours IV
+ every 8 + 50 mg/kg
ceftriaxone IV 100 mg/kg on D1 hours ceftriaxone IV 100 mg/kg on D1 every 6
then starting on D2: 100 mg/kg once + then starting on D2: 100 mg/kg once hours
daily or 50 mg/kg every 12 hours gentamicin daily or 50 mg/kg every 12 hours +
IV gentamicin
2.5 mg/kg IV
every 8 2.5 mg/kg
hours every 8
hours
 >3 ceftriaxone IV cloxacillin IV
months Children: 100 mg/kg on D1 then starting on D2: 100 Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours
mg/kg once daily or 50 mg/kg every 12 hours (max. Children ≥ 40 kg: 2 g every 6 hours
4 g daily) +
ceftriaxone IV
Children: 100 mg/kg on D1 then starting on D2: 100
mg/kg once daily or 50 mg/kg every 12 hours (max.
4 g daily)

Adults ceftriaxone IV: 4 g once daily or 2 g every 12 hours cloxacillin IV: 2 g every 6 hours
+
ceftriaxone IV: 4 g once daily or 2 g every 12 hours

Duration of antibiotherapy:
 
1) According to the pathogen:
Haemophilus influenzae: 7 days
Streptococcus pneumonia: 10-14 days
Group B streptococcus and Listeria: 14-21 days
Gram-negative bacilli: 21 days
Neisseria meningitidis: see antibiotherapy in an epidemic context
 
2) If the pathogen is unknown:
Children < 3 months: 2 weeks beyond the first sterile CSF culture or 21 days
Children > 3 months and adults: 10 days. Consider extending treatment or alternative diagnoses if fever persists
beyond 10 days. On the other hand, a 7-day course of ceftriaxone is sufficient in patients who are making an
uncomplicated recovery.

Additional treatment
Dexamethasone reduces the risk of hearing loss in patients with H. influenzae or S. pneumoniae.
Early administration is indicated in meningitis caused by these pathogens or when the pathogen is unknown, except
in neonates (and in presumed meningococcal meningitis in an epidemic context).
dexamethasone IV
[1]
[2]

Children > 1 month: 0.15 mg/kg (max. 10 mg) every 6 hours for 2 to 4 days
Adults: 10 mg every 6 hours for 2 to 4 days
T he treatment should be started before or with the first dose of antibiotic, otherwise, the treatment offers no
benefit.
Ensure that the patient is well fed and well hydrated (infusions or nasogastric tube if necessary).
Seizures (Chapter 1).
Coma: prevention of bed sores, care of the mouth and eyes, etc.

Treatment in an epidemic context

Antibiotic therapy
In this context, N. meningitidis is the most likely pathogen.
 
 Age Treatment
[3]

Children ceftriaxone IV
(a)
 or IM
(b)
 for 7 days
< 2 months 100 mg/kg once daily 

Children ≥ 2 months ceftriaxone IV

(a)
 or IM
(b)
 or 5 days
and adults Children 2 months to < 5 years: 100 mg/kg once daily (max. 2 g daily)
Children ≥ 5 years and adults: 2 g once daily

(a) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.
(b) For IM administ rat ion, divide t he dose int o 2 inject ions if needed, half -dose in each but t ock.

Note:
A short treatment with a single dose of ceftriaxone IM can be used in children 2 years and older and in adults during a
meningococcal meningitis epidemic if 1) confirmed by a reliable laboratory 2) the number of cases exceeds
management capacities with the 5-day treatment. Check national recommendations. Nevertheless, it is essential to
ensure a monitoring of cases after 24 hours.
ceftriaxone IM
a

Children 2 to < 12 years: 100 mg/kg single dose

Children ≥ 12 years and adults: 4 g single dose
If there is no clinical improvement (fever > 38.5 °C, repeated seizures, appearance or aggravation of a reduced level of
consciousness or of neurological signs) 24 hours after the injection, continue the treatment with ceftriaxone for 5 days.

Additional treatment
Ensure that the patient is well fed and well hydrated (infusions or nasogastric tube if necessary).
Seizures (Chapter 1).
Coma: prevention of bed sores, care of the mouth and eyes, etc.
Dexamethasone in not indicated.
 

Footnotes
(a) For IM administ rat ion, divide t he dose int o 2 inject ions if needed, half -dose in each but t ock.

References
1. D. van de Beek, C. Cabellos, O. Dzupova, S. Esposit o, M. Klein, A. T. Kloek, S. L. Leib, B. Mourvillier, C. Ost ergaard, P. Pagliano,
H.W. Pfist er, R. C. Read, O. Resat Sipahi, M.C. Brouwer. ESCMID guideline: diagnosis and t reat ment of acut e bact erial
meningit is, 2016.
ht t ps://www.clinicalmicrobiologyandinf ect ion.com/art icle/S1198-743X(16)00020-3/pdf

2. Sheldon L Kaplan, MD. Bact erial meningit is in children: Dexamet hasone and ot her measures t o prevent neurologic
complicat ions. UpToDat e [Accessed 25 February 2019].

3. World Healt h Organizat ion. Managing meningit is epidemics in Af rica. A quick ref erence guide f or healt h aut horit ies and
healt h-care workers. 2015.
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/154595/WHO_HSE_GAR_ERI_2010.4_Rev1_eng.pdf ?sequence=1
Tetanus
Last updated: August 2022
 
Tetanus is a severe infection due to the bacillus Clostridium tetani, found in soil, and human and animal waste. T he
infection is noncontagious.
Clostridium tetani is introduced into the body through a wound and produces a toxin whose action on the central
nervous system is responsible for the symptoms of tetanus.
Tetanus is entirely preventable by vaccination. It occurs in people who have not been fully vaccinated before exposure
or have not received adequate post-exposure prophylaxis. In these individuals, most breaks in the skin or mucous
membranes carry a risk of tetanus, but the wounds with the greatest risk are: the stump of the umbilical cord in
neonates, puncture wounds, wounds with tissue loss or contamination with foreign material or soil, avulsion and crush
injuries, sites of non-sterile injections, chronic wounds (e.g. lower extremity ulcers), burns and bites. Surgical or
obstetrical procedures performed under non-sterile conditions also carry a risk of tetanus.

Clinical features
Generalised tetanus is the most frequent and severe form of the infection. It presents as muscular rigidity, which
progresses rapidly to involve the entire body, and muscle spasms, which are very painful. Level of consciousness is not
altered.

Children and adults

Average time from exposure to onset of symptoms is 7 days (3 to 21 days).
Muscular rigidity begins in the jaw muscles (difficulty with then inability to open mouth [trismus] preventing the patient
from speaking, eating), spreading to the face (fixed smile), neck (difficulty with swallowing), to the trunk (restriction
of respiratory muscles; hyperextension of spine [opisthotonus]), to the abdomen (guarding) and to the limbs (flexion
of the upper limbs and extension of the lower limbs).
Muscle spasms, which are very painful, appear at the onset or when muscular rigidity becomes generalised. T hey
are triggered by stimuli (noise, light, touch) or arise spontaneously. Spasms of the thoracic and laryngeal muscles
may cause respiratory distress or aspiration.

Neonates
In 90% of cases, initial symptoms appear within 3 to 14 days of birth.
T he first signs are significant irritability and difficulty sucking (rigidity of the lips, trismus) then rigidity becomes
generalised, as in adults. Any neonate, who initially sucked and cried normally, presenting with irritability and difficulty
sucking 3 to 28 days after birth and demonstrating rigidity and muscle spasms should be assumed to have neonatal
tetanus.

Treatment
Hospitalisation is needed and usually lasts 3 to 4 weeks. Correct management can reduce mortality even in hospitals
with limited resources.

General measures
Ensure intensive nursing care.
T he patient should be in a dark, quiet room. Blindfold neonates with a cloth bandage.
 Handle the patient carefully, while sedated and as little as possible; change position every 3 to 4 hours to avoid
bedsores.
Teach family the danger signs and instruct them to call the nurse for the slightest respiratory symptom (cough,
difficulty breathing, apnoea, excessive secretions, cyanosis, etc.).
Establish IV access for hydration, IV injections.
Gentle suction of secretions (mouth, oropharynx).
Insert a nasogastric tube for hydration, feeding and administration of oral medications.
Provide hydration and nutrition in feeds divided over 24 hours. In neonates, give expressed breast milk every 3 hours
(risk of hypoglycaemia).

Neutralisation of toxin
human tetanus immunoglobulin IM
Neonates, children and adults: 500 IU single dose, injected into 2 separate sites

Inhibition of toxin production

a
metronidazole 

IV infusion (30 minutes; 60 minutes in neonates) for 7 days
Neonates:
0 to 7 days: 15 mg/kg on D1 then, after 24 hours, 7.5 mg/kg every 12 hours
8 days to < 1 month (< 2 kg): same doses
8 days to < 1 month (≥ 2 kg): 15 mg/kg every 12 hours
Children 1 month and over: 10 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 1500 mg daily)
Adults: 500 mg every 8 hours

Control of rigidity and spasms, and sedation of the patient

Diazepam should decrease the frequency and intensity of spams without causing respiratory depression. T he dose and
frequency of administration depend on the patient’s clinical response and tolerance.
 
  T here is a high risk of respiratory depression and hypotension when using diazepam, especially in children and
elderly patients. Constant and close monitoring of the patient‘s respiratory rate (RR) and oxygen saturation
(SpO2) is essential, with immediate availability of equipment for manual ventilation (Ambu bag, face mask) and
intubation, suction (electric if possible) and Ringer lactate.
A continuous IV infusion of diazepam requires the use of a dedicated vein (no other infusion/injection in this
vein); avoid the antecubital fossa if possible.
Do not stop treatment abruptly; an abrupt stop can cause spasms.
 
 Neonates diazepam emulsion for injection (10 mg ampoule, 5 mg/ml, 2 ml)
0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg by slow IV injection (3 to 5 minutes) every 1 to 4 hours depending on the severity
and the persistence of the spasms as long as the RR is ≥ 30.
If despite hourly diazepam the spasms persist, start a continuous infusion of diazepam with an
electric syringe: 0.1 to 0.5 mg/kg/hour (2.4 to 12 mg/kg every 24 hours). Start with 0.1 mg/kg/hour
and if symptoms persist, increase by 0.1 mg/kg/hour as long as RR is ≥ 30.
If in spite of 0.5 mg/kg/hour symptoms persist, the dose can be increased up to 0.8 mg/kg/hour as
long as the RR ≥ 30.
Diluted diazepam emulsion does not keep for more than 6 hours.
 
Example:
Neonate weighing 3 kg (administration by electric syringe)
0.1 mg/kg/hour x 3 kg = 0.3 mg/hour
Dilute one 10 mg ampoule of diazepam emulsion for injection in 50 ml of 10% glucose to obtain a
solution containing 0.2 mg of diazepam per ml.
Administer 1.5 ml/hour [dose (in mg/hour) ÷ dilution (in mg/ml) = dose in ml/hour i.e. 0.3 (mg/hour) ÷ 0.2
(mg/ml) = 1.5 ml/hour].
 
If an electric syringe is not available, diluting the diazepam emulsion in an infusion bag for continuous
infusion may be considered. Weigh the risks associated with this mode of administration (accidental
bolus or insufficient dose). T he infusion should be monitored closely to avoid any change, however
small, of the prescribed rate.

Children Same doses and protocol as in neonates but:

>1 Use diazepam solution for injection 5 mg/ml: (10 mg ampoule, 5 mg/ml, 2 ml).
(a)
month T hese doses can be administered as long as the RR is:
and ≥ 30 in children under 1 year
adults ≥ 25 in children 1 to 4 years
≥ 20 in children 5 to 12 years
≥ 14 in children over 12 years
≥ 12 in adults
 
Examples:
Child weighing 6 kg (continuous IV infusion using a pediatric infusion set; 1 ml = 60 drops)
0.1 mg/kg/hour x 6 kg = 0.6 mg/hour
Dilute one 10 mg ampoule of diazepam solution for injection in 50 ml of 5% glucose (10%
glucose if child < 3 months) to obtain a solution containing 0.2 mg of diazepam per ml.
Administer 3 ml/hour [dose (in mg/hour) ÷ dilution (in mg/ml) = dose in ml/hour i.e. 0.6 (mg/hour) ÷ 0.2
(mg/ml) = 3 ml/hour] or 3 drops/minute (in a paediatric infusion set ml/hour = drops/minute).
Adult weighing 60 kg (standard adult infusion set, 1 ml = 20 drops)
0.1 mg/kg/hour x 60 kg = 6 mg/hour
Dilute 5 ampoules of 10 mg of diazepam solution (50 mg) in 250 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose to obtain a solution containing 0.2 mg of diazepam per ml.
Administer 30 ml/hour [dose (in mg/hour) ÷ dilution (in mg/ml) = dose in ml/hour e.g. 6 (mg/hour) ÷ 0.5
(mg/ml) = 30 ml/hour] or 10 drops/minute.

(a) Administ er t he first dose rect ally if an IV cannot be placed immediat ely.

Count the volume of the infusion of diazepam as part of the patient’s daily fluid intake.
 
When the frequency and severity of the spasms have decreased, start weaning the diazepam (gradually decrease the
rate of infusion):
Calculate the total daily dose of IV diazepam and administer it orally in 4 divided doses, 6 hours apart, via
nasogastric (NG)
b
 tube.
Give first NG dose and decrease rate of IV infusion by 50%.
Give second NG dose and stop IV diazepam infusion.
If withdrawal signs
c
appear, wean more slowly.
Once on diazepam PO, wean by 10 to 20% of the original dose daily, until at a dose of 0.05 mg/kg every 6 hours.
T hen increase the interval from every 6 hours to every 8 hours for 24 hours as tolerated (wean more slowly if
withdrawal signs appear).
Continue to increase the interval between the doses from every 8 hours to every 12 hours and then to every 24
hours before stopping the diazepam.
Each step should be for 24 hours or more if withdrawal signs appear.
 
Notes:
It is often at these smaller doses that it is difficult to wean diazepam. If this is the case, slow the wean further:
dropping the % wean (e.g. 5% wean every 24 hours instead of 10% wean) or increasing the interval between weans
(e.g. going from every 24 hours to every 48 hours).
If the patient is also receiving morphine, wean diazepam first then, wean morphine.
Non-pharmacological measures to reduce withdrawal: reduce environmental stimuli; swaddle infants, frequent
feedings.
Infants who have had tetanus remain hypertonic, even when they are no longer having spams.

Treatment of pain
morphine PO (via nasogastric tube) if necessary (see Pain, Chapter 1).
When morphine is administered with diazepam the risk of respiratory depression is increased, thus closer monitoring is
required. When morphine is no longer required, wean the same way as diazepam.

Treatment of the entry point and associated infections

Search systematically the entry wound. Provide local treatment under sedation: cleansing and for deep wounds,
irrigation and debridement.
Cord infection: do not excise or debride; treat bacterial omphalitis and sepsis, add to metronidazole IV: cloxacillin IV
+ cefotaxime IV or cloxacillin IV + gentamicin IV (for doses, see Bacterial meningitis).

Tetanus vaccination
As tetanus does not confer immunity, vaccination against tetanus must be administered once the patient has
recovered.
In case of neonatal tetanus, initiate the vaccination of the mother.

Prevention
Of critical importance, given the difficulty of treating tetanus once established.

1) Post-exposure prophylaxis
In all cases:
Cleansing and disinfection of the wound, and removal of any foreign body.
Antibiotics are not prescribed routinely for prophylaxis. T he decision to administer an antibiotic (metronidazole
or penicillin) is made on a case-by-case basis, according to the patient’s clinical status.
 Depending on pre-exposure vaccination status:
Tetanus vaccine (T V)
d
 and immunoglobulin: see indications below.
 
Complete vaccination (3 or more doses)
Incomplete vaccination

Time since administration of last dose: (less than 3 doses)

Type of wound
or no vaccination
< 5 years 5-10 years > 10 years or unknown status

TV
Minor, clean None None 1 booster Initiate or complete T V
dose

TV
T V
Initiate or complete T V
Other None 1 booster
1 booster dose and administer tetanus immunoglobulin
dose

 
tetanus vaccine IM
Children and adults: 0.5 ml per dose
If no vaccination or unknown vaccination status: administer at least 2 doses at an interval of 4 weeks.
If incomplete vaccination: administer one dose.
T hen, to ensure long-lasting protection, administer additional doses to complete a total of 5 doses, as indicated in
the table below.
 
human anti-tetanus immunoglobulin IM
Children and adults: 250 IU single dose; 500 IU for wounds more than 24 hours old.
Inject the vaccine and the immunoglobulin in 2 different sites, using a separate syringe for each.

2) Routine vaccination (pre-exposure prophylaxis)

Children: 6 doses in total: a first series of 3 doses of DT P or DT P + HepB or DT P + HepB + Hib before the age of
1 year, administered at an interval of 1 month (e.g. at the age of 6, 10 and 14 weeks), then a dose of a vaccine
containing tetanus toxoid between the age of 12 and 23 months, a dose between the age of 4 to 7 years, then a
dose between the age of 12 and 15 years.
Women of childbearing age: 5 doses during the reproductive years: a series of 3 doses of T d with an interval of at
least one month between the first and second dose and an interval of at least 6 months between the second and
third dose, then two other doses, each at minimum interval of one year, e.g. during pregnancies (see table below).
Pregnant women: if a woman has never been vaccinated or if her vaccination status is unknown: 2 doses of
T d during the pregnancy to reduce the risk of tetanus in mother and  neonate: the first as soon as possible during
the pregnancy and the second at least 4 weeks later and at least 2 weeks before delivery. T his vaccination
schedule protects more than 80% of neonates from tetanus. A single dose offers no protection
 
 Dose Vaccination schedule in adults Degree and duration of protection

On first contact with the health care system

TV1 No protection
or as soon as possible during pregnancy

80%

TV2 At least 4 weeks after T V1

1 to 3 years

6 months to 1 year after T V2 95%

TV3
or during the following pregnancy 5 years

1 to 5 years after T V3 99%

TV4
or during the following pregnancy 10 years

1 to 10 years after T V4 99%

TV5
or during the following pregnancy T hroughout the reproductive years

Footnotes
(a) Clindamycin IV f or 7 days is an alt ernat ive (f or doses, see Periorbit al and orbit al cellulit is, Chapt er 5).

(b) Administ rat ion of oral diazepam t ablet s t o inf ant s: calculat e t he exact dose of diazepam, e.g. t o obt ain 0.5 mg of diazepam,
cut a scored diazepam 2 mg t ablet in half along scoring t hen split in half again. Crush quart er t ablet and dissolve in
expressed breast milk or inf ant f ormula.

(c) Wit hdrawal signs: excessive irrit abilit y, t remors, increased muscle t one, f requent yawning, poor f eeding, wat ery st ools and
sweat ing.

(d) Tet anus-cont aining vaccine, such as Td or DTP or DTP + HepB or DTP + HepB + Hib according t o availabilit y and pat ient ’s
age.
Enteric (typhoid and paratyphoid) fevers
Last updated: September 2022
 
 
Enteric fevers include typhoid fever, due to Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi (S. Typhi) and paratyphoid fever, due
to Salmonella enterica serotype Paratyphi A, B or C (S. Paratyphi).
Enteric fevers are acquired by the ingestion of water or food contaminated with excreta of symptomatic or
asymptomatic carriers or by direct contact (dirty hands).
Enteric fevers are endemic in South, Central and Southeast Asia, sub-saharan Africa, Oceania and, to a lesser extent, in
Latin America.
Effective treatment significantly reduces the risk of complications and death.

Clinical features
Clinical manifestations of typhoid and paratyphoid fevers are the same. Enteric fevers have insidious onset and vary
from mild to severe. 
T he characteristic sign is prolonged fever, which gradually increases during the first week, plateaus the second
week then decreases between the third and fourth week.  
Non-specific signs and symptoms are frequently associated: gastrointestinal disturbances (abdominal pain,
constipation or diarrhoea, vomiting), headache, malaise, chills, fatigue, non productive cough and/or
hepatosplenomegaly. 
Erythematous maculopapular rash on the trunk extreme fatigue and/or relative bradycardia (heart rate-temperature
dissociation) may be present.
Serious complications affect about 27% of hospitalised patients
[1]
and usually occur during the second or third
week of illness. T hese may incude decreased level of consciousness, intestinal haemorrhage or perforation
or peritonitis, shock, or nephritis. In pregnant women, severe infection may lead to foetal complications
(miscarriage, preterm delivery, intrauterine death).
Relapse may occur 2 to 3 weeks after recovery. It is usually not due to antibiotic resistance, and re-treatment is
required.
 
Clinical diagnosis is difficult as enteric fevers resembles other infections present in regions where they are
endemic. T he main differential diagnoses are: malaria, brucellosis, leptospirosis, typhus, rickettsiosis,
sepsis and dengue.

Laboratory
Culture of S. Typhi or Paratyphi and drug susceptibility test (blood and stool specimens).
In all cases, rapid test for malaria in endemic regions (and antimalarial treatment if needed, see Malaria, Chapter 6). 
Widal agglutination test, other serologic tests, and rapid diagnostic tests are not recommended (low sensitivity and
specificity). 

Treatment
In all cases
Hydrate and treat fever (Chapter 1). Fever usually resolves 4 to 5 days after starting effective antibiotic treatment.
Choice of antibiotic treatment depends on the susceptibility of the strain, or when susceptibility is unknown, on
recent data on susceptibility of strains in the region. Check national recommendations. For information:
 Strains resistant to chloramphenicol, ampicillin/amoxicillin and co-trimoxazole (multidrug-resistant, MDR
strains) are present in most parts of the world. 
Ciprofloxacin is used as first-line treatment in some countries, however fluoroquinolone resistance is endemic in
Asia and is increasing in several parts of the world
[2]
.
Ceftriaxone resistance has been identified in several regions
[2]
.
MDR strains also resistant to fluoroquinolones and third-generation cephalosporins (extensively drug-resistant,
XDR strains) have developed
[3]
.​​

Uncomplicated cases (outpatients)

Uncomplicated cases (the vast majority of cases) can be treated with an oral antibiotic treatment.
First-line antibiotics:
azithromycin PO for 7 days (including for MDR and XDR cases, and pregnant women)
Children: 10 to 20 mg/kg (max. 1 g) once daily 
Adults: 500 mg to 1 g once daily or 1 g on D1 then 500 mg once daily
or
cefixime PO for 10 to 14 days (except for third-generation cephalosporin resistance and XDR cases)
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 200 mg) 2 times daily
Adults: 200 mg 2 times daily
Alternatives include, only if recent data show susceptibility of strains to these antibiotics in the region:
amoxicillin PO for 14 days
Children: 30 mg/kg (max. 1 g) 3 times daily 
Adults: 1 g 3 times daily
or
co-trimoxazole PO for 14 days
Children: 20 mg SMX + 4 mg T MP/kg (max. 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP) 2 times daily 
Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP 2 times daily

Severe cases (inpatients)

Severe cases include:
toxic appearance or decreased level of consciousness or medical or surgical complication;
oral administration not possible due to persistent vomiting.
T hese cases should be treated under close monitoring. Antibiotic treatment is initially parenteral, then oral when
there is decreasing fever, clinical improvement and the patient can tolerate oral treatment.
Start with ceftriaxone IV
a
(including for pregnant women)
Children: 50 to 100 mg/kg (max. 4 g) once daily
Adults: 2 g once daily or 2 times daily
T hen change to azithromycin PO (as above) to complete at least 7 days of treatment.
For suspected or confirmed ceftriaxone resistance or XDR stains, use meropenem IV, including for pregnant
women, then change to azithromycin PO to complete at least 7 days of treatment.

Additional measures
In case of decreased level of consciousness or shock, dexamethasone IV: 3 mg/kg then 1 mg/kg every 6 hours for
2 days (total of 8 doses)   
Treat in intensive care unit patients with shock, significant intestinal haemorrhage or suspected
perforation/peritonitis. If suspected perforation/peritonitis, get urgent surgical review and add metronidazole to
ceftriaxone for anaerobic bacterial coverage
b
.

Prevention
 Hygiene measures common to all diarrhoeas: handwashing; consumption of treated water (chlorinated, boiled,
bottled, etc.); washing/cooking of food, etc.
In hospitals: for patients with watery diarrhoea, consider disinfection of excreta with chlorinated solution, if stools
are collected in buckets.
Vaccination with the typhoid conjugate vaccine in endemic regions
c
. T his vaccine can be used to control typhoid
outbreaks. It does not protect against paratyphoid fever.
 

Footnotes
(a) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must NEVER be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.

(b) Do not add met ronidazole if t he pat ient receives meropenem (meropenem already covers anaerobic bact eria).

(c) For more inf ormat ion, see Typhoid vaccines: WHO posit ion paper:
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/272272/WER9313.pdf ?ua=1

References
1. Cruz Espinoza LM, McCreedy E, Holm M, et al. Occurrence of t yphoid f ever complicat ions and t heir relat ion t o durat ion of
illness preceding hospit alizat ion: a syst emat ic lit erat ure review and met a-analysis. Clin Inf ect Dis 2019;69(Suppl 6):S435-48.
ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC6821330/ [Accessed 28 June 2022]

2. Browne AJ, Hamadani BHK, Kumaran EAP, Rao P, et al. Drug-resist ant ent eric f ever worldwide, 1990 t o 2018: a syst emat ic
review and met a-analysis. BMC Medicine 2020;18:1+22.
ht t ps://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1443-1 [Accessed 23 February 2022]

3. Klemm EJ, Shakoor S, Page AJ, Qamar FN, et al. Emergence of an Ext ensively Drug-Resist ant Salmonella enterica Serovar
Typhi Clone Harboring a Promiscuous Plasmid Encoding Resist ance t o Fluoroquinolones and Third-Generat ion
Cephalosporins. mBio. 2018 Jan-Feb; 9(1): e00105-18. ht t ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/art icles/PMC5821095/ [Accessed 26
June 2022]
Brucellosis
Last updated: September 2022
 
Brucellosis is a zoonosis that mainly affects livestock animals. 
 
T he main routes of transmission to humans are: 
digestive, by ingestion of unpasteurized milk (or unpasteurized milk products) from an infected animal;
cutaneous, by direct contact with infected animals or carcasses of infected animals. 
 
Brucellosis is caused by bacteria of the genus Brucella, particularly B. melitensis (sheep and goats), B.
abortus (cattle), B. suis (pigs).
 
T he disease is found worldwide and mainly in rural areas. 
After primary infection relapses may occur (5 to 15% of cases, even months after end of initial treatment) or the
infection may become chronic.

Clinical features
Acute form (primary infection)
Remittent or intermittent fever (39-40 °C), associated with several signs or symptoms: chills, night sweats, joint and
muscle pain, weight loss, fatigue, malaise, headache; adenopathies (particularly in children).
May be associated with: non-specific gastrointestinal disorders, cough, hepato and/or splenomegaly, arthritis
(knee), orchitis.
 
Diagnosis is difficult because of the broad spectrum of fluctuating and non-specific clinical manifestations. In patients
with unexplained fever, brucellosis should be considered when risk factors are present: consumption of unpasteurized
milk products; exposure to livestock (e.g. livestock farmers, veterinarians, butchers, slaughterhouse workers).

Localised form 
Primary infection may progress to localised infection (even several months or years later), mainly:
osteoarticular: sacroiliac joint and often particularly lower limbs joints;  spine (intervertebral disk infection, vertebral
osteomyelitis)
genito-urinary: orchitis, epididymitis 
pulmonary: bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy 
neurological : meningitis, encephalitis, polyneuritis

Paraclinical investigations
Laboratory
Blood culture is the gold standard for diagnosis. It is positive only in the acute phase. T he bacteria grow slowly (7 to
21 days).
Serological tests (Rose Bengal, Wright agglutination test, indirect immunofluorescence, ELISA, etc.) provide
presumptive diagnoses.
In the event of neurological signs or meningitis, lumbar puncture shows clear cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that may
contain high white blood cell count; high protein concentration in CSF; low CSF glucose.
Rule out malaria in endemic regions (rapid test).
Exclude tuberculosis if cough > 2 weeks (sputum smear microscopy).
Radiography 
Joint pain (hips, knees, ankles, vertebrae, sacroiliac joint): small erosions or destruction or joint space narrowing.
Often involves the spine, particularly the lumbar spine, causing spondylodiskitis.
Pulmonary signs: chest x-ray often normal. T here may be consolidation, nodules, lymphadenopathy, or pleural
effusion.

Treatment
Check national recommendations on antibiotic therapy. For information:
 
co-trimoxazole + rifampicin
Children under 8 years
or co-trimoxazole + gentamicin

doxycycline + rifampicin
Children 8 years and over
or doxycycline + gentamicin

doxycycline + rifampicin
Adults
or doxycycline + streptomycin or gentamicin

Pregnant/breast-feeding women rifampicin

co-trimoxazole PO for 6 weeks

Children < 8 years: 20 mg SMX + 4 mg T MP/kg (max. 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP) 2 times daily
 
doxycycline PO for 6 weeks 
Children ≥ 8 years and < 45 kg: 2 to 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Children ≥ 45 kg and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily
 
 
rifampicin PO for 6 weeks
Children: 15 to 20 mg/kg (max. 600 mg) once daily
Adults: 600 to 900 mg once daily
 
gentamicin IM for 2 weeks
Children and adults: 5 mg/kg once daily
 
streptomycin IM for 2 weeks
Adults: 1 g once daily
 
For localised forms of the infection, same treatment but for a period of 6 weeks to 4 months depending on the focus.

Prevention
Washing of hands and clothing if in contact with animals.
Boil milk, avoid ingestion of unpasteurized milk products, cook offal thoroughly.
Plague
Last updated: September 2022
 
 
Plague is a zoonosis caused by the Gram-negative bacillus Yersinia pestis that affects many wild and domestic
mammals, particularly rodents.
Plague is transmitted to man by infected animals (direct contact or inhalation of their respiratory secretions), the bite
of a flea of infected animals, or inhalation of respiratory secretions of individuals with pneumonic plague.
Natural foci of infection include Africa, Asia, North and South America, and parts of Europe.
 
Bubonic plague is the most common form, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea. Without prompt
treatment, the bacteria may be disseminated by haematogenous route, producing a more severe form (see below) with
a high mortality rate.
T he following forms of plague may be primary or secondary to bubonic plague:
Pneumonic plague can rapidly progress to respiratory distress, shock, and death without prompt treatment.
Septicaemic plague is a fulminant illness that can progress to disseminated intravascular coagulation, respiratory
distress, shock, and death.
Plague meningitis is a rare but very severe form of plague.

Clinical features 
See table below.
 
Main differential diagnoses include:
Other causes of lymphadenitis (e.g. some bacterial skin infections, tularemia, lymphogranuloma
venereum, chancroid)
Acute pneumonia (Chapter 2)
Other causes of septicaemia (see Shock, Chapter 1) or meningitis (see Bacterial meningitis, Chapter 7)

Laboratory
Collect pre-treatment specimens: lymph node aspirate (bubonic plague), sputum (pneumonic plague), blood
(septicaemic plague), or cerebrospinal fluid (plague meningitis).
Send specimens
a
to reference laboratory for:
Rapid diagnostic test for detection of F1 capsular antigen of Y. pestis
PCR 
Culture of Y. pestis and drug suceptibility test
In all cases, rapid test for malaria in endemic regions (and antimalarial treatment if needed, see Malaria, Chapter 6).

Management
Start empiric antibiotic treatment for 10 to 14 days as soon as plague is suspected, before results of diagnosis
tests are available. 
A combination of 2 antibiotics from different classes is recommended in severe disease, plague meningitis, and
pregnant women.
Follow national recommendations according to antibiotic resistance patterns if known. For information: see table
below.
Treatment of suspected cases
 Forms of plague Clinical features Antibiotic treatment
[1]

Bubonic Fever, chills, malaise, Children (including < 8 years) and adults:
headache  doxycycline PO:
AND  Under 45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg (max. 200 mg) on D1, then
Lymph node (bubo), painful, 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
usually inguinal, (one or 45 kg and over: 200 mg on D1, then 100 mg 2 times
more)  daily
or
gentamicin IM or IV:
(a)
Children: 4.5 to 7.5 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 5 mg/kg once daily
or
ciprofloxacin PO:
Children: 15 mg/kg 2 to 3 times daily (max. 750 mg 2
times daily or 500 mg 3 times daily)
Adults: 750 mg 2 times daily

Pneumonic Fever, chills, malaise, Children and adults:

 
headache  If mild disease:
AND  
gentamicin IM or IV
(a)
(as above)
Dyspnea, chest pain,
or
productive cough with
ciprofloxacin PO (as above) or IV
(b)
purulent or blood-stained  
sputum  If severe disease:
Respiratory distress or gentamicin + ciprofloxacin (as above)
failure and sepsis in severe or, if not available, gentamicin + doxycycline (as
or advanced, untreated above)
 
disease After clinical improvement, change to ciprofloxacin or
doxycycline PO (as above).

Septicaemic Frequently no localizing As severe pneumonic plague

symptoms or signs
Gastrointestinal
disturbances (abdominal
pain, vomiting, diarrhoea,
etc.) often present

Meningitis
(c) Signs of meningitis. Children and adults:
chloramphenicol IV:
Children 1 to 12 years: 25 mg/kg (max. 1 g) every 8
hours  
Children 13 years and over and adults: 1 g every 8
hours
+ ciprofloxacin PO or IV (as above)
or, if not available,
gentamicin + ciprofloxacin (as above)
(a) Streptomycin IM may be an alt ernat ive t o gent amicin (except in pregnant women):
Children: 15 mg/kg (max. 1 g) every 12 hours
Adult s: 1 g every 12 hours
(b) Use ciprofloxacin IV when oral rout e is not possible:
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 400 mg) every 8 or 12 hours
Adult s: 400 mg every 8 hours
(c) If plague meningit is develops, add chloramphenicol t o t he exist ing regimen, and cont inue t he combined regimen f or an
addit ional 10 days.

Treatment in pregnant women

Bubonic, pneumonic, and septicaemic plague: gentamicin IM or IV (as above) + ciprofloxacin PO (500 mg 3 times
daily) or IV (as above)
Plague meningitis: chloramphenicol IV + ciprofloxacin PO (500 mg 3 times daily) or IV (as above)​​

Infection prevention and control (in hospitals)

Bubonic plague: no isolation, standard precautions (handwashing, gowns, gloves, eye protection, etc.) with respect
to lymph node aspiration or discharge and other body fluids.
Pneumonic plague: isolation (in single room if possible), standard precautions, plus, for 48 hours after the start of
antibiotic treatment, droplet precautions (medical mask for healthcare workers and for patients during
contact). Only for aerosol-generating procedures, airborne precautions (FFP2 or N95 respirators) for health
workers exposed to aerosols.
Elimination of fleas (e.g. bedding, clothing, corpse): refer to the guide Public health engineering, MSF.

Post-exposure prophylaxis of contacts

In the event of contact (distance less than 2 meters without appropriate personal protective equipment) with a
pneumonic plague patient or direct contact with infected body fluids or tissues of any plague patient and within one
week after the end of exposure:
doxycycline PO for 7 days
Children: 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Adults (including pregnant women): 100 mg 2 times daily
or
ciprofloxacin PO for 7 days
Children: 20 mg/kg (max. 750 mg) 2 times daily
Adults: 500 to 750 mg 2 times daily 
Pregnant women: 500 mg 3 times daily

Prevention
Flea vector control, sanitation and rodent reservoir control, refer to the guide Public health engineering, MSF.
Vaccination against plague is indicated for laboratory technicians handling rodents or working with Y. pestis and is
not a method for controlling an epidemic.
 

Footnotes
(a) Transport at ion of specimens in 0.9% sodium chloride requires a cold chain (f ailing t hat , a t emperat ure below 30 °C), t riple
packaging and UN3373 label.
References
1. Nelson CA, Meaney-Delman D, Fleck-Derderian S, Cooley KM, et al. Ant imicrobial t reat ment and prophylaxis of plague:
recommendat ions f or nat urally acquired inf ect ion and biot errorism response. MMWR Recomm Rep 2021;70(No. RR-3):1-27.
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/rr/rr7003a1.ht m?s_cid=rr7003a1_w [Accessed 25 January 2022]
Leptospirosis
Last update: October 2022
 
 
Leptospirosis is a zoonosis that affects many domestic and wild animals, mainly rodents (particularly rats) but also
dogs and cattle, etc.
 
It is transmitted to humans by contact through skin lesions or mucous membranes (e.g. eyes, mouth) with:
freshwater or moist soil contaminated with urine of an infected animal (indirect contact);
urine, blood and other body fluids or tissues of an infected animal (direct contact).
 
It is caused by bacteria (spirochetes) of the genus Leptospira.
 
Leptospirosis occurs worldwide, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. T here are often outbreaks after heavy
rainfall or flooding.

Clinical features
Approximately 90% of cases are asymptomatic or mild with a favourable outcome. 5 to 15% of cases present a
severe form with multiple organ dysfunction and a high mortality rate without prompt treatment.

