AMM 207: Classical Mechanics

Instruction Hours: 45
Pre-requisites: AMM 203 Vector Analysis
Purpose
To introduce students to fundamental concepts of Newtonian dynamics
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
i) Describe the fundamental Newton’s laws of forces, energy and power.
ii) Explain the way a particle moves in a given track.

Course Content
➢ Dimensions
➢ Vectors and scalars
➢ Displacement, velocity and acceleration
➢ Motion in a straight line.
o Motion with uniform velocity
o Motion with uniform acceleration
➢ Equations of linear motion
➢ Vertical motion
➢ Instantaneous velocity and acceleration
➢ Newton’s laws of motion
➢ Work, energy and power
➢ Conservative force fields and potential energy
➢ Impulse
o Impulse-momentum theorem
➢ Uniform force fields
➢ Motion in a resisting medium
➢ Simple harmonic motion
o Damped harmonic oscillator
o Forced vibrations
➢ Projectile motion
➢ Angular momentum
➢ Newton’s law of universal gravitation.
➢ Central force fields

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Teaching / Learning Methodologies
Lectures; Tutorials; Class discussion

Instructional Materials and Equipment

White Board Markers, white board

Course Assessment
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessments (Exercises and Tests) - 30%; Total - 100%

Recommended Text Books

1. S. Graham Kelly-university Of Akron, S. Graham Kelly (2009); System Dynamics
Cengage Engineering.
2. Berbert G. (1980); Classical Mechanics; Addison Wesley London.
3. Moose B.N (1983); Theoretical Mechanics; John –Wiley and Sons New York
4. Thomas, D.P, (1977), Mathematics Applied to Mechanics, Blackie and Son, ISBN 13:
9780216898318

Text Books for further Reading

1. Sayer F. and Bones J.A (1990); Applied Mechanics; T.J Pre London.

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Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional Analysis is a mathematical technique which makes use of the study of dimensions
for solving several scientific and Engineering problems.
Dimension refers to the quantity to be measured such as length (L), Mass (M), time (T) and
Temperature (Θ). Unit of measurement on the other hand refer to a system of assigning
measurement to a dimension and gives the description of the quantity being measured eg. The
dimension if length is meters (m).
There are four fundamental dimensions. These are;
(i) Length (L)
(ii) Mass (M)
(iii) Time (T)
(iv) Temperature (Θ)
Other quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental dimensions are known as
derived or secondary quantities.
Example:
1) The velocity (𝑣) is a secondary quantity defined as the time rate of change of displacement
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
The dimension of displacement is L while that of time is T. Thus the dimension of velocity is
𝐿
= 𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑇

2) The momentum (P) is defined by 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐿 𝑀𝐿
=𝑀× = = 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1
𝑇 𝑇
Dimensional Homogeneity
Theorem: Every term of an equation when reduced to fundamental dimensions must contain
identical powers of each dimensions. ie any correct equation expresses a physical
relationship between quantity must be dimensionally homogeneous and numerically
equivalent.
Consider the second equation of rectilinear motion
1
𝑆 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
In this equation
𝐿
𝑆 is the displacement whose dimension is L, 𝑢 is the velocity with dimension 𝑇, 𝑡 is time with
𝐿
dimension T and 𝑎 is acceleration whose dimension is 𝑇 2
𝐿
The term 𝑢𝑡 ha the dimension 𝑇 × 𝑇 = 𝐿

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 1 𝐿
The term 2 𝑎 𝑡 2 has the dimension 𝑇 2 × 𝑇 2 = 𝐿

We note therefore that all the terms of the given equation have the same dimension L.
Vectors and Scalars
A scalar is any quantity which can be completely specified by stating its magnitude together
with units of measurements eg. Temperature, density, energy, etc
A vector on the other hand is any physical quantity that is require magnitude, direction and
units of measurement to be completely specified eg. Velocity, displacement, magnetic field
intensity, weight, etc
Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Displacement (𝑠⃗) is a vector quantity that specifies the position of an object relative to a
selected point known as the origin.
Velocity (𝑣⃗) is defined as the time rate of change of displacement
𝑠⃗
𝑣⃗ =
𝑡
Where 𝑡 is the time taken to cover the displacement 𝑠⃗
The velocity of an object at any instant also known as the instantaneous velocity is given by
𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑣⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
The magnitude of the velocity is known as the speed of the object.
Acceleration (𝑎⃗) is defined as the time rate of change of velocity
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑣⃗ − 𝑢
⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ = =
𝑡 𝑡
Where 𝑣⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢
⃗⃗ are the initial and the final velocities of the object.
The acceleration of the object at any instant also known as the instantaneous acceleration is
given by
𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡
Motion in a Straight Line
In this section, we develop relationships between displacement, velocity and acceleration for
a simple case where a body is constrained to move in a specified direction in a straight line.
Such a motion is said to be a one-dimensional motion and is known as the rectilinear motion.
1. Motion with Uniform Velocity
The velocity of an object is said to be uniform if the object moves in a fixed direction and at a
constant speed. The distance (𝑠) covered by the object moving with uniform velocity
(𝑣) over time 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐. is given by

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𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡
2. Motion with uniform Acceleration
The acceleration of an Object is said to be uniform if the object moves in a fixed direction
and with a constant acceleration.
Equations of Linear Motion
Suppose that an object moving with velocity 𝑢 𝑚/𝑠 is accelerated uniformly at 𝑎 𝑚𝑠 −2 for a
time 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 so that the final velocity is 𝑣 𝑚/𝑠 then
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
From which
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 (1)
Let 𝑠 denote the distance covered by the object then
𝑠 = (𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦) ⋅ (𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )⋅𝑡
2
1 1
𝑠= 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑣𝑡
2 2
But 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1 1
𝑠= 𝑢𝑡 + (𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑡
2 2
1 1 1
= 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2 2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (2)
2
From equation (1)
𝑣−𝑢
𝑡=
𝑎
Substituting this into equation (2), we get
𝑣−𝑢 1 𝑣−𝑢 2
𝑠 = 𝑢( )+ 𝑎( )
𝑎 2 𝑎
1 1 2
= (𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢2 ) + (𝑣 − 2𝑢𝑣 + 𝑢2 )
𝑎 2𝑎
1 2
𝑠= (𝑣 − 𝑢2 )
2𝑎
Multiplying both sides by 2𝑎 yields
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 = 2𝑎𝑠
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Or 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 (3)
Example 1
A car moving at 36 km/h is accelerated uniformly to 72 km/h in 5 seconds, find the distance
covered over this time interval.
Solution
36 × 1000 𝑚
𝑢 = 36𝑘𝑚/ℎ = = 10𝑚/𝑠
1 × 3600 𝑠
72 × 1000 𝑚
𝑣 = 72𝑘𝑚/ℎ = = 20𝑚/𝑠
1 × 3600 𝑠
From equation (1)
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
20 − 10
𝑎= = 2𝑚𝑠 −2
5
Using equation (2)
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑠 = (10) ⋅ (5) + (2)(52 ) = 75 𝑚
2
Example 2
A cheetah can run at a speed of 101 km/h for period of 20 seconds after which it runs out of
breath and has to stop. The antelope on the other hand can run up to a speed of 88km/h but
for a much longer time. Is it possible for a cheetah to catch the antelope when the antelope
has a 40 m head start? (Assume that the two animals run in s straight line)
Solution
We compute the time required for the cheetah to catch the antelope.
Let 𝑥 𝑚 denote the distance covered by the antelope before the cheetah catches up with her,
then the distance covered by the cheetah is (𝑥 + 40)𝑚.
Assuming that the two animals run at maximum speed ie. There is no acceleration during this
time the
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Distance covered by the antelope (𝑥) is given by
88 × 1000
𝑥=( ) 𝑡 = 24.44𝑡 (𝑖)
3600
While the distance (𝑥 + 40) covered by the cheetah is given by
101 × 1000
𝑥 + 40 = ( ) 𝑡 = 28.06 𝑡 (𝑖𝑖)
3600
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Subtracting (𝑖) 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖𝑖), we have
(𝑥 + 40) − 𝑥 = 28.06𝑡 − 24.44𝑡
3.61𝑡 = 40
40
𝑡= = 11.08 𝑠𝑒𝑐
3.61
Thus, the cheetah will catch the antelope before running out of breath.
Example 3
A motorist traveling at 110 km/h passes a stationary policeman who has a motorcycle. 2.5 sec
later, the police officer starts to move in pursuit of the speeding motorist. Assuming that the
motorcycle accelerates uniformly at 3.6 𝑚𝑠 −2. Determine the speed of the motorcycle at the
instant when the police catch up with the motorist.
Solution
Let 𝑥 denote the distance covered by the motorist before the police catches up with him, then
the distance covered by the policeman is given by
𝑥 + 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 2.5 × 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡
110 × 1000
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 = = 30.55𝑚𝑠 −1
3600
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 2.5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 2.5 × 30.55 = 76.39𝑚