Mild form 
Acute phase (septicaemic): 
Sudden onset of high fever with chills, headache, myalgia (especially calf and lumbar pain), photophobia, ocular
pain. Bilateral conjunctival suffusion affecting the bulbar conjunctiva (redness without discharge) is a
characteristic sign, but not always present.
May be associated with: gastrointestinal symptoms (anorexia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting), non-
productive cough, lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, and sometimes, skin rash.
Immune phase:
T he signs of the acute phase regress after 5 to 7 days then reappear for a few days usually in a milder form
(milder fever, less severe myalgia) then disappear. 
Signs of meningitis (thought to be of immune origin) are however very common during this phase.

Severe or ictero-haemorrhagic form 
T he onset is the same but a few days later the symptoms worsen: renal disorders (oliguria or polyuria), hepatic disorder
(jaundice), widespread haemorrhages (purpura, ecchymoses, epistaxis, haemoptysis, etc.), pulmonary signs (chest pain)
or cardiac signs (myocarditis, pericarditis).
 
Diagnosis is difficult because of the broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. Patients that present the following
should be considered as suspected cases of leptospirosis
[1]
:
abrupt onset of fever, chills, conjunctival suffusion, headache, myalgia and jaundice
and
one or more risk factors for infection: exposure to contaminated freshwater (e.g. swimming, fishing, rice fields,
flooding) or infected animals (e.g. crop and livestock farmers, veterinarians, butchers and slaughterhouse
workers).

 
Other conditions to consider include a wide range of acute febrile illnesses, e.g.:  
Viral haemorrhagic fevers, dengue, chikungunya, Zika, influenza, measles, viral hepatitis, other causes of meningitis
 Malaria
T yphoid fever, brucellosis, rickettsioses

Laboratory
Diagnosis
Collect pre-treatment specimens and send them to reference laboratory:
Acute phase (first week of illness): blood and/or serum for IgM screening, PCR, and acute specimen for
microscopic agglutination test (MAT );
Immune phase (second week of illness): serum for IgM screening and convalescent specimen for MAT, and urine
for PCR.
In all cases, rapid test for malaria in endemic regions (and antimalarial treatment if needed, see Malaria, Chapter 6).

Other investigations
(if available)
Serum creatinine: elevated if renal dysfunction.
Full blood count: possible neutrophilia and thrombocytopenia (acute phase), or anaemia secondary to haemorrhage
(immune phase).
Cerebrospinal fluid (immune phase): features of aseptic meningitis in CSF (see viral meningitis, Chapter 7).
Urine: mild proteinuria, leukocyturia, possible microscopic haematuria (acute phase).

Treatment
Start empiric antibiotic treatment as soon as leptospirosis suspected, before results of diagnosis tests are available.

Mild form (outpatients)

Symptomatic treatment
Rest and treatment of pain and fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).
Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is contra-indicated (risk of haemorrhage).
 
Antibiotic treatment
doxycycline PO for 7 days
Children under 45 kg: 2 to 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily
or, particularly in pregnant women:
azithromycin PO for 3 days
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) on D1 then 5 mg/kg (max. 250 mg) once daily on D2 and D3
Adults : 1 g on D1 then 500 mg once daily on D2 and D3 
or, if not available,
amoxicillin PO for 7 days
Children: 25 mg/kg (max. 1 g) 2 times daily 
Adults: 1 g 2 times daily
 
  Antibiotic treatment can trigger a Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction (high fever, chills, fall in blood pressure and  
sometimes shock). It is recommended to monitor the patient for 2 hours after the first dose of antibiotic for
occurrence and management of severe Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction (symptomatic treatment of shock).

Severe form (inpatients)
Symptomatic treatment
 Specific management according to organs affected. Oliguria generally responds to correction of hypovolaemia.
Rest and treatment of pain and fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1). Avoid or use paracetamol with caution in
patients with hepatic involvement.
 
Antibiotic treatment
ceftriaxone IV for 7 days
a
Children: 80 to 100 mg/kg (max. 2 g) once daily
Adults: 2 g once daily
or
benzylpenicillin IV for 7 days
Children: 50 000 IU (30 mg)/kg (max. 2 MIU or 1200 mg) every 6 hours
Adults: 1 to 2 MIU (600 to 1200 mg) every 6 hours

Prevention
Avoid bathing in freshwater in endemic areas.
Disinfect laundry and objects soiled by urine of infected animal or patient. 
Vaccination and protective clothing (only for professionals at risk of exposure).
 

Footnotes
(a) For IV administ rat ion of cef t riaxone, dilut e wit h wat er f or inject ion only.

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Human lept ospirosis: guidance f or diagnosis, surveillance and cont rol. World Healt h Organizat ion,
2003.
ht t ps://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/42667/WHO_CDS_CSR_EPH_2002.23.pdf ?%20sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[Accessed 5 Sept ember 2022]
Relapsing fever (borreliosis)
 
 
Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF)
T ick-borne relapsing fever (T BRF)
 
 
Relapsing fever (FR) is caused by spirochetes of the genus Borrelia, transmitted to humans by arthropod vectors.
Louse-borne relapsing fever (LBRF)
Last updated: October 2022
 
 
LBRF is caused by Borrelia recurrentis. It occurs in epidemic waves when conditions favourable to the transmission of
body lice are met: cold climate/season, overcrowding and very poor sanitation (e.g. refugee camps, prisons). Endemic
foci of LBRF are mainly the Sudan and the Horn of Africa (especially Ethiopia). LBRF can be associated with louse-
borne typhus (see Eruptive rickettsioses). T he mortality rate for untreated LBRF ranges from 15 to 40%.

Clinical features
Relapsing fever is characterized by febrile episodes separated by afebrile periods of approximately 7 days (4 to 14
days).
T he initial febrile episode lasts up to 6 days:
Sudden onset of high fever (axillary temperature > 39 °C), severe headache and asthenia, diffuse pain (muscle,
joint, back pain), often associated with gastrointestinal disturbances (anorexia, abdominal pain, vomiting,
diarrhoea).
Splenomegaly is common; bleeding signs (e.g. petechiae, subconjunctival haemorrhage, epistaxis, bleeding
gums), jaundice or neurological symptoms may be observed.
T he febrile episode terminates in a crisis with an elevation in temperature, heart rate and blood pressure,
followed by a fall in temperature and blood pressure, which may last for several hours.
Following the initial febrile episode, the cycle usually reccurs; each episode is less severe than the previous one and
the patient develops temporary immunity.
Complications:
collapse during defervescence, myocarditis, cerebral haemorrhage;
during pregnancy: abortion, preterm delivery, in utero foetal death, neonatal death.
 
In practice, in an applicable epidemiological setting (see above), a suspect case of LBRF is, according to WHO, a
patient with high fever and two of the following symptoms: severe joint pain, chills, jaundice or signs of bleeding (nose
or other bleeding) or a patient with high fever who is responding poorly to antimalarial drugs. Clothing should be
checked for the presence of body lice and nits.

Laboratory
T he diagnosis is confirmed by detection of Borrelia in thick or thin blood films (Giemsa stain). Blood samples must be
collected during febrile periods. Spirochetes are not found in the  peripheral blood during afebrile periods. In addition,
the number of circulating spirochetes tends to decrease with each febrile episode.

Treatment
Antibiotic treatment (suspect or confirmed cases and close contacts):
doxycycline PO
Children: 4 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) single dose 
Adults: 200 mg single dose
or
erythromycin PO
Children under 5 years: 250 mg single dose
Children 5 years and over and adults: 500 mg single dose
or
azithromycin PO
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) single dose
Adults: 500 mg single dose
Treatment of pain and fever (paracetamol PO) and prevention or treatment of dehydration in the event of
associated diarrhoea.
Elimination of body lice is essential in control of epidemics (see Pediculosis, Chapter 4).
Tick-borne relapsing fever (TBRF)
Last update: October 2022
 
 
T BRFs are caused by different Borrelia species. T hey are endemic in temperate and warm regions of the word,
especially in Africa (Tanzania, DRC, Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, the Horn of Africa) and mainly in rural areas. T BRF is a
major cause of morbidity and mortality in children and pregnant women. T he mortality rate for untreated T BRF ranges
from 2 to 15%.

Clinical features
T he clinical manifestations and complications of T BRF are similar to those of LBRF but central nervous system (CNS)
involvement (particularly lymphocytic meningitis) is more frequent than in LBRF and the number of relapses is higher.
 
T he clinical diagnosis is difficult, especially during the first episode: cases occur sporadically rather than in outbreaks;
the tick bite is painless and usually unnoticed by the patient; symptoms are very similar to those of malaria, typhoid
fever, leptospirosis, certain arbovirosis (yellow fever, dengue) or rickettsiosis, and meningitis.

Laboratory
As for LBRF, the diagnosis is confirmed by detection of Borrelia in the patient’s blood.
Repeat the examination if the first smear is negative despite strong clinical suspicion.
In all cases, rapid test for malaria in endemic regions (and antimalarial treatment if needed, see Malaria, Chapter 6).

Treatment
Antibiotic treatment:
doxycycline PO for 7 to 10 days
Children under 45 kg: 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily 
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily 
or
azithromycin PO for 7 to 10 days (if doxycycline is contra-indicated or not available)
Children: 10 mg/kg (max. 500 mg) once daily
Adults: 500 mg once daily
or
ceftriaxone IV
a
for 10 to 14 days (for pregnant women or in case of CNS involvement)
Children: 50 to 75 mg/kg (max. 2 g) once daily
Adults: 2 g once daily
 
Treatment of pain and fever (paracetamol PO) and prevention or treatment of dehydration in the event of
associated diarrhoea.
 
 
  Antibiotic treatment can trigger a Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction with high fever, chills, fall in blood pressure and
sometimes shock. It is recommended to monitor the patient for 2 hours after the first dose of antibiotic, for
occurrence and management of severe Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction (symptomatic treatment of shock).
Jarisch-Herxheimer reaction appears to occur more frequently in LBRF than in T BRF.
 
Footnotes
(a) For IV administ rat ion of cef t riaxone, dilut e wit h wat er f or inject ion only.
Eruptive rickettsioses
Last update: October 2022
 
 
Rickettsioses are eruptive fevers caused by bacteria of the genus Rickettsia and transmitted to man by an arthropod
vector. T hree main groups are distinguished: typhus group, spotted fever group and scrub typhus group.

Clinical features
Common to all forms:
Sudden onset of fever (temperature of over 39 °C) with severe headache and myalgias.
3 to 5 days later; onset of generalised cutaneous eruption (see below).
Hypotension; non-dissociated rapid heart rate (variable).
Typhoid state: prostration, obnubilation, confusion and extreme asthenia, particularly marked in typhus forms.
Inoculation eschar: painless, black crusted lesion surrounded by a erythematous halo at the site of the bite.
Always check for this significant sign.
Non-cutaneous signs vary from one form to another, and are atypical and variable (see below).
 
 Group Typhus Spotted fever Scrub
typhus

Form Epidemic typhus Murine typhus Mediterranean

Rocky Other Old- Scrub typhus
spotted fever Mountain World tick-
spotted fever borne fevers

Pathogen R. prowasekii R. typhi R. conorii R. rickettsii R. sibirica, R. O.

australis tsutsugamushi

Vector body lice rat fleas ticks ticks ticks mites

Reservoir man rats dogs rodents rodents, dogs, rodents

etc.

Occurence epidemic endemic endemic endemic endemic sporadic

Geographical worldwide, worldwide around the North America,

Southern Far East, India,
distribution conflicts; main mediterranean, Central Africa, South Pacific
sites: Sub-Saharan America, Australia, Area
Burundi/Rwanda, Africa Columbia, Siberia
Ethiopia Brazil

Rash maculopapular maculopapular maculopapular purpural maculopapular macular

Eschar 0 0 black rare black black

necrotic area necrotic area necrotic area

Typhoid +++ +++ +/- +/- +/- +++

state

Extra- cough, myalgia, gastrointestinal meningeal gastrointestinal variables meningeal

cutaneous meningeal signs signs signs and signs
signs neurological
signs,
hypotension

Case fatality 30 (without 5 2 5 1 0-30

(%) treatment)

 
Complications can be severe, and sometimes fatal: encephalitis, myocarditis, hepatitis, acute renal failure,
haemorrhage etc.

Laboratory
Detection of specific IgM of each group by indirect immunofluorescence. T he diagnosis is confirmed by 2 serological
tests at an interval of 10 days. In practice, clinical signs and the epidemiological context are sufficient to suggest the
diagnosis and start treatment.
Treatment
Symptomatic treatment:
Hydration (PO or IV if the patient is unable to drink).
Fever: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1). Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is contra-indicated due to the risk of
haemorrhage.
 
Antibiotic
a
for 5 to 7 days or until 3 days after the fever has disappeared:
doxycycline PO
Children under 45 kg: 2.2 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 100 mg 2 times daily
In severe infections, a loading dose of doxycycline is recommended:
Children under 45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg (max. 200 mg) on D1 then 2.2 mg /kg (max. 100 mg) 2 times daily
Children 45 kg and over and adults: 200 mg on D1 then 100 mg 2 times daily
 
In a context of epidemic typhus, doxycycline PO is the choice treatment, but there is a risk of recurrence:
Children: 4 mg/kg (max. 100 mg) single dose 
Adults: 200 mg single dose

Prevention
Epidemic typhus: control of body lice (see Pediculosis, Chapter 4).
Murine typhus: control of fleas and then rats.
Spotted fevers: avoid tick bites by wearing clothing and using repellents.
Scrub typhus: use of repellents, chemoprophylaxis with doxycycline PO (200 mg once weekly in adults).
 

Footnotes
(a) Unlike borrelioses, ant ibiot ic t reat ment of ricket t sioses does not provoke a Jarisch-Herxheimer react ion. However, t he
geographical dist ribut ion of borrelioses and ricket t sioses may overlap, and t hus a react ion may occur due t o a possible co-
inf ect ion (see Borreliosis).
Chapter 8: Viral diseases
Measles

Poliomyelitis

Rabies

Viral hepatitis

Dengue

Viral haemorrhagic fevers

HIV infection and AIDS

 
 
 
Measles
Measles is a highly contagious acute viral infection, transmitted by the airborne route (inhalation of respiratory droplets
spread by infected individuals). T he disease mainly affects children under 5 years of age and can be prevented by
immunization.
 
For more information, refer to the guide Management of a measles epidemic, MSF.

Clinical features
T he average incubation period is 10 days.
 
Prodromal or catarrhal phase (2 to 4 days)
High fever (39-40 °C) with cough, coryza (nasal discharge) and/or conjunctivitis (red and watery eyes).
Koplik’s spots: tiny bluish-white spots on an erythematous base, found on the inside of the cheek. T his sign is
specific of measles infection, but may be absent at the time of examination. Observation of Koplik's spots is not
required for diagnosing measles.
 
Eruptive phase (4 to 6 days)
On average 3 days after the onset of symptoms: eruption of erythematous, non- pruritic maculopapules, which
blanch with pressure. T he rash begins on the forehead then spreads downward to the face, neck, trunk
(second day), abdomen and lower limbs (third and fourth day).
As the rash progresses, prodromal symptoms subside. In the absence of complications, the fever disappears once
the rash reaches the feet.
T he rash fades around the fifth day in the same order that it appeared (from the head to the feet).
 
T he eruptive phase is followed by skin desquamation during 1 to 2 weeks, very pronounced on pigmented skin (the skin
develops a striped appearance).
 
In practice, a patient presenting with fever and erythematous maculopapular rash and at least one of the following
signs: cough or runny nose or conjunctivitis, is a clinical case of measles.

Complications
Most measles cases experience at least one complication:
Respiratory and ENT: pneumonia, otitis media, laryngotracheobronchitis
Ocular: purulent conjunctivitis, keratitis, xerophthalmia (risk of blindness)
Gastrointestinal: diarrhoea with or without dehydration, benign or severe stomatitis
Neurological: febrile seizures; rarely, encephalitis
Acute malnutrition, provoked or aggravated by measles (post-measles period)
 
Pneumonia and dehydration are the most common immediate causes of death.

Case management
Admit as inpatient children with at least one major complication:
Inability to eat/drink/suck, or vomiting
Altered consciousness or seizures
Dehydration
Severe pneumonia (pneumonia with respiratory distress or cyanosis or SpO2 < 90%)
Acute laryngotracheobronchitis (croup)
a
Corneal lesions (pain, photophobia, erosion or opacity)
 Severe oral lesions that prevent eating
Acute malnutrition
Treat as outpatient children with no major complications, no complications or minor complications:
Pneumonia without severe signs
Acute otitis media
Purulent conjunctivitis (no corneal lesions)
Diarrhoea without dehydration
Oral candidiasis that does not interfere with eating
If in doubt, keep the child under observation for a few hours.
Isolation
Isolation of hospitalized patients
Measles cases treated as outpatients should be kept at home during this period.

Treatment
Supportive and preventive treatment
Treat fever: paracetamol (Fever, Chapter 1).
Make the child drink (high risk of dehydration).
Give smaller, more frequent meals or breastfeed more frequently (every 2 to 3 hours).
Clear the nasopharynx (nose-blowing or nasal lavages) to prevent secondary respiratory infection and improve the
child’s comfort.
Clean the eyes with clean water 2 times daily and administer retinol on D1 and D2 (see Xerophthalmia, Chapter 5) to
prevent ocular complications.
In children under 5 years: amoxicillin PO for 5 days as a preventive measure (reduction of respiratory and ocular
infections).
In the event of watery diarrhoea without dehydration: oral rehydration according to WHO Plan A (see Dehydration,
Chapter 1).
Insert a nasogastric tube for a few days if oral lesions prevent the child from drinking.

Treatment of complications
   Treatment of complications

Severe pneumonia ceftriaxone IV or IM + cloxacillin IV then change to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid

PO (see Chapter 2)
+ oxygen if cyanosis or SpO2 < 90%
+ salbutamol if expiratory wheezing and sibilant rales on auscultation
In all cases, close monitoring.

Pneumonia without severe amoxicillin PO for 5 days

signs

Croup Inpatient monitoring (risk of worsening). Keep the child calm. Agitation and crying
exacerbate the symptoms.
For severe croup:
dexamethasone IM: 0.6 mg/kg single dose
+ nebulized epinephrine (adrenaline, 1 mg/ml ampoule): 0.5 ml/kg (max. 5 ml)
+ oxygen if cyanosis or SpO2 < 90%
Intensive monitoring until symptoms resolve.

Acute otitis media See Otitis, Chapter 2.

Dehydration Per oral route or IV depending on the degree of dehydration.

Oral candidiasis See Stomatitis, Chapter 3.

Purulent conjunctivitis See Conjunctivitis, Chapter 5.

Keratitis/keratoconjunctivitis tetracycline 1% eye ointment 2 times daily for 7 days

+ retinol PO one dose on D1, D2 and D8 (see Xerophthalmia, Chapter 5)
+ eye protection and pain management (see Pain, Chapter 1).
No topical corticosteroids.

Xerophthalmia See Xerophthalmia, Chapter 5.

Febrile seizures See Seizures, Chapter 1.

Prevention
No chemoprophylaxis for contacts.
Vaccination:
Between 9 and 12 months: one dose of 0.5 ml. T he WHO recommends a second dose between 15 and 18
months. Respect an interval of at least 4 weeks between doses.
Where there is high risk of infection (overcrowding, epidemics, malnutrition, infants born to a mother with HIV
infection, etc.), administer a supplementary dose from 6 months of age then continue vaccination schedule.
Children under 15 years who have missed either one or both doses of routine vaccination should be vaccinated
when they come in contact with health services. Check national recommendations.
 
Footnotes
(a) Sympt oms (hoarse crying or voice, dif ficult y breat hing, a high-pit ched inspirat ory wheeze [inspirat ory st ridor], charact erist ic
"barking" cough) are caused by inflammat ion and narrowing of t he larynx. Croup is considered benign or “moderat e” if t he
st ridor occurs when t he child is agit at ed or crying, but disappears when t he child is calm. The child should be monit ored
during t his period, however, because his general and respirat ory st at us can det eriorat e rapidly. Croup is severe when t he
st ridor persist s at rest or is associat ed wit h signs of respirat ory dist ress.
Poliomyelitis
Poliomyelitis is an acute viral infection due to a poliovirus (serotypes 1, 2 or 3). Human-to-human transmission is direct
(faecal-oral) or indirect (ingestion of food and water contaminated by stool). Humans are the only reservoir of the virus.
In principle the disease can be eradicated by mass vaccination.
 
In endemic areas, poliomyelitis mainly affect children under 5 years not (or not fully) vaccinated, but the infection can
affect persons of any age, especially in areas where population immunity is low.

Clinical features
Up to 90% of cases are asymptomatic or present mild symptoms
[1]
.
Non-paralytic form: a non-specific febrile illness with muscle pain, headache, vomiting, backache; no neurological
involvement. As spontaneous recovery usually occurs within 10 days, diagnosis is rarely made outside epidemic
contexts.
Paralytic form: in less than 1% of cases, after the non-specific signs, the patient develops rapid onset (from the
morning to the evening) asymmetrical acute flaccid paralysis, predominantly of the lower limbs, with ascending
progression. T he muscles become soft with diminished reflexes. Sensation is maintained. T he disease is life
threatening if paralysis involves the respiratory muscles or muscles of swallowing. Initial urinary retention is common.
Gastrointestinal disturbances (nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea), muscle pain and meningeal symptoms may also occur.

Laboratory
Look for the polio virus in stool samples. T he virus is excreted for one month after infection, but only intermittently;
therefore, 2 samples must be collected with an interval of 24-48 hours, and within 14 days of onset of symptoms
[2]
. Send the stool samples to a reference laboratory, with a clinical description of the patient. T he stool samples must be
stored and transported between 0 °C and 8 °C.

Treatment
Hospitalise patients with the paralytic form: rest, prevent bed sores in bedridden patients, give analgesics (do not
give IM injections to patients in the febrile phase), ventilate patients with respiratory paralysis.
Physiotherapy once the lesions are stable to prevent muscle atrophy and contractures.
Care for sequelae: physiotherapy, surgery and prosthetics.

Outbreak control in case of acute flaccid paralysis (AFP)

Consider any patient with AFP as a suspected case of poliomyelitis.
Send stool samples to a reference laboratory to confirm the diagnosis.  
Organize vaccination of all children under 5 years living in the area (from the same village or neighbouring villages)
irrespective of their vaccination status, within 14 days of laboratory confirmation and with the available vaccine
(round 0)
[3]
.
Organize two mass vaccination campaigns within 8 weeks of the laboratory confirmation. T he type of vaccine, the
area and the age groups are determined by epidemiological data.
Organize a mop-up (door-to-door) vaccination campaign wherever monitoring suggests that children have been
missed, to ensure interruption of transmission.
Surveillance: for each case of AFP there are between 100 and 200 subclinical cases. T herefore, active surveillance
to detect new cases is essential for epidemic control.
Prevention
3 types of vaccines exist:
a trivalent injectable inactivated poliovirus vaccine (IPV),
a bivalent oral live attenuated poliovirus vaccine (bOPV), containing serotypes 1 and 3,
a monovalent oral type 2 vaccine (mOPV or nOPV) exclusively used for responding to epidemics.
Vaccination schedule: depends on the epidemiology of the virus.
Protocols vary according to the country, follow national recommendations. For information, the WHO
recommends:

Primary vaccination
Schedule
Endemic or at risk zones
(a) Other zones

Birth 1 dose bOPV

(b) –

6 weeks 1 dose bOPV 1 dose bOPV

10 weeks 1 dose bOPV 1 dose bOPV

14 weeks 1 dose bOPV + 1 dose IPV 1 dose bOPV + 1 dose IPV

(a) Count ries where poliomyelit is is endemic or zones at high risk of import at ion and subsequent spread of t he virus.
(b) The first  dose of bOPV is administ ered at birt h, or as soon as possible, t o opt imise seroconversion rat es af t er subsequent
doses and induce mucosal prot ect ion.

In children who start routine vaccination late (after the age of 3 months), the dose of IPV is administered together with
the first dose of bOPV, followed by 2 doses of bOPV alone administered 4 weeks apart.
T here is also an ‘IPV only’ schedule: 3 doses administered at least 4 weeks apart (e.g. at 6, 10 and 14 weeks) and a
booster dose at least 6 months later.
IPV should eventually completely replace bOPV.
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Poliomyelit is (polio).
ht t ps://www.who.int /healt h-t opics/poliomyelit is#t ab=t ab_1 [Accessed 08 June 2021]

2. Cent ers f or Disease Cont rol and Prevent ion. Poliomyelit is. 2020.
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/polio.ht ml [Accessed 08 June 2021]

3. Global Polio Eradicat ion Init iat ive. St andard operat ing procedures: responding t o a poliovirus event or out break, version 3.1.
World Healt h Organizat ion. 2020.
ht t ps://www.who.int /publicat ions/i/it em/9789240002999 [Accessed 08 June 2021]
Rabies
Rabies is a viral infection of wild and domestic mammals, transmitted to humans by the saliva of infected animals
through bites, scratches or licks on broken skin or mucous membranes. 
 
In endemic areas (Africa and Asia), 99% of cases are due to dog bites and 40% of cases are children under 15 years of
age
[1]
.
 
Before symptoms develop, rabies can effectively be prevented by post-exposure prophylaxis.
Once symptoms develop, rabies is fatal. T here is no curative treatment; care is palliative. 

Clinical features
T he incubation period averages 20 to 90 days from exposure (75% of patients), but can be shorter (in severe
exposure, e.g. bites to face, head and hands; multiple bites), or longer (20% of patients develop symptoms
between 90 days and 1 year, and 5% more than 1 year after exposure).
Prodromal phase: itching or paraesthesiae or neuropathic pain around the site of exposure, and non-specific
symptoms (fever, malaise, etc.).
Neurologic phase:
Encephalitic form (furious form): psychomotor agitation or hydrophobia (throat spasms and panic, triggered by
attempting to drink or sight/sound/touch of water) and aerophobia (similar response to a draft of air); sometimes
seizures. T he patient is calm and lucid between episodes. Infection evolves to paralysis and coma.
Paralytic form (less common, 20% of cases): progressive ascending paralysis resembling Guillain-Barré
syndrome; evolves to coma.
 
Diagnosis is often difficult: there may be no history of scratch or bite (exposure through licking) or wounds may have
healed; a reliable history may be difficult to obtain.

Post-exposure prophylaxis
Definitions of exposure categories (WHO)

Category I Contact with animal, or licks on intact skin No exposure

Nibbles on exposed skin

Category II Minor exposure
Minor bite(s) or scratch(es) without bleeding

Transdermal bite(s) or scratch(es)

Licks on broken skin
Category III Severe exposure
Contamination of mucous membranes by animal’s saliva (licks)
Direct contact with bats
a

 
Post-exposure prophylaxis is carried out for Category II and III exposures.

Treatment of the wound

In all cases
Prolonged cleansing of the wound or contact site for 15 minutes to eliminate the virus, as soon as possible after
exposure, is of critical importance. For skin: use soap, rinse copiously with running water, remove all foreign material;
application of a disinfectant (povidone iodine 10% or other) is an additional precaution which does not take the place
of thorough wound washing. For mucous membranes (eye, mouth, etc.): rinse thoroughly with water or 0.9% sodium
chloride. Local cleansing is indicated even if the patient presents late.

According to condition/type of wound

In order to avoid inoculating virus deeper into the tissues, wounds are either not sutured at all (e.g. superficial, non-
mutilating or puncture wounds), or are left open and re-evaluated in 48-72 hours, with a view to possible closure. Highly
contaminated wounds, or wounds that may compromise function, require surgical management (exploration, removal
of foreign material, excision of necrotic tissue, copious irrigation with sterile 0.9% sodium chloride or Ringer lactate,
with local or general anaesthesia). When suturing is indicated (face), rabies immunoglobulin should be administered
several hours before wound closure (see below). Infected wounds are not sutured and reassessed daily.

Passive and active immunisation

Given the duration of incubation, administration of vaccine/immunoglobulin is always a priority, even for patients
exposed several months previously.

Anti-rabies serotherapy
Rabies immunoglobulin is indicated after:
Category III exposures (except in patients who have received a full course of pre-exposure prophylaxis against
rabies, see Prevention); 
Category II and III exposures in immunocompromised patients
b
(even in patients who have received a full course of
pre-exposure prophylaxis against rabies).
 
It is intended to neutralize virus in the exposure site. It is given as a single dose on D0, with the first dose of rabies
vaccine.
human rabies immunoglobulin:
Children and adults: 20 IU/kg
or
highly purified rabies immunoglobulin F(ab')2 fragments:
Children and adults: 40 IU/kg
 
Infiltrate rabies immunoglobulin into and around the previously washed wound(s). Ensure it is not injected into a blood
vessel (risk of shock).
For finger wounds, infiltrate very cautiously to avoid increased pressure in the tissue compartment (compartment
syndrome).
In the event of multiple wounds, dilute the dose 2- to 3-fold with sterile 0.9% sodium chloride to obtain a sufficient
quantity to infiltrate all the sites exposed.
Infiltrate rabies immunoglobulin into the wound even if it has already healed. 
For mucosal exposures with no wound, rinse with rabies immunoglobulin diluted in sterile 0.9% sodium chloride.
 
Monitor the patient during and after the injection (low risk of anaphylactic reaction).
 
If rabies immunoglobulin is not available on D0, the first dose of rabies vaccine is administered alone. Administer rabies
immunoglobulin as soon as possible between D0 and D7; from D8, it is not necessary to
administer rabies immunoglobulin as vaccine-induced antibodies begin to appear.
[1]

Post-exposure rabies prophylaxis 
A complete prophylaxis series is indicated for Category II and III exposures. It should be started on D0 and continued to
completion if the risk of rabies has not been excluded
c
. Several different types of rabies vaccines prepared from cell
cultures (CCEEV) exist.  T hese vaccines must replace nerve tissue vaccines (NT V). 
Prophylaxis schedules may vary from country to country, check national recommendations. T he patient must be
administered the full course of doses indicated. 

Main post-exposure prophylaxis regimens
[1]

No pre-exposure prophylaxis or unknown prophylaxis status

or incomplete pre-exposure prophylaxis or complete pre-exposure prophylaxis with an NTV

Date
IM route
(a)

ID route
(b)

1 dose = 0.5 or 1 ml depending on the

1 dose = 0.1 ml
manufacturer

2 doses
(c)
2 doses
(c)

D0 1 dose
(c)
(1 dose in each arm or thigh) (1 dose in each arm)

2 doses

D3   1 dose
(1 dose in each arm)

2 doses

D7 1 dose 1 dose
(1 dose in each arm)

D14   1 dose
(d)  

D21 1 dose    

(a) IM rout e: t here are t wo possible schedules, t he Z agreb regimen (2-0-1-0-1) over 21 days or t he 4-dose Essen regimen (1-1-
1-1-0) over 14 t o 28 days. The IM inject ion is administ ered int o t he ant erolat eral part of t he t high in children < 2 years; int o
t he delt oid muscle (arm) in children ≥ 2 years and adult s; do not administ er int o t he glut eal muscle.
(b) ID rout e: inject int o t he delt oid muscle (or t he suprascapular region or t he ant erolat eral part of t he t high). Incorrect ID
t echnique result s in f ailure of post -exposure prophylaxis. If correct ID t echnique cannot be assured, use IM rout e.
(c) As well as a single dose of rabies immunoglobulin on D0 if indicat ed.
(d) The last  inject ion can be administ ered bet ween D14 and D28.

Notes:
In immunocompromised patients: 1 dose on D0, 1 dose on D7 and 1 dose between D21 and D28.
[1]
In patients that have received a full course of pre-exposure prophylaxis (see  Prevention), the post-exposure
regimen is: 1 dose on D0 and 1 dose D3 by IM or ID route or 4 doses by ID route on D0.

Other measures
Antibiotherapy/antibiotic prophylaxis
[2]
 Infection present No infection No infection

and and

local: redness, wounds on the face or hands or no criteria requiring antibiotic

oedema, serosanguinous genital region prophylaxis
or purulent drainage wounds involving joint, tendon, wounds more than 24-48
locoregional or general: ligament or fracture hours old
lymphangitis, lymphadenopathy, deep puncture wounds
localised cellulitis, bone or joint wounds with crush injury
infection, fever wounds very contaminated or
requiring debridement
wounds where correct debridement
is not possible
immunocompromised patients

Antibiotherapy PO 7 days in the event Antibiotic prophylaxis PO 5 to 7 days No antibiotic prophylaxis

of local non severe infection;
14 days in the event of severe local
infection, or widespread generalised
infection.

 
T he same dosage is used for both treatment and prophylaxis:
T he treatment of choice is amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO
d

Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:

Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily 
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily)

Tetanus vaccination and serotherapy

Check prophylaxis status. If unknown or not up-to-date, see Tetanus, Chapter 7.

Prevention
Pre-exposure prophylaxis with a CCEEV for people at risk (prolonged stay in rabies endemic areas, professionals in
contact with animals susceptible of carrying the virus, etc): 1 dose by IM route or 2 doses by ID route on D0 and D7.
 

Footnotes
(a) In t he event of direct cont act wit h bat s, check nat ional recommendat ions.

(b) For example, f or HIV-inf ect ed pat ient s: CD4 ≤ 25% in children < 5 years and < 200 cells/mm³ in children ≥ 5 years and adult s.
(ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/272371/WER9316.pdf ?ua=1)

(c) Eit her t hrough observat ion of t he capt ured animal (if domest ic) or t hrough laborat ory diagnosis of t he animal (killed). The
WHO recommends a 10-day observat ion period of t he animal, if capt ured. If no signs of rabies develop during t he
observat ion period, t he risk of rabies is excluded, and post -exposure prophylaxis is discont inued. Laborat ory diagnosis of
t he dead animal involves sending t he head t o a specialised laborat ory, which confirms or excludes rabies in t he animal. If
laborat ory diagnosis is negat ive, risk of rabies is excluded, and post -exposure prophylaxis is discont inued.
(d) In penicillin-allergic pat ient s: 
• Children: co-trimoxazole (30 mg SMX + 6 mg TMP/kg 2 t imes daily) + clindamycin (10 mg/kg 3 t imes daily) 
• Adult s: co-trimoxazole (800 mg SMX + 160 mg TMP 2 t imes daily) or doxycycline (100 mg 2 t imes daily or 200 mg once
daily, except in pregnant and lact at ing women) + metronidazole (500 mg 3 t imes daily).

References
1. Weekly epidemiological record/Relevé épidémiologique hebdomadaire, 20 April 2018, 93t h year/20 avril 2018, 93e année.
No 16, 2018, 93, 201–220.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/272371/WER9316.pdf ?ua=1 [Accessed 25 oct ober 2018]

2. Spencer O, Banerjee S. Animal bit es. BMJ Best pract ice 2018 [Accessed 25 oct ober 2018]
Viral hepatitis
Last updated: October 2021
 
Several viral infections of the liver are grouped under the heading of viral hepatitis: hepatitis A, B, C, D (delta) and E.
T he different hepatitis viruses are present throughout the world, but their prevalence varies by country. Hepatitis A and
B are common in developing countries where the vast majority of infections occur during childhood.
 
T he clinical characteristics of all five diseases are similar enough to make differential diagnosis difficult; however, there
are epidemiological, immunological and pathological differences. Patients with hepatitis B, C and D may later develop
chronic liver disease.
T he main characteristics of each type of viral hepatitis are summarized in the table below.

Clinical features
Asymptomatic forms
Mild or anicteric forms are the most common, irrespective of the causal virus. 
Icteric forms
Insidious or sudden onset with symptoms of varying intensity: fever, fatigue, nausea, gastrointestinal disturbance,
followed by jaundice, dark coloured urine and more or less claycoloured stool.
Fulminant forms
Hepatocellular failure with severe cytolysis that can be fatal. T his form is most frequent in hepatitis B patients with
secondary infection with the D virus, and in the event of pregnant women infected with hepatitis E during their third
trimester.
Chronic hepatitis
Hepatitis B, C and D may lead to cirrhosis and/or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
 
The various forms of viral hepatitis
   Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis E

Age group Children Children Young adults Young adults Young adults
most at risk

Transmission Faecal-oral Vertical

(a)
Exposure to Exposure to Faecal-oral
Contaminated Close contact with infected blood blood Contaminated
food and person (especially intra- (transfusion; (transfusion; food and water
water familial). material material
Transfusion Exposure to blood contaminated contaminated
(rare) (transfusion; material with blood) with blood)
contaminated with blood) Sexual (low) Sexual
Sexual Intranasal Possibly
(implements vertical
(a)
shared by
intranasal drug
users)
Vertical
(a)

Incubation 2 to 6 weeks 4 to 30 weeks (average 10 2 to 25 weeks Co-infection 2 to 8 weeks

period weeks) B/D: as for
hepatitis B
Secondary
infection of
hepatitis B:
approximately
5 weeks

Fulminant 0.2 to 0.4% 1 to 3% More rare than Much more 20% mortality
forms in hepatitis B common in in pregnant
patients with women
secondary
infection of
hepatitis B
than in patients
with B/D co-
infection

Prognosis No chronic Chronicity: 0.2 to 10% (risk Chronicity: up Chronicity: < No chronic
forms is inversely related to age, to 50%, of 5% for forms
e.g. up to 90% if infected which 10 to patients with
before the age of 1 year) of 25% progress B/D co-
which 5 to 15% progress to to cirrhosis. infection; >
cirrhosis. HCC possible 90% if
HCC possible secondary
infection of
hepatitis B
(rapid cirrhosis)
 Individual Polyvalent Specific anti-HBs Specific anti- As for hepatitis Cook meat
prevention immunoglobulin immunoglobulin HBs B (the D virus (pork)
Safe sex (condoms) immunoglobulin can only
may be develop with
effective B)

Vaccination Anti-hepatitis Anti-hepatitis B Does not exist Anti-hepatitis Does not exist
A B

Collective Hygiene, Limit transfusion, screen blood prior to transfusion Hygiene,

prevention sanitation Single use of disposable material sanitation

(a) Vert ical t ransmission: t ransmission of t he virus f rom t he mot her t o t he child during pregnancy, at t he t ime of delivery, or
during t he first 28 days af t er birt h.