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛 (𝑆𝑝 ) = 𝑥 + 76.39 𝑚 (𝑖)

Using the second equation of linear motion

1
𝑆𝑝 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
Where 𝑢 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 3.6
Substituting back, we get
1
𝑆𝑝 = 0 + (3.6)𝑡 2
2
𝑆𝑝 = 1.8𝑡 2 (𝑖𝑖)

Equating equation (i) to (ii), we get

1.8 𝑡 2 = 𝑥 + 76.39
Or
1.8 𝑡 2 − 𝑥 − 76.39 = 0
But 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦
𝑥 = 30.55𝑡

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Substituting back, we get
1.8 𝑡 2 − 30.55𝑡 − 76.39 = 0
30.55 ± √30.552 + 4(1.8)(76.39)
𝑡= = 19.45 𝑠𝑒𝑐
2 × 1.8
To determine the speed of the motorcycle, we use the first equation of linear motion
Thus
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Where 𝑢 = 0, 𝑎 = 3.6 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 = 19.45 𝑠𝑒𝑐
Substituting these values, we get
𝑣 = 0 + 3.6 × 19.45 = 69.06 𝑚𝑠 −1

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Vertical Motion
Consider a particle moving along a vertical axis with initial velocity 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 and let
𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1denote the final velocity of the particle then by first equation of linear motion
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
Where 𝑎 is the acceleration of the particle. For vertical motion 𝑎 = 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2
Substituting back, we get
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
If the particle is moving vertically upwards, then we replace 𝑔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ − 𝑔, thus
𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑔𝑡
The distance 𝑠 covered by the particle is given by
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
Example 1
An object is dropped from a height of 50 m, calculate its velocity at an instant when it strikes
the ground.
Solution
From the first equation of linear motion, we have
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑔𝑡
But 𝑢 = 0
Thus
𝑣 = 𝑔𝑡
𝑣 = 9.81 𝑡 (𝑖)
From the second equation of linear motion
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
Where 𝑢 = 0
Substituting back, we get
1 2 1
𝑠= 𝑔𝑡 = (9.81)𝑡 2
2 2
From which

2𝑠
𝑡=√
9.81

Substituting this into equation (i), we get

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 2𝑠
𝑣 = 9.81 (√ ) = √2(9.81𝑠)
9.81

Where 𝑠 = 50
Substituting back, we get

𝑣 = √2(9.81 × 50) = 31.32 𝑚𝑠 −1

Example 2
With what velocity must a stone be projected vertically upwards to just reach the top of a
tree, 15 m high.
Solution
From the third equation of linear motion
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 − 2𝑔𝑠
Where 𝑣 = 0, 𝑠 = 15𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2
Substituting, we get
0 = 𝑢2 − 2 × 9.81 × 15
𝑢2 = 2 × 9.81 × 15

𝑢 = √2 × 9.81 × 15 = 17.15 𝑚𝑠 −1

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Newton’s Laws of Motion
1) Law of Inertia: Inertia of a body is its reluctance to start moving or to stop moving once
it has begun. The law states that “every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in straight line unless it is acted on by a resultant force”.