Laboratory
Diagnosis
HAV, HDV and HEV infection: detection of IgM anti-HAV, anti-HDV and anti-HEV antibodies, respectively.
HBV infection: detection of HBsAg; chronic hepatitis B: presence of HBsAG for longer 6 months; chronic active
hepatitis B: detection of HBeAg and/or HBV DNA.
HCV infection: detection of anti-HCV antibodies and HCV RNA; chronic hepatitis C: viraemia persists for longer
than 6 months.

Other tests
ALT (or AST ) level, platelet count, creatinine, HCV diagnosis and HBV viral load to decide treatment of chronic
active hepatitis B.
APRI score (evaluation of liver fibrosis in chronic hepatitis): [(patient's AST level/normal AST level) x 100]/platelet
count (109 platelets/litre). An APRI score > 1 indicates probable severe fibrosis.
HIV test.

Other investigations
Elastography (Fibroscan®): measures the elasticity of the liver to determine stage of liver fibrosis, scored from
F0 (absence of fibrosis) to F4 (cirrhosis).

Treatment
Rest, hydration, no special diet.
Do not administer drug therapy for symptomatic treatment (analgesics, antipyretics, antidiarrhoeals, antiemetics
etc.) during the acute phase as it may aggravate symptoms and the evolution of hepatitis. Corticosteroids are not
indicated.
Stop or reduce alcohol consumption.

Treatment of chronic active hepatitis B 

T he goal of treatment is to reduce the risk of cirrhosis and HCC. 
Patients with HIV co-infection 
Lifelong antiretroviral therapy of HIV that includes tenofovir. Do not administer tenofovir monotherapy or tenofovir
 dual therapy with lamivudine or emtricitabine (risk of developing HIV drug resistance). 
Patients without HIV co-infection 
Treatment is indicated in the event of cirrhosis or advanced hepatic fibrosis (APRI score > 1.5 or Fibroscan F3-F4 >
10 kPa); HBsAg positive with persistently elevated ALT or AST > 2 times the normal values in 2 samples taken 3 or
6 months apart; or persistently elevated ALT or AST with a high viral load (> 20 000 IU/ml).
tenofovir PO (300 mg tab, equivalent to 245 mg of tenofovir disoproxil), lifelong therapy:
Children ≥ 12 years and adults, including pregnant women: one tablet once daily taken with a meal

Treatment of chronic hepatitis C

[1]

Genotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 without cirrhosis sofosbuvir/velpatasvir PO (400 mg SOF/100 mg VEL tablet)

or with compensated cirrhosis 1 tablet once daily for 12 weeks

Genotypes 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 without cirrhosis sofosbuvir/daclatasvir PO (400 mg SOF/60 mg DCV tablet) 

or with compensated cirrhosis 1 tablet once daily for 12 weeks
Genotype 3 without cirrhosis

Genotype 3 with compensated cirrhosis sofosbuvir/daclatasvir PO (400 mg SOF/60 mg DCV tablet)

1 tablet once daily for 24 weeks

 
In case of decompensated cirrhosis (presence of ascites or jaundice or mental confusion or signs of gastrointestinal
haemorrhage): same treatment but for 24 weeks.
 
Treatment is contra-indicated during pregnancy and breastfeeding.
For women of childbearing age: provide a contraceptive; do not start treatment in women who do not want
contraception.

Vaccination
Routine vaccination of neonates and infants
[2]
 (according to national vaccination schedule): 
3 dose schedule: one dose as soon as possible after birth, preferably within the first 24 hours of life, then one
dose at 6 weeks and one dose at 14 weeks
a
4 dose schedule: one dose as soon as possible after birth, preferably within the first 24 hours of life, then one
dose at 6 weeks, one dose at 10 weeks and one dose at 14 weeks
a
 
Catch-up vaccination (unvaccinated individuals):
3 dose schedule (0-1-6): 2 doses 4 weeks apart, then a third dose 6 months after the first dose
Post-exposure prophylaxis:
One dose on D0, one dose on D7 and one dose between D21 and D30 then a booster dose 12 months after the
first dose
 

Footnotes
(a) At birt h, only t he monovalent hepat it is B vaccine can be used.
For t he f ollowing doses, a monovalent or t et ravalent (dipht heria, t et anus, pert ussis, hepat it is B) or pent avalent (dipht heria,
t et anus, pert ussis, hepat it is B and Haemophilus influenzae ) vaccine can be used, depending on nat ional recommendat ions.
If an inf ant was not administ ered t he birt h dose, t his dose can be administ ered at anyt ime during t he first cont act wit h
healt h-care providers, up t o t he t ime of t he next dose of t he primary schedule.
References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Guidelines f or t he care and t reat ment of persons diagnosed wit h chronic hepat it is C virus
inf ect ion. July 2018.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/273174/9789241550345-eng.pdf ?ua=1 [Accessed 21 December 2018]

2. Weekly epidemiological record/Relevé épidémiologique hebdomadaire 7 JULY 2017, 92t h YEAR / 7 JUILLET 2017, 92e ANNÉE
No 27, 2017, 92, 369–392 
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/255841/WER9227.pdf ?sequence=1 [Accessed 22 November 2018]
Dengue
Last update: October 2022
 
 
Dengue fever is an arbovirus transmitted to humans by the bite of a mosquito (Aedes). Transmission by transfusion of
contaminated blood and transplacental transmission to the foetus have also been reported.
Four different serotypes of dengue have been described. Infection with one serotype provides a lifelong immunity to
that specific serotype, but only partial, short-term immunity to other serotypes. T here is no specific antiviral treatment.
 
Dengue is a mainly urban disease, present in tropical and subtropical regions
a
, in particular in Asia, Central and South
America and the Caribbean. Outbreaks have been described in Eastern Africa.
 
Primary infection may be asymptomatic or present as mild or occasionally severe dengue fever. Subsequent infections
increase the risk of severe dengue.

Clinical features
After the incubation period (4 to 10 days), the illness occurs in 3 phases:
Febrile phase: high fever (39 to 40 °C) lasting 2 to 7 days, often accompanied by generalized aches, a
maculopapular rash and mild haemorrhagic manifestations. 
Critical phase (between the third and seventh day): at the end of the febrile phase, temperature decreases. T he
majority of patients will have dengue without warning signs and proceed to the recovery phase. Certain patients will
develop dengue with warning sign(s) at this stage. T hese patients are at higher risk for developing severe dengue.
Recovery phase: patient improves, vital signs normalise, gastrointestinal symptoms subside and appetite returns.
At times, bradycardia and generalized pruritus.
 
 Symptoms according to severity (adapted from PAHO
[1]
)

Dengue Fever + 2 of the following symptoms:

without warning Nausea, vomiting
signs Rash resembling measles
Generalized aches (headache, retro-orbital pain, myalgias, arthralgias)
Benign mucocutaneous bleeding (petechiae, positive tourniquet test
(a)
, epistaxis, gingival
bleeding)
Leucopenia

Dengue Presence of at least one of these symptoms:

with warning signs Intense abdominal pain
Persistent vomiting
Fluid accumulation (ascites, pleural effusion)
Mucosal bleeding
Hepatomegaly (> 2 cm)
Postural hypotension
Agitation or lethargy
Increasing haematocrit

Severe dengue Severe fluid accumulation (ascites, pleural effusion) with respiratory distress and/or shock
Severe mucocutaneous bleeding
Severe organ involvement (e.g.: transaminases > 1000 IU/litre, myocarditis, altered mental
status)

(a) Tourniquet t est : inflat e a blood pressure cuf f on t he upper arm t o a point midway bet ween t he syst olic and diast olic
pressure f or 5 min. The t est is posit ive when 20 or more pet echiae per 2.5 cm square are observed.

Major differential diagnoses

Other conditions to consider include a wide range of acute febrile illnesses, e.g.:  
Chikungunya, Zika, influenza, mononucleosis, measles, rubella, viral haemorrhagic fevers 
Malaria  
Meningococcemia, typhoid fever, leptospirosis, rickettsioses, other causes of sepsis 
Leukaemia   

Laboratory
Diagnosis
NS-1 antigen detection during febrile phase with rapid diagnostic test or ELISA (serum, plasma or blood). 
Antibody detection (complex interpretation): 
IgM detection 5 to 6 days after onset of illness may support (but does not confirm) a diagnosis of recent
infection;
IgG detection may indicate prior infection by, or vaccination against, dengue virus or a closely related virus (e.g.
chikungunya, Zika, Japanese encephalitis, yellow fever).
PCR may also be available in reference laboratories. 
In all cases, rapid test for malaria in endemic regions (and antimalarial treatment if needed, see Malaria, Chapter 6).
Monitoring disease course
Haematocrit (Hct) or if available full blood count (FBC) at baseline, then daily if possible.
A progressive increase in Hct is a warning sign. It indicates haemoconcentration due to increased vascular
permeability (plasma leakage). Hct should be monitored frequently (before and after fluid administration) in
patients with warning signs up to the end of the fluid treatment. 
Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia are common and improve as the recovery phase begins. Leukocytosis may
occur with severe bleeding.
Liver function tests if possible at baseline, then according to results.

Treatment
Patients in Group A (outpatients)
Patients with no warning signs, able to drink sufficiently and with a normal urine output.
Bed rest and good hydration.
Fever and pain: paracetamol PO at the usual doses (see Fever, Chapter 1), maintaining a 6 to 8 hour interval
between doses. Do not prescribe acetylsalicylic acid, ibuprofen or other NSAIDs.
Seek medical attention if: no clinical improvement, persistent vomiting, cold extremities, agitation or lethargy,
breathing difficulties or absence of urine output.
If follow-up is impossible or symptoms cannot be monitored at home (patients living far from the health care
facility/living alone), hospitalise for observation.

Patients in Group B (inpatients)

Patients with any of the following:
Warning sign(s) 
Acute (e.g. severe dehydation or malaria) or chronic (e.g. diabetes, cardiovascular, renal or haemolytic disease,
obesity) co-morbidities
Risk factors for bleeding (e.g. anticoagulation, coagulopathy, peptic ulcer or gastritis, treatment with NSAIDs) 
Pregnant women, patients under 1 year or 65 years and over or patients with difficulty drinking
 
In all cases:
Place the patient under a mosquito net; encourage oral fluid intake (including oral rehydration solution (ORS) if
needed).
Avoid invasive procedures (nasogastric tube, IM injections) to minimize the risk of bleeding.
Fever and pain: paracetamol PO
[2]
 with caution and without exceeding:
children: 10 mg/kg every 6 to 8 hours
adults: 500 mg every 6 to 8 hours
In case of elevated transaminases ≥ 10 times the upper limit of normal, do not administer paracetamol. Use tepid
sponging for reducing fever.
Monitor vital signs, fluid intake (infusion and oral) and urine output every 4 hours
b
.
 
If poor oral intake:
Place an intravenous line and administer:
children: 5% glucose + Ringer lactate solution
c
as maintenance fluids, according to the Holliday-Segar
formula, i.e. 4 ml/kg/hour for first 10 kg of body weight + 2 ml/kg/hour for next 10 kg + 1 ml/kg/hour for each
additional kg above 20 kg.
adults: Ringer lactate, 2 to 3 ml/kg/hour
Encourage oral intake as soon as possible.
 
If warning signs:
 Monitor clinical status (warning signs, general symptoms, vital signs, capillary refill time), IV and oral fluid intake, urine
output, hourly for at least 4 hours, then every 4 hours while the patient is on IV fluid treatment.
Place an intravenous line and administer a bolus of Ringer lactate:
children and adults: 10 ml/kg over one hour
patients 65 years and over or with co-morbidities : 5 ml/kg over one hour
 Re-assess the patient:
If no improvement after first bolus: administer a second bolus as above. If necessary, a total of 3 boluses can
be administered. If still no improvement after 3 bolus, consider as severe dengue (patients in Group C) and
transfer to intensive care unit.
If improvement after the first, second, or third bolus, reduce Ringer lactate:
children and adults: 5 to 7 ml/kg/hour over 2 to 4 hours
patients 65 years and over or with co-morbidities: 5 ml/kg/hour over 2 to 4 hours
If continuing improvement, reduce Ringer lactate (then stop as soon as possible to reduce the risk of fluid
overload):
children and adults: 3 to 5 ml/kg/hour over 2 to 4 hours, then 2 to 4 ml/kg/hour over 24 to 48 hours
patients 65 years and over or with co-morbidities: 3 ml/kg/hour over 2 to 4 hours, then 2 ml/kg/hour over 24
to 48 hours
If the patient deteriorates after initial improvement, resume the bolus therapy with Ringer lactate (up to 3 bolus)
as above.

Patients in Group C (intensive care unit)

Patients with severe dengue requiring emergency treatment for managing shock and other complications (e.g. severe
bleeding, acidosis, coagulopathy).

Prevention
Individual protection: long sleeves and trousers, repellents, mosquito net (Aedes bites during the day).
Elimination of mosquito breeding sites (small collections of water in discarded tires, flower pots, and other
containers).
 

Footnotes
(a) For more inf ormat ion:
ht t p://gamapserver.who.int /mapLibrary/Files/Maps/Global_DengueTransmission_ITHRiskMap.png?ua=1

(b) Adequat e urine out put : at least 1 ml/kg/hour in children and 0.5 ml/kg/hour in adult s. If unavailable, ensure t hat t he pat ient is
urinat ing at least every 4 hours.

(c) Remove 50 ml of Ringer lact at e (RL) f rom a 500 ml RL bot t le or bag, t hen add 50 ml of 50% glucose t o t he remaining 450 ml
of RL t o obt ain 500 ml of 5% glucose-RL solut ion.
 

References
1. Pan American Healt h Organizat ion. Dengue: guidelines f or pat ient care in t he Region of t he Americas, 2nd edit ion.
Washingt on, D.C.: PAHO, 2016.
ht t ps://iris.paho.org/bit st ream/handle/10665.2/31207/9789275118900-eng.pdf ?sequence=1&isAllowed=y [Accessed 23 Aug
2022]

2. Pan American Healt h Organizat ion. Guidelines f or t he Clinical Diagnosis and Treat ment of Dengue, Chikungunya, and Z ika.
Washingt on, D.C. : PAHO; 2022.  
ht t ps://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/55867 [Accessed 16 Aug 2022]
Viral haemorrhagic fevers
Several diseases with different aetiologies and different modes of transmission are grouped under this term as they
present with common clinical signs.
Dengue haemorrhagic fever is a viral haemorrhagic fever that is described in a specific chapter (see Dengue, Chapter
8).

Clinical features
Common syndrome (CS):
Fever higher than 38.5 °C;
Haemorrhagic symptoms (purpura, epistaxis, haematemesis, melaena, etc.).
T he clinical signs are often nonspecific; the severity varies depending on the aetiology.
 
 Estimated
Reservoir/ Vector Isolation
case
  Geographical of Clinical features
fatality
distribution patients
rate

Bats (?) Strict CS + sudden onset general malaise,

Ebola
(a)
Marburg 60-80%
Africa isolation vomiting and diarrhoea

CS + general malaise, headache, muscle

Rodents
Strict
Lassa
(a) pain, facial oedema, pharyngitis, proteinuria 15-20%
West Africa
(b) isolation
on reagent strip

Junin and Rodents

CS + vomiting, erythema of the face and,
Isolation 15-30%
Machupo
(a) South America depending on the aetiology:
periorbital oedema, cervical
T icks
adenopathy, pharyngitis
Omsk None 2-5%
Europe, Asia pharyngitis, reddened conjunctivae
oedema of the soft palate, generalised
Crimean Livestock/T icks Strict petechial rash
5-20%
Congo
(a) Africa, Asia isolation proteinuria on reagent strip

FHSR Rodents

None < 1%
(hantavirus)
(a) Asia and Europe

Small mammals/T icks

CS + headache, muscle pain, prostration
Kyasanur None 2-10%
India

Clinical signs:
isolated fever
(a)
Livestock/Mosquitoes Mosquito
Rift Valley
SC
Africa nets
encephalitis 30-50%
retinitis and blindness

Primates/Mosquitoes Mosquito CS + jaundice, proteinuria on reagent strip,

Yellow fever
(a) 10-30%
Africa, South America nets oliguria, headache

(a) Viral haemorrhagic f ever wit h epidemic pot ent ial.

(b) For more inf ormat ion on geographic dist ribut ion of Lassa f ever: 
ht t ps://www.who.int /emergencies/diseases/lassa-f ever/geographic-dist ribut ion.png?ua=1

Laboratory
A sample of whole blood must be send to a reference laboratory for serological diagnosis, with a clinical description
of the patient. T he sample may also be sent on filter paper. It is easier to transport, but the small volume of blood
only allows a limited number of aetiologies to be tested.
Protective clothing must be worn while taking or handling the sample (gown, gloves, glasses, mask, etc.).
T he sample must be sent in a triple packaging system for Category A infectious substances.
Management
Suspicion of haemorrhagic fever
Isolated case of fever with haemorrhagic symptoms in an endemic area
 
Isolation: isolation room (or if not available, use screens/partitions); restrict visitors (if a carer is strictly necessary,
s/he must be protected with gown, gloves, mask).
Standard precautions:
T he majority of hospital-acquired infections have occurred due to a lack of respect for these precautions:
Hand washing;
Gloves for patient examination and when touching blood, body fluids, secretions, excretions, mucous
membranes, non-intact skin;
Gowns to protect skin and prevent soiling of clothing during consultations and activities that are likely to
generate splashes or sprays of blood, body fluids, secretions, or excretions;
Surgical mask and goggles, or face shield, to protect mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth during
activities that may generate splashes of blood, body fluids, secretions, and excretions;
Adequate procedures for the routine cleaning and disinfection of objects and surfaces;
Rubber gloves to handle soiled laundry;
Safe waste management;
Safe injection practices.

Confirmed cases of Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, Crimean-Congo fevers or epidemics of unknown origin
Strict isolation in a reserved area separate from other patient areas, with a defined circuit for entrance/exit and
changing room at the entrance/exit; dedicated staff and equipment/supplies; use of disposable material if possible.
Standard precautions (as above)
PLUS
Droplet precautions AND contact precautions including personal protective equipment (PPE).
T he PPE is to be worn systematically prior to entry into isolation area, regardless the tasks to be performed (care,
cleaning, distribution of meals, etc.) and to be removed before leaving the isolation area:
two pairs of gloves,
double gown or coverall suit,
surgical cap or hood, mask, protective glasses,
impermeable apron,
rubber boots.
Disinfection of surfaces, objects, clothing and bedding with chlorine solution; safe handling and on site disposal of
waste and excreta, etc.
In the event of a death, do not wash the body. Prompt and safe burial of the dead as quickly as possible, using a
body bag.

Confirmed cases of Yellow fever or Rift Valley fever

Standard precautions.
Patient under a mosquito net to prevent transmission.

For all patients

Report to the Ministry of Health of the country.

Treatment
 Aetiological treatment: ribavirine for Lassa fever and Crimean-Congo fever.
Symptomatic treatment:
Fever: paracetamol (Chapter 1). Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin) is contra-indicated.
Pain: mild (paracetamol), moderate (tramadol), severe (sublingual morphine): see Pain, Chapter 1.
Dehydration: oral rehydration salts and/or IV rehydration with Ringer lactate, see Dehydration, Chapter 1.
Seizures (Chapter 1).
Vomiting: ondansetron PO
[1]

Children 6 months to < 2 years: 2 mg once daily

Children 2 to < 4 years: 2 mg 2 times daily
Children 4 to < 12 years: 4 mg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 12 years and adults: 4 to 8 mg 2 times daily
For Ebola and Marburg haemorrhagic fevers: invasive procedures must be strictly limited. Health care staff is at risk
of contamination when inserting and maintaining IV lines. An IV line must be well secured so that the patient, often
confused, cannot pull it out.

Prevention
Vaccination against yellow fever
[2]
:
Children and adults: 0.5 ml single dose 
Routine vaccination : children from 9 months of age, along with the measles vaccine.
Mass vaccination campaign during an epidemic: children from 6 months and adults ; for pregnant women, only
administer during an epidemic.
Vaccination against Rift Valley fever: only during an epidemic.
Vector control programmes for known vectors.
Infection control measures are essential in all cases.
 

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Clinical management of pat ient s wit h viral haemorrhagic f ever. A pocket guide f or f ront -line
healt h workers. Int erim emergency guidance f or count ry adapt at ion, February 2016.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/205570/9789241549608_eng.pdf ;jsessionid=15E17DE39631519C2051413DD
CBBC8A7?sequence=1 [Accessed 11 January 2019]

2. Weekly epidemiological record-Relevé épidémiologique hebdomadaire 5 july 2013, 88t h year / 5 juillet 2013, 88e année No. 27,
2013, 88, 269–284.
ht t ps://www.who.int /wer/2013/wer8827.pdf ?ua=1 [Accessed 10 december 2018]
HIV infection and AIDS
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is the most advanced stage of infection with human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV).
Two subtypes of HIV have been identified. HIV-1 is more widespread than HIV-2, the latter mainly being found in West
Africa. HIV-2 is less virulent and less transmissible than HIV-1.
HIV weakens the immune system by causing a deficit in CD4 T lymphocytes.

Evolution of the disease

Primary infection or acute retroviral syndrome: 50 to 70% of newly infected individuals develop during
seroconversion (from 15 days to 3 months post exposure), a viral syndrome with fever, malaise, and
lymphadenopathy.
Asymptomatic HIV infection (after seroconversion): a period of clinical latency, but not viral latency. T he time
period for progression from HIV infection to the development of severe immune deficiency in western countries is
approximately 10 years. T his period appears to be shorter in developing countries.
Symptomatic HIV infection: with progressive destruction of the immune system, common and more severe
diseases occur more frequently, and with higher mortality, in seropositive individuals.
AIDS: this stage corresponds to the development of severe opportunistic infections and neoplasms. From a
biological point of view, AIDS is defined as a CD4 count < 200 cells/mm3. Without treatment the disease
progresses rapidly towards death.
 
T he World Health Organization (WHO) has proposed a clinical classification of HIV infection in 4 stages of severity for
adults and adolescents and for children.
[1]

Laboratory
Diagnosis of HIV infection
T he diagnosis is made with serological (detection of antibodies against the virus) or virological (especially in infants)
testing.
Testing should always be done voluntarily with informed consent.
All HIV test results must be strictly confidential in order to avoid discrimination.
T he individual should have access to services offering pre-test and post-test counselling, treatment and support.
A diagnosis of HIV infection can be made only after at least 2 different test results (2 different brands) are clearly
positive: the positive result of an initial (highly sensitive) test must be confirmed through use of a second (highly
specific) test. In areas where HIV prevalence is low, diagnosis is confirmed after 3 positive test results.

CD4 lymphocyte counts

CD4 cell depletion is a marker of the progression of immune depression. T he level of the CD4 cell count is a predictor
of the development of opportunistic infections or neoplasms and can be used to orient their diagnosis, e.g. cerebral
toxoplasmosis or cryptococcal meningitis appear when the CD4 count is below 100 cells/mm3 in adults. If clinical
symptoms/signs are present suggesting one of these infections, but the CD4 count is greater than or equal to 200
cells/mm3, it is unlikely that that particular infection is present.

Opportunistic infections
It is important to screen for serious opportunistic infections in those at risk (e.g. testing for cryptococcal antigen for all
adults with a CD4 count < 100 cells/mm3 regardless of symptoms).
Treatment of HIV infection
Antiretroviral (ARV) treatment
a
A multi-drug (at least 3) antiretroviral therapy (ART ) is the reference treatment. It does not eradicate the virus, but
slows the progression of the disease and improves the patient’s clinical state by reducing viral replication and
consequently increasing the CD4 cell count to levels beyond the threshold of opportunistic infections.

Therapeutic classes
Four major classes ARV are used:
NRT I (nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors): zidovudine (AZT ), lamivudine (3T C), abacavir (ABC),
tenofovir (T DF), emtricitabine (FT C).
NNRT I (non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors): efavirenz (EFV), nevirapine (NVP), etravirine (ET R). HIV-2 is
naturally resistant to NNRT Is.
PI (protease inhibitors): atazanavir (AT V), lopinavir (LPV), ritonavir (RT V), darunavir (DRV).
INI (integrase inhibitors): dolutegravir, raltegravir.

Principles of ARV treatment

Daily triple therapy must be taken for life to prevent the rapid development of resistance. It is important that the
patient understands this and that adherence to treatment is optimal.
Follow the ART protocols recommended by national HIV program.
T he most widely used and easiest regimens to administer are 2 NRT I + 1 NNRT I: e.g. T DF/3T C/EFV.
In the event of treatment failure, all 3 drugs should be replaced with a second-line regimen: 2 other NRT Is + 1 PI.
Other possible combinations exist which are less commonly used or more difficult to manage.

Criteria for ARV treatment

As a priority ART should be initiated in all patients with WHO clinical stage 3 or 4 and patients with CD4 < 350 /mm3.
However, those with higher CD4 counts can initiate ART.

Monitoring of ARV treatment

HIV viral load is an essential tool for monitoring the effectiveness of ARV. CD4 count is useful for identifying severely
immunosuppressed. Other tests such as blood count, tests for liver (ALAT ) and renal function (creatinine clearance) are
not essential, but can be useful in detecting adverse effects.

Treatment of opportunistic and other infections

With progressive immunosuppression, HIV-infected patients who are not receiving triple therapy (or patients on ART
but with poor adherence) become increasingly susceptible to infections. For conditions of clinical stages 2 and 3,
standard treatments are usually effective. Patients may benefit from primary prophylaxis against opportunistic
infections (see Primary prophylaxis). Tuberculosis (T B) is the most common serious opportunistic infection. It can be
difficult to diagnose in HIV-infected patients however.

Treatment of pain
Treat all patients for associated pain (see Pain, Chapter 1).

Prevention of HIV infection

Sexual transmission
T he most reliable method of prevention is the use of male or female condoms.
Male circumcision decreases significantly the risk of HIV transmission.
Early diagnosis and treatment of sexually transmitted infections is essential as they increase the transmission of HIV
(see Chapter 9).
ART to HIV positive and adherent partner does protect the negative partner from HIV infection.

Occupational transmission
(accidental needle stick injuries or injuries with contaminated objects, contact between a patient’s blood and
unprotected broken skin or mucous membranes)
Prevention is based on use of standard precautions to avoid contamination with soiled material or potentially infected
body fluids.
Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP): e.g. in the event of rape or occupational accidental exposure to blood, ARV
treatment initiated as soon as possible within 72 hours of exposure for a duration of 1 month may reduce the risk of
infection.

Nosocomial transmission
Prevention of nosocomial HIV infection is based on the rational use of injections and strict respect for hygiene and
sterilization and disinfection procedures for medical material.
For transfusion: strict respect of indications for transfusion and systematic serological screening of the donor’s blood
are the two indispensable precautions in the prevention of HIV transmission through transfusions.

Transmission in injection drug users

Needle and syringe exchange programs with disposable needles and syringes for users can reduce the risk.

Mother-to-child transmission (MTCT)

T he global rate of vertical transmission varies from 20 to 40%. T he risk of transmission through breast-feeding is
evaluated at approximately 12% and persists for the duration of breast-feeding.
In pregnant women: HIV transmission from mother-to-child may be reduced by ART. T he protocol called Option
B+ is the internationally preferred protocol. All HIV-infected pregnant women receive lifelong triple-drug therapy,
regardless of the CD4 count or clinical stage, both for their own health and to prevent transmission to the child. T he
most commonly recommended ART is T DF/3T C/EFV or T DF/FT C/EFV. Check national recommendations. In
addition, ARVs are administered to the newborn.
Programs targeting pregnant women also include other preventive measures such as avoiding artificial rupture of
the membranes and systematic episiotomy.
In breast-feeding women: exclusive breast-feeding for the first 6 months of life, introduction of complementary
(solid) foods at 6 months, gradual cessation of breast-feeding to the age of 12 months.

Prevention of opportunistic infections

In the absence of ARV treatment, all HIV-infected individuals become symptomatic and evolve towards AIDS.
However, some opportunistic infections can be prevented.

Primary prophylaxis
For HIV infected patients who have not previously contracted an opportunistic infection, in order to prevent the
development of some opportunistic infections.
 
 Infections Primary prophylaxis

Pneumocystosis co-trimoxazole PO
Cerebral toxoplasmosis Children: 50 mg SMX + 10 mg T MP/kg once daily
Isosporiasis Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP once daily
Various bacterial infections
Malaria

Secondary prophylaxis
For patients who develop a specific opportunistic infection, in order to prevent recurrence once treatment for the
infection is completed.
 
Infections Secondary prophylaxis Comments

Pneumocystosis Alternative
dapsone PO
Children: 2 mg/kg once daily (max. 100 mg
daily)
Adults: 100 mg once daily
co-trimoxazole PO
Toxoplasmosis Children: 50 mg SMX + 10 mg T MP/kg once Alternative
daily Adults:
Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP once dapsone PO: 200 mg once weekly or 50
daily mg once daily
+ pyrimethamine PO: 75 mg once weekly
+ folinic acid PO: 25 to 30 mg once
weekly

Isosporiasis –

Penicilliosis itraconazole PO
–
Histoplasmosis Adults: 200 mg once daily

Cryptococcal meningitis fluconazole PO

Children: 6 mg/kg once daily –
Adults: 200 mg once daily

Oral or oesophageal fluconazole PO Only for frequent and severe recurrences

candidiasis Children: 3 to 6 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 100 to 200 mg once daily

Herpes simplex aciclovir PO Only for frequent and severe recurrences

Children under 2 years: 200 mg 2 times daily
Children 2 years and over and adults: 400 mg
2 times daily

 
 
 Definitions and
Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment
aetiologies

Diarrhoea Diarrhoea is defined as at 1. History and clinical • Persistent (> 2 weeks) or chronic (>
with or without blood least 3 liquid stools per examination 4 weeks) diarrhoea is often
(also see day. 2. Microscopic associated with weight loss and
Chapter 3) Aetiologies: examination of stool for dehydration.
Parasitic infections ova and parasites (2 to 3 • Prevention or treatment of
• Isospora belli samples) dehydration is critical (Dehydration,
• Cryptosporidium Note: Chapter 1).
• Microsporidium I. belli, Cryptosporidium, • Depending on the results of the
• Giardia lamblia Microsporidium, MAC stool examinations: give appropriate
• Entamoeba histolytica and CMV are unlikely if treatment.
Bacterial infections CD4 count > 200 cells. • If there is no laboratory support:
• Shigella Acute bloody diarrhoea
• Salmonella enteritis • First-line treatment:
• Campylobacter Children: azithromycin PO: 20 mg/kg
enteritis once daily for 5 days or
Mycobacterial ciprofloxacin PO: 15 mg/kg 2 times
infections daily for 7 days
• Mycobacterium Adults: ciprofloxacin PO: 500 mg 2
tuberculosis times daily for 7 days
(gastrointestinal T B) • If amoebiasis suspected:
• Mycobacterium avium tinidazole or metronidazole PO (
complex Amoebiasis, Chapter 3).
Helminthiasis
• Strongyloides
stercoralis
Viral infections
• Cytomegalovirus (CMV)
Other causes
• Kaposi sarcoma
• Lymphoma
• Idiopathic (HIV
infection)
• Antiretrovirals
(especially lopinavir and
ritonavir)
Non-bloody persistent or chronic
diarrhea
Persistent or chronic diarrhoea
suggests advanced
immunocompromised state. For
patients who qualify for ARVs by
CD4 count (or unknown CD4 count),
ARV initiation is urgent and will
usually resolve symptoms in 14 to 28
days.
• Isospora belli: co-trimoxazole PO
Children: 40 mg SMX + 8 mg T MP/kg
2 times daily for 10 days then 25 mg
SMX + 5 mg T MP/kg 2 times daily
for 3 weeks
Adults: 800 mg SMX + 160 mg T MP
2 times daily for 7 to 10 days then
400 mg SMX + 80 mg T MP 2 times
daily for 3 weeks
• Cryptosporidium: no specific
treatment in HIV-infected patients
• Microsporidium: albendazole PO
(limited efficacy)
Children: 10 mg/kg 2 times daily
(max. 800 mg daily) for 7 days
Adults: 400 mg 2 times daily for 2 to
4 weeks
• Helminthiasis: albendazole PO for
3 days
Children > 6 months but ≤ 10 kg: 200
mg once daily
Children > 6 months and adults: 400
mg once daily
• Giardiasis: tinidazole or
metronidazole (
Intestinal protozoan infections,
Chapter 6).
• If no improvement (and no contra-
indications such as bloody
diarrhoea), symptomatic treatment
with loperamide PO:
Children < 2 years: contra-indicated
Children 2 to 5 years: 1 mg 3 times
daily
Children 6 to 8 years: 2 mg 2 times
daily
Children > 8 years: 2 mg 3 times daily
Adults: initial dose 4 mg then 2 mg
after each liquid stool (max. 16 mg
daily)
 Nutrition ++++
Children: continue to breastfeed;
increase daily calorie intake:
6-11 months: add 150 kcal daily
12-23 months: add 200 kcal daily
2-5 years: add 250 kcal daily
6-9 years: add 350 kcal daily
10-14 years: add 400 kcal daily
Eliminate fresh milk, give porridge
prepared with rice water or soup or
yoghurts. Give 2.5 ml of oil per meal.
Any child 0-5 years should receive
zinc sulfate (Acute diarrhoea,
Chapter 3).
Adults: increase the calorie and
protein intake (at least 2 g protein/kg
daily). No food is excluded but avoid
raw food, fresh milk and foods high
in fibre. Encourage small, frequent
meals.

Oral and Fungal infections Clinical examination is • Mild oral candidiasis

oesophageal • Oral candidiasis: see enough to make a nystatin PO
lesions Stomatitis, Chapter 3. diagnosis. Children and adults: 100 000 IU (= 1
• Oesophageal Consider all severe oral ml) 4 times daily
candidiasis: pain on candidiasis (if the or miconazole oral gel
swallowing, dysphagia. pharynx is involved) as Children 6 months-2 years: 1.25 ml 4
May result in weight loss. oesophageal candidiasis times daily
Viral infections even in the absence of Children over 2 years and adults: 2.5
• Oral hairy leukoplakia dysphagia. ml 4 times daily
(keratosis on the lateral T he treatment lasts 7 to 14 days.
sides of the tongue due • Moderate to severe oral
to the Epstein-Barr virus) candidiasis and oesophageal
• Oral and oesophageal candidiasis
herpes fluconazole PO
Aphthous ulcers Children: 3 to 6 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 50 to 200 mg once daily
up to 400 mg daily if necessary
T he treatment lasts 7 to 14 days for
oral candidiasis and 14 to 21 days
for oesophageal candidiasis.
Candidiasis is an indication for
prophylaxis with co-trimoxazole.
• Oral hairy leukoplakia: no treatment
 • Oral herpes:
Analgesics (paracetamol, ibuprofen).
For recurrent or extensive forms
affecting the oesophagus, add:
aciclovir PO for 7 days
Children under 2 years: 200 mg 5
times daily
Children 2 years and over and adults:
400 mg 5 times daily
Secondary prophylaxis only for
patients with frequent recurrences.

Respiratory Cough and/or thoracic 1. History and clinical • For the diagnosis and treatment of
problems pain and/or dyspnoea in a examination: upper respiratory tract infections,
(also see symptomatic HIV Blood in the sputum? particularly pneumonia: see
Chapter 2) infected patient. If fever < 7 days, Chapter 2.
Aetiologies: dyspnoea: unlikely T B. • If the chest x-ray is consistent with
Bacterial infections If cough > 21 days, staphylococcal pneumonia:
• Streptococcus weight loss, thoracic pain Children: see
pneumoniae > 15 days, no dyspnoea: Staphylococcal pneumonia, Chapter
• Haemophilus likely T B. 2.
influenzae Pulmonary auscultation: Adults: ceftriaxone IM or slow IV 1 g
• Staphylococcus aureus bilateral lobar once daily + cloxacillin IV 2 g every
Mycobacterial pneumonia? 6 hours
infections 2. If possible: • If the sputum examination is AFB+,
• M. tuberculosis, MAC a) Look for AFB in treat for T B.
Protozoal infections sputum
• Pneumocystis jiroveci b) Chest x-ray
(PCP) • PCP: bilateral interstitial
Fungal infections infiltrates
• Cryptococcus • T B: miliary shadowing,
neoformans large heart, pleural
• Histoplasma effusion, enlarged lymph
capsulatum nodes inside the chest.
• Coccidioides immitis Notes
• Aspergillus spp • MAC, PCP, CMV and
• Penicillium marneffei fungal infections are
Viral infections unlikely in patients with a
• CMV CD4 count > 200
Neoplasms cells/mm3.
• Kaposi sarcoma • Staphylococcal
• Non-Hodgkin’s pneumonia is often
lymphoma associated with a
pyomyositis or an
abscess.
 Others • If the sputum examination is
• Lymphoid interstitial negative and the chest x-ray is
pneumonia consistent with PCP:
• Pleural effusion (often co-trimoxazole PO for 21 days
T B) Children: 50 mg SMX + 10 mg
• Pericardial effusion T MP/kg 2 times daily
(often T B) Adults: 1600 SMX + 320 T MP 3
• Pneumothorax (may be times daily
due to PCP) Note: the symptoms may become
worse during the first phase of
treatment, effectiveness can only be
evaluated after one week of
treatment.
Add prednisolone PO for patients
with severe PCP with hypoxia:
Children: start with 2 mg/kg daily
then decrease the dose following
the adult example
Adults: 40 mg 2 times daily for 5
days, then 40 mg once daily for 5
days then 20 mg once daily for 10
days
Secondary prophylaxis is
recommended.
• Fungal infections (cryptococcosis,
penicilliosis, histoplasmosis):
Adults: amphotericin B IV: 0.7 to 1
mg/kg once daily for 2 weeks
(cryptococcosis, penicilliosis) or 1 to
2 weeks (histoplasmosis), then:
fluconazole PO: 400 mg daily for 8
weeks (cryptococcosis)
itraconazole PO: 200 mg 2 times
daily for 10 weeks (penicilliosis)
itraconazole PO: 200 mg 3 times
daily for 3 days then 200 to 400 mg
daily for 12 weeks (histoplasmosis)
Secondary prophylaxis is
recommended.