2 Second Law: States that the rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the resultant force and occurs in the direction of force.

The momentum (p) of a body of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 is given by;

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

Consider a body of mass 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 moving with velocity 𝑢 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Suppose that a force 𝐹⃗ is

applied for a duration of time 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐 so that the velocity changes to 𝑣 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Then by
Newton’s second law.
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐹⃗ ∝
𝑡
From which
𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘 ( )
𝑡
Where 𝑘 > 0 is the proportionality constant
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑚 ( )
𝑡
Or

𝐹⃗ = 𝑘𝑚𝑎
𝑣−𝑢
Where 𝑎 = is the acceleration.
𝑡

If the SI units are chosen then 𝑘 = 1 and

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎
Which is the statement of the Second Newton’s Law of motion.
From the Newton’s second law, we have;
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
Thus a constant force F applied to a body of mass m will produce the same acceleration
regardless of whether the body is initially in motion or not.
The weight (w) of an object of mass m is given by
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
Where 𝑔 = 9.81 𝑚𝑠 −2 is the acceleration due to gravity.
Suppose that 𝑤1 & 𝑤2 are the weights of two bodies of masses 𝑚1 & 𝑚2 respectively then

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𝑤1 = 𝑚1 𝑔
𝑤2 = 𝑚2 𝑔
Suppose that 𝑤1 = 𝑤2 then
𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚2 𝑔
From which 𝑚1 = 𝑚2
Thus objects of the same mass are of equal weight.
Newton’s Third Law
States that to every action, there exist an equal but opposite reaction.
Example 1
A missile of mass 2 kg hits the ground vertically and stops 45 cm below the surface. Given
that its velocity at the time of impact was 30m/s, determine the average resistance due to
ground.
Solution.
By Newton’s second law of motion
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Where 𝑎 is the acceleration of the object
From the third law of linear motion
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
From which
𝑣 2 − 𝑢2
𝑎=
2𝑠
Thus on substituting back, we get
𝑚(𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )
𝐹=
2𝑠
Where 𝑠 = 45𝑐𝑚 = 0.45𝑚, 𝑢 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = 2𝑘𝑔
Substituting back, we get
2(0 − 302 )
𝐹= = −2000
2 × 0.45
Thus, the resistance due to ground is 2000N or 2 KN
Example 2
Two blocks of masses 4 kg and 2 kg are connected by a string and then pulled by a constant
force F along a smooth horizontal surface as shown in the figure below. The blocks are
accelerated at 3 𝑚𝑠 −2 , calculate the force F and the tension T in the string.

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 T F
4kg 2kg

Solution
The force T drags only the 4 kg mass thus by Newton’s second law
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑇 = 4 × 3 = 12 𝑁
The force F on the other hand drags the two masses (4 kg and 2 kg), thus
𝐹 = (4 + 2) × 3 = 18 𝑁

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 Work
Work is the measure of the product of the force applied and the distance move in the
direction of force
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Suppose that a force F is applied to a stationary particle of mass m so that the particle moves
along a smooth curve c from point P to point Q as shown in the figure below

To find the work done by the force F, we find the work done in moving the particle through
an elemental length 𝛿𝑟 along c
Thus
𝛿𝑤 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝛿𝑟 - - - - - (1)
Summing all such quantities along the space curve c we get
𝑤 = ∫𝑐𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑑𝑟̅ - - - - - - (2)

Where 𝑟̅ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑗 + 𝑧 𝑘 is the position vector of the space curve c and

𝑑𝑟 = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧
~ ~ ~

If x, y, and z are function of t then

𝑑𝑟̅
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Where
𝑑𝑟̅
𝑣̅ = is the velocity of the particle
𝑑𝑡

Substituting this value, equation (2) becomes

𝑤 = ∫𝑐 𝐹̅ ⋅ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡 - - - - - - (3)

Example
1) A particle of mass m moves under the influence of the force 𝐹̅ = 𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 +
~
𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡)𝑗 . Given that the particle is initially at rest and at the origin, show that the work
~
done on the particle at any later time is given by