Lymphadenopathy Enlarged lymph nodes in 1. Clinical examination: • Treat according to the aetiology or
a symptomatic HIV- look for a local cause empirical treatment with, for
infected patient (skin or dental infection example doxycycline PO.
etc.); T B or syphilis. • T B: see the guide Tuberculosis,
MSF.
 Persistent generalised 2. Suspected T B: lymph • Early syphilis:
lymphadenopathy (PGL): node aspiration, look for benzathine benzylpenicillin IM
• 2 or more extra-inguinal AFB, chest x-ray Adults: 2.4 MIU single dose (1.2 MIU
sites Note: in HIV infected in each buttock)
• lymph nodes > 1.5 cm patients, T B is often or, if not available:
• enlarged for 3 or more extrapulmonary. azithromycin PO
months PGL is usually 3. Suspected syphilis: Adults: 2 g single dose
due to HIV infection. serology Note: in patients in stage 1, no
Aetiologies: 4. If all examinations are further investigation (other than 1, 2
HIV infection negative: biopsy is useful and 3 in this table) or treatment are
Infections to exclude lymphoma, required.
• TB Kaposi’s sarcoma and
• Syphilis fungal or mycobacterial
• Histoplasmosis infections (see notes for
• Toxoplasmosis patients in stage 1).
• CMV
Neoplasms
• Kaposi sarcoma
• Lymphoma

Skin lesions Bacterial infections   Bacterial infections

(also see • Furunculosis • Furunculosis, impetigo, chronic
Chapter 4) • Impetigo and pyoderma folliculitis: see
• Axillary hidradenitis Bacterial skin infections, Chapter 4.
• Pyomyositis • Suppurative axillary hidradenitis:
• Syphilis local treatment + doxycycline PO:
Viral infections 200 mg once daily for 6 weeks (in
• Herpes zoster adults)
• Herpes simplex • Pyomyositis: antibiotics and
• Genital warts surgical drainage, see Pyomyositis,
• Molluscum Chapter 10.
contagiosum • Primary and secondary syphilis: see
Fungal infections Genital ulcers, Chapter 9.
• Candidiasis,
dermatophytoses and
deep mycoses
(penicilliosis,
cryptococcosis,
histoplasmosis, etc.)
Neoplasms
• Kaposi sarcoma
 Other skin infections Viral infections
• Chronic prurigo or • Herpes zoster: see
urticaria Herpes simplex and herpes zoster,
• Severe seborrhoeic Chapter 4.
dermatitis For necrotic, extensive forms,
• Psoriasis eruption on the face, ophthalmic
• Scabies zoster, add aciclovir within 48 hours
• Diffuse cutaneous of the onset of lesions:
xerosis Children (IV route): 5 to 10 mg/kg
Rash caused by every 8 hours for 7 days
medication Adults (oral route): 800 mg 5 times
Bed sores daily for 7 days
• Herpes simplex: see
Herpes simplex and herpes zoster,
Chapter 4.
• Genital warts: see Venereal warts,
Chapter 9.
Fungal infections
• Candidiasis: 2% miconazole
cream, one application 2 times daily
• Dermatophytoses: see
Superficial fungal infections, Chapter
4.
Treatment of Kaposi sarcoma (KS)
• Start promptly ART.
• KS tumours with oedema or
ulceration or presence of extensive
oral or gastrointestinal or pulmonary
KS +/- systemic illness:
chemotherapy
Other skin infections
• Prurigo, urticaria: see
Other skin disorders, Chapter 4.
• Seborrhoeic dermatitis: Whitfield’s
ointment or 2% miconazole, one
application 2 times daily. For severe
inflammation, use a topical
corticosteroid in combination with
miconazole.
• Xerosis: zinc oxide ointment or
calamine lotion
• Psoriasis: corticosteroids and
zinc oxide ointment
• Scabies: local treatment. For
crusted or profuse scabies, add
ivermectin PO (see Scabies,
Chapter 4).

Neurological Aetiologies: History and clinical Positive malaria test: see Malaria,
disorders in adults Infections examination: Chapter 6.
• T B meningitis • Change in mental state If focal signs, treat for
• Cryptococcal meningitis • Focal deficits toxoplasmosis:
• Cerebral toxoplasmosis • Seizures co-trimoxazole PO: 25 mg SMX + 5
• Neurosyphilis • Signs of meningeal mg T MP/kg 2 times daily for 4 to 6
• CMV encephalitis irritation weeks
• HIV encephalopathy • Raised intercranial or
• Progressive multifocal pressure pyrimethamine PO: 100 mg morning
leuko- encephalopathy • Motor problems, ataxia and evening on D1, then 75 to 100
• Cerebral malaria In settings where mg daily + sulfadiazine PO: 2 g 2 to
Neoplasms cryptococcal infection is 3 times daily + folinic acid PO: 15
• Primary CNS lymphoma common, screen all mg once daily, for 6 weeks
Common causes of adults with CD4 < 100 A secondary prophylaxis is
headache unrelated to prior to initiation of ART, recommended.
HIV infection: using a rapid CrAg test
sometimes more on serum or plasma.
frequent in HIV infected In endemic areas: check
patients (sinusitis, for malaria (if febrile).
problems with Lumbar puncture (LP) if
accommodation etc.) not contra-indicated.
Adverse effects of Elements in favour of
ARVs neurosyphilis:
• VDRL positive in blood
and/or CSF
• cells in the CSF
• high protein in the CSF
 If the LP is positive:
• Bacterial meningitis: see Chapter 7.
• T B meningitis: see the guide
Tuberculosis, MSF.
• Cryptococcal meningitis
[2]
:
amphotericin B IV: 1 mg/kg once
daily + flucytosine PO: 25 mg/kg 4
times daily for 1 week
then fluconazole PO: 1200 mg once
daily for 1 week then 800 mg once
daily for 8 weeks
or, if not available
amphotericin B IV: 1 mg/kg once
daily + fluconazole PO: 1200 mg
once daily for 2 weeks
then fluconazole PO alone: 800 mg
once daily for 8 weeks
or
fluconazole PO: 1200 mg once daily
+ flucytosine PO: 25 mg/kg 4 times
daily for 2 weeks
then fluconazole PO alone: 800 mg
once daily for 8 weeks
During the induction phase: give
fluconazole IV (same doses) if the
patient cannot take oral treatment;
liposomal amphotericin B (3 mg/kg
daily 2 weeks) may be used instead
of conventional amphotericin B in
case of renal impairment.
A secondary prophylaxis is
recommended.
Note: intracranial pressure (ICP) is
often raised in cryptococcal
meningitis. To lower ICP, repeated
‘therapeutic’ punctures to drain CSF
may be necessary at the beginning
of treatment.
Neurosyphilis:
benzylpenicillin IV: 2 to 4 MIU (1.2
to 2.4 g) every 4 hours for 14 days
or ceftriaxone IV or IM: 2 g once
daily for 10 to 14 days
Headache of unknown origin:
symptomatic treatment starting with
a step 1 analgesic (see Pain,
Chapter 1).

Neurological Aetiologies: Good history taking as Positive malaria test: see Malaria,
disorders in • Bacterial meningitis only patients with acute Chapter 6.
children • T B meningitis episodes benefit from If LP is not possible:
• Cryptococcal meningitis specific aetiological • Treat for bacterial meningitis if
• Cerebral toxoplasmosis treatment (seizures, patient febrile and/or meningeal
• CMV meningo- meningeal syndrome, syndrome (see Chapter 7).
encephalitis focal signs). • If focal signs, treat for
• Cerebral malaria In endemic areas, check toxoplasmosis:
for malaria (if febrile). co-trimoxazole PO: 25 mg SMX + 5
Lumbar puncture (LP) if mg T MP/kg 2 times daily for 4 to 6
not contra-indicated. weeks
or
pyrimethamine PO: 1 mg/kg 2 times
daily for 2 days then 1 mg/kg once
daily + sulfadiazine PO: 40 mg/kg 2
times daily + folinic acid PO: 10 mg
once daily, for 8 weeks
A secondary prophylaxis is
recommended.
 If the LP is positive:
• Bacterial meningitis: see Chapter 7.
• T B meningitis: see the guide
Tuberculosis, MSF.
• Cryptococcal meningitis (in order of
preference)
[2]
:
amphotericin B IV: 1 mg/kg once
daily + flucytosine PO: 25 mg/kg 4
times daily for 1 week then
fluconazole PO: 12 mg/kg once
daily (max. 800 mg daily) for 1 week
then 6-12 mg/kg once daily (max.
800 mg daily) for 8 weeks
or, if not available
amphotericin B IV: 1 mg/kg once
daily + fluconazole PO: 12 mg/kg
once daily (max. 800 mg daily) for 2
weeks then fluconazole PO alone:
6-12 mg/kg once daily for 8 weeks
(max. 800 mg daily)
or
fluconazole PO: 12 mg/kg once
daily (max. 800 mg daily) +
flucytosine PO: 25 mg/kg 4 times
daily for 2 weeks then fluconazole
PO alone: 6-12 mg/kg once daily
(max. 800 mg daily) for 8 weeks
During the induction phase: give
fluconazole IV (same doses) if the
child cannot take oral treatment;
liposomal amphotericin B (3 mg/kg
daily, 2 weeks) may be used instead
of conventional amphotericin B in
case of renal impairment.
A secondary prophylaxis is
recommended.

Persistent or Temperature > 38 °C, 1. History and clinical Positive malaria test: see Malaria,
recurrent fever chronic (lasting more than examination: look for a Chapter 6.
5 days) or recurrent ENT or urinary infection, If testing is not available: in endemic
(multiple episodes in a T B, skin infection, areas, treat malaria.
period of more than 5 enlarged lymph nodes Suspected meningitis: treat
days) etc. according to the results of the LP.
Aetiologies: 2. In endemic areas, If LP is not available, treat for
check for malaria. bacterial meningitis, see Chapter 7.
3. Suspected T B: look
for AFB.
 Infections 4. Chest x-ray, CBC, Identified or suspected focus of
• Common childhood blood cultures, urinalysis, infection:
diseases stool culture, serology, • ENT: see Chapter 2; urinary: see
• Severe bacterial lumbar puncture (LP). Chapter 9, etc.
infections (T B, If the child is under • T B: see the guide Tuberculosis,
pneumonia, typhoid fever, treatment, consider MSF.
septicaemia, meningitis, adverse effects of
endocarditis, etc.) medication.
• Occult bacterial
infections (sinusitis, otitis,
urinary tract infections)
• Opportunistic infections
(T B, mycosis,
toxoplasmosis)
• Malaria
Neoplasms
• Non-Hodgkin’s
lymphoma
HIV infection
Fever caused by
medication

Footnotes
(a) For more inf ormat ion: The use of ant iret roviral drugs f or t reat ing and prevent ing HIV inf ect ion. Recommendat ions f or a
public healt h approach. World Healt h Organizat ion, second edit ion, 2016.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/10665/208825/1/9789241549684_eng.pdf ?ua=1

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO case definit ions of HIV f or surveillance and revised clinical st aging and immunological
classificat ion de HIV-relat ed disease in adult s and children, 2007.
ht t p://www.who.int /hiv/pub/guidelines/HIVst aging150307.pdf  [Accessed 17 May 2018]

2. Word Healt h Organizat ion. Guidelines f or t he diagnosis, prevent ion, and management of crypt ococcal disease in HIV-
inf ect ed adult s, adolescent s and children, Geneva, 2018.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/260399/9789241550277-eng.pdf ?sequence=1 [Accessed 17 May 2018]
Chapter 9: Genito-urinary diseases
Nephrotic syndrome in children

Urolithiasis

Acute cystitis

Acute pyelonephritis

Acute prostatitis

Genital infections

Urethral discharge

Abnormal vaginal discharge

Genital ulcers

Lower abdominal pain in women

Upper genital tract infections (UGT I)

Venereal warts

Major genital infections (summary)

Abnormal uterine bleeding (in the absence of pregnancy)

 
 
 
Nephrotic syndrome in children
Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is characterized by the presence of oedema, heavy proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and
hyperlipidaemia.
Primary or idiopathic NS is the most common cause of NS in children between 1 and 10 years. It usually responds to
corticosteroids.
Secondary NS is associated with infectious diseases (e.g. post-infectious glomerulonephritis, endocarditis, hepatitis B
and C, HIV infection, malaria, and schistosomiasis) and may respond to treatment of the underlying cause.
 
Children with NS are at increased risk of thromboembolism, severe bacterial infections (in particular, due to S.
pneumoniae) and malnutrition. Untreated NS may progress to renal failure.

Clinical features
Typically, the child presents with soft, pitting and painless oedema, which varies in location based on position and
activity. Upon awaking, the child has periorbital or facial oedema, which over the day decreases as oedema of the
legs increases.
As oedema worsens, it may localize to the back or genitals, or become generalized with ascites and pleural
effusions.
 
T his oedema should be differentiated from the oedema of severe acute malnutrition (SAM): in SAM, the child
presents with bilateral pitting oedema of the feet and lower legs that does not vary with position. Oedema extends
upwards to hands and face in severe cases. It is usually associated with typical skin and hair changes (see
Kwashiorkor: Severe acute malnutrition, Chapter 1).
 
Once SAM is excluded, the following two criteria must be met to make a clinical diagnosis of primary NS:
Presence of heavy proteinuria,
and
Absence of associated infections: see Hepatitis B and C and HIV infection (Chapter 8), Malaria and
Schistosomiases (Chapter 6).

Laboratory
Urine
Measure protein with urinary dipstick on three separate voided urine samples (first voided urine if possible). In NS,
proteinuria is equal or greater than +++ or equal or greater than 300 mg/dl or 30 g/litre
a
. NS is excluded if heavy
proteinuria is not consistently present.
In case of macroscopic haematuria, or microscopic haematuria ≥ +, consider glomerulonephritis.
Blood tests (if available)
Serum albumin concentration less than 30 g/litre and hyperlipidaemia.
Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine most often in the normal range.
Perform all necessary laboratory tests to exclude secondary NS.

Treatment
Hospitalize the child for initial therapy.
 
Corticosteroids (prednisolone or prednisone) are indicated in primary NS.
 
Before starting corticosteroid treatment:
Treat any concomitant acute infections such as pneumonia, peritonitis, sepsis, pharyngitis, or cellulitis.
 Exclude active tuberculosis and/or start antituberculous treatment.
 
Corticosteroid treatment
See algorithm below. Total length of initial treatment is 2 to 4 months.

 
Nutrition, fluid intake, nursing and follow-up
No salt-added diet.
Do not restrict fluids (risk of thrombosis due to hypercoagulability). If oedema is very severe, fluids may initially
be restricted (e.g. 75% of usual intake) while monitoring urine output.
Encourage child to walk and play to prevent thromboembolism.
Discharge child when stable, follow-up at least monthly, more frequently if indicated, weight and urine dipstick at
each visit.
Instruct the parent to continue no salt-added diet and to seek medical advice in case of fever, abdominal pain,
respiratory distress or signs of thromboembolism.
 
Management of infections
Treat infections as soon as they appear but do not routinely give prophylactic antibiotics.
 
Immunization
Children under 5 years: check that the child has received all EPI vaccines including Haemophilus influenzae type
B, conjugated pneumococcal vaccine and (if in an endemic area) meningococcal A conjugate vaccine. If not,
administer catch-up vaccines.
Children over 5 years: check that the child has received tetanus, measles, pneumococcal conjugate and (if in an
endemic area) meningococcal A conjugate vaccine. If not, administer catch-up vaccines.

Management of complications
Intravascular volume depletion potentially leading to shock, present despite oedematous appearance
 Signs include decreased urine output with any one of the following: capillary refill ≥ 3 seconds, poor skin
perfusion/mottling, cold extremities, low blood pressure.
If signs are present, administer human albumin 5% IV: 1 g/kg. If albumin is not available, administer Ringer
lactate or 0.9% sodium chloride: 10 ml/kg over 30 minutes.
If signs of shock are present, see Shock, Chapter 1.
 
Respiratory distress due to severe oedema (rare)
T his is the only situation in which diuretics should be used and only if there are no signs of intravascular volume
depletion or after hypovolaemia has been corrected:
furosemide PO: 0.5 mg/kg 2 times daily
If not effective, discontinue furosemide. If creatinine is normal, administer spironolactone PO: 1 mg/kg 2 times
daily. T he dose can be increased to 9 mg/kg daily in resistant cases of ascites.
While on diuretics, monitor for dehydration, thromboembolism and hypokalaemia.
 
Specialized advice and management (including further investigations such as renal biopsy) are required:
In children less than 1 year or more than 10 years,
In case of steroid resistant NS,
 In case of mixed nephrotic and nephritic clinical picture.
 
In case of steroid-resistant NS, when referral is impossible and as a last resort, the following palliative measure may
reduce proteinuria and delay renal failure:
enalapril PO: 0.1 to 0.3 mg/kg 2 times daily (start with the lowest dose and increase gradually if necessary until
reduction of proteinuria). If available, monitor for hyperkalaemia.
T his is a palliative measure and the prognosis for steroid-resistant NS is poor in the absence of specialized treatment.
 

Footnotes
(a) Nephrot ic range prot einuria in children is defined as urinary prot ein excret ion great er t han 50 mg/kg daily. Quant it at ive
measurement of prot ein excret ion is normally based on a t imed 24-hour urine collect ion. However, if t his t est cannot be
perf ormed, urine dipst ick measurement s can be subst it ut ed.
Urolithiasis
Last updated: December 2020
 
Urolithiasis is the formation and passage of calculi (stones) in the urinary tract.

Clinical features
Many calculi do not cause symptoms; they may be found incidentally through radiology exams.
Symptoms arise when calculi cause partial or complete obstruction and/or infection:
Intermittent, acute flank to pelvic pain (renal colic). Pain can be severe and typically causes nausea and vomiting.
Abdomen/flank may be tender to palpation. Patients are typically restless, finding no comfortable position.
Haematuria and/or gravel (calculi) passed in urine.
Fever and signs of pyelonephritis if secondary infection develops (see Acute pyelonephritis, Chapter 9).
 
Note: if available, ultrasound may demonstrate calculi and hydronephrosis.

Treatment
Encourage the patient to drink fluids.
Administer analgesics according to the intensity of pain (see Pain, Chapter 1).
In case of secondary infection: antibiotic treatment as for pyelonephritis. T he effectiveness will depend on the
passage of calculi.
 
Note: the majority of calculi pass spontaneously. If there are signs of significant renal dysfunction or secondary
infection that does not improve with antibiotic treatment, consider surgical referral.
Acute cystitis
Last updated: July 2021
 
Cystitis is an infection of the bladder and urethra that affects mainly women and girls from 2 years of age. Escherichia
coli is the causative pathogen in at least 70% of cases. Other pathogens include Proteus mirabilis, Enterococcus sp,
Klebsiella sp and in young women, Staphylococcus saprophyticus.

Clinical features
Burning pain on urination and urinary urgency and frequency; in children: crying when passing urine; involuntary loss of
urine.
AND
No fever (or mild fever), no flank pain; no systemic signs and symptoms in children.
 
It is essential to rule out pyelonephritis.
T he symptom 'burning pain on urination' alone is insufficient to make the diagnosis. See Abnormal vaginal discharge.

Investigations 
Urine dipstick test:
Perform dipstick analysis for nitrites (which indicate the presence of enterobacteria) and leukocytes (which indicate
an inflammation) in the urine.
If dipstick analysis is positive for nitrites and/or leukocytes, a urinary infection is likely. 
In women, if dipstick analysis is negative for both nitrites and leukocytes, a urinary infection is excluded. 
 
Microscopy/culture: when a dipstick analysis is positive, it is recommended to carry out urine microscopy/culture in
order to confirm the infection and identify the causative pathogen, particularly in children and pregnant women.
When urine microscopy is not feasible, an empirical antibiotherapy should be administered to patients with typical
signs of cystitis and positive dipstick urinalysis (leukocytes and/or nitrites).
 
Note: aside of these results, in areas where urinary schistosomiasis is endemic, consider schistosomiasis in patients
with macroscopic haematuria or microscopic haematuria detected by dipstick test, especially in children from 5 to 15
years, even if the patient may suffer from concomitant bacterial cystitis.
 
POCUS
a
: in cases of recurrent cystitis, perform FAST views to evaluate for signs of urinary tract pathologies. 

Treatment
Cystitis in girls ≥ 2 years
cefixime PO: 8 mg/kg once daily for 3 days
or
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (dose expressed in amoxicillin): 12.5 mg/kg 2 times daily for 3 days

Cystitis in young, nonpregnant women 

If dipstick analysis is positive for both nitrites and leukocytes:
fosfomycin-trometamol PO: 3 g single dose
or
nitrofurantoin PO: 100 mg 3 times daily for 5 days 
 
 If dipstick analysis is negative for nitrites but positive for leukocytes, the infection may be due to S. saprophyticus.
Fosfomycin is not active against this pathogen. Use nitrofurantoin as above.
 
Whatever the antibiotic used, symptoms may persist for 2 to 3 days despite adequate treatment.
In the event of treatment failure (or recurrent cystitis i.e. > 3-4 episodes per year), ciprofloxacin PO: 500 mg 2
times daily for 3 days
For patients with recurrent cystitis, consider bladder stones, urinary schistosomiasis, urinary tuberculosis or
gonorrhoea (examine the partner).

Cystitis in pregnant or lactating women

fosfomycin-trometamol PO: 3 g single dose
or
nitrofurantoin PO (contraindicated in the last month of pregnancy): 100 mg 3 times daily for 7 days 
or 
cefixime PO: 200 mg 2 times daily for 5 days
 

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.
Acute pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is an infection of the renal parenchyma, more common in women than in men.
T he pathogens causing pyelonephritis are the same as those causing cystitis (see Acute cystitis, Chapter 9).
Pyelonephritis is potentially severe, especially in pregnant women, neonates and infants.
Management depends on the presence of signs of severity or complications or risk of complications.

Clinical features
Neonates and infant
Symptoms are not specific: fever, irritability, vomiting, poor oral intake. Palpation of the lower abdomen may show
abdominal tenderness. T he absence of fever does not rule out the diagnosis. On the other hand, fever –with no
obvious cause– may be the only manifestation.
Neonates may present with fever or hypothermia, altered general condition, altered conscious state, pale/grey
colour, shock.
 
In practice, a urinary tract infection should be suspected in children with unexplained fever or septic syndrome with no
obvious focus of infection.

Older children and adults

Signs of cystitis (burning pain on urination and urinary urgency and frequency, etc.)
AND
Fever > 38 °C and unilateral flank pain or abdominal tenderness
Nausea and/or vomiting are common.

Laboratory
See Acute cystitis, Chapter 9.

Treatment
Criteria for hospital admission:
Patients at risk of complications: children, pregnant women, men
a
, functional or structural abnormality of the
urinary tract (lithiasis, malformation, etc.), severe immunodeficiency; 
Patients with complicated pyelonephritis: urinary tract obstruction, renal abscess, emphysematous
pyelonephritis in diabetic patients;
Patients with signs of severe infection: sepsis (infection with signs of organ dysfunction) and septic shock,
dehydration or nausea/vomiting preventing hydration and oral treatment;
No clinical improvement 24 hours after the start of oral antibiotherapy in women treated as outpatients. 
 
Antibiotherapy in children
 
Children under one month 
ampicillin slow IV (3 minutes) for 7 to 10 days
Children 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 12 hours
Children 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Children 8 days to < 1 month: 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
+ gentamicin slow IV (3 minutes) for 5 days
Children 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 3 mg/kg once daily
 Children 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 5 mg/kg once daily
Children 8 days to < 1 month: 5 mg/kg once daily
or
cefotaxime slow IV (3 minutes) for 7 to 10 days
Children 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 12 hours
Children 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
Children 8 days to < 1 month: 50 mg/kg every 8 hours
 
Children one month and over
ceftriaxone IM or slow IV
b
 (3 minutes): 50 mg/kg once daily until the child's condition improves (at least 3 days)
then change to oral route to complete 10 days of treatment with:
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (dose expressed in amoxicillin)
Children < 40 kg: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily 
Children ≥ 40 kg:
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily) 
 
Antibiotherapy in adults
[1]
 
Uncomplicated pyelonephritis 
ceftriaxone IM: 1 g single dose or gentamicin IM: 5 mg/kg single dose
+
ciprofloxacin PO: 500 mg 2 times daily for 7 days
or
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (dose expressed in amoxicillin) for 10 to 14 days
Ratio 8:1: 2000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 2 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 1750 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 2 times daily) 
or
cefixime PO: 200 mg 2 times daily or 400 mg once daily for 10 to 14 days
 
Pyelonephritis with criteria for hospital admission
ampicillin slow IV (3 minutes): 2 g every 6 hours for at least 3 days + gentamicin IM: 5 mg/kg once daily for 3
days
then change to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (or another antibiotic depending on the antibiotic susceptibility
test) to complete 10 to 14 days of treatment
or
ceftriaxone IV
b
 : 1 g once daily for at least 3 days + gentamicin IM: 5 mg/kg once daily for 3 days in the event
of sepsis then change to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (or another antibiotic depending on the antibiotic
susceptibility test) to complete 10 to 14 days of treatment
 
Preferably use the combination ampicillin + gentamicin to cover enterococci. 
Pyelonephritis with abscess formation or emphysematous pyelonephritis may require longer antibiotherapy.
 
Treatment of fever and pain: do not administer NSAID (Fever, Chapter 1).
Maintain proper hydration (1.5 litres daily in adults), especially in children (risk of dehydration); treat dehydration if
present (see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
Management of septic shock if needed.
 

Footnotes
(a) Pyelonephrit is is rare in men; bact erial prost at it is should be suspect ed in t he event of f ebrile urinary t ract inf ect ion.
(b) The solvent of cef t riaxone f or IM inject ion cont ains lidocaine. Cef t riaxone reconst it ut ed using t his solvent must never be
administ ered by IV rout e. For IV administ rat ion, wat er f or inject ion must always be used.

References
1. Gupt a K, Hoot on TM, Naber KG, Wullt B, Colgan R, Miller LG, Moran GJ, Nicolle LE, Raz R, Schaef f er AJ, Soper DE, Inf ect ious
Diseases Societ y of America, European Societ y f or Microbiology and Inf ect ious Diseases. Int ernat ional clinical pract ice
guidelines f or t he t reat ment of acut e uncomplicat ed cyst it is and pyelonephrit is in women: A 2010 updat e by t he Inf ect ious
Diseases Societ y of America and t he European Societ y f or Microbiology and Inf ect ious Diseases. Clin Inf ect Dis.
2011;52(5):e103. 
ht t ps://academic.oup.com/cid/art icle/52/5/e103/388285 [Accessed 17 December 2018]
Acute prostatitis
Prostatitis is an acute bacterial infection of the prostate.
T he most common causative pathogen is Escherichia coli. Other pathogens include Proteus
mirabilis, Klebsiella sp, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterococcus sp.
Progression to chronic prostatitis is possible.

Clinical features
Fever (often high) and chills.
Signs of cystitis (burning on urination and urinary frequency).
Perineal, urethral, penile or rectal pain.
Urinary retention.
 
On examination:
Very painful digital rectal examination. Fluctuant mass in case of prostatic abscess.
Leukocyturia, pyuria, possible macroscopic haematuria.

Treatment
Antibiotic therapy:
ciprofloxacin PO: 500 mg 2 times daily for 14 days then review the patient. Stop treatment if signs and symptoms
have completely resolved. If signs and symptoms are ongoing continue the same treatment for a further 14 days.
[1]
Symptomatic treatment:
Ensure adequate hydration (1.5 litres daily).
Treat fever (Chapter 1) and pain (Chapter 1).
Refer to a surgeon in case of suspected prostatic abscess.
 

References
1. Nat ional Inst it ut e f or Healt h and Care Excellence. NICE guideline [NG110] Prost at it is (acut e): ant imicrobial prescribing, 2018.
ht t ps://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng110/resources/visual-summary-pdf -6544018477 [Accessed 4 March 2020]
Genital infections
Last updated: August 2021
 
T he diagnosis and treatment of genital infections (GI) present several difficulties: clinical features are not specific;
many infections are asymptomatic; laboratory tests available in the field are not always reliable; mixed infections are
common; sexual partners need to be treated simultaneously in case of sexually transmitted infections
a
 and the risk of
recurrence or treatment failure is increased in HIV-infected patients.
T hus, the WHO has introduced the syndromic management of GI and developed standardised case management
flowcharts: based on the identification of consistent groups of signs and symptoms (syndromes), patients are treated
for the pathogens/infections
b
 that may cause each syndrome.
 
Look for a GI if a patient complains of: See

Urethral discharge Urethral discharge

Painful or difficult urination (dysuria)

Abnormal vaginal discharge Abnormal vaginal discharge

Vulvar itching/burning
Pain with intercourse (dyspareunia)
Painful or difficult urination (dysuria)

Genital blisters or sores Genital ulcers

Burning sensation in the vulva or perineum

Skin growths in the genital (or anal) area Venereal warts

Lower abdominal pain (in women) Lower abdominal pain

Upper genital tract infections

Basic principles of GI management

T he patient can be effectively treated without laboratory testing. Some tests may help in diagnosing vaginal and
urethral discharge, but they should never delay treatment (results should be available within one hour).
T he patient should be treated at his/her first encounter with the health care provider (no patient should be sent
home without treatment, e.g. while waiting for laboratory results).
Single dose regimens are preferred when indicated.
In the case of urethral discharge, abnormal vaginal discharge (except candidiasis), genital ulcers (except herpes) and
sexually transmitted upper genital tract infection, the sexual partner should receive a treatment. In the case of
candidiasis, genital herpes and venereal warts, the partner is treated only if symptomatic.
Patients with sexually transmitted infections should receive information on their disease(s) and treatment and be
counselled on risk reduction and HIV testing. Condoms should be provided for the duration of treatment.

Special situation: sexual violence

Taking into consideration the physical, psychological, legal and social consequences of sexual violence, medical
care is not limited to the diagnosis and treatment of genital lesions or infections.
Care includes listening to the victim’s story, a complete physical examination, laboratory tests if available, and
completion of a medical certificate.
During the consultation, prophylactic or curative treatments must be proposed to the patient.
 
Prophylactic treatment:
priority is given to:
a) the risk of HIV transmission. Start antiretroviral therapy as early as possible if the patient is seen within 48-
72 hours after exposure (see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8);
b) the risk of pregnancy resulting from rape. Administer emergency contraception as soon as possible, ideally
within 72 hours after the rape
c
 :
levonorgestrel PO, one 1.5 mg tablet single dose (including in women receiving HIV post-exposure
prophylaxis); double the dose (3 mg) only if the patient was already taking an enzyme-inducing drug (e.g.
rifampicin, carbamazepine, certain antiretrovirals) before the rape;
or ulipristal PO, one 30 mg tablet single dose;
or a copper intrauterine device (except in case of active genital infection);
prevention of sexually transmitted infections: a single dose of azithromycin PO 2 g + ceftriaxone IM 500 mg
(or, if ceftriaxone is not available, cefixime PO 400 mg). If necessary, treatment of trichomoniasis may be
started later than the other treatments (tinidazole or metronidazole PO, 2 g single dose);
tetanus prophylaxis and/or vaccination (see T etanus, Chapter 7) if there are any wounds;
vaccination against hepatitis B (accelerated vaccination schedule, see Viral hepatitis, Chapter 8).
 
Curative treatment:
of any related pathologies/infections if the assault is not recent.
of wounds,
 
Mental health care is necessary irrespective of any delay between the event and the patient arriving for a consultation.
Care is based on immediate attention (one-on-one reception and listening) and if necessary, follow-up care with a view
to detecting and treating any psychological and/or psychiatric sequelae (anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress
disorder, etc.). See Chapter 11.
 

Footnotes
(a) GI may be sexually t ransmit t ed (e.g. gonorrhoea, chlamydia) or not (e.g. most cases of candidiasis).

(b) Keep in mind t hat in Schistosoma haematobium endemic areas, genit al sympt oms may also be due t o, or associat ed wit h,
genit ourinary schist osomiasis (see Schist osomiasis, Chapt er 6).

(c) Nevert heless, bet ween 72 and 120 hours (5 days) af t er t he rape, emergency cont racept ion is st ill suf ficient ly ef f ect ive t o be
administ ered.
Urethral discharge
Last updated: August 2022
 
Urethral discharge is seen almost exclusively in men. T he principal causative organisms are Neisseria gonorrhoeae
(gonorrhoea) and Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia).
Abnormal discharge should be confirmed by performing a clinical examination
a
. In males, the urethra should be milked
gently if no discharge is visible. Furthermore, specifically check for urethral discharge in patients complaining of painful
or difficult urination (dysuria).

Case management

Laboratory
C. trachomatis cannot easily be identified in a field laboratory. In the absence of validated rapid diagnostic tests,
the treatment is empiric.
In men, a methylene blue or Gram stained smear from a urethral swab may be used to detect gonococci (Gram
negative intracellular diplococci).

Treatment of the patient

In women: same treatment as cervicitis.
In men:
If microscopy of a urethral smear has been performed: in the absence of gonococci, treat for chlamydia alone;
in the presence of gonococci, treat for chlamydia AND gonorrhoea.
When no laboratory is available, treat for chlamydia AND gonorrhoea as below:
 Treatment for chlamydia   Treatment for gonorrhoea

azithromycin PO: 1 g single dose PLUS ceftriaxone IM: 500 mg single dose
or or, if ceftriaxone is not available,
doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily for cefixime PO: 400 mg single dose
7 days

 
If urethral discharge persists or reappears after 7 days:
Verify that the patient has received an effective treatment (i.e. one of the combinations above).
Gonococcal resistance is a possibility if another treatment (e.g. co-trimoxazole or kanamycin) has been
administered: re-treat for gonorrhoea as above (chlamydia is rarely resistant).
If an effective antibiotic therapy has been given, consider trichomoniasis (tinidazole or metronidazole PO, 2 g
single dose); also consider reinfection.

Treatment of the partner

T he sexual partner receives the same treatment as the patient, whether or not symptoms are present.
 

Footnotes
(a) In areas where lymphat ic filariasis is endemic, be caref ul not t o conf use purulent uret hral discharge wit h milky or rice-wat er
urine (chyluria) suggest ive of lymphat ic filariasis.
Abnormal vaginal discharge
Last updated: August 2022
 
Abnormal vaginal discharge is defined as discharge that is different from usual with respect to
colour/odour/consistency (e.g. discoloured or purulent or malodorous).
 
Abnormal discharge is often associated with vulvar pruritus or pain with intercourse (dyspareunia), or painful or difficult
urination (dysuria) or lower abdominal pain. Routinely check for abnormal vaginal discharge in women presenting with
these symptoms.
 
Abnormal vaginal discharge may be a sign of infection of the vagina (vaginitis) and/or the cervix (cervicitis) or upper
genital tract infection.
Abnormal discharge must be clinically confirmed: inspection of the vulva, speculum exam checking for cervical/vaginal
inflammation or discharge.
Abdominal and bimanual pelvic examinations should be performed routinely in all women presenting with vaginal
discharge to rule out upper genital tract infection (lower abdominal pain and cervical motion tenderness).
 
T he principal causative organisms are:
In vaginitis: Gardnerella vaginalis and other bacteria (bacterial vaginosis), Trichomonas vaginalis (trichomoniasis)
and Candida albicans (candidiasis).
In cervicitis: Neisseria gonorrhoeae (gonorrhoea) and Chlamydia trachomatis (chlamydia).
In upper genital tract infections: see Upper genital tract infections.

Case management
 
Cervicitis may be difficult to diagnose. When in doubt, administer treatment for cervicitis to women with abnormal
vaginal discharge and any of the following risk factors:
Urethral discharge in the partner
Context of sexual violence or prostitution
New partner or more than one partner in the preceding 3 months

Laboratory
Xpert molecular (PCR) tests are recommended for the detection of C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoea. 
Microscopic examination of a fresh wet smear may show mobile T. vaginalis, yeast cells and hyphae in candidiasis,
and “clue cells” in bacterial vaginosis. 
Identification of N. gonorrhoeae by Gram-stained smear is not sensitive in women and is not recommended. 

Treatment of the patient

Cervicitis
Treat for both chlamydia AND gonorrhoea.
 
 Treatment for chlamydia   Treatment for gonorrhoea

Non-pregnant women

azithromycin PO: 1 g single dose PLUS ceftriaxone IM: 500 mg single dose 

or or, if not available,
doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily cefixime PO: 400 mg single dose
for 7 days

Pregnant women

azithromycin PO: 1 g single dose PLUS ceftriaxone IM: 500 mg single dose

or or, if not available,
erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 times daily cefixime PO: 400 mg single dose
or 500 mg 4 times daily for 7 days

Bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis

tinidazole PO: 2 g single dose
or metronidazole PO: 2 g single dose
 
In the case of treatment failure:
tinidazole PO: 500 mg 2 times daily for 5 days
or metronidazole PO: 400 to 500 mg 2 times daily for 7 days

Vulvovaginal candidiasis
clotrimazole (500 mg vaginal tab): 1 tablet inserted deep into the vagina at bedtime, single dose
 
If the patient has extensive vulvar involvement, miconazole 2% cream (one application to the vulva 2 times daily for 7
days) may be used in combination with the intravaginal treatment above. Miconazole cream may complement, but
does not replace, treatment with clotrimazole.

Treatment of the partner

When the patient is treated for vaginitis or cervicitis, the partner receives the same treatment as the patient, whether
or not symptoms are present.
 
In the case of vulvovaginal candidiasis, the partner is treated only if symptomatic (itching and redness of the
glans/prepuce): miconazole 2% cream, one application 2 times daily for 7 days.
Genital ulcers
Genital ulcers, defined as single or multiple vesicular, ulcerative or erosive lesions of the genital tract, with or without
inguinal lymphadenopathy, should lead to consideration of sexually transmitted infection.
T he principal causative organisms are Treponema pallidum (syphilis), Haemophilus ducreyi (chancroid) and Herpes
simplex (genital herpes). Chlamydia trachomatis (lymphogranuloma venereum) and Calymmatobacterium
granulomatis (donovanosis)
a
 are less frequent.

Case management

Laboratory
Laboratory testing available in the field is of little value: e.g., in syphilis, a negative RPR or VDRL result does not
exclude primary syphilis in early stage, and a positive test may reflect previous infection in a successfully treated
patient.

Treatment of the patient

Genital herpes
Local treatment: clean the area with soap and water.
Antiviral treatment: aciclovir PO
 In patients with a first episode, treatment may reduce the duration of symptoms when given within 5 days after the
onset of symptoms: 400 mg 3 times daily for 7 days.
In patients with recurrence, give the same dose for 5 days, but treatment is only effective if initiated during the
prodromal phase or within 24 hours after the onset of symptoms.
In patients with frequent recurrences (more than 6 episodes par year), see HIV infection and AIDS, Chapter 8.
Treatment of pain: paracetamol PO (Chapter 1).

Syphilis
benzathine benzylpenicillin IM: 2.4 MUI per injection (half the dose in each buttock)
[1]
.
Early syphilis (primary, secondary, or early latent infection of less than 12 months duration): single dose
Late latent syphilis (infection of more than 12 months duration or of unknown duration): one injection weekly for 3
weeks
or, for penicillin-allergic patients or if penicillin is not available:
erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 times daily or 500 mg 4 times daily for 14 days (early syphilis) or 30 days (late latent syphilis)
or
doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily for 14 days (early syphilis) or 30 days (late latent syphilis)
b

or 
azithromycin PO: 2 g single dose (only in cases of early syphilis and only if the strain is sensitive)
[2]

Chancroid
azithromycin PO: 1 g single dose
or
ceftriaxone IM: 250 mg single dose
or
erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 times daily or 500 mg 4 times daily for 7 days
 
Fluctuant lymph nodes may be aspirated through healthy skin as required. Do not incise and drain lymph nodes.
 
Note: treat simultaneously for syphilis AND chancroid as both are frequent, and cannot be correctly distinguished on
clinical grounds.

Lymphogranuloma venereum
erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 times daily or 500 mg 4 times daily for 14 days
or
doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily for 14 days
b
 
Fluctuant lymph nodes may be aspirated through healthy skin as required. Do not incise and drain lymph nodes.

Donovanosis
Treatment is given until the complete disappearance of the lesions (usually, several weeks; otherwise risk of
recurrence):
azithromycin PO: 1 g on D1 then 500 mg once daily
or
erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 times daily or 500 mg 4 times daily
or
doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily
b
 
In HIV infected patients, add gentamicin IM: 6 mg/kg once daily.

Treatment of the partner

T he sexual partner receives the same treatment as the patient, whether or not symptoms are present, except in the
case of genital herpes (the partner is treated only if symptomatic).
 

Footnotes
(a) Lymphogranuloma venereum is endemic in East and West Af rica, India, Sout heast Asia, Sout h America and t he Caribbean.
Donovanosis is endemic in Sout h Af rica, Papua New Guinea, India, Brazil and t he Caribbean.

(b) Doxycycline is cont ra-indicat ed in pregnant and breast -f eeding women.

References
1. Cent ers f or Disease Cont rol and Prevent ion. Syphilis Pocket Guide f or Providers. 2017.
ht t ps://www.cdc.gov/st d/syphilis/Syphilis-Pocket -Guide-FINAL-508.pdf

2. World Healt h Organizat ion. WHO guidelines f or t he t reat ment of  Treponema pallidum (syphilis), Geneva, 2016.
ht t p://apps.who.int /iris/bit st ream/handle/10665/249572/9789241549806-eng.pdf ?sequence=1 
Lower abdominal pain in women
Upper genital tract infection should be suspected in women with lower abdominal pain (see Upper genital tract
infections).
Gynaecological examination should be routinely performed:
Inspection of the vulva, speculum examination: check for purulent discharge or inflammation.
Abdominal exam and bimanual pelvic exam: check for pain on mobilising the cervix. 
 
If available, POCUS
a
: perform FAST views to evaluate for free fluid and urological abnormalities. Perform pelvic views
to evaluate for uterine and adnexal pathologies. Consult a gynaecologist (local or via telemedicine services). 

Case management

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.
Upper genital tract infections (UGTI)
Upper genital tract infections are bacterial infections of the uterus (endometritis) and/or the fallopian tubes (salpingitis),
which may be complicated by peritonitis, pelvic abscess or septicaemia.
UGT I may be sexually transmitted or arise after childbirth or abortion. Antibiotic choices are directed by the most
common pathogens in each scenario.
If peritonitis or pelvic abscess is suspected, request a surgical opinion while initiating antibiotic therapy.

Clinical features
Sexually transmitted infections
Diagnosis may be difficult, as clinical presentation is variable.
Suggestive symptoms are: abdominal pain, abnormal vaginal discharge, fever, dyspareunia, menometrorrhagia,
dysuria.
Infection is probable when one or more of the above symptoms are associated with one or more of the following
signs: cervical motion tenderness, adnexal tenderness, tender abdominal mass.

Infections after childbirth or abortion

Most cases present with a typical clinical picture, developing within 2 to 10 days after delivery (caesarean section
or vaginal delivery) or abortion (spontaneous or induced):
Fever, generally high
Abdominal or pelvic pain
Malodorous or purulent lochia
Enlarged, soft and/or tender uterus
Check for retained placenta.
In the early stages, fever may be absent or moderate and abdominal pain may be mild.

Treatment
Criteria for hospitalisation include:
Clinical suspicion of severe or complicated infection (e.g. peritonitis, abscess, septicaemia)
Diagnostic uncertainty (e.g. suspicion of extra-uterine pregnancy, appendicitis)
Significant obstacles to ambulatory oral treatment
No improvement after 48 hours, or deterioration within 48 hours, of outpatient treatment
All other patients may be treated on an ambulatory basis. T hey should be reassessed routinely on the third day of
treatment to evaluate clinical improvement (decrease in pain, absence of fever). If it is difficult to organise routine
follow-up, advise patients to return to clinic if there is no improvement after 48 hours of treatment, or sooner if their
condition is worsening.

Sexually transmitted infections

Antibiotic therapy combines 3 antibiotics to cover the most frequent causative organisms: gonococci, chlamydiae,
and anaerobes.
Ambulatory treatment:
cefixime PO: 400 mg single dose or ceftriaxone IM: 250 mg single dose
+ doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily for 14 days
a

+ metronidazole PO: 500 mg 2 times daily for 14 days

 Treatment in hospital:
ceftriaxone IM: 250 mg once daily
+ doxycycline PO: 100 mg 2 times daily for 14 days
a

+ metronidazole PO or IV infusion: 500 mg 2 times daily for 14 days

Continue triple therapy for 24 to 48 hours after signs and symptoms have improved (resolution of fever,
decrease in pain), then continue doxycycline (or erythromycin) + metronidazole to complete 14 days of
treatment.
If an IUD is in place, it should be removed (offer another method of contraception).
Analgesic treatment according to pain intensity.
Treatment of the partner: single dose treatment for both gonorrhoea AND chlamydia (as for Urethral discharge),
whether or not symptoms are present.

Infections after childbirth or abortion

Antibiotic therapy: treatment must cover the most frequent causative organisms: anaerobes, Gram negatives and
streptococci.
Ambulatory treatment (early stages only):
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO for 7 days
Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Ratio 8:1: 3000 mg daily (2 tablets of 500/62.5 mg 3 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 2625 mg daily (1 tablet of 875/125 mg 3 times daily)
or
amoxicillin PO: 1 g 3 times daily + metronidazole PO: 500 mg 3 times daily doses for 7 days
Treatment in hospital:
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) IV (dose expressed in amoxicillin): 1 g every 8 hours
+ gentamicin IM: 5 mg/kg once daily
or
ampicillin IV: 2 g every 8 hours
+ metronidazole IV infusion: 500 mg every 8 hours
+ gentamicin IM: as above
Stop antibiotic therapy 48 hours after resolution of fever and clinical signs and symptoms.
In penicillin-allergic patients, use clindamycin IV (900 mg every 8 hours) + gentamicin (as above).
In case of placental retention: perform digital curettage or manual vacuum extraction (refer to the guide Essential
obstetric and newborn care, MSF) 24 hours after initiation of antibiotic therapy.
Analgesic treatment according to pain intensity.
If the patient’s condition deteriorates or if fever persists after 48-72 hours of treatment, consider the possibility of
complication requiring additional treatment (e.g. pelvic abscess drainage), otherwise change the antibiotic to
ceftriaxone + doxycycline + metronidazole as in hospital-based treatment of sexually transmitted UGT I.
 

Footnotes
(a) In pregnant /breast f eeding women: erythromycin PO: 1 g 2 t imes daily or 500 mg 4 t imes daily f or 14 days
Single dose azit hromycin is not ef f ect ive against chlamydia in t he t reat ment of sexually t ransmit t ed UGTI.
Venereal warts
Venereal warts are benign tumours of the skin or mucous membranes due to certain papilloma viruses (HPV).

Clinical features
Venereal warts are soft, raised, painless growths, sometimes clustered (cauliflower- like appearance) or macules
(flat warts), which are more difficult to discern. Warts can be external (vulva, penis, scrotum, perineum, anus) and/or
internal (vagina, cervix, urethra, rectum; oral cavity in HIV infected patients).
In women, the presence of external warts is an indication for a speculum examination to exclude vaginal or cervical
warts. Speculum exam may reveal a friable, fungating tumour on the cervix, suggestive of cancer associated with
papilloma virus
a
.

Treatment
Choice of treatment depends on the size and location of the warts. Treatment may be less effective, and relapses
more frequent, in HIV infected patients.

External warts < 3 cm and vaginal warts

podophyllotoxin 0.5%
b
 solution may be self-applied by the patient, but in the event of vaginal warts, the treatment
must be applied by medical staff.
 
Explain the procedure to the patient: apply the solution to the warts using an applicator or cotton bud, sparing the
surrounding healthy skin, allow to air dry. On vaginal warts, the solution should be allowed to dry before the speculum is
withdrawn.
Apply the solution 2 times daily, 3 consecutive days per week, for up to 4 weeks.
 
Podophyllum preparations are contra-indicated in pregnant
c
 or breastfeeding women. T hey should not be applied on
cervical, intra-urethral, rectal, oral or extensive warts. Improper use may result in painful ulceration.

External warts > 3 cm; cervical, intra-urethral, rectal and oral warts; warts in pregnant or
breastfeeding women
Surgical excision or cryotherapy or electrocoagulation.
 

Footnotes
(a) Cert ain t ypes of HPV may cause cancer. Presence of genit al wart s in women is an indicat ion t o screen f or precancerous
lesions of t he cervix, if f easible in t he cont ext (visual inspect ion wit h acet ic acid, or cervical smear, or ot her available
t echniques), and t o t reat any lesions ident ified (cryot herapy, conisat ion, et c., according t o diagnosis).

(b) Podophyllum 10%, 15% or 25% resin is anot her preparat ion which is much more caust ic, and should be applied only by
medical st af f . Prot ect t he surrounding skin (vaseline or zinc oxide oint ment ) bef ore applying t he resin. Wash of f wit h soap
and wat er af t er 1 t o 4 hours. Apply once weekly f or 4 weeks.

(c) Treat ment of wart s is not an emergency and may be def erred if alt ernat ives t o podophyllum preparat ions are not available.
Genit al wart s are not an indicat ion f or caesarean sect ion: it is uncommon f or wart s t o int erf ere wit h delivery, and t he risk of
mot her-t o-child t ransmission is very low.
Major genital infections (summary)
 
Last updated: July 2021
 
 Pathogens/
Clinical features Investigations Treatment
Infections

Neisseria In women: Best method is PCR ceftriaxone IM: 500 mg

gonorrhoeae vaginal discharge, cervicitis (Xpert), if available. single dose
(gonorrhoea) (mucopurulent cervical discharge), In men (not sensitive or, if not available,
dysuria (50% of infections are enough in women): Gram cefixime PO: 400 mg
asymptomatic); or methylene blue stain: single dose
UGT I (salpingitis, endometritis). intracellular diplococci Treat also for
In men: purulent urethral discharge and polymorphonuclear chlamydia.
and sometimes dysuria (5 to 50% of leukocytes (more than 4 In case of upper genital
infections are asymptomatic). per field). tract infection, see
UGT I.

Chlamydia In women: T he best method is PCR azithromycin PO: 1 g

trachomatis vaginal discharge, cervicitis, and (Xpert), if available. single dose
(chlamydia) rarely dysuria (> 50% of or doxycycline PO
(a)
:
infections are asymptomatic); 200 mg daily for 7 days
UGT I (salpingitis, endometritis). Treat also for
In men: mild urethral discharge and/or gonococcal infection
dysuria but up to 90% of infections (except when a Gram
are asymptomatic. stain in males or PCR
shows no N.
gonorrhoeae).
In case of upper genital
tract infection, see
UGT I.

Trichomonas In women: yellow-green vaginal Wet mount of fresh tinidazole or

vaginalis discharge, sometimes foul smelling, vaginal fluid shows motile metronidazole PO: 2 g
(trichomoniasis) vulvar irritation (10 to 50% of trichomonas (low single dose
infections are asymptomatic). sensitivity).
In men: most infections are pH of urethral/vaginal
asymptomatic. Can produce fluid > 4.5.
balanitis, urethritis with mild discharge
and sometimes dysuria.

Bacterial Diagnosis is made in the presence of 3 of the following 4 signs: tinidazole or

vaginosis Homogenous grey-white adherent vaginal discharge metronidazole PO: 2 g
(Gardnerella pH of vaginal fluid > 4.5 single dose
vaginalis and Vaginal fluid has an amine (fishy) odour, especially when mixed with
other 10% KOH
associated Presence of clue cells in wet mount or Gram stain of vaginal fluid
bacteria)

Candida Mainly seen in women: pruritus and Saline of KOH wet mount In women:
albicans vulvovaginitis, frequently creamy- of fresh vaginal fluid clotrimazole 500
(candidiasis) white vaginal discharge, sometimes shows budding yeast mg: one vaginal
dysuria. cells and pseudohyphae. tablet single dose
 In men: balanitis/balanoposthitis pH of vaginal fluid: In men:
(inflammation of the glans/prepuce, normal miconazole 2%
erythema, pruritus, white pustules) cream: 1 application
and rarely urethritis 2 times daily for 7
days

Herpes Many asymptomatic carriers. Multiple Diagnosis by culture, Analgesics, local

simplex vesicles on genitals leading to painful serology and PCR done disinfection.
virus type 2 ulcerations. In women, affects vulva, exclusively at a reference If available, aciclovir
(genital herpes) vagina and cervix; in males, penis and laboratory. PO:
sometimes urethra. In primary episodes, Primary episode:
fever (30%) and lymphadenopathy 1200 mg daily for 7
(50%). Recurrences in 1/3 of infections days, given within 5
with shorter and milder symptoms. days after onset of
lesions.
Recurrent
infections: same
dose for 5 days,
given within 24
hours after onset of
lesions.

Treponema Single firm painless genital ulcer, often RPR/VDRL lack sensitivity benzathine
pallidum unnoticed. and specificity, but may be benzylpenicillin IM:
(syphilis) useful for following 2.4 MIU per injection,
treatment effectiveness single dose (syphylis <
(decrease in titer) or 12 months) or once
confirming re-infection (rise weekly for 3 weeks
in titer). (syphilis > 12 months or
Treponemal tests (T PHA, unknown duration)
FTA-ABS, rapid tests such or azithromycin PO: 2
as SD Bioline®) are more g single dose
sensitive and specific. or erythromycin PO: 2
g daily for 14 days
or doxycycline PO
(a)
:
200 mg daily for 14
days
Treat also for
chancroid.

Haemophilus Painful single (or multiple) genital ulcer H. ducreyi bacillus is difficult azithromycin PO: 1 g
ducreyi (soft chancre, bleeds easily when to identify on microscopy or single dose
(chancroid) touched). by culture. or ceftriaxone IM: 250
Painful and voluminous inguinal mg single dose
lymphadenitis in 50%. Fistulae develop in or ciprofloxacin PO
(b)
:
25% of cases. 1 g daily for 3 days
or erythromycin PO: 2
g daily for 7 days
Treat also for syphillis.
 Human Soft, raised, painless growths, T he diagnosis is based on External warts < 3
papillomavirus sometimes clustered (acuminate clinical features. cm and vaginal
(venereal condyloma) or macules (flat warts). It feasible in the context, the warts:
warts) Warts can be external (vulva, penis, presence of genital warts in podophyllotoxin
scrotum, perineum, anus) and/or internal women in an indication to 0.5%
(vagina, cervix, urethra, rectum; oral screen for pre-cancerous External warts > 3
cavity in HIV infected patients). lesions of the cervix (visual cm; cervical, intra-
inspection with acetic acid, urethral, rectal and
or cervical smear, or other oral warts; warts in
available techniques). pregnant or
breastfeeding
women: surgical
excision or
cryotherapy or
electrocoagulation.

(a) Doxycycline is cont ra-indicat ed in pregnant women. It should not be administ ered t o breast -f eeding women if t he t reat ment
exceeds 7 days (use eryt hromycin).
(b) Ciprofloxacin should be avoided in pregnant women.
Abnormal uterine bleeding (in the absence of
pregnancy)
Last updated: October 2021
 
Heavy menstrual bleeding or intermenstrual genital bleeding
In women of childbearing age:
assess if the bleeding is pregnancy-related;
perform a pregnancy test.
 
For the management of pregnancy-related bleeding, refer to the guide Essential obstetric and newborn care, MSF.

In all events
Rapidly assess the severity of bleeding.
Perform a pelvic examination:
speculum examination: determine the origin (vagina, cervix, uterine cavity) and cause of the bleeding; appearance
of the cervix; amount and intensity of bleeding;
bimanual examination: look for cervical motion tenderness, uterine enlargement or irregularity.
Assess for recent trauma or surgical history.
Measure haemoglobin, if possible, to prevent or treat anaemia.
In the event of signs of shock, see Shock, Chapter 1.
In the event of heavy bleeding:
start an IV infusion of Ringer lactate;
monitor vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure);
administer
[1]
:
tranexamic acid IV: 10 mg/kg (max. 600 mg) every 8 hours. When bleeding has been reduced, switch to
tranexamic acid PO: 1 g 3 times daily, until bleeding stops (max. 5 days).
if bleeding persists and/or in case or contraindication to tranexamic acid, administer one of the following two
drugs (except if suspicion of cervical or endometrial cancer):
ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel PO (0.03 mg/0.15 mg tab): one tablet 3 times daily for 7 days
or medroxyprogesterone acetate PO: 20 mg 3 times daily for 7 days
In case of massive haemorrhage and/or lack of response to medical management: surgical management (dilation
and curettage, intrauterine balloon, and as a last resort, hysterectomy).
In the event of referral to a surgical facility, difficult transport conditions may aggravate the bleeding: the patient
should have an IV line and/or be accompanied by family members who are potential blood donors.
If available, POCUS
a
: perform FAST to evaluate for free fluid and/or urological abnormalities; perform pelvic views
to evaluate for uterine and/or adnexal pathologies.

According to clinical examination

Friable, hard, ulcerated, hypertrophic mass on the cervix: possible cervical cancer; surgical treatment,
chemotherapy, radiation therapy or palliative care is required depending on the stage of the cancer. While waiting
for appropriate treatment, tranexamic acid PO (1 g 3 times daily for 5 days max.) may be used to reduce bleeding.
Inflammation of the cervix, light or moderate bleeding, purulent cervical discharge, pelvic pain: consider cervicitis
(see Abnormal vaginal discharge) or salpingitis (see Upper genital tract infections).
 Enlarged, irregular uterus: uterine fibroids. In case of failure to respond to medical treatment, surgical management
is required. While waiting for surgery or if surgery is not indicated, treat as for functional uterine bleeding.
Normal uterus and cervix: possible functional uterine bleeding: tranexamic acid PO as above. In case of repeated
bleeding, it can be combined with an NSAID (ibuprofen PO for 3 to 5 days, see Pain, Chapter 1) and/or one of the
following long-term treatments:
levonorgestrel intrauterine device
or ethinylestradiol/levonorgestrel PO (0.03 mg/0.15 mg tab): one tablet daily
or medroxyprogesterone acetate IM: 150 mg every 3 months
or medroxyprogesterone acetate PO
b
: 10 mg once daily (up to 30 mg once daily if necessary) for 21 days
monthly.
 
Note: rule out other causes of vaginal bleeding before diagnosing functional uterine bleeding. Consider for example
poorly tolerated contraceptive, endometrial cancer in postmenopausal women, genitourinary schistosomiasis in
endemic areas (see Schistosomiasis, Chapter 6).
 

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.

(b) Unlike t he ot her t reat ment s, t his drug has no cont racept ive ef f ect .

References
1. American College of Obst et ricians and Gynecologist s. Management of acut e abnormal ut erine bleeding in nonpregnant
reproduct ive-aged women. Obst et Gynecol. 2013 Apr;121(4):891-6. 
ht t ps://www.acog.org/-/media/project /acog/acogorg/clinical/files/commit t ee-opinion/art icles/2013/04/management -of -
acut e-abnormal-ut erine-bleeding-in-nonpregnant -reproduct ive-aged-1.pdf
Chapter 10: Medical and minor surgical
procedures
Dressings

Treatment of a simple wound

Burns

Cutaneous abscess

Pyomyositis

Leg ulcers

Necrotising infections of the skin and soft tissues

Venomous bites and stings

Dental infections
 
 
 
Dressings
T he objective of dressing wounds is to promote healing. T he procedure includes cleaning, disinfection and protection
of the wound while respecting the rules of hygiene.
Not all wounds need to be covered by a dressing (e.g. a clean wound that has been sutured for several days; a small
dry wound not requiring sutures).

Equipment
Sterile instruments
One Kocher or Pean forceps
One dissecting forceps
One pair of surgical scissors or one scalpel to excise necrotic tissue and to cut gauze or sutures
 
Instruments for one dressing for one patient must be wrapped together in paper or fabric (or can be placed in a metallic
box) and sterilised together to limit handling and breaks in asepsis. 5 to 10 compresses may be included in this set.
If there are no sterile instruments, a dressing can be done using sterile gloves.

Renewable supplies
Sterile compresses
Non-sterile disposable gloves
Adhesive tape and/or crepe or gauze bandage
Sterile 0.9% sodium chloride or sterile water
Depending on the wound: antiseptic (7.5% povidone iodine scrub solution, 10% povidone iodine dermal solution),
paraffin compresses, analgesics

Organisation of care
Proper organization of care helps maintain the rules of asepsis and decreases the risk of contamination of the wound
or transmission of organisms from one patient to another:
Assign one room for dressings. It must be cleaned and the waste removed every day. T he dressing table must be
disinfected after each patient.
Dressings may be applied at the bedside if the patient’s condition requires. Use a clean, disinfected dressing trolley
with: on the upper tray, sterile and/or clean material (dressing set, extra compresses, etc.) and on the lower tray,
septic material (container for contaminated instruments, sharps disposal container and a container or garbage bag
for waste).
Prepare all the necessary material in a well lit area. If necessary, arrange for an assistant to be present.
Wear protective glasses if there is a risk of projection from an oozing wound.
Always proceed from clean to dirty: start with patients with uninfected wounds. If there are multiple dressings for
one patient, start with the cleanest wound.

Technique
If the procedure may be painful, give an analgesic and wait the necessary time for the drug to take effect before
starting the procedure.
Settle the patient comfortably in an area where his privacy is respected throughout the procedure.
Explain the procedure to the patient and obtain his co-operation.
Instruments (or sterile gloves) must be changed between patients.
 To prevent drug interactions, use the same antiseptic for all care of one patient.

Removal of an old dressing

Wash hands (ordinary soap) or disinfect them with an alcohol-based hand rub.
Put on non-sterile gloves and remove the adhesive tape, bandage and superficial compresses.
Proceed gently with the last compresses. If they stick to the wound, loosen them with 0.9% sodium chloride or
sterile water before removal.
Observe the soiled compresses. If there is significant discharge, a greenish colour or a foul odour, a wound infection
is likely.
Discard the dressing and the non-sterile gloves in the waste container.

Observe the wound

In the case of an open wound, loss of cutaneous tissue or ulcer, the colour is an indicator of the stage in the healing
process:
black area = necrosis, wet or dry infected eschar
yellow or greenish area = infected tissue and presence of pus
red area = granulation, usually a sign of healing (unless there is hypertrophy), however, red edges indicate
inflammation or infection
pink area = process of epithelisation, the final stage of healing that begins at the edges of the wound
 
In the case of a sutured wound, the existence of local signs of suppuration and pain requires the removal of one or
more sutures to avoid the infection spreading. Local signs include:
red, indurated and painful edges
drainage of pus between the sutures, either spontaneously or when pressure is applied on either side of the
wound
lymphangitis
sub-cutaneous crepitations around the wound
 
In any case, if local signs of infection are observed, look for general signs of infection (fever, chills, changes in the
overall condition).

Technique for cleaning and dressing of the wound

Wash hands again or disinfect them with an alcohol-based hand rub.
Open the dressing set or box after checking the date of sterilisation and that the wrapping is intact.
Pick up one of the sterile forceps being careful not to touch anything else.
Pick up the second forceps with the help of the first one.
Make a swab by folding a compress in 4 using the forceps.
Clean sutured wound or clean open wound with red granulation:
clean with 0.9% sodium chloride or sterile water to remove any organic residue; work from the cleanest to the
dirtiest area (use a clean swab for each stroke);
dab dry with a sterile compress;
re-cover a sutured wound with sterile compresses or an open wound with paraffin compresses; the dressing
should extend a few cm beyond the edges of the wound;
keep the dressing in place with adhesive tape or a bandage.
Necrotic or infected open wounds:
clean with povidone iodine (7.5% scrub solution, 1 part of solution + 4 parts of sterile 0.9% sodium chloride or
sterile water). Rinse thoroughly then dab dry with a sterile compress; or if not available, sterile 0.9% sodium
chloride or sterile water and apply an antiseptic (10% povidone iodine dermal solution).
apply sterile vaseline and remove all necrotic tissue at each dressing change until the wound is clean.
 Discard any sharp materials used in an appropriate sharps container and the rest of the waste in a waste container.
As quickly as possible, soak the instruments in disinfectant.
Wash hands again or disinfect them with an alcohol-based hand rub.
 
T he principles remain the same if the dressing is done using instruments or sterile gloves.

Subsequent dressings
Clean, sutured wound: remove the initial dressing after 5 days if the wound remains painless and odourless, and if
the dressing remains clean. T he decision to re-cover or to leave the wound uncovered (if it is dry) often depends on
the context and local practices.
Infected, sutured wound: remove one or more sutures and evacuate the pus. Change the dressing at least once
daily.
Open, dirty wound: daily cleaning and dressing change.
Open granulating wound: change the dressing every 2 to 3 days, except if the granulation is hypertrophic (in this
case, apply local corticosteroids).
Treatment of a simple wound
A simple wound is a break in the continuity of the skin limited in depth at the sub-cutaneous fatty tissue, that does not
affect the underlying structures (muscle, bone, joints, major arteries, nerves, tendons) and without significant loss of
tissue.
 
T he goal of treatment is to assure rapid healing of the wound without complications or sequelae. Several basic rules
apply:
rapidly treat wounds, while maintaining the rules of asepsis and the order of the initial procedures: cleaning-
exploration-excision;
identify wounds that need to be sutured and those for which suturing would be harmful or dangerous;
immediately suture recent, clean, simple wounds (less than 6 hours old) and delay suturing contaminated wounds
and/or those more than 6 hours old;
prevent local (abscess) or general (gas gangrene; tetanus) infections.

Equipment
Instruments
(Figures 1a to 1d)
 
One dissecting forceps, one needle-holder, one pair of surgical scissors and one Pean or Kocher forceps are
usually enough.
One or two other artery forceps, a pair of Farabeuf retractors and a scalpel may be useful for a contused or deep
wound.
 
Instruments to suture one wound for one patient must be packaged and sterilised together (suture box or set) to limit
handling and breaks in asepsis.

Renewable supplies
For local anaesthesia: sterile syringe and needle; 1% lidocaine (without epinephrine)
Sterile gloves, fenestrated sterile towel
Sterile absorbable and non-absorbable sutures
Antiseptic and supplies for dressings
For drainage: corrugated rubber drain or equivalent, nylon suture

Technique
Settle the patient comfortably in an area with good lighting and ensure all the necessary material is prepared.
Explain the procedure to the patient and ensure his co-operation.
If the patient is a young child, arrange to have an assistant hold the child if necessary.

Initial cleaning
Wear suitable clothing: sterile gloves for all wounds and a gown and protective glasses if there is a risk of projection
from a bleeding wound.
Start by washing the wound, prolong the cleaning if the wound is particularly soiled. Use ordinary soap
or 7.5% povidone iodine scrub solution and water and rinse.
If necessary use a sterile brush. Cleaning with running water is preferable to cleaning by immersion.
 If the wound is infected and the patient has general signs of infection (fever, chills, changes in the overall condition)
systemic antibiotic therapy may be required. Administer antibiotics at least one hour prior to starting care.

Exploration
Wash hands and put on sterile gloves.
Disinfect the wound and surrounding area with 10% povidone iodine.
Cover the wound with a fenestrated sterile towel.
Local anaesthetic: infiltrate 1% lidocaine into the edges of the wound and wait at least 2 minutes for the
anaesthetic to take effect.
Proceed carefully from the superficial to the deepest parts of the wound to explore the extent of the wound, if
necessary, aided by an assistant.
Consider the anatomical location of the wound and look for injury to any underlying structures (the clinical
examination of a limb must include evaluation of sensitivity and motor functioning, as well as that of tendons in
order to orient surgical exploration):
a wound that communicates with a fracture is an open fracture,
a wound close to a joint may be a joint wound,
a wound on the hands or feet may affect the nerves and/or tendons,
a wound close to a major artery may be an arterial wound even if it is no longer bleeding.
Look for and remove any foreign bodies.
In the event of significant pain or bleeding, the exploration must be completed in an operating room.

Wound excision
T he goal of the excision is to remove non-viable tissue, which favours the proliferation of bacteria and infection.
T he wound may require little or no excision if it is clean. T he excision is more extensive if the wound is bruised,
irregular or extensive.
Limit excision of the skin around the wound, particularly in facial wounds.
Sub-cutaneous fat and tissue of doubtful viability should be generously excised in order to leave only well
vascularised tissue.

Immediate suturing of a simple wound

Immediate suturing may have serious consequences for the patient if precautions to prevent infection and promote
healing are not taken.
T he decision to suture immediately can only be taken after the cleaning, exploration and satisfactory excision, and
if the following conditions are met: simple wound, no more than 6 hours old with no devitalised or contused tissue
(the wound may be as long as 24 hours old if on the face, scalp, upper limbs or hands).
Bites (for local treatment see Rabies, Chapter 8) and bullet, shell or mine shrapnel wounds should not be
immediately sutured.

Delayed suturing of a simple wound

Wounds that do not fill the above conditions should not be immediately sutured.
After cleaning, exploration and excision a simple dressing is applied to the open wound.
Further cleaning and removal of any remaining necrotic tissue is completed with daily dressing changes.
If after 72 hours there are no signs of local infection, the wound may be sutured.

Healing by second intention of infected wounds

If the wound does not meet the conditions of cleanliness described above, the wound cannot be sutured. It will heal
either spontaneously (healing by secondary intention), or will require a skin graft (once the wound is clean) if there is
significant loss of tissue.
 
Figures 1 : Basic instruments

Figure 1a Figure 1b
Kocher forceps,
Kelly forceps,

straight, toothed curved, non-toothed

Figure 1c Figure 1d

Small artery forceps, Farabeuf retractors

curved, non-toothed  

Figures 2 : How to hold instruments

 Figure 2a
Always mount a surgical blade using a needle holder.

Change the blade for each new procedure.

Figure 2b

Dissecting forceps should not be held in the palm of the hand,

but rather between the thumb and index finger.

Toothed dissecting forceps should only be used on skin.

Figure 2c
Insert the thumb and the ring finger into the handle of a needle holder (or scissors), and stabilize the instrument using
the index finger.

Figures 3 : Wound debridement

T his should be done sparingly, limited to excision of severely contused or lacerated tissue that is clearly becoming
necrotic.
 Figure 3a
Debridement of a contused, ragged wound: straightening of the wound edges with a scalpel. Be conservative in
facial wounds.

Figure 3b

Excision of edges of the aponeurosis to prevent necrosis.

Figure 3c
Excision of contused muscle.

Figures 4 : Practising making knots using forceps

 Figure 4a
Loop the suture around the needle holder in one direction and remember the direction of the loop. Grasp the loose
end with the needle holder
and pull it through the loop to make the first knot.
Lower the knot so that it closes the wound.

Figure 4b
T he second loop should be in the opposite direction. At least 3 knots are needed to make a suture, alternating form
one direction to the other.

Figure 4c
In principle the first knot lies flat.
Figure 4d
  Second knot in the opposite direction.

Figure 4e Figure 4f
 Grasp the loose end with the needle holder.

Figure 4g
Fist flat knot.
Slide the knot towards the wound using the hand holding

the loose end while holding the other end with the needle holder.
T ighten the knot without causing tissue ischaemia.

Figure 4h Figure 4i

Second knot in the opposite direction.

Figures 5 : Particular problems

 Figure 5a Figure 5b

T he suture should be as deep as it is wide.

Figure 5c Figure 5d

T he suture is too shallow, the edges are invaginated.

Figure 5e

Poor lining of the edges.

Figure 5f

  Do not make the knot directly over the wound.

Figure 6 : Closing a corner

Figure 7 : Closure of the skin, simple interrupted sutures with non-absorbable sutures
Burns
Last updated: August 2022
 
Burns are cutaneous lesions caused by exposure to heat, electricity, chemicals or radiation. T hey cause significant pain
and may threaten survival and/or compromise function.

Classification of burns
Severe burns: one or more of the following parameters:
Involving more than 10% of the body surface area (BSA) in children and 15% in adults
Inhalation injury (smoke, hot air, particles, toxic gas, etc.)
Major concomitant trauma (fracture, head injury, etc.)
Location: face, hands, neck, genitalia/perineum, joints (risk of functional deficit)
Electrical and chemical burns or burns due to explosions
Age < 3 years or > 60 years or significant co-morbidities (e.g. epilepsy, malnutrition)
 
Minor burns: involving less than 10% of the BSA in children and 15% in adults, in the absence of other risk factors

Evaluation of burns
Extent of burns
Lund-Browder table – Percentage of body surface area according to age
 
 Location < 1 year 1-4 years 5-9 years 10-15 years Adults

Head 19 17 13 10 7

Neck 2 2 2 2 2

Anterior trunk 13 13 13 13 13

Posterior trunk 13 13 13 13 13

Right buttock 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Left buttock 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Perineum/genitalia 1 1 1 1 1

Right upper arm 4 4 4 4 4

Left upper arm 4 4 4 4 4

Right lower arm 3 3 3 3 3

Left lower arm 3 3 3 3 3

Right hand 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Left hand 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5

Right thigh 5.5 6.5 8.5 8.5 9.5

Left thigh 5.5 6.5 8.5 8.5 9.5

Right leg 5 5 5.5 6 7

Left leg 5 5 5.5 6 7

Right foot 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

Left foot 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5

 
T his table helps to accurately calculate the % of BSA involved according to patient’s age: e.g. burn of the face,
anterior trunk, inner surface of the lower arm and circumferential burn of left upper arm in a child 2 years of age: 8.5 +
13 + 1.5 + 4 = 27% BSA.

Depth of burns
Apart from first-degree burns (painful erythema of the skin and absence of blisters) and very deep burns (third-degree
burns, carbonization), it is not possible, upon initial examination, to determine the depth of burns. Differentiation is
possible after D8-D10.
 
  Superficial burn on D8-D10 Deep burn on D8-D10

Sensation Normal or pain Insensitive or diminished sensation

Colour Pink, blanches with pressure White, red, brown or black

Does not blanch with pressure

Texture Smooth and supple Firm and leathery

Appearance Minimal fibrinous exudate Covered with fibrinous exudate

Granulation tissue evident Little or no bleeding when incised
Bleeds when incised

Healing Heals spontaneously within 5- Very deep burn: always requires surgery (no
15 days spontaneous healing)
Intermediate burn: may heal spontaneously in 3 to 5
weeks; high risk of infection and permanent sequelae

Evaluation for the presence of inhalation injury

Dyspnoea with chest wall indrawing, bronchospasm, soot in the nares or mouth, productive cough, carbonaceous
sputum, hoarseness, etc.

Treatment of severe burns

I. Initial management
On admission
Ensure airway is patent; high-flow oxygen, even when SpO2 is normal.
Establish IV access, through unburned skin if possible (intraosseous access if IV access is not possible).
Ringer lactate (RL): 20 ml/kg during the first hour, even if the patient is stable.
Morphine SC: 0.2 mg/kg (Step 1 and Step 2 analgesics are not effective).
In the event of chemical burns: flush with copious amounts of water for 15 to 30 minutes, avoiding contamination of
healthy skin; do not attempt to neutralize the chemical agent.

Once the patient is stabilized

Remove clothes if they are not adherent to the burn.
Take history of the burn injury: mechanism, causative agent, time, etc.
Assess the burn injury: extent, depth, carbonization; ocular burns, burns at risk of secondary functional deficits;
circumferential burns of the extremities, chest or neck. Wear face mask and sterile gloves during the examination.
Assess for associated injuries (fractures, etc.).
Protect the patient and keep him warm: clean/sterile sheet, survival blanket.
Insert a urinary catheter if burns involve > 15% of BSA, and in the case of electrical burns or burns of the
perineum/genitalia.
 Insert a nasogastric tube if burns involve > 20% of BSA (in the operating room while carrying out dressing
procedure).
Calculate and initiate fluid and electrolyte requirements for the first 24 hours.
Intensive monitoring: level of consciousness, heart rate, blood pressure, SpO2, respiratory rate (RR) hourly;
temperature and urine output every 4 hours.
Additional testing: haemoglobin, blood group, urine dipstick test.
Prepare the patient for the first dressing procedure in the operating room.

Notes:
Burns do not bleed in the initial stage: check for haemorrhage if haemoglobin level is normal or low.
Burns alone do not alter the level of consciousness. In the case if altered consciousness, consider head injury,
intoxication, postictal state in epileptic patients.
Clinical manifestations of electrical burns vary significantly according to the type of current. Look for complications
(arrhythmia, rhabdomyolysis, neurological disorders).

II. General measures during the first 48 hours

Resuscitative measures
Intravenous replacement fluid to correct hypovolaemia:
 
Fluid and electrolyte requirements during the first 48 hours according to age
 
  Children < 12 years Children ≥ 12 years and adults

0-8h 2 ml/kg x % BSA of RL 2 ml/kg x % BSA of RL

(a)
+ maintenance fluid

per hour x 8 h

8 - 24 h 2 ml/kg x % BSA of RL 2 ml/kg x % BSA of RL

(a)
+ maintenance fluid

per hour x 16 h

24 - 48 h Daily maintenance IV fluid requirements

(a)
minus oral 40 ml/kg RL minus oral fluids (do not include
fluids such as milk, broth, gavage feeds (do not drinking water in the calculation).
include drinking water in the calculation).

(a) Maint enance fluid: alt ernat e RL and 5% glucose: 4 ml/kg/h f or first 10 kg of body weight + 2 ml/kg/h f or next 10 kg + 1
ml/kg/h f or each addit ional kg (over 20 kg, up t o 30 kg)

Note: increase replacement volumes by 50% (3 ml/kg x % BSA for the first 8 hours) in the event of inhalation injury or
electrical burn. For burns > 50% BSA, limit the calculation to 50% BSA.
T his formula provides a guide only and should be adjusted according to systolic arterial pressure (SAP) and urine
output. Avoid fluid overload. Reduce replacement fluid volumes if urine output exceeds the upper limit.

Target endpoints for IV replacement fluids

 Non-electrical burns Electrical burns

 
Children Children
Children

All ages
< 1 year 1-12 years > 12 years/adults

AP (mmHg) SAP ≥ 60 SAP 70 to 90 + (2 x age) SAP ≥ 100 Age appropriate SAP

Urine output 1 to 2 ml/kg/h 1 to 1.5 ml/kg/h 0.5 to 1 ml/kg/h 1 to 2 ml/kg/h

 
In patients with oliguria despite adequate fluid replacement:
dopamine IV: 5 to 15 micrograms/kg/minute by IV pump
or
epinephrine IV: 0.1 to 0.5 micrograms/kg/minute by IV pump
Stop the infusion after 48 hours, if fluid requirements can be met by the oral route or gavage.

Respiratory care
In all cases: continuous inhalation of humidified oxygen, chest physiotherapy.
Emergency surgical intervention if necessary: tracheotomy, chest escharotomy.
Do not administer corticosteroids (no effect on oedema; predisposition to infection). No specific treatment for
direct bronchopulmonary lesions.

Analgesia
See Pain management

Nutrition
Start feeding early, beginning at H8:
Daily needs in adults
calories: 25 kcal/kg + 40 kcal/% BSA
proteins: 1.5 to 2 g/kg
High energy foods (NRG5, Plumpy'nut, F100 milk) are necessary if the BSA is > 20% (normal food is inadequate).
Nutritional requirements are administered according to the following distribution: carbohydrates 50%, lipids 30%,
proteins 20%.
Provide 5-10 times the recommended daily intake of vitamins and trace elements.
Enteral feeds are preferred: oral route or nasogastric tube (necessary if BSA > 20%).
Start with small quantities on D1, then increase progressively to reach recommended energy requirements within 3
days.
Assess nutritional status regularly (weigh 2 times weekly).
Reduce energy loss: occlusive dressings, warm environment (28-33 °C), early grafting; management of pain,
insomnia and depression.

Patients at risk of rhabdomyolysis

In the event of deep and extensive burns, electrical burns, crush injuries to the extremities:
Monitor for myoglobinuria: dark urine and urine dipstick tests.
If present:  induce alkaline diuresis for 48 hours (20 ml of 8.4% sodium bicarbonate per litre of RL) to obtain an
output of 1 to 2 ml/kg/hour. Do not administer dopamine or furosemide.

Infection control 
Precautions against infection are of paramount importance until healing is complete. Infection is one of the most
frequent and serious complications of burns:
Hygiene precautions (e.g. sterile gloves when handling patients).
Rigorous wound management (dressing changes, early excision).
Separate “new” patients (< 7 days from burn) from convalescent patients (≥ 7 days from burn).
Do not administer antibiotherapy in the absence of systemic infection.
Infection is defined by the presence of at least 2 of 4 following signs: temperature > 38.5 °C or < 36 °C,
tachycardia, tachypnoea, elevation of white blood cell count by more than 100% (or substantial decrease in the
number of white blood cells).
In the event of systemic infection, start empiric antibiotherapy:
cefazolin IV
Children > 1 month: 25 mg/kg every 8 hours 
Adults : 2 g every 8 hours
+ ciprofloxacin PO
Children > 1 month: 15 mg/kg 2 times daily 
Adults: 500 mg 3 times daily 
Local infection, in the absence of signs of systemic infection, requires topical treatment with silver sulfadiazine. Not
to be applied to children under 2 months.

Other treatments
Omeprazole IV from D1
Children: 1 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 40 mg once daily
Tetanus vaccination (see Tetanus, Chapter 7).
T hromboprophylaxis: low molecular weight heparin SC beginning 48 to 72 hours post-injury.
Physiotherapy from D1 (prevention of contractures), analgesia is necessary.
Intentional burns (suicide attempt, aggression): appropriate psychological follow-up.

III. Local treatment

Regular dressing changes
a
 prevent infection, decrease heat and fluid losses, reduce energy loss, and promote patient
comfort. Dressings should be occlusive, assist in relieving pain, permit mobilisation, and prevent contractures.

Basic principles
Rigorous adherence to the principles of asepsis.
Dressing changes require morphine administration in the non-anaesthetised patient.
T he first dressing procedure is performed in the operating room under general anaesthesia, the following in an
operating room under general anaesthesia or at the bedside with morphine.

Technique
At the time of the first dressing procedure, shave any hairy areas (armpit, groin, pubis) if burns involve the adjacent
tissues; scalp (anteriorly in the case of facial burns, entirely in the case of cranial burns). Cut nails.
Clean the burn with povidone iodine scrub solution (1 volume of 7.5% povidone iodine + 4 volumes of 0.9% sodium
chloride or sterile water). Scrub gently with compresses, taking care to avoid bleeding.
Remove blisters with forceps and scissors.
Rinse with 0.9% sodium chloride or sterile water.
Dry the skin by blotting with sterile compresses.
Apply silver sulfadiazine directly by hand (wear sterile gloves) in a uniform layer of 3-5 mm to all burned areas
(except eyelids and lips) to children 2 months and over and adults.
 Apply a greasy dressing (Jelonet® or petrolatum gauze) using a back and forth motion (do not use a circular
movement).
Cover with a sterile compresses, unfolded into a single layer. Never encircle a limb with a single compress.
Wrap with a crepe bandage, loosely applied.
Elevate extremities to prevent oedema; immobilise in extension.

Frequency
Routinely: every 48 hours.
Daily in the event of superinfection or in certain areas (e.g. perineum).

Monitoring
Distal ischaemia of the burned limb is the main complication during the first 48 hours. Assess for signs of ischaemia:
cyanosis or pallor of the extremity, dysaesthesia, hyperalgia, impaired capillary refill.
Monitor daily: pain, bleeding, progression of healing and infection.

IV. Surgical care

Emergency surgical interventions
Escharotomy: in the case of circumferential burns of arms, legs or fingers, in order to avoid ischaemia, and
circumferential burns of chest or neck that compromise respiratory movements.
Tracheotomy: in the event of airway obstruction due to oedema (e.g. deep cervicofacial burns). Tracheotomy can
be performed through a burned area.
Tarsorrhaphy: in the event of ocular or deep eyelid burns.
Surgery for associated injuries (fractures, visceral lesions, etc.).

Burn surgery
Excision-grafting of deep burns, in the operating room, under general anaesthesia, between D5 and D6: excision of
necrotic tissue (eschar) with simultaneous grafting with autografts of thin skin. T his intervention entails significant
bleeding risk, do not involve more than 15% of BSA in the same surgery.
If early excision-grafting is not feasible, default to the process of sloughing-granulation-reepithelisation. Sloughing
occurs spontaneously due to the action of sulfadiazine/ petrolatum gauze dressings and, if necessary, by
mechanical surgical debridement of necrotic tissue. T his is followed by granulation, which may require surgical
reduction in the case of hypertrophy. T he risk of infection is high and the process is prolonged (> 1 month).

V. Pain management
All burns require analgesic treatment. Pain intensity is not always predictable and regular assessment is paramount: use
a simple verbal scale (SVS) in children > 5 years and adults and NFCS or FLACC scales in children < 5 years (see Pain,
Chapter 1).
 
Morphine is the treatment of choice for moderate to severe pain. Development of tolerance is common in burn
patients and requires dose augmentation. Adjuvant treatment may complement analgesic medication (e.g. massage
therapy, psychotherapy).

Continuous pain (experienced at rest)

Moderate pain:
paracetamol PO + tramadol PO (see Pain, Chapter 1) 
Moderate to severe pain:
paracetamol PO + sustained release morphine PO (see Pain, Chapter 1) 
 In patients with severe burns, oral drugs are poorly absorbed in the digestive tract during the first 48 hours, morphine
is administered by SC route.

Acute pain experienced during care

Analgesics are given in addition to those given for continuous pain.
 
Significant medical interventions and extensive burns: general anaesthesia in an operating room.
Limited non-surgical interventions (dressings, painful physiotherapy):
Mild to moderate pain, 60 to 90 minutes before giving care: 
tramadol PO (see Pain, Chapter 1) rarely allows treatment to be completed comfortably. In the event of
treatment failure, use morphine.
Moderate or severe pain, 60 to 90 minutes before giving care:
immediate release morphine PO: initial dose of 0.5 to 1 mg/kg; the effective dose is usually around 1 mg/kg,
but there is no maximum dose.
or morphine SC: initial dose of 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg; the effective dose is usually around 0.5 mg/kg, but there is no
maximum dose.
Note: these doses of morphine are for adults, dosing is the same in children > 1 year, should be halved in children
less than 1 year, and quartered in infants less than 3 months.
Pain management using morphine during dressing changes at the bedside requires:
A trained nursing team.
Availability of immediate release oral morphine and naloxone.
Close monitoring: level of consciousness, RR, heart rate, SpO2, every 15 min for the first hour following dressing
change, then routine monitoring.
Assessment of pain intensity and sedation during the intervention and for 1 hour thereafter.
Necessary equipment for ventilation by mask and manual suction.
Gentle handling of the patient at all times.
Adjustment of morphine doses for subsequent dressings:
If pain intensity (SVS) is 0 or 1: continue with the same dose.
If SVS score ≥ 2: increase the dose by 25 to 50%. If pain control remains inadequate, the dressing change
should be carried out in the operating room under anaesthesia.
Take advantage of the residual analgesia following dressing changes to carry out physiotherapy.
As a last resort (morphine unavailable and no facilities to give general anaesthesia), in a safe setting (trained staff,
resuscitation equipment, recovery room), adding ketamine IM at analgesic doses (0.5 to 1 mg/kg) reinforces the
analgesic effect of the paracetamol + tramadol combination given before a dressing change.

Chronic pain (during the rehabilitation period)

T he treatment is guided by self-evaluation of pain intensity, and utilises paracetamol and/or tramadol. Patients may
develop neuropathic pain (see Pain, Chapter 1).
All other associated pain (physiotherapy, mobilization) should be treated as acute pain.

Minor burns
Treat as outpatients.
Wound care: dressings with silver sulfadiazine (to children 2 months and over and adults) or petrolatum gauze
(except for first degree superficial burns).
Pain: paracetamol ± tramadol usually effective.
 
Footnotes
(a) Open t echnique « naked burn pat ient under a mosquit o net » and wat er immersion t herapy are obsolet e and should no
longer be used.
Cutaneous abscess
A cutaneous abscess is a collection of pus within the dermis or subcutaneous tissue.
It is most commonly due to Staphylococcus aureus.

Clinical features
Painful, red, shiny nodule with or without fluctuance; suppuration or surrounding cellulitis (see Erysipelas and cellulitis,
Chapter 4).
Regional adenopathy and fever may be present.
Complications: osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, septic shock (see Shock, Chapter 1).

Paraclinical investigations
Radiography in case of suspected osteomyelitis or septic arthritis.

Treatment
Treatment is surgical incision and drainage, under aseptic conditions (i.e. sterile consumables and instruments,
antiseptic skin preparation).
Refer to a surgeon any cutaneous abscess:
located in anterior and lateral neck, central triangle of the face, hand, perirectal region, breast, or
adjacent to major blood vessels (e.g. femoral artery), or
involving joint and bone.
Antibiotic therapy only if signs of systemic infection, extensive surrounding cellulitis or for individuals with risk
factors e.g. immunosuppression or diabetes (for antibiotic therapy, see Erysipelas and cellulitis, Chapter 4).

Equipment
Sterile scalpel
Sterile curved, non-toothed artery forceps (Kelly type)
Sterile disposable gloves and compresses
Antiseptic solution and 0.9% sodium chloride
5 or 10 ml syringe

Anaesthesia
For small (approximately < 5 cm), well delineated abscess in adults: use local anaesthesia with 1% lidocaine
without epinephrine (10 mg/ml): 15 to 20 ml.
For larger (approximately > 5 cm), deep or poorly delineated abscess in adults or for abscess in children: consider
procedural sedation or general anaesthesia (ketamine IM: 10 mg/kg).
 
For analgesia, see Pain, Chapter 1.

Technique
Incision
(Figure 8a)
 Hold the scalpel between the thumb and middle finger of the dominant hand, the index finger presses on the handle.
Hold the abscess between the thumb and index finger of the other hand. T he scalpel blade should be perpendicular
to the skin.
T he incision is made in a single stroke along the long axis of the abscess. T he incision must be long enough for a
finger to be inserted.

​
Figure 8a
Incision with a scalpel

Digital exploration
(Figure 8b)
Explore the cavity with the index finger, breaking down all loculi (a single cavity should remain), evacuate the pus (and
foreign body, if present) and explore to the edges of the cavity.
T he exploration also allows an assessment of the extent of the abscess, the depth, and location with respect to
underlying structures (arterial pulsation) or any possible contact with underlying bone. In this last case, seek surgical
advice.

 
​Figure 8b

Exploration of the cavity,

breaking down any loculi

Washing
Abundant washing of the cavity using a syringe filled with 0.9% sodium chloride.

Drainage
(Figure 8c)
Only necessary for deep abscesses.
Insert a drain (or, failing that a gauze wick) into the base of the cavity. If possible, fix it to the edge of the incision with a
single suture. T he drain is withdrawn progressively and then, after 3 to 5 days removed completely.
  
Figure 8c
Drain fixed to the skin

Dressing
Cover with sterile compresses.
Pyomyositis
Pyomyositis is an infection of the muscle, almost always due to Staphylococcus aureus. It most commonly affects the
muscles of the limbs and torso. Infections may occur simultaneously in multiple sites.
Risk factors include immunosuppression, concurrent S. aureus infection, malnutrition, trauma and injection drug use.
Risk of mortality is significant if treatment is delayed.

Clinical features
Signs and symptoms:
local: exquisite muscle tenderness, oedema giving muscles "woody" texture on palpation.
systemic: regional adenopathy and fever.
pyomyositis of the psoas muscle: patient keeps hip flexed and experiences pain on hip extension. If the abscess
is on the right side, the clinical signs are the same as for appendicitis with pain in the right iliac fossa.
Complications: septic emboli, endocarditis and septic arthritis, septic shock (see Shock, Chapter 1).

Paraclinical investigations
POCUS
a
: assists in characterisation of abscess; can rule out deep venous thrombosis.
Radiography: may demonstrate a foreign body, signs of osteomyelitis or osteosarcoma.

Treatment
Immobilise the limb.
Systematic antibiotic therapy (see Erysipelas and cellulitis, Chapter 4). 
Adapt analgesics to the pain level (see Pain, Chapter 1).
Apply compresses soaked in 70% alcohol 2 times daily (max. 3 times daily to prevent burns to the skin) until incision
and drainage.
Treatment is surgical incision and drainage, under aseptic conditions (sterile consumables and instruments,
antiseptic skin preparation) following the rules for incision and drainage of abscesses (see Cutaneous abscess,
Chapter 10). Muscle abscesses are often deeper than other abscesses. As a result, aspiration with a large bore
needle may be necessary to locate the abscess. Needle aspiration is insufficient treatment even if pus is evacuated
and should be followed by surgical incision and drainage.
In case of pyomyositis of the psoas muscle, start antibiotics and refer to a surgeon.

Equipment and anaesthesia

As for Cutaneous abscess, Chapter 10.

Technique
Generous incision along the axis of the limb, over the site of the abscess and avoiding underlying neurovascular
stuctures; incise the skin, subcutaneous tissues and muscular fascia with a scalpel (Figure 9a).
Dissect the muscle fibres with non-toothed forceps (Kelly type) or round tipped scissors. Insert the instrument or a
finger into the muscle until the purulent cavity is reached. If an instrument is used, during insertion, keep the
instrument closed and perpendicular to the muscle fibres. Withdraw gently with the scissors or forceps slightly open,
keeping instrument perpendicular to the fibres (Figure 9b). If abscess is found to be very deep, it may be necessary
to refer to a surgeon.
 Use a forefinger to explore the cavity, break down any loculi and evacuate the pus (Figure 9c).
Wash abundantly with 0.9% sodium chloride.
Insert a large drain.
Fix the drain to the edge of the wound using a single suture. Remove the drain on about the 5th day (Figure 9d).
 
Figures 9: Surgical incision-drainage of a pyomyositis

​Figure 9a
Figure 9b
Long incision Dissection of the muscle using Kelly forceps, insert closed
then withdraw 

  with the instrument slightly open

​Figure 9c
Figure 9d
Exploration and evacuation of pus with the finger Drain fixed to the skin

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.
Leg ulcers
Leg ulcers are chronic losses of cutaneous tissue. T hey are common in tropical regions, resulting from varied
aetiologies:
vascular: venous and/or arterial insufficiency,
bacterial: leprosy, Buruli ulcer (Mycobacterium ulcerans), phagedenic ulcer, yaws, syphilis,
parasitic: dracunculiasis (Guinea-worm disease), leishmaniasis,
metabolic: diabetes,
traumatic: trauma is often a precipitating factor combined with another underlying cause.
T he history of the disease and a complete clinical examination (paying particular attention to the neurological
examination to determine if there is a peripheral neuropathy caused by leprosy or diabetes) usually leads to an
aetiological diagnosis.
All ulcers may become complicated with either local or regional secondary infections (abscess, lymphadenopathy,
adenitis, osteomyelitis, erysipela, pyodermitis), generalised infection (septicaemia), tetanus and after many years of
evolution, skin cancer.

Daily local treatment

Bathe the leg for 10 to 15 minutes in NaDCC and rinse in boiled water.
Remove any necrotic (black) and fibrinous (yellowish) tissue using compresses or excise the tissue with a scalpel.
Apply:
to a clean ulcer, with little discharge: 10% povidone iodine and vaseline;
to a dirty ulcer, with little discharge: silver sulfadiazine to a limited area (monitor for systemic adverse effects);
to an oozing ulcer: 10% povidone iodine alone;
to an extensive, oozing ulcer or multiple ulcers: diluted povidone iodine (1/4 of 10% povidone iodine + 3/4 of
0.9% sodium chloride or clean water) for one minute then rinse with 0.9% sodium chloride or clean water to
reduce the risk of transcutaneous iodine absorption.
Cover with a dry sterile dressing.

Systemic treatment
Treatment with analgesics in the event of pain: adapt the level and dosage to the individual (see Pain, Chapter 1).
Give systemic antibiotics in case of:
Secondary infection (see Bacterial skin infections, Chapter 4).
Phagedenic ulcer (in the early stages, antibiotics may be useful. T hey are often ineffective in the chronic
stages):
doxycycline PO (except in children under 8 years and pregnant or lactating women)
Children 8 years and over: 4 mg/kg once daily
Adults: 200 mg once daily
or
metronidazole PO
Children: 10 mg/kg 3 times daily 
Adults: 500 mg 3 times daily
If after 7 days, antibiotherapy is effective, continue with doxycycline or metronidazole as above. Treatment
duration varies according to the clinical evolution.
Treat the cause.
Complementary therapy:
Elevate the legs in cases of venous and/or lymphatic insufficiency.
Tetanus prophylaxis if appropriate (see Tetanus, Chapter 7).
Skin graft if the ulcer is extensive, clean, red and flat. Skin grafts are often necessary after surgical excision to
heal phagedenic and Buruli ulcers.
Necrotising infections of the skin and soft
tissues
Invasive infections of the soft tissues: skin, subcutaneous tissue, superficial or deep fascia, muscles. T hey include
necrotising cellulitis, necrotising fasciitis, myonecrosis, gas gangrene, etc.
 
Clinical presentation depends on the causative organism and the stage of progression. Group A streptococcus is
frequently isolated, as are Staphylococcus aureus, enterobacteriaceae and anaerobic bacteria including Clostridium
sp.
 
Delay in treatment of a minor wound or certain types of wounds (gunshot wounds or stabbings, open fractures or non-
sterile intramuscular injections/circumcisions) or certain infections (varicella or omphalitis), favours the development of
a necrotising infection. Patient risk factors include immunosuppression, diabetes, malnutrition and advanced age.
 
A necrotising infection is a surgical emergency and has a high mortality rate.

Clinical features
Initial signs and symptoms include erythema, oedema and pain disproportionate to appearance of infection.
Location depends on the portal of entry. It may be difficult to differentiate necrotising infections from
nonnecrotising infections (see Erysipelas and cellulitis, Chapter 4). Systemic signs of infection (fever, tachycardia
etc.) may be present.
Lesions progress rapidly despite antibiotic therapy, with the development of the typical signs of a necrotizing
infection: haemorrhagic blisters and necrosis (cold bluish or blackish hypoaesthetic macules).
Signs of late infection: crepitus on palpation and fetid odour (gas gangrene) with signs of severe systemic infection
(see Shock, Chapter 1).

Laboratory
If available, the following tests can help identify an early necrotising infection: white blood cell count > 15 000/mm³
or < 4000/mm³; serum creatinine > 141 micromol/litre; serum glucose > 10 mmol/litre (180 mg/dl) or < 3.3 mmol/litre
(60 mg/dl). However, normal results do not exclude a necrotising infection.
Obtain specimens for bacterial culture in the operating room and blood cultures if possible. 

Paraclinical investigations
Radiography: may demonstrate gas in muscles or along the fascia planes. Can rule out foreign body, osteomyelitis or
osteosarcoma.

Treatment
Prompt surgical management accompanied by IV antibiotic therapy is essential to reduce the high mortality. Refer
immediately to a surgeon. Start resuscitation if necessary (see Shock, Chapter 1).
 
Emergency surgical treatment:
Debridement, drainage, wide excision of necrotic tissue and rapid amputation if necessary.
Surgical re-evaluation within 24 to 36 hours to check for eventual progression of the necrosis and need for
further debridement.
 
 IV antibiotic therapy for at least 14 days or more depending on clinical response:
cloxacillin + ceftriaxone + clindamycin or amoxicillin/clavulanic acid + clindamycin. For doses, see below.
 
cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
a

Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours

Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 3 g every 6 hours
 
ceftriaxone slow IV (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
b

Children 1 month and over: 100 mg/kg once daily

Adults: 2 g once daily
 
clindamycin IV infusion (30 minutes)
c

Neonates 0 to 7 days (< 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 12 hours

Neonates 0 to 7 days (≥ 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (< 2 kg): 5 mg/kg every 8 hours
Neonates 8 days to < 1 month (≥ 2 kg): 10 mg/kg every 8 hours
Children 1 month and over: 10 to 13 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 2700 mg daily)
Adults: 900 mg every 8 hours
 
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) slow IV injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
d

Children less than 3 months: 50 mg/kg every 12 hours 

Children ≥ 3 months and < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 8 hours (max. 6 g daily)
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 2 g every 8 hours
 
Other treatments:
Deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis;
Appropriate management of pain (see Pain, Chapter 1);
Early nutritional support.
 

Footnotes
(a) Cloxacillin powder f or inject ion should be reconst it ut ed in 4 ml of wat er f or inject ion. Then dilut e each dose of cloxacillin in
5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(b) For administ rat ion by IV rout e, cef t riaxone powder should t o be reconst it ut ed in wat er f or inject ion only. For administ rat ion
by IV inf usion, dilut e each dose of cef t riaxone in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg
and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(c) Dilut e each dose of clindamycin in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of
100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(d) Dilut e each dose of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of
100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride in children 20 kg and over and in adult s. Do not dilut e in glucose.
Venomous bites and stings
Snake bites and envenomation
More than 50% of the bites are dry bites, i.e. no envenomation occurred. In the event that venom is injected, the
severity of envenomation depends on the species, the amount of venom injected, the location of the bite (bites on
the head and neck are the most dangerous) and the weight, general condition and age of the individual (more serious
in children).
 
It is rare that the snake involved is identified. However, observation of the clinical signs may orient diagnosis and
management. Two major syndromes are identified:
neurological disorders that evolve towards respiratory muscle paralysis and coma are common manifestations
of elapid envenomation (cobra, mamba, etc.);
extensive local lesions (intense pain, inflammation with oedema and necrosis) and coagulation abnormalities are
common manifestations of viperid or crotalid (rattle snake) envenomation.
Clinical manifestations and management of bites and envenomations are described in the table below.
 
Early diagnosis and monitoring of coagulation abnormalities is based on whole blood clotting tests performed in a
dry tube (at the patient’s arrival and then every 4 to 6 hours for the first day).
Take 2 to 5 ml of whole blood, wait 30 minutes and examine the tube:
Complete clotting: no coagulation abnormality
Incomplete clotting or no clotting: coagulation abnormality, susceptibility to bleeding
a
In the event of coagulation abnormalities, continue to monitor once daily until coagulation returns to normal.
 
Aetiological treatment is based on the administration of snake antivenom serum, only if there are clear clinical
manifestations of envenomation or coagulation abnormalities are observed.
Antivenom sera are effective, but rarely available (verify local availability) and difficult to store. Antivenom serum
should be administered as early as possible: by IV infusion (in 0.9% sodium chloride) if using a poorly purified serum;
by slow IV in the event of severe envenomation if the serum is known to be well purified. Repeat antivenom serum
administration after 4 or 6 hours if the symptoms of envenomation persist.
  For all patients, be prepared for an anaphylactic reaction, which, despite its potential severity (shock), is
usually more easily controlled than coagulation disorders or serious neurological disorders.
 
In asymptomatic patients (bites without signs of envenomation and with normal coagulation), monitoring must
continue for at least 12 hours (24 hours preferred).
 
Clinical signs and treatment
 
 Time
Possible
since Clinical manifestations Treatment
aggressor
bite

Bite

0 Fang marks ? Strict rest, immobilisation of the limb with a

Pain at the site of bite splint to slow the diffusion of venom
(a)
.
Wound cleansing.
Tetanus prophylaxis (Tetanus, Chapter 7).
Observe for manifestations of envenomation.
A the dispensary level, prepare patient
evacuation to a referral centre.

Envenomation

10-30 Hypotension, myosis, excessive Elapids Insert a peripheral IV line.

minutes salivation and sweating, dysphagia, IV antivenom serum as soon as possible.
dyspnoea
Local paraesthesia, paresis

Inflammatory syndrome: intense pain, Viperids Insert a peripheral IV line.

extensive regional oedema Crotalids IV antivenom serum as soon as possible.
Analgesics
(b)
.
IV or PO
(b)
 anti-inflammatories.

30 Cobra syndrome: bilateral eyelid drooping, Elapids Intubation and assisted ventilation.
minutes- trismus, respiratory muscle paralysis See Shock, Chapter 1.
5 hours Shock

30 Haemorrhagic syndome: epistaxis, Viperids Monitor coagulation (blood clotting test in a

minutes- purpura, haemolysis or disseminated Crotalids dry tube).
48 hours intra-vascular coagulation Transfusion of fresh blood in the event of
Shock severe anaemia.
See Shock, Chapter 1.

6 hours No signs or changes in coagulation (non- ? Reassure the patient.

or more venomous snakes or snake bite without Send him home after 12 hours.
envenomation)

T issue necrosis   Remove blisters, clean; daily (non occlusive)

dressings.
Surgical intervention for necrosis, depending
on the extent, after the lesions stabilise
(minimum 15 days).

(a) Tourniquet s, incision-suct ion and caut erisat ion are inef f ect ive and may be dangerous.
(b) Do not use acet ylsalicylic acid (aspirin).
 In case of clinical evidence of infection only: drainage of any abscess; amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) for
7 to 10 days in case of cellulitis.
Infections are relatively rare, and most often associated with traditional treatment or with nosocomial transmission
after unnecessary or premature surgery.

Scorpion stings and envenomation

In most cases, the sting causes local effects including: pain, oedema, erythema. Management includes strict rest,
wound cleansing, analgesics PO, and tetanus prophylaxis (see Tetanus, Chapter 7).
In patients with significant pain, infiltrate the area around the sting with local anaesthetic (1% lidocaine). Observe
for 12 hours.
 
General signs appear in the event of severe envenomation: hypertension, excessive salivation and sweating,
hyperthermia, vomiting, diarrhoea, muscle pain, respiratory difficulties, seizures; rarely, shock.
 
Aetiological treatment:
T he use of scorpion antivenom sera is controversial (most of them are not very effective; they may be poorly
tolerated due to insufficient purification).
In practice, in countries where scorpion envenomations are severe (North Africa, the Middle East, Central America
and Amazonia), check local availability of antivenom sera and follow national recommendations.
T he criteria for administration are the severity of the envenomation, the age of the patient (more severe in children)
and the time elapsed since the sting. T his should not exceed 2 to 3 hours. If the time elapsed is more than 2 or 3
hours, the benefit of antivenom serum is poor in comparison with the risk of anaphylaxis (in contrast to
envenomation by snakes).
 
Symptomatic treatment:
In the event of vomiting, diarrhoea or excessive sweating: prevention of dehydration (oral rehydration salts),
especially in children.
In the event of muscle pain: 10% calcium gluconate slow IV (children: 5 ml per injection, adults: 10 ml per
injection, administered over 10 to 20 minutes).
In the event of seizures: diazepam may be used with caution; the risk of respiratory depression is increased in
envenomated patients (see Seizures, Chapter 1).

Spider bites and envenomation

Treatment is usually limited to wound cleansing, strict rest, analgesics PO and tetanus prophylaxis (see T etanus,
Chapter 7).
 
Severe envenomations are rare. T here are two main clinical syndromes:
Neurotoxic syndrome (black widow spider): severe muscle pain, tachycardia, hypertension, nausea, vomiting,
headache, excessive sweating. T he signs develop for 24 hours and then resolve spontaneously over a few
days.
Necrotic syndrome (recluse spider): local tissue lesions, possible necrosis and ulceration; mild general signs
(fever, chills, malaise and vomiting) which usually resolve over a few days. If present, haemolysis may sometimes
be life threatening.
 
As well as the general measures listed above, treatment includes administration of 10% calcium gluconate by slow IV
in the event of muscle spasms (children: 5 ml per injection, adults: 10 ml per injection, administered over 10 to 20
minutes).
Incision and debridement of necrotic tissue are not recommended (not useful; may impair healing).

Hymenoptera stings (honeybees, wasps and hornets)

 Local care: remove the embedded sting (bee); clean with soap and water; calamine lotion if pruriginous (children and
adults: one application 3 to 4 times daily in a thin layer).
 
Analgesics if necessary (paracetamol PO).
 
In the event of an anaphylactic reaction:
epinephrine (adrenaline) IM
Use undiluted epinephrine solution (1:1000 = 1 mg/ml) and a 1 ml syringe graduated in 0.01 ml in children:
Children under 6 years: 0.15 ml
Children from 6 to 12 years: 0.3 ml
Children over 12 years and adults: 0.5 ml
For children, if 1 ml syringe is not available, use a diluted solution, i.e. add 1 mg epinephine to 9 ml of 0.9% sodium
chloride to obtain a 0.1 mg/ml solution (1:10 000):
Children under 6 years: 1.5 ml
Children from 6 to 12 years: 3 ml
Repeat after 5 minutes if no clinical improvement.
In patients with circulatory collapse or those who deteriorate despite receiving IM epinephrine, use IV epinephrine
(for doses, see Anaphylactic shock, Chapter 1).
 

Footnotes
(a) There can be a considerable delay bet ween t he decrease in coagulat ion f act ors (less t han 30 minut es af t er t he bit e) and
t he first signs of bleeding (ot her t han bleeding at t he sit e of t he bit e and/or t he development of sero-sanguinous blist ers),
which may appear only 3 days af t er t he bit e. Conversely, bleeding may resolve prior t o normalizat ion of coagulat ion
paramet ers.
Dental infections
Infection arising as a secondary complication of an inflammation of the dental pulp. T he severity and the treatment of
dental infections depend on their evolution: localised to the infected tooth, extended to adjacent anatomical
structures or diffuse infections.

Clinical features and treatment

Infection localised to a tooth and its surroundings (acute dental abscess)
Intense and continuous pain.
On examination: swelling limited to the gum surrounding the infected tooth. Purulent exudate may be present
draining either through the root canal, or through the periodontal ligament (loosening the tooth) or through a gingival
fistula. T here are no signs of the infection extending to adjacent anatomical structures nor general signs of
infection.
Treatment:
Treatment is only surgical (the source of infection is inaccessible to antibiotics): root canal therapy (disinfection
of the root canal) if possible or extraction of the tooth.
Pain: paracetamol or ibuprofen PO (see Pain, Chapter 1).

Infections extending to adjacent anatomical structures (acute dento-alveolar abscess)

Local spreading of an acute dental abscess into the surrounding bone and tissue.
Painful gingival and buccal swelling with warm and tender skin, developing into a ripe abscess: intense pain, with
trismus, particularly if the infection is in a posterior tooth, presence of general signs (fever, fatigue, cervical
lymphadenopathy).
In patients with acute gangrenous cellulitis (crepitations on palpation), treat as an infection extending into the
cervico-facial tissues (see below).
Treatment:
First surgical: incision and drainage of the pus or extraction of the tooth.
T hen antibiotic treatment for 5 days following the procedure: 
amoxicillin PO
Children: 25 mg/kg 2 times daily 
Adults: 1 g 2 times daily
Notes:
If the dental procedure has to be delayed (local anaesthesia not possible due to inflammation, significant
trismus), start an antibiotherapy, but the dental procedure must be completed in the following days.
If there is no improvement within 48 to 72 hours after the dental procedure, do not change antibiotic, but start a
new procedure on the tooth.
Pain: paracetamol or ibuprofen PO (see Pain, Chapter 1).

Infections extending into the cervico-facial tissues

Extremely serious cellulitis, with rapidly spreading cervical or facial tissue necrosis and signs of septicaemia.
Treatment:
treatment in an intensive care unit.
high dose antibiotic treatment (see Necrotising infections of the skin and soft tissues).
extraction of the tooth.
Chapter 11: Mental disorders in adults
Anxiety

Insomnia

Agitation

Acute confusional state (delirium)

Post-traumatic stress disorder

Depression

Psychotic disorders
Acute psychotic episode
Chronic psychoses
Bipolar disorder
 
 
 
Anxiety
Last updated: November 2021
 
A patient suffering from anxiety has:
psychological symptoms: pervasive worries, e.g. fear of having a serious illness, fear with no clearly-defined object
or phobias;
behavioural changes: nervousness, avoidance behaviour, self-isolating tendency, irritability;
physical symptoms: e.g. dry mouth, “lump in the throat”; sometimes medically unexplained symptoms (e.g. feeling of
malaise, hot flashes or chills, diffuse pain);
concentration difficulties, sleep problems (difficulty getting to sleep, recurrent nightmares).
 
Anxiety is a common feature in depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and psychosis. It can also occur in isolation,
not associated with any other mental disorders. Anxiety symptoms often occur immediately after a difficult life event.
Medically unexplained symptoms are frequent in refugees and people exposed to adversity; in certain cultures they may
be the only expression of psychological distress. 

Management
Try to determine the source of the anxiety and reassure the patient (without minimising the distress or symptoms). If
necessary, use simple relaxation techniques to alleviate the symptoms
a
.
 
If symptoms are exacerbated (e.g., tachycardia, feeling of suffocation, fear of dying or “going crazy,” agitation, or
conversely, prostration), it may be necessary to administer diazepam: 5 to 10 mg PO or 10 mg IM, to be repeated
after one hour if required.
 
Acute severe anxiety may justify a short course (max. 2 or 3 weeks) of:
diazepam PO: 2.5 to 5 mg 2 times daily; reducing the dose by half in the last few days of treatment
 
Moderate anxiety lasting more than 2 weeks, administer as first-line treatment: 
hydroxyzine PO: 25 to 50 mg 2 times daily (max. 100 mg daily)
or, only if there is no improvement after 1 week, diazepam PO: 2.5 to 5 mg 2 times daily for max. 2 weeks.
 
If symptoms recur after treatment discontinuation, do not resume diazepam or hydroxyzine. Re-evaluate for possible
depression or post-traumatic stress disorder.
 
For generalised anxiety that lasts more than 2 months, and does not improve with psychosocial interventions, an
antidepressant should be prescribed (fluoxetine or paroxetine PO: 20 mg once daily), to be continued for 2 to 3
months after symptoms resolve then, stop gradually over 2 weeks.

Footnotes
(a) For example, in case of hypervent ilat ion, use a t echnique t hat cont rols t he respirat ory rat e: get t he pat ient in a comf ort able
posit ion wit h his eyes closed. Help him f ocus on his breat hing so t hat it becomes calmer and more regular, wit h t hree-phase
breat hing cycles: inhalat ion (count t o t hree), exhalat ion (count t o t hree), pause (count t o t hree), et c.
Insomnia
Last updated: November 2021
 
Complaints may be: difficulty falling or remaining asleep, waking up too early in the morning, nightmares, or fatigue.
Symptoms occur at least three times a week for at least one month.

Management
If insomnia is related to an organic cause, treat the cause (e.g. administer analgesics for pain).
  a
If insomnia is related to the use of alcohol, drugs or a medication

, management depends on the substance involved.
 
If insomnia is related to a particular life event (e.g. bereavement), a short term treatment with a sedative may be useful:
promethazine PO: 25 mg once daily at bedtime for 7 to 10 days
or, if promethazine is not available, hydroxyzine PO: 25 mg once daily at bedtime for 7 to 10 days
or, as a last resort (risk of addiction), diazepam PO: 2 to 5 mg once daily at bedtime for 7 days max.
 
If insomnia persists, re-evaluate the patient. Insomnia is a common feature in depression (Depression), post-traumatic
stress disorder (Post-traumatic stress disorder) and anxiety disorders (Anxiety). In such cases, the underlying disorder
should be addressed.
 

Footnotes
(a) The main drugs known t o cause sleep problems are cort icost eroids, bet a blockers, levodopa/carbidopa, fluoxet ine,
levot hyroxine, et c.
Agitation
Last updated: November 2021
 
People who have recently experienced violent events, or with anxiety, depression, psychotic disorders or delirium, may
have periods of psychomotor agitation.
Agitation is common in acute intoxication (alcohol/psychostimulant drugs) and withdrawal syndrome. Certain drugs may
cause agitation (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), levodopa, mefloquine, efavirenz, etc.).
Agitation may be accompanied by oppositional, violent or fleeing behaviour.

Management
Clinical evaluation is best performed in pairs, in a calm setting, with or without the person’s family/friends, depending on
the situation.
 
It is essential to check for signs of delirium. If present, the priority is to identify the cause and treat it (see Acute
confusional state).
 
It may be necessary to administer diazepam 10 mg PO to reduce the agitation and conduct the clinical exam, without
over-sedating the patient.
 
If the patient is violent or dangerous, urgent sedation is required: diazepam IM 10 mg, to be repeated after 30 to 60
minutes if necessary.
Physical restraint should only be used in certain circumstances, strictly following the procedure in place. 
 
Avoid diazepam if agitation is related to acute alcohol intoxication or in case of delirium (risk of respiratory depression).
Use haloperidol (see Acute confusional state).
 
Alcoholic patients can experience withdrawal symptoms within 6 to 24 hours after they stop drinking. Withdrawal
syndrome should be taken into consideration in patients who are hospitalised and therefore forced to stop drinking
abruptly. In the early phase (pre-delirium tremens), the symptoms include irritability, a general feeling of malaise, profuse
sweating and shaking. Treatment consists in:
diazepam PO (10 mg every 6 hours for 1 to 3 days, then reduce and stop over 7 days)
+ oral hydration (3 litres of water daily)
+ thiamine IM or very slow IV (100 mg 3 times daily for at least 3 days)
 
If the agitation is associated with anxiety, see Anxiety; if associated with psychotic disorders, see Psychotic disorders.
Acute confusional state (delirium)
Last updated: July 2022
 

Clinical features
T he clinical picture includes:
disorientation in time and space;
impaired consciousness;
concentration problems;
memory impairment.
T hese symptoms develop rapidly (hours or days), and often fluctuate during the course of the day.
Agitation, delusions, behavioural disorders and hallucinations (often visual) may be associated symptoms.

Management
Delirium almost always has an organic cause:
Infectious: meningitis, severe malaria, encephalitis, septicaemia, syphilis, AIDS, etc.
Metabolic: hyper/hypoglycaemia, electrolyte imbalance, niacin (vitamin PP or B 3) or thiamine (vitamin B 1)
deficiencies, etc.
Endocrine: thyroid disorders
Neurological: epilepsy, raised intracranial pressure, head trauma, meningeal haemorrhage, brain tumour, etc.
Also consider the use of drugs which may cause delirium (opioid analgesics, psychotropic drugs, fluoroquinolones, etc.),
use of toxic substances (alcohol/drugs), or withdrawal from these substances.
 
Delirium requires hospitalisation.
Treat the underlying cause.
Provide supportive care (i.e. nutrition, fluid, electrolyte balance); ensure bladder function.
Ensure that the patient receives only medications appropriate to their needs.
Treat pain if needed (see Pain, Chapter 1);
Ensure adequate sensory environment: low lightening, limit noise.
 
T he administration of diazepam may increase delirium. If it is absolutely necessary to sedate an agitated patient, use
low dose haloperidol for a short time (7 days or less):
haloperidol PO: 0.5 to 1 mg 2 times daily
or haloperidol IM: 0.5 to 1 mg, to be repeated if the patient is still agitated 30 to 60 minutes after the first injection.
If necessary, administer additional doses every 4 hours, do not exceed a total dose of 5 mg daily.
 
In case of delirium related to alcohol withdrawal (delirium tremens):
Admit the patient to an intensive care unit.
Administer diazepam IV: 10 to 20 mg 4 to 6 times daily, under close supervision with ventilation equipment near at
hand.
T he goal is to achieve mild sedation without provoking respiratory depression. T he doses and duration of the
treatment are adjusted according to the clinical progress.
IV hydration: 2 to 4 litres 0.9% sodium chloride per 24 hours.
Administer thiamine IM or very slow IV (over 30 minutes): 100 mg 3 times daily for 3 to 5 days.
Monitor vital signs and blood glucose levels.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Last updated: November 2021
 
An event is “traumatic” when someone has been directly confronted with death, either by seeing another person being
killed or seriously injured as the result of violence, or by experiencing serious harm, such as a threat to his/her life or
physical integrity (e.g. rape, torture). Exposure to one or several of these events causes feelings of helplessness and
horror.
 
Immediate, transitory symptoms (disorientation, anxiety, sadness, fleeing, etc.) are to be distinguished from secondary,
long-lasting problems that appear and/or last several weeks or months after the event: post-traumatic stress, often
associated with depression (Depression), or sometimes acute psychosis (Psychotic disorders), even in people with no
history of psychotic symptoms.
 
Post-traumatic stress disorder is characterized by three types of psychological response, generally seen in
combination
[1]
.
Persistent re-experiencing
T he patient describes:
images, thoughts or perceptions related to the traumatic experience, which intrude despite efforts to block
them out, including at night in the form of distressing dreams;
flashbacks during which the patient “relives” parts of the traumatic scene.
Avoidance 
T he patient tries to avoid: 
places, situations and people that might be associated with the trauma;
having thoughts or feelings related to the trauma; patients may use alcohol, drugs or any psychotropic agents
for this purpose.
Persistent perceptions of heightened current threat 
Hypervigilance (constant state of alert), exaggerated startle reaction, anxiety, insomnia, poor
concentration; sometimes somatic symptoms (sweating, shaking, tachycardia, headache, etc.).
 
Re-experiencing is highly distressing and causes disorders that may worsen over time; people isolate themselves,
behave differently, stop fulfilling their family/social obligations, and experience diffuse pain and mental exhaustion.

Management
Psychological intervention is essential to reduce the suffering, disabling symptoms and social handicaps resulting from
PT SD.
 
It is important to reassure the patient that their symptoms are a normal response to an abnormal event. Sessions
should be conducted with tact. T he patient should be listened to. Avoid intensely questioning the patient about their
emotions: leave it to the patient to decide how far they want to go.
 
Associated symptoms (anxiety or insomnia), if persistent, can be relieved by symptomatic treatment (see Anxiety and
Insomnia) for no more than two weeks.
 
If the patient has severe symptoms (obsessive thoughts, pronounced hypervigilance, comorbid despression etc.), the
pharmacological treatment is fluoxetine PO (20 mg once daily) or paroxetine PO (10 to 20 mg once daily) or sertraline
PO (50 mg once daily), to be continued for 2 to 3 months after symptoms resolve then, stop gradually.  
 
References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Post t raumat ic st ress disorder. Int ernat ional Classificat ion of Diseases f or Mort alit y and
Morbidit y St at ist ics, Elevent h Revision (ICD-11).
ht t ps://icd.who.int /browse11/l-m/en#/ht t p://id.who.int /icd/ent it y/2070699808 [Accessed 26 January 2021]
Depression
Last updated: July 2022
 
Depression is characterised by a set of symptoms that have been present at least two weeks and represent a change
from previous functioning.
 
T he standard criteria for diagnosis of major depressive disorder are:
Pervasive sadness and/or a lack of interest or pleasure in activities normally found pleasurable and
At least four of the following signs:
Significant change in appetite or weight
Insomnia, especially early waking (or, more rarely, hypersomnia)
Psychomotor agitation or retardation
Significant fatigue, making it difficult to carry out daily tasks
Diminished ability to make decisions or concentrate
Feelings of guilt or worthlessness, loss of self-confidence or self-esteem
Feelings of despair
T houghts of death, suicidal ideation or attempt
 
T he features of depression can vary according to the patient’s culture
a
. For example, the depressed patient may
express multiple somatic complaints rather than psychological distress. Depression may also manifest itself as an
acute psychotic disorder in a given cultural context.

Management
When faced with symptoms of depression, consider an underlying organic cause (e.g. hypothyroidism or Parkinson’s
disease) or adverse effects from medical treatment (corticosteroids, cycloserine, efavirenz, mefloquine, etc.). Look for
a triggering event (e.g. sexual violence, recent childbirth and post-partum depression).
 
Depressive disorders are the most common mental disorders in patients with severe chronic infectious diseases such
as HIV infection or tuberculosis. T hese disorders should not be neglected, especially as they have a negative impact on
adherence to treatment.
 
Symptoms of depression are common after a major loss (bereavement, forced displacement, etc.). T hey gradually
subside, in most cases, with social support. Psychological support may be useful.
 
Pharmacological treatment should always be offered, along with counseling, to patients with severe depression
(Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) score > 19; severe functional impairment, psychotic symptoms, and/or
suicidal risk). 
 
In patients with moderately severe depression (PHQ-9 score 15-19), pharmacological treatment should be considered
if there is no improvement after 3 counselling sessions, or from the outset if patients express a personal preference for
it.
 
Before prescribing, make sure that 9-month treatment and follow-up (psychological support, adherence and response)
are possible.
 
Preferably use a serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SRI), particularly in older patients. Preferably use fluoxetine, except during
pregnancy when sertraline is preferred.
fluoxetine PO: 20 mg on alternate days for one week, then once daily for 3 weeks, then increase the dose if necessary
(max. 40 mg daily); use with caution in patients with severe anxiety disorders or who are immobilised (e.g. wounded)
or
paroxetine PO: 10 mg once daily for 3 days, then 20 mg once daily for 3 weeks, then increase the dose if necessary
(max. 40 mg daily), especially if the depression is accompanied by severe anxiety
or
sertraline PO: 25 mg once daily for 3 days, then 50 mg once daily for 3 weeks, then increase the dose if necessary
(max. 100 mg daily)
 
Assess tolerance and response every week for 4 weeks. If the response is inadequate after 4 weeks at optimal dose
or if the SRI is poorly tolerated, replace with another SRI (there is no need for a medication-free interval between the
two).
If SRIs are not available, amitriptyline PO may be used as an alternative: start with 25 mg once daily at bedtime and
gradually increase over 8 to 10 days to 75 mg once daily (max. 150 mg daily). T he therapeutic dose is close to the
lethal dose; in older patients, reduce the dose by half.
 
T here is a delay of 2 to 3 weeks before the antidepressant effect of SRIs occurs, at least 4 weeks for amitriptyline.
During this period, anxiety may be exacerbated and the risk of suicide may increase, especially with
fluoxetine. Hydroxyzine PO (25 to 50 mg 2 times daily, max 100 mg daily) or promethazine PO (25 to 50 mg once daily
at bedtime) may be given for the first 2 weeks of treatment. If there is no improvement after 1 week, change to
diazepam PO (2.5 to 5 mg 2 times daily) for 2 weeks max. 
 
During the first 2 to 4 weeks, do not give the patient more tablets than the quantity required for each week or entrust
the treatment to someone in the patient's close entourage that can initially ensure administration of the drug.
 
Severe depression carries the risk of suicide. Talking to patients about this will not increase the risk of suicide attempt.
On the contrary – depressed people are often anxious and ambivalent about suicide and feel relieved when able to talk
about it.
 
If major symptoms have not improved after a month of treatment, increase to the maximum dose and assess after 2
weeks. If there is no improvement, refer the patient to a psychiatrist, if possible; if not, try a different antidepressant.
 
T he treatment should always be stopped gradually over a 4-week period. Inform the patient about problems
associated with abrupt treatment discontinuation (very common with paroxetine).

Special situations: pregnant or breast-feeding women

Pregnancy in a woman under antidepressants:
Re-evaluate the need to continue treatment. If treatment is still necessary, it is best to continue a treatment that
has been effective rather than switching to a different antidepressant. Nevertheless, if the woman plans to
breastfeed and is taking fluoxetine, consider switching to another SRI at least 3 weeks before expected delivery to
reduce adverse effects in the neonate during breastfeeding. Monitor the neonate the first few days of life for signs
of toxicity or withdrawal symptoms.
Depression occurring during pregnancy or during post-partum period:
Depression is more frequent in the post-partum (breast-feeding) period than in pregnancy. In case of severe post-
partum depression in a breast-feeding woman: use sertraline as first-line option, or if not available, use paroxetine:
do not administer fluoxetine. In case of severe depression during pregnancy: use sertraline, avoid paroxetine.
 

Footnotes
(a) Hence t he import ance of working wit h an “inf ormant ” (in t he ant hropological sense of t he word) when dealing wit h
unf amiliar cult ural cont ext s.
Psychotic disorders
 
 
Acute psychotic episode
Chronic psychoses
Bipolar disorder
 
 
Last updated: July 2022
 
Psychoses are characterised by delusions (the patient is convinced of things that are not real and not accounted for by
the person’s cultural background), or hallucinations (the patient hears voices that do not exist) and behavioural
symptoms (e.g. strange behaviour, agitation, mutism, opposition, fleeing). 
 
Management includes psychosocial support and antipsychotic medication.
Treatment efficacy and prognosis depend largely on the quality of the therapeutic relationship established with the
patient and their family.
Keeping the patient at home with outpatient follow-up is preferred if there is no risk of self-harm or harm to others, and
if the family is capable of managing the disorder.
 
Interpretation of psychotic symptoms vary according to the cultural context
a
. For example, psychotic disorders may
be attributed to charms or to ancestor intervention. T herapeutic approach should take those beliefs into account.
Patients are usually already under “traditional” treatments, this should not be seen as an obstacle to conventional
medical treatment.
 

Footnotes
(a) Hence t he import ance of working wit h an “inf ormant ” (in t he ant hropological sense of t he word) when dealing wit h
unf amiliar cult ural cont ext s.
Acute psychotic episode
 
 
Last updated: July 2022
 
An acute psychotic episode can be a one-time occurrence, usually of sudden onset, or can occur repeatedly, or it may
be the early phase of chronic psychosis. It can occur following an adverse life event (e.g. loss, acute stress or trauma).
In postpartum psychosis, delusions are frequently related to the mother-child relationship.
 
Before prescribing antipsychotic medication, consider the possibility of an underlying organic cause (see Acute
confusional state (delirium)) or substance use; check and record blood pressure, heart rate, weight.
 
Antipsychotic treatment is the same as for chronic psychoses (haloperidol or risperidone) and should last at least 3
months. After 3 months, if the patient is stable, stop the treatment gradually over 4 weeks, monitoring for potential
relapse. If the acute episode lasted more than 3 months, continue antipsychotic treatment for at least 2 years.  
 
For severe anxiety or agitation, a short-course anxiolytic or sedative treatment may be added to the antipsychotic
treatment, at the beginning of treatment.
Chronic psychoses
 
 
Last updated: July 2022
 
Chronic psychoses (schizophrenia, paranoid psychosis, etc.) are defined by specific clinical characteristics and their
long-term nature.
Schizophrenia is characterized by delusions, disorganized thinking, hallucinations, depersonalisation, loss of motivation,
diminished emotional expression, impaired cognition, abnormal behaviour and neglected hygiene. Such patients are
often very anxious.
 
T he goal of treatment is to reduce symptoms and improve social and occupational functioning. It offers real benefits,
even if chronic symptoms persist (tendency toward social isolation, possible relapses and periods of increased
behavioural problems, etc.).
 
Before prescribing antipsychotic medication, consider the possibility of an underlying organic cause (see Acute
confusional state (delirium)) and use of substances. Check and record blood pressure, heart rate and weight. 
 
Treatment should last at least one year, possibly for life, particularly in patients with schizophrenia. Uncertainty about
the possibility of follow-up at one year or beyond is no reason not to treat. However, it is better not to start
pharmacological treatment for patients who have no family/social support (e.g. homeless), provided they do not have
severe behavioural disorders.
 
Only prescribe one antipsychotic at a time. To limit the risk of adverse effects, start treatment at a low dose and
gradually increase until the minimum effective dose is reached. In older patients, reduce the dose by half, whichever
medication is used. 
 
Haloperidol is the first-line antipsychotic. Preferably use oral haloperidol with a view to switching to long-acting
haloperidol (haloperidol decanoate) if the patient is likely to need long-term treatment (e.g. patients with schizophrenia).
haloperidol PO: start with 0.5 mg 2 times daily for 3 days then 1 mg 2 times daily until the end of the first week;
increase to 2.5 mg 2 times daily the second week. After 2 weeks, assess if the treatment is well tolerated and
effective. If it is not effective, check adherence; if necessary increase to 5 mg 2 times daily (max. 15 mg daily).
 
If haloperidol is not available, contraindicated or poorly tolerated, possible alternative are:
risperidone PO: 1 mg 2 times daily for one week, then 2 mg 2 times daily for one week; if necessary, increase to 3 mg
2 times daily as of the third week (max. 10 mg daily).
or
chlorpromazine PO (especially if a sedative effect is required): 
25 to 50 mg once daily in the evening for one week; if necessary, increase to 50 mg in the morning and 100 mg in the
evening for one week; if necessary, 100 mg 3 times daily as of the third week.
or 
olanzapine PO: 10 mg once daily; if necessary, increase by 5 mg every week (max. 20 mg daily).
 
In case of extrapyramidal symptoms, try reducing the dose of antipsychotic or, if the extrapyramidal symptoms are
severe, add biperiden PO: 2 mg once daily, increase if necessary up to 2 mg 2 to 3 times daily (if biperiden is not
available, use trihexyphenidyl PO at the same dosage). 
 
For severe anxiety, it is possible to add a short-course anxiolytic treatment (for a few days to max. 2 to 3 weeks) to
the antipsychotic treatment:
diazepam PO: 2.5 to 5 mg 2 times daily
 
For major agitation:
 If the patient is not under antipsychotic treatment:
haloperidol PO 5 mg + promethazine PO 25 mg, to be repeated after 60 minutes if necessary. After a further 60
minutes, if necessary administer promethazine IM 50 mg.
In case of hostile or agressive behaviour, use IM route (same dose), to be repeated after 30 minutes if necessary;
after a further 30 minutes, if necessary, administer promethazine IM 50 mg.
High doses of haloperidol can induce extrapyramidal symptoms, add biperiden if necessary.
If the patient is already under antipsychotic treatment:
diazepam PO or IM: 10 mg to be repeated after 60 minutes if necessary
Do not combine two antipsychotics.
 
For long-term treatment (e.g. patients with schizophrenia) a long-acting antipsychotic drug can be used once the
patient has been stabilised on oral treatment. T he dosage depends on the oral dose the patient is taking. T he switch
from oral to a long-acting antipsychotic should be gradual, according to a specific protocol. For information, at the
end of the transition period from oral to long-acting antipsychotic, the dose of haloperidol decanoate IM administered
every 3 to 4 weeks is approximately: 

Daily dose
Monthly dose of
of haloperidol PO haloperidol decanoate IM
(a)

2.5 mg 25 mg

5 mg 50 mg

10 mg 100 mg

15 mg 150 mg

(a) If haloperidol decanoat e is not available, fluphenazine IM: 12.5 t o 50 mg/inject ion every 3 t o 4 weeks.

For a patient on risperidone PO: gradually decrease the dose of risperidone by slowly introducing haloperidol PO then,
once the patient is stabilised, change to haloperidol decanoate every 3 to 4 weeks as above.

Special situations: pregnant or breast-feeding women

In the event of pregnancy in a woman taking antipsychotics: re-evaluate the need to continue the treatment. If
treatment is still necessary, administer the minimal effective dose and avoid combination with an anticholinergic
(biperiden or trihexphenidyl). Monitor the neonate for extrapyramidal symptoms during the first few days of life.
First symptoms of psychosis during pregnancy: start with the lowest dose of haloperidol and only increase slowly if
necessary. 
Post-partum psychosis: if the woman is breast-feeding, haloperidol should be preferred.
Long-acting antipsychotics should not be administered.
Bipolar disorder
 
 
Last updated: July 2022
 
Bipolar disorder is characterised by alternating manic and depressive episodes
a
, generally separated by “normal”
periods lasting several months or years.
 
Episodes of mania are characterised by elation, euphoria and hyperactivity accompanied by insomnia, grandiose ideas,
and loss of social inhibitions (sexual, in particular).
Depressive episodes are often severe, with significant risk of suicide.
Look for family history of similar symptoms (particularly suicide), very frequent in bipolar patients.
 
Pharmacological treatment:
Episodes of mania are treated with haloperidol PO: 5 mg once daily for 3 days, then 7.5 mg for one week; if
necessary, increase by increments of 2.5 mg per week (max. 15 mg daily). 
Possible alternatives: 
risperidone PO: 2 mg once daily; if necessary, increase in increments of 1 mg per week (max. 6 mg daily). 
or 
olanzapine PO: 10 mg once daily for 3 days; if necessary, increase in increments of 5 mg per week (max. 20 mg
daily). 
If there is improvement after one week of treatment, continue with the same dose for at least 8 weeks after
remission of symptoms.
Diazepam PO (5 to 10 mg daily) can be added during the first 2 to 3 weeks.
If symptoms do not resolve after 2 weeks of antipsychotic treatment at maximum tolerated dose (and 2 different
antipsychotics have been tried), add a mood stabiliser:
valproic acid PO: 200 mg 2 times daily (Week 1) then 400 mg 2 times daily (Week 2) then 500 mg 2 times daily
(Week 3). T his is usually sufficient to stabilise the patient; if necessary the dose may be increased by 500 mg weekly
(max. 1000 mg 2 times daily).
or
carbamazepine PO: 100 mg 2 times daily (Week 1) then 200 mg 2 times daily (Week 2) then 200 mg 3 times daily
(Week 3). T his is usually sufficient to stabilise the patient; if necessary the dose may be increased by 200 mg
weekly (max. 1200 mg daily). 
Treatment should be continued until at least 8 weeks after complete remission of symptoms. Assess together with
the patient the benefits and risks of pursuing long-term treatment. 
If is it decided to discontinue antipsychotic treatment, medication should be stopped gradually, monitoring for
possible relapse. 
Depressive episodes are treated as for depression (see Depression). 
If the patient has an episode of mania while on antidepressants, immediately stop antidepressants and treat the
episode of mania as above. An episode of mania while on antidepressants is indicative of bipolar disorder. 
 
Long-term treatment for bipolar disorder is based on continuation of the treatment that led to the remission of the
manic episode: antipsychotic, mood stabilizer, or a combination of both.
Treatment can be initiated by a physician trained in mental health, but a consultation should be set up as soon as
possible with a specialist. 
 
Valproic acid is not recommended in women of childbearing age. If it is necessary to start treatment, use
carbamazepine.
If a woman of childbearing age is already taking valproic acid, switch to carbamazepine by gradually decreasing the
dose of valproic acid over a period of 2 weeks (do not stop treatment abruptly) while gradually starting carbamazepine.
If a woman becomes pregnant or is planning pregnancy it is essential to contact a specialist to re-evaluate whether the
treatment is still necessary and adjust the dose if needed.
 

Footnotes
(a) “Unipolar f orms” are charact erized by recurring episodes of depression.
Chapter 12: Other conditions
Sickle cell disease

Diabetes type 2 in adults

Essential hypertension in adults

Heart failure in adults

Chronic heart failure
Acute heart failure (acute pulmonary oedema)

Endemic goitre and iodine deficiency

 
 
 
Sickle cell disease
Homozygous sickle cell disease (SCD) is a life-threatening genetic disorder of haemoglobin (Hb). T he abnormal Hb
(HbS) results in the distortion of red blood cells into a sickle shape leading to increased destruction (haemolysis), an
increase in blood viscosity and obstruction of capillaries (vaso-occlusion).
SCD is common in sub-Saharan Africa (1 to 3% of births), on the American continent, in India and in the Mediterranean
basin.

Clinical features
Symptoms generally begin after 6 months of age.
Major signs: recurrent painful crises, chronic anaemia, splenomegaly and frequently, growth retardation and
malnutrition in children.
Serious acute life threatening complications such as stroke, overwhelming infections and acute chest syndrome.
In populations in whom the disease is frequent, diagnosis is suggested by a family history of similar clinical signs.

Major acute manifestations

Painful vaso-occlusive crises (VOC)
Children under 2 years present with the hand-foot syndrome or dactylitis (acute pain and swelling in the hands or
feet).
Children older than 2 years and adults present with acute pain affecting the back, chest, abdomen (can resemble an
acute abdomen) and extremities.
Young children may have non-specific signs of a VOC: refusal to walk, irritability, lack of appetite, crying, whimpering
or moaning when touched, etc.
Look for an associated infection that might have precipitated the VOC.
In case of bony pain in a single location, unresponsive to analgesics (or a persistent limp in a child) associated with
fever and erythema or swelling, consider an osteomyelitis.

Fever
Look for infection: in particular pneumonia, cellulitis, meningitis, osteomyelitis and sepsis (patients are particularly
susceptible to infections especially due to pneumococcus, meningococcus and Haemophilus influenzae); malaria.

Acute severe anaemia

T he chronic anaemia is often complicated by acute severe anaemia with gradually appearing fatigue, pallor of the
conjunctivae and palms, shortness of breath, tachycardia, syncope or heart failure.
T he acute anaemia can be due to:
Acute severe haemolysis often secondary to malaria: fever, haemoglobinuria (dark urine) and yellow
conjunctivae.
Splenic sequestration (trapping of blood cells in the spleen), mostly in children 1 to 4 years: sudden enlargement
of the spleen, severe left upper quadrant pain, thrombocytopenia. Can lead to shock.
Aplastic crisis (transient suspension of red blood cell production by the bone marrow): impalpable spleen and
absence of reticulocytes.

Stroke
 Most often ischaemic (due to vaso-occlusion in cerebral vessels) but a stroke can also be haemorrhagic.
Sudden loss of motor function or aphasia, in children and in adults.
Signs can resemble meningitis and cerebral malaria: headache, photophobia, vomiting, stiff neck, alteration of
consciousness and neurologic signs or rarely seizures.

Acute chest syndrome (ACS)

Chest pain, tachypnoea, respiratory distress, hypoxia; fever (more frequent in children); pulmonary infiltrate on chest
x-ray. Often proceeded by a VOC.
Complications: multiorgan failure (lung, liver, kidney).

Priapism
Painful prolonged erection in the absence of sexual stimulation, also occurring in young boys. Risk of necrosis and
irreversible erectile dysfunction.

Laboratory and other investigations

Diagnosis
Hb electrophoresis confirms the diagnosis but is often unavailable.
If not available, a positive Emmel test (or sickling test) in the presence of clinical signs of sickle cell disease
supports the diagnosis.

Other examinations

Tests Indications

Haemoglobin • At the time of diagnosis and annually (frequently 7 to 9 g/dl).

• In case of VOC, fever, acute anaemia (≤ 5 g/dl or drop in Hb ≥ 2 g/dl below the
patient’s baseline), stroke, ACS.
• For monitoring of transfused patients.

Platelets • At the time of diagnosis and annually.

• In case of acute anaemia (thrombocytopenia - platelet count ≤ 100 000/mm3 if
splenic sequestration).

Urine dipstick • In case of fever: look for a urinary tract infection.

• In case of acute severe anaemia: look for haemoglobinuria.

Malaria test In case of VOC, fever, acute anaemia or stroke.

Lumbar puncture In case of fever with meningeal signs or unexplained coma.

Other • Complete blood count and reticulocyte count.

(if available) • Blood culture in case of fever.
• X-ray if suspicion of pneumonia, osteomyelitis, ACS.

Management of major acute manifestations

Painful vaso-occlusive crisis (VOC)
Moderate pain (at home):
Generous oral hydration (water, soup, juice, coconut water): minimum 100 ml/kg daily in children and 50 ml/kg
daily in adults (2.5 to 3 litres daily);
Warm compresses (application of cold is contra-indicated);
Level 1 (paracetamol and ibuprofen) and level 2 (tramadol) analgesics;
If pain is not controlled at home within 24 hours, seek medical attention.
Severe pain or pain not controlled at home (in hospital):
PO hydration (as above); if the patient is unable to drink sufficiently, IV hydration (Appendix 1); in the event of
dehydration, treat according to the degree of dehydration (see Dehydration, Chapter 1);
Level 3 analgesics (morphine);
Do not give routine antibiotics in the absence of fever; do not transfuse for VOC.
 
For the treatment of pain according to intensity, see Pain (Chapter 1).

Fever and infection

Admit to hospital:
All children less than 2 years;
Children with fever ≥ 38.5 °C and adults with fever ≥ 39.5 °C; patients who are critically ill appearing
a
 or have
acute anaemia.
 
PO or IV hydration (Appendix 1).
 
Treat malaria if present.
 
Treat bacterial infections according to cause.
 
Treat all patients with respiratory symptoms for pneumonia and ACS.
 
In case of osteomyelitis:
ceftriaxone slow IV
b
injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 12 hours
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 2 g every 12 hours
+ cloxacillin IV infusion (60 minutes)
c
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg every 6 hours 
Children ≥ 40 kg and adults: 3 g every 6 hours 
Administer IV therapy for at least 14 days. T hen if the patient has improved, change to the oral route for an
additional 14 days of treatment with a combination of:
ciprofloxacin PO
Children < 35 kg: 15 mg/kg 2 times daily
Children ≥ 35 kg and adults: 500 mg 2 times daily
+ amoxicillin/clavulanic acid PO (see below) 
 
If the source of infection is unknown:
ceftriaxone IM or slow IV
b
 injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes)
Children < 20 kg: 50 mg/kg once daily (max. 2 g/day)
Children ≥ 20 kg and adults: 1 to 2 g once daily
 
After 48 hours re-evaluate the patient:
If the patient is improving (afebrile, can drink), change to:
amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (co-amoxiclav) PO for 7 to 10 days.
Use formulations in a ratio of 8:1 or 7:1 exclusively. T he dose is expressed in amoxicillin:
Children < 40 kg: 50 mg/kg 2 times daily 
 Children ≥ 40 kg and adults:
Ratio 8:1: 3000 mg daily (2 tab of 500/62.5 mg 3 times daily)
Ratio 7:1: 2625 mg daily (1 tab of 875/125 mg 3 times daily)
Patients over 2 years without acute anaemia can continue treatment as outpatients.
Patients under 2 years or with acute anaemia or who cannot be monitored and treated at home by their family
should complete PO antibiotherapy in hospital.
If the patient is not improving, continue ceftriaxone until the patient is afebrile, then, change to PO treatment.
Monitor for acute anaemia.

Acute severe haemolysis

Admit to hospital.
Treat malaria if present.
Transfuse packed red blood cells
d
e
 if Hb < 5 g/dl or drop of 2 g/dl below the patient’s baseline. Target a Hb level of
9 g/dl.
Start with 10 to 15 ml/kg in 3 to 4 hours. For information, 10 ml/kg of packed red blood cells usually raise the Hb
by 2.5 g/dl.
Repeat the Hb. If a second transfusion is needed, check for signs of fluid overload before starting the
transfusion.
Measure Hb and perform urine dipstick in the following days. Further transfusions may be necessary if
haemolysis is ongoing.

Aplastic crisis
Admit to hospital.
Treat an associated bacterial infection if present.
Transfuse as for haemolysis. Repeat the Hb every other day. An increasing reticulocyte count and a gradual
increase of the Hb indicate improvement. Follow patient until they have reached their baseline Hb.

Splenic sequestration
Admit to hospital.
Treat hypovolaemic shock if present.
Monitor the size of the spleen.
Transfuse if Hb < 5 g/dl, target a Hb level of 7 to 8 g/dl maximum.
Administer ceftriaxone as above.
After clinical improvement, monitor for relapse (follow the size of the spleen).
 
Note: splenectomy is contra-indicated (high operative mortality).

Stroke
Admit to hospital.
T he treatment of choice for ischaemic stroke is an exchange transfusion to lower the concentration of HbS.
Transfer the patient to a specialized facility for further management (including prophylactic therapy to prevent
recurrences with transfusion program, hydroxyurea).
If the patient is awaiting transfer or if transfer is not possible:
Oxygen continuously, at least 5 litres/minute or to maintain the SpO2 between 94 and 98%.
Treat seizures if present.
Transfuse if the Hb ≤ 9 g/dl. Target Hb of 10 g/dl.
After the transfusion provide IV hydration (Appendix 1).
Acute chest syndrome
Admit to hospital.
Measure SpO2 and administer oxygen as in stroke.
PO hydration as for a VOC; if the patient is unable to drink sufficiently, IV hydration (Appendix 1) while monitoring for
fluid overload; in the event of fluid overload, administer one dose of furosemide IV (see Dehydration, Chapter 1).
Antibiotics:
ceftriaxone slow IV
b
 injection (3 minutes) or IV infusion (30 minutes) for 7 to 10 days
Children < 20 kg: 50 mg/kg once daily (max. 2 g daily)
Children ≥ 20 kg and adults: 1 to 2 g once daily
+ azithromycin PO for 5 days
Children: 10 mg/kg once daily (max. 500 mg daily)
Adults: 500 mg on D1 then 250 mg once daily from D2 to D5
Transfuse if symptoms are unresponsive to antibiotics and Hb < 9 g/dl.
If wheezing is present treat with:
 salbutamol aerosol (100 micrograms/puff)
Children and adults: 2 to 4 puffs with a spacer every 10 to 30 minutes as needed
Encourage deep breathing (incentive spirometry hourly).
Treat pain (see Pain, Chapter 1).

Priapism
PO hydration as for a VOC; IV hydration if necessary (Appendix 1) and treat dehydration if present (see Dehydration,
Chapter 1).
Encourage urination, apply warm compresses, treat pain.
Erection > 4 hours: consider transfusion and refer to surgery.

Prevention of complications
Certain complications can be avoided with appropriate health education of patients/families, routine preventive care
and regular follow-up.

Education of patients (including children) and families

 Basic knowledge

Disease Chronic, necessarily transmitted by both parents, non-contagious.

Treatment Routine (see below) and symptomatic (pain).
Monitoring Size of the spleen, temperature, baseline Hb.

Major precipitating factors of a painful crisis and how to prevent them

Cold Wear warm clothing, avoid bathing in cold water.

Excessive heat For example, avoid going out at mid-day.
T ight clothing Wear wide comfortable clothing without elastics.
Dehydration Drink plenty of fluids.
Excessive effort Moderate physical activity is beneficial.
Infections Follow routine treatments (including vaccination).

Principal complications requiring the patient to seek urgent medical advice

Pain unresponsive to analgesia after 24 hours or severe from the start.

Any fever (do not treat at home).
Respiratory problems (cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain).
Diarrhoea/vomiting and inability to drink.
Dehydration (dark, infrequent urine).
Anaemia (pale or yellow conjunctivae, pale palms, enlarged spleen).

Routine preventive care

Prevention of pneumococcal infections
phenoxymethylpenicillin (penicillin V) PO until age 15 years (at least until 5 years):
Children < 1 year: 62.5 mg 2 times daily
Children 1 to < 5 years: 125 mg 2 times daily
Children 5 to 15 years: 250 mg 2 times daily
 
Immunization
Ensure that the child’s immunisations are up to date; if not, administer catch up vaccines:

DT P, hepatitis B, polio, measles, H. influenzae type B vaccines

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13 or, if not available, PCV10)
Children

Meningococcal conjugate vaccine in endemic areas

< 5 years
At 2 years: pneumococcal 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine, at least 8 weeks after the last
PCV13 or 10

DT P or T d, hepatitis B, polio, measles, H. influenzae type B vaccines

Children

Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine PCV13 (or PCV10)

> 5 years
Meningococcal conjugate vaccine in endemic areas

 
To support red blood cell production
folic acid PO
f
 (life-long treatment)
Children < 1 year: 2.5 mg once daily
 Children ≥ 1 year and adults: 5 mg once daily
 
Malaria chemoprophylaxis (if malaria prevalence ≥ 5%)
mefloquine PO
Children 6 months to 5 years and > 5 kg: 5 mg base/kg once weekly
Do not use to treat malaria.
 
Provide nutritional support at hospital discharge.

Routine follow-up of patients

Between crises, for information:
Children < 5 years: every 1 to 3 months;
Children ≥ 5 years and adults: every 3 to 6 months.
After a crisis: as often as necessary, according to the clinical course.
 

Footnotes
(a) Crit ically ill appearing child: weak grunt ing or crying, drowsy and dif ficult t o arouse, does not smile, disconjugat e or anxious
gaze, pallor or cyanosis, general hypot onia.

(b) For administ rat ion by IV rout e, cef t riaxone powder should t o be reconst it ut ed in wat er f or inject ion only. For administ rat ion
by IV inf usion, dilut e each dose of cef t riaxone in 5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg
and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(c) Cloxacillin powder f or inject ion should be reconst it ut ed in 4 ml of wat er f or inject ion. Then dilut e each dose of cloxacillin in
5 ml/kg of 0.9% sodium chloride or 5% glucose in children less t han 20 kg and in a bag of 100 ml of 0.9% sodium chloride or
5% glucose in children 20 kg and over and in adult s.

(d) Always inquire how many t ransf usions a pat ient has previously received (risk of iron overload).

(e) Do not t ransf use whole blood if possible (risk of fluid overload).

(f ) Iron is cont raindicat ed in pat ient s who have received mult iple t ransf usions. Avoid combined preparat ions of iron and f olic
acid.
Diabetes type 2 in adults
Diabetes is a metabolic disorder that leads to hyperglycaemia.
Type 2 diabetes usually occurs in adults and accounts for 90% of diabetes cases worldwide.
Type 2 diabetes can lead to acute complications, as well as chronic complications that result in serious organ damage
(cardiovascular events; diabetic retinopathy, neuropathy, nephropathy).

Clinical features
Few or no symptoms; symptoms of hyperglycaemia may be present: polyuria (frequent urination) and polydypsia
(excessive thirst and drinking).
In rare cases, patients may present with severe hyperglycaemia (impaired consciousness, coma or acute
dehydration).

Diagnosis
Look for diabetes in the event of:
symptoms of hyperglycaemia;
cardiovascular disorders: stroke, myocardial infarction, hypertension;
peripheral neuropathies, foot ulcers, absence of tendon reflexes or peripheral pulse.
Diagnosis is made on one of the following results
[1]
:

  Fasting blood glucose

(a) Random blood glucose
(b) Glycated Hb
(c)

Symptomatic 1 fasting blood glucose 1 random blood glucose 1 HbA1c ≥ 6.5%

patient ≥ 7 mmol/litre ≥ 11 mmol/litre
(or ≥ 126 mg/dl) (or ≥ 200 mg/dl)

Asymptomatic 2 fasting blood glucose 1 random glucose 2 HbA1c ≥ 6.5% 

patient ≥ 7 mmol/litre ≥ 11 mmol/litre on 2 samples collected at 2
on 2 samples collected at 2 followed by 1 fasting blood different times(
different times
(d) glucose
≥ 7 mmol/litre

(a) Fast ing blood glucose t est : perf ormed on pat ient t hat has f ast ed at least 8 hours
(b) Random blood glucose t est : perf ormed at any moment of t he day.
(c) Glycat ed Hb (HbA1c) reflect s average glycaemia over around 3 mont hs.
(d) For example, int erval of at least one or more days.

Note: even in a symptomatic patient, it is preferable to perform a second blood glucose test to confirm the result.

Treatment
Glycaemic targets
[2]
Fasting blood glucose < 8.3 mmol/litre (or < 150 mg/dl) or HbA1c between 7 and 7.5.
T he closer blood glucose levels remain to these values, the more cardiovascular complications are prevented or
delayed.
Depending on the context (healthcare provision) or patient profile (elderly patient, history of severe hypoglycaemia or
long-standing poorly controlled diabetes), fasting blood glucose < 10 mmol/litre (or < 180 mg/dl) or HbA1c of around 8
are acceptable.
Blood glucose should not fall < 4.5 mmol/litre (or < 80 mg/dl) or HbA1c < 6.5.

Lifestyle and dietary advice

a
Avoid sugared foods and drinks (but no excessive restriction of carbohydrates). 
High fibre intake; limit animal fats and alcohol.
Physical activity.
Weight control. If BMI ≥ 25, try to reduce weight by 5 to 10%.
Stop smoking.

Pharmacological treatment
First-line treatment metformin PO
b
.
T he usual dose is 1 to 2 g daily. For information:
Week 1: 500 mg once daily in the morning at breakfast
Week 2: 500 mg 2 times daily (morning and evening) during meals
Increase in increments of 500 mg per week as long as the drug is well tolerated (max. 2 g daily, i.e. 1 g morning and
evening)
[3]
.
 
If glycaemic control is not acheived, administer metformin in combination with a sulfonylurea. 
Sulfonylurea doses are adjusted in increments to avoid the risk of hypoglycaemia, based on blood glucose results.
In patients under 60, glibenclamide PO: 
T he usual dose is 5 mg 2 times daily. For information:
Week 1: 2.5 mg once daily in the morning at breakfast
Week 2: 5 mg once daily in the morning at breakfast
Increase in increments of 2.5 mg weekly until fasting blood glucose reaches target levels (max.15 mg daily).
In patients over 60, gliclazide PO (immediate release tablet): 
T he usual dose is 40 to 80 mg 2 times daily. For information:
Weeks 1 and 2: 40 mg once daily in the morning at breakfast
Increase in increments of 40 mg every 2 weeks (weeks 3 and 4: 80 mg once daily in the morning at breakfast) until
fasting blood glucose reaches target levels (max. 240 mg daily, i.e. 120 mg morning and evening).
 
If glycaemic control is not acheived with the combination of metformin + a sulfonylurea, continue metformin but
replace the sulfonylurea with intermediate-acting insulin SC: start with 0.2 IU/kg at bedtime. T he dose is adjusted
after measuring fasting blood glucose in the morning. Once blood glucose levels have stabilized, test levels once
weekly then after each consultation. Doses of 1 IU/kg/day or more may be necessary to reach glycaemic targets. If
the necessary dose is over 0.5 IU/kg/day, administer in 2 injections daily.

Adjustment of intermediate-acting insulin dosage based on blood glucose levels

 Morning blood glucose  Action

< 4 mmol/litre Treat hypoglycaemia (see Hypoglycaemia, Chapter 1).

< 70 mg/dl Reduce daily dose of insulin by 2 to 4 units.
Maintain new dose for 4 days.
Check blood glucose after 4 days, readjust dose if glycaemic target has not been
not reached.
Check blood glucose again after 4 days and repeat the process until glycaemic
target is reached.

≥ 4 and < 8.3 mmol/litre Do not change dose.

≥ 70 and < 150 mg/dl

≥ 8.3 and < 11 mmol/litre Increase daily dose of insulin by 2 units.

≥ 150 and < 200 mg/dl Check blood glucose after 4 days, readjust dose if glycaemic target has not been
not reached.
Check blood glucose again after 4 days and repeat the process until glycaemic
target is reached.

≥ 11 and < 16,5 mmol/litre Increase daily dose of insulin by 4 units.

≥ 200 and < 300 mg/dl Check blood glucose after 4 days, readjust dose if glycaemic target has not been
not reached.
Check blood glucose again after 4 days and repeat the process until glycaemic
target is reached.

≥ 16.5 mmol/litre Perform dipstick analysis for ketones.

≥ 300 mg/dl Treat hyperosmolar hyperglycaemia or ketoacidosis if present.

 
Example for a man weighing 79 kg:
Start with 16 IU per day (79 kg x 0.2 IU).
On D4, blood glucose is 14.6 mmol/litre. Add 4 IU (daily dose of insulin is 20 IU). 
On D8, blood glucose is 10.4 mmol/litre. Add 2 IU (daily dose of insulin is 22 IU). 
On D12, blood glucose is 6.1 mmol/litre. Glycaemic target is reached. 

Surveillance and monitoring

Laboratory surveillance
Patients on oral hypoglycemic agents: blood glucose test once a month to begin with, then during monitoring visits.
Patients on insulin: fasting blood glucose test during the dose adjustment phase then, if possible, once weekly, once
the insulin dose stabilised. 
HbA1c if available: every 3 months, then every 6 months if well stabilised.
Other necessary tests according to comorbidities and chronic complications.

Clinical monitoring
Routine consultations: check blood pressure (should remain < 140/80 mmHg) and weight, examine feet.
Consultations once a month for the first 6 months, then individualised frequency of consultations depending on the
patient's characteristics (e.g. once every 6 months if the diabetes is well controlled).
 Annual check-up: check for cardiovascular and neurological complications, evaluate renal function (serum creatinine
and proteinuria dipstick test), examination of teeth and gums.
Management of diabetes complications.

Patient education
Lifestyle and dietary measures (diet, physical activity, etc.).
Patients on sulfonylurea or insulin therapy: signs of hypoglycaemia/hyperglycaemia and management.
Patients on insulin therapy: auto-administration (schedule, injection sites and techniques); storage of insulin; self-
monitoring of blood glucose and adjustment of doses in patients using glucometers.
Patients with sensory neuropathy or peripheral arterial disease: autoexamination of feet; prevention of foot lesions.
 

Footnotes
(a) These measures concern all pat ient s regardless of medicat ion prescribed. They can be suf ficient alone t o normalize blood
glucose levels in cert ain pat ient s.

(b) If met f ormin is cont raindicat ed or not t olerat ed, replace wit h a sulf onylurea.

References
1. Part ners in Healt h. Chronic care int egrat ion f or endemic non-communicable diseases, Chapt er 7, Table 7.1. PIH, Bost on,
2013.
ht t ps://www.pih.org/sit es/def ault /files/2017-07/PIH_NCD_Handbook.pdf .pdf [Accessed 13 June 2018]

2. American Diabet es Associat ion. Glycemic t arget s. Diabet es Care 2017 Jan; 40 (Supplement 1): S48-S56.
ht t ps://doi.org/10.2337/dc17-S009 [Accessed 13 June 2018]

3. Joint Formulary Commit t ee. Brit ish Nat ional Formulary (online) London: BMJ Group and Pharmaceut ical Press.
ht t p://www.medicinescomplet e.com [Accessed 18 June 2018]
Essential hypertension in adults
Hypertension (or high blood pressure - HBP) is defined as elevated blood pressure (BP) at rest that persists over time
i.e. measured 3 times during 3 separate consultations over a period of three months.
Essential hypertension is defined as HBP of undetermined cause (the large majority of cases).
 
T he global overall prevalence of HBP in adults aged 25 and over is around 40%.
[1]
 
Serious complications of HBP can be acute (hypertensive encephalopathy, left-sided heart failure, acute renal failure)
or delayed i.e. occur after a long period during which HBP has not been controlled (stroke, ischaemic heart disease,
peripheral arterial disease, chronic renal impairment).
 
For pregnancy-induced hypertension, see Essential obstetric and newborn care, MSF.

Clinical features
HBP thresholds:
 
Blood pressure (BP) in mmHg
HBP classification
Systolic (SBP) Diastolic (DBP)

Mild 140 or over 90 or over

Moderate 160 or over 100 or over

Severe 180 or over 110 or over

 
Severe HBP is defined more by the presence of serious end-organ damage than the blood pressure reading:
Uncomplicated hypertensive crisis:
SBP ≥ 180 and/or DBP ≥ 110 and some symptoms (moderate headaches, epistaxis, dizziness, tinnitus, eye
floaters) but no signs of end-organ damage;
Hypertensive emergency:
SBP ≥ 180 and/or DBP ≥ 110 and signs of end-organ damage:
intense headaches, nausea/vomitting, confusion, seizures, coma in the event of hypertensive
encephalopathy;
dyspnoea, chest pain in the event of heart failure or cardiac ischaemia;
rapid and/or irregular heart rate in the event of heart failure;
anuria, oliguria in the event of renal impairment.
History and clinical examination should look for: 
medications being taken that can cause or aggravate HBP;
a
focal neurological sign(s) suggestive of stroke;
comorbidities and risk factors: heart failure, diabetes, renal impairment; excessive smoking or consumption of
alcohol, excess weight (BMI ≥ 25), etc.

Paraclinical investigations
Blood test: ionogram (particularly serum potassium levels), serum creatinine. 
Other necessary laboratory tests according to comorbidities (e.g. diabetes).
 ECG and echocardiogram to look for signs of heart failure, coronary disease, or arrhythmia.

Long-term treatment
T he goal of treatment is to lower BP. Target BP are:
SBP < 140 and/or DBP < 90
SBP < 140 and/or DBP < 80 in diabetic patients
SBP < 150 and/or DBP < 90 in patients aged > 80 years
In patients with mild HBP (SBP ≥ 140 and/or DBP ≥ 90) without associated cardiovascular disorders or stroke or
diabetes, start with lifestyle and dietary advice. 
Pharmacological treatment is indicated in the following cases:
SBP ≥ 160 and/or DBP ≥ 100;
HBP associated with cardiovascular disorder, stroke or diabetes;
HBP not controlled by lifestyle and dietary changes alone.

Lifestyle and dietary advice

Recommended for all hypertensive patients:
Reduce calorie and salt intake.
Regular physical activity.
Weight loss if BMI ≥ 25.
Stop smoking and alcohol consumption.

Pharmacological treatment 
Start with a monotherapy. One of four classes of antihypertensive drugs can be chosen as first line treatment,
according to the patient’s characteristics (e.g. age, contra-indications, etc.). For information: 
 
 Patient with no comorbidities Patient with comorbidities

T hiazide diuretic After a stroke: thiazide diuretic

Patient > 65 years: thiazide diuretic or calcium Diabetic patient:

channel blocker  angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor
or beta blocker if concomitant cardiovascular disorder

Patient with black skin: thiazide diuretic or calcium Renal impairment: ACE inhibitor
channel blocker (avoid ACE inhibitors)

Thiazide diuretic:
hydrochlorothiazide PO: 12.5 to 25 mg once daily in the morning (max. 25 mg daily)
 
Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor:
enalapril PO: start with 5 mg once daily. Gradually increase, every 1 to 2 weeks, according to BP, up to 10 to 20 mg
once daily (max. 40 mg daily).
In elderly patients or patients taking a diuretic or patients with renal impairment: start with 2.5 mg once daily.
 
Calcium channel blocker:
amlodipine PO: 5 mg once daily. Increase to 10 mg once daily if necessary (max. 10 mg daily). 
In elderly patients or patients with hepatic impairment: start with 2.5 mg once daily.
 
Beta-blocker:  (contra-indicated in patients with asthma)
bisoprolol PO: 5 to 10 mg once daily in the morning
Do not stop treatment abruptly (risk of malaise, angina).

 
In patients with no comorbidity start with a thiazide diuretic and check BP after 4 weeks of treatment. 
If the treatment has been correctly taken but there is no improvement after 4 weeks, add a second antihypertensive
drug.
After 4 weeks of bitherapy, reevaluate. If the patient’s BP remains too high, consider triple-therapy.
 
In diabetic patients, if there is no improvement after 4 weeks of AEC inhibitor treatment taken correctly, add a calcium
channel blocker.
 
In patients with a cardiac disorder (heart failure or coronary heart disease), bitherapy is usually necessary from the start
(AEC inhibitor + beta-blocker).

Surveillance and monitoring

Laboratory surveillance
According to treatment (diuretic, AEC inhibitor, etc.): ionogram and serum creatinine every 6 to 12 months.

Clinical monitoring
Consultations every 3 months (BP, weight), then every 6 months, then individualised frequency of consultations
depending on the patient's characteristics.
Management of comorbidities (e.g. diabetes).

Patient education
 Lifestyle and dietary advice.
Treatment observance: do not stop treatment abruptly, particularly if taking beta blockers (risk of malaise, angina).
Consultation in the event of epistaxis, tinnitus, eye floaters; adverse effects of treatment (e.g. cough with AEC
inhibitors, erectile dysfunction with beta blockers, oedema with calcium channel blockers).

Treatment of hypertensive crisis

Uncomplicated hypertensive crisis 
Most frequent. Reassure the patient and prescribe rest. Check BP a few days later to start or adapt treatment.

Hypertensive emergency
Treat in an intensive care unit.
Hypertensive encephalopathy: 
T he aim is to reduce BP by 10 to 15% within the first hour and to not reduce it more than 25% during the first 24
hours. 
labetalol IV (contra-indicated in patients with asthma
b
:
20 mg over at least 1 minute. Administer another dose after 10 minutes if BP has not decreased. If necessary, 40
mg doses are administered every 10 minutes until hypertension is controlled (max. 300 mg total dose).
Stroke: do not try to decrease BP during the first 3 days unless SBP is ≥ 220 and/or DBP ≥ 120 (in this event
administer labetalol). 
Acute pulmonary oedema: see Acute heart failure.
 

Footnotes
(a) Consider secondary hypert ension caused by medicat ions being t aken, mainly NSAID, cort icost eroids, opioids, oral
est roprogest ogens, et c. Treat ment , in t his event , consist s in st opping or replacing t he causat ive drug.

(b) In pat ient wit h ast hma, hydralazine IV: 5 t o 10 mg dilut ed in 10 ml of 0,9% sodium chloride administ ered by slow IV, t o be
repeat ed af t er 20 t o 30 minut es if necessary.

References
1. World Healt h Organizat ion. Media cent er. High blood pressure: a public healt h problem, 2018.
ht t p://www.emro.who.int /media/world-healt h-day/public-healt h-problem-f act sheet -2013.ht ml [Accessed 12 Sept ember
2018]
Heart failure in adults
 
 
Heart failure (HF) is defined as the inability of the heart to maintain adequate cardiac output. 
It is a serious condition, particularly frequent in people over 70 years. 
T here are two types:
chronic HF: gradual onset of signs of HF;
acute HF: sudden onset of life-threatening HF (cardiogenic acute pulmonary oedema or shock), in most cases in
patients with known cardiopathy.
 
 
Chronic heart failure
Acute heart failure (acute pulmonary oedema)
 
Chronic heart failure
Clinical features
Left-sided HF (left ventricle failure; most frequent form)
Fatigue  and/or progressive onset of dyspnoea, occurs on exertion and then at rest, accentuated by the decubitus
position, preventing the patient from lying down; peripheral oedema.
Right-sided HF (right ventricle failure)
Oedema of the lower limbs, hepatomegaly, jugular vein distention, hepatojugular reflux; ascites in advanced stages.
Global HF (failure of both ventricles)
Left and right-sided signs; right-sided signs are often the most prominent.
 
Evaluate severity of HF
[1]
:
 
Class I No limitation of physical activity. No symptoms during ordinary physical activity.

Slight limitation of physical activity. Comfortable at rest. Ordinary physical activity results in fatigue,
Class II
palpitation, dyspnoea.

Marked limitation of physical activity. Comfortable at rest. Less than ordinary activity causes fatigue,
Class III
palpitation, or dyspnoea.

Class IV Unable to carry on any physical activity without discomfort. Symptoms of heart failure at rest.

Identify causative or aggravating factors:

Coronary or valvular heart disease, hypertension, viral or toxic cardiopathy, pericarditis.
Anaemia, American trypanosomiasis, rheumatic fever, diabetes, thyroid disorder, drug/alcohol addiction.

Paraclinical investigations
Cardiac ultrasound: if available, method of choice to confirm cardiopathy.
Electrocardiogram (ECG): can diagnose left ventricular cardiomyopathy (left ventricular hypertrophy and/or left
bundle branch block) or arrhythmia and particularly atrial fibrillation (AF or Afib) or signs of myocardial ischemia or
infarction.
Chest x-ray: can exclude lung disease in patients with dyspnoea or can show cardiomegaly or pleural effusion (often
bilateral) and alveolar-interstitial syndrome.
Blood test: full blood count, ionogram, serum creatinine.
Other necessary laboratory tests according to comorbidities (e.g. diabetes, thyroid disorder).

Treatment
Lifestyle and dietary advice
Reduce salt intake to limit fluid retention.
Normal fluid intake except in cases of very severe oedema.
Stop smoking.
Physical activity adapted to the patient’s capacity.
 Weight loss if BMI ≥ 25.

Treatment of fluid retention

furosemide PO: start with 20 mg once daily; increase if necessary, according to clinical response (certain patients
need doses of 80 mg 1 to 2 times daily) then reduce once oedema decrease (20 to 40 mg once daily).
 
T he reabsorption of oedema can sometimes be slow, taking up to 2 to 3 weeks.
T he gradual worsening of HF may require an increase in dosage. Lifelong treatment with diuretics is not always
necessary. 
 
In the event of resistant oedema, add hydrochlorothiazide PO (25 mg 1 to 2 times daily for a few days) but only in
hospital settings and monitoring renal function.

Long-term (lifelong) treatment

ACE inhibitors are the first line treatment. Start with low doses, especially in patients with hypotension, renal
impairment, hyponatraemia. 
While increasing the dose monitor: drug tolerance (dry cough), blood pressure (the systolic BP should remain above
> 90 mmHg), serum potassium and creatinine levels.
In patients taking diuretics, reduce the dose of the diuretic if possible while introducing ACE inhibitors (risk of
hypotension if the patient is on high doses of diuretics).
enalapril PO:
Week 1: 2.5 mg once daily for 3 days then 5 mg once daily 
Week 2: 10 mg once daily for 3 days then 20 mg once daily
T he effective dose is usually 20 mg once daily (or 10 mg 2 times daily). Doses of 10 mg daily are sometimes
enough; conversely, doses of 40 mg daily (maximum) are sometimes necessary.
Once the patient has been stable for at least 2 weeks taking ACE inhibitors and in the absence of any contra-
indications (asthma, hypotension, bradycardia, conduction disorders, particularly atrio-ventricular heart blocks), add
a beta blocker.
bisoprolol PO: start with a low dose and gradually increase as long as the drug is well tolerated (monitor for signs
of worsening HF, blood pressure, heart rate).
Week 1: 1.25 mg once daily 
Week 2: 2.5 mg once daily
Week 3: 3.75 mg once daily
Weeks 4 to 8: 5 mg once daily
If insufficient:
Weeks 9 to 12: 7.5 mg once daily
As from week 13: 10 mg once daily (max. 10 mg daily)
In the event of temporarily worsening HF, hypotension or bradycardia, readjust doses of associated treatments and
reduce the dose of bisoprolol or gradually stop treatment (stopping abruptly can lead to acute deterioration of the
patient’s condition). Once the patient is stabilized, re-increase/recommence bisoprolol.

Other treatments
Antagonist of aldosterone: only if serum potassium levels and ECG can be monitored (risk of severe hyperkalaemia),
add spironolactone PO (25 mg once daily) to long-term treatment, particularly in cases of severe HF (Classes III
and IV).
Nitrates: can be used in left-sided or global HF in patients with intolerance to ACE inhibitors (cough is not tolerated,
renal impairment, severe hypotension).
isosorbide dinitrate PO: start with 5 to 40 mg 2 to 3 times daily and increase up to the effective dose, usually 15
to 120 mg daily.
 Digitalis glycosides: administer with caution, in intensive care unit (the therapeutic dose is close to the toxic dose),
only in patients with AF with rapid ventricular response confirmed by ECG: no visible P waves, irregularly irregular
QRS complex (120-160).

Treatment of causative or aggravating factors

According to the cause.

Surveillance and monitoring

Laboratory surveillance 
According to treatment (ACE, diuretic, etc.).

Clinical monitoring
Once stabilised, consultations once a month for the first 6 months, then individualised frequency of consultations
depending on the patient's characteristics.
Routine consultations: weight curve, BP, progress of signs (dyspnoea, oedema, etc.).
Monitoring of comorbidities and causative or aggravating.

Patient education
Lifestyle and dietary measures (diet, weight control, physical activity adapted to the patient’s capacity, etc.).
Warning signs (shortness of breath or oedema of the lower limbs, serious adverse effects of treatment) and
management (timely/urgent medical consultation).
 

References
1. Chop WM, Jr. Ext ending t he New York Heart Associat ion classificat ion syst em. JAMA. 1985;254:505.
Acute heart failure (acute pulmonary oedema)
Last updated: April 2021
 

Clinical features
Sudden onset or exacerbation of dyspnoea
Fatigue, increased time to recover after exercise
Bilateral peripheral oedema
Cold extremities
Elevated jugular venous pressure
On auscultation: bilateral pulmonary crepitations and/or extra heart sound (gallop rhythm)
 
Signs of severity:
Severe respiratory distress (intercostal retractions, nasal flaring, see-saw breathing, SpO2 < 90%,
etc.), cyanosis, profuse sweating, confusion
Systolic blood pressure < 90 mmHg (cardiogenic shock) 
Rapid and excessive increase in arterial blood pressure (hypertensive emergency)
Heart rate (HR) > 130/minute or < 40/minute
Respiratory rate (RR) > 30/minute or < 12/minute 
Chest pain if underlying cardiac ischemia

Paraclinical investigations
Diagnosis is mainly clinical.
ECG: look for signs of myocardial ischemia or arrhythmia.
 
If available:
Chest x-ray: signs vary depending on the severity of pulmonary oedema. In early stage, dilation of vessels in upper
lobes then perihilar haze and thickening of septa. In advanced stage, prominent opacities in hilar and perihilar regions
and pleural effusion. Can exclude other lung disease, such as pulmonary infection.
POCUS
a
:
Perform 12-zone lung exam to evaluate for signs of bilateral pulmonary oedema and/or pleural effusions.
Perform 5-view cardiac exam to evaluate for signs of acute volume overload and/or decreased cardiac
function.
Monitoring: full blood count, electrolytes, serum creatinine; cardiac troponins if available.

Treatment
Systolic blood pressure is < 90 mmHg
See Shock, Chapter 1.

Systolic blood pressure is ≥ 90 mmHg

[1]
[2]
T he patient must be hospitalised.
Place patient in semi-seated position, legs down.
In patients with SpO2 < 90%, administer oxygen with a mask at the necessary flow rate to maintain SpO2 ≥ 95%. If
pulse oximetry is not available, administer oxygen at a flow rate of 6 to 10 litres/minute to patients with signs of
 hypoxia.
Insert an IV line.
If there are signs of volume overload (and/or in case of hypertensive emergency): furosemide IV, 40 to 80 mg, may
be repeated if necessary according to urine output, signs of respiratory distress and SpO2. If the patient was
already taking furosemide at doses of > 40 mg, administer pre-existing dose by IV route.
Add a short-acting nitrate (vasodilator) if systolic blood pressure is > 100 mmHg. T he aim is to gradually lower
systolic blood pressure to near-baseline value. If the patient’s baseline value is unknown, for information, lower
systolic blood pressure to 120-150 mmHg and the diastolic pressure to under 110 mmHg.
isosorbide dinitrate sublingual (5 mg tablet)
 5 mg per dose; if necessary up to 2 doses taken 10 minutes apart
or
isosorbide dinitrate IV (10 ml ampoule, 1 mg/ml)
 2 mg (= 2 ml) by slow IV injection (over 2 minutes) then if necessary 2 to 10 mg/hour by continuous      infusion with
an electric syringe pump
or 
glyceryl trinitrate sublingual (0.5 mg tablet)
0.5 mg per dose; if necessary up to 3 doses taken 5 minutes apart
Non-invasive ventilation using continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) is recommended in patients with
persistent hypoxaemia, unless contraindicated (e.g. impaired consciousness) and on condition that appropriate
monitoring is available.
Monitoring: HR, RR, BP, SpO2, mental status, urine output.
 
Subsequent treatment depends on the underlying pathology (chronic heart failure, hypertension, acute coronary
syndrome, etc.).

Footnotes
(a) POCUS should only be perf ormed and int erpret ed by t rained clinicians.

References
1. Ponikowski P et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines f or t he diagnosis and t reat ment of acut e and chronic heart f ailure: The Task Force
f or t he diagnosis and t reat ment of acut e and chronic heart f ailure of t he European Societ y of Cardiology (ESC). Developed
wit h t he special cont ribut ion of t he Heart Failure Associat ion (HFA) of t he ESC. Eur J Heart Fail. 2016;18(8):891-975.
ht t ps://academic.oup.com/eurheart j/art icle/37/27/2129/1748921 [Accessed 23 March 2021]

2. Ezekowit z, Just in A. et al. 2017 Comprehensive Updat e of t he Canadian Cardiovascular Societ y Guidelines f or t he
Management of Heart Failure. Can J Cardiol 2017;33:1342-1433.
ht t ps://www.onlinecjc.ca/act ion/showPdf ?pii=S0828-282X%2817%2930973-X [Accessed 23 March 2021]
Endemic goitre and iodine deficiency
Goitre is an enlargement of the thyroid gland. Endemic goitre occurs in iodine-deficient areas. Goitre can also be
caused or aggravated by the regular consumption of goitrogens such as manioc, cabbage, turnips, millet etc.
 
Goitre is an adaptive process: iodine is essential for the production of thyroid hormones; iodine deficiency impairs
thyroid hormone synthesis; to compensate, the thyroid gland increases in volume. T hyroid function usually remains
normal.
 
As well as the development of goitre, iodine deficiency in pregnant women has serious consequences for the child
(foetal and perinatal mortality, physical and mental retardation, cretinism). T hese risks must be prevented by providing
iodine supplementation in iodinedeficient areas.

Clinical features
T he WHO proposes a simplified classification based on the significance of goitre:
Group 0: normal thyroid, no palpable or visible goitre
Group 1: enlarged thyroid, palpable but not visible when the neck is in the normal position
Group 2: thyroid clearly visible when the neck is in the normal position
Possible mechanical complications (rare): compression, deviation of the trachea or of the oesophagus.

Prevention and treatment

T he objective of prevention is to reduce the consequences of iodine deficiency in neonates and children. Supplying
iodised salt through national programmes is the recommended method of prevention.
 
For prevention in populations living in iodine deficient areas where iodised salt is not available and for curative
treatment of patients with goitre: use iodised oil, according to national protocols. For information (according to the
WHO):
 
Iodised oil PO
Population once yearly

(190 mg capsule)

Children under 1 year 1 capsule

Children from 1 to < 6 years 2 capsules

Children from 6 to 15 years 3 capsules

Pregnant or lactating women

2 capsules
or women of childbearing age

 
Curative and preventive single-doses are the same. Oral treatment is preferred. T he target populations are pregnant
and breastfeeding women, women of childbearing age and children.
 
In children, goitre disappears after several months. It disappears more slowly (or never) in adults despite restoration of
normal thyroid function in 2 weeks. Surgery is only indicated for patients with local mechanical dysfunction.
Appendices
Appendix 1. Normal daily maintenance IV fluids in children > 1 month
 
 
 
 
Appendix 1. Normal daily maintenance IV fluids
in children > 1 month
Last updated: January 2021
 

Indications
Basic hydration needs
a
 for patients unable to drink sufficiently. After 48 hours, it is essential to provide nutrition to the
patient orally or by nasogastric tube and to gradually reduce IV fluids.
 
  T his protocol should not be used for surgical or burns patients, those with renal, cardiac disease or diabetic
ketoacidosis.

Fluid to be administered
T he fluid of choice in children is Ringer lactate-Glucose 5% (RL-G5%). Use a premixed solution if available. If not,
add 50 ml of G50% to 500 ml of RL or 100 ml of G50% to 1000 ml of RL. If RL is not available, use 0.9% sodium
chloride instead.
 
For ease of prescription and administration, the daily volumes and rates in drops per minute have been rounded off.
 

Volume Rate
(*)

Weight
/24 hours (paediatric infusion set 1 ml = 60 drops)

3 to < 4 kg 350 ml/24 h 15 drops/min

4 to < 5 kg 450 ml/24 h 19 drops/min

5 to < 6 kg 550 ml/24 h 23 drops/min

6 to < 7 kg 650 ml/24 h 27 drops/min

7 to < 8 kg 750 ml/24 h 31 drops/min

8 to < 9 kg 850 ml/24 h 35 drops/min

9 to < 11 kg 950 ml/24 h 40 drops/min

11 to < 14 kg 1100 ml/24 h 46 drops/min

14 to < 16 kg 1200 ml/24 h 50 drops/min

16 to < 18 kg 1300 ml/24 h 54 drops/min

18 to < 20 kg 1400 ml/24 h 58 drops/min

 Rate
(*)
Rate

Volume

Weight (paediatric infusion set (standard infusion set

/24 hours
1 ml = 60 drops) 1 ml = 20 drops)

20 to < 22 kg 1500 ml/24 h 63 drops/min 21 drops/min

22 to < 26 kg 1600 ml/24 h 67 drops/min 22 drops/min

26 to < 30 kg 1700 ml/24 h 71 drops/min 24 drops/min

30 to < 35 kg 1800 ml/24 h 75 drops/min 25 drops/min

≥ 35 kg 2000 ml/24 h 83 drops/min 28 drops/min

(*) In a paediat ric inf usion set , t he number of drops per minut e is equal t o t he number of ml per hour.
For example: 15 drops/min = 15 ml/hour

Footnotes
(a) Daily needs are calculat ed according t he f ollowing f ormula:
Children 0-10 kg: 100 ml/kg per day
Children 11-20 kg: 1000 ml + (50 ml/kg f or every kg over 10 kg) per day
Children > 20 kg: 1500 ml + (20-25 ml/kg f or every kg over 20 kg) per day
Adult s: 2 lit res per day
Main references
 

Websites consulted between June 2019 and December 2022

British National Formulary (BNF) and British National Formulary for Children (BNFc)
MedicinesComplete
 
Martindale. The Complete Drug Reference
MedicinesComplete
 
UpToDate. Evidence-based clinical decision support resource
 
BMJ Group. BMJ Best Practice.
 
La revue Prescrire
 
Centre belge d’information pharmacothérapeutique (CBIP)
http://www.cbip.be/fr/start
 
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
http://www.cdc.gov/DiseasesConditions/
 
Cochrane Library
 
World Health Organization
http://www.who.int/publications/en/