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 14

 𝑎2
(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))
𝑚𝜔 2

Proof
By Newton’s second law of motion
𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅
𝐹̅
From which 𝑎̅ = 𝑚
1
But 𝑣̅ = ∫ 𝑎̅ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝐹̅ 𝑑𝑡

1
𝑣̅ = ∫(𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡)𝑗 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 ~ ~

𝑎 1 1
𝑣̅ = (− cos(𝜔𝑡)𝑖 + sin(𝜔𝑡)𝑗 ) + 𝑐
𝑚 𝜔 ~ 𝜔 ~

Where c is an arbitrary vector.

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 0 thus
𝑎 1 1
0= (− cos(0) 𝑖 + sin(0)𝑗 ) + 𝑐
𝑚 𝜔 ~ 𝜔 ~
𝑎
⟹ 𝑐=− 𝑖
𝑚𝜔 ~
And
𝑎 1 1 𝑎 𝑎
𝑣̅ = (− cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + sin(𝜔𝑡)𝑗 ) − 𝑖= [(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡)) 𝑖 + sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑗 ]
𝑚 𝜔 ~ 𝜔 ~ 𝑚𝜔 ~ 𝑚𝜔 ~ ~

And

𝑤 = ∫𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑐
𝑡
𝑎
𝑤 = ∫ (𝑎 sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑖 + 𝑎 cos(𝜔𝑡) 𝑗 ) ∙ [(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡)) 𝑖 + sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑗 ]
0 ~ ~ 𝑚𝜔 ~ ~

𝑡
𝑎2
𝑤=∫ {(1 − cos(𝜔𝑡)) sin(𝜔𝑡) + cos(𝜔𝑡) sin(𝜔𝑡)} 𝑑𝑡
0 𝑚𝜔

𝑎2 𝑡 −𝑎2 𝑡 𝑎2
𝑤= ∫ sin(𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = cos (𝜔𝑡)| = (1 − cos(𝜔𝑡))
𝑚𝜔 0 𝑚𝜔 2 𝑚𝜔 2
0
2. Find the work done on a particle that moves from the point (0, 0) to (1, 1) along the
curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 under the influence of the force 𝐹 = (2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 )𝑖 + (3𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗
~ ~

Solution

𝑤 = ∫ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝑐

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 15

𝑑𝑟̅ = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧
~ ~ ~

𝑤 = ∫ ((2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑖 + (3𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑗 ) ∙ (𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑑𝑧)

𝑐 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

𝑤 = ∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑦 − 4𝑥)𝑑𝑦

𝑐

But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 along c
Thus 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Substituting we get
1
𝑤 = ∫ (2𝑥 + 𝑥 4 )𝑑𝑥 + (3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥)2𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
1
𝑤 = ∫ (𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 3 − 8𝑥 2 + 2𝑥)𝑑𝑥
0

𝑥5 3 4 8 3 1 1 3 8 1
2
𝑤 = ( + 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝑥 )| = + − + 1 =
5 2 3 5 2 3 30
0
3) Find the work done in moving a particle in the force filed 𝐹⃗ = (1 + 2𝑦)𝑖̃ + 𝑥 2 𝑗̃ from
the point (0,4) to (2, 8) along the line 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4
Solution

𝑤 = ∫ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝑐

𝑑𝑟̅ = 𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧
~ ~ ~

𝑤 = ∫ ((1 + 2𝑦) 𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑗 ) ∙ (𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧)

𝑐 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

𝑤 = ∫ (1 + 2𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦
𝑐

But 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 4 along c
Thus 𝑑𝑦 = 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Substituting we get
2
𝑤 = ∫ (1 + 2(𝑥 2 + 4))𝑑𝑥 + (𝑥 2 )2𝑥𝑑𝑥
0
2
𝑤 = ∫ (1 + 2𝑥 2 + 8 + 2𝑥 3 )𝑑𝑥
0

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 16

 2
𝑤 = ∫ (2𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 9)𝑑𝑥
0

𝑥4 2 2 16 2
𝑤 = ( + 𝑥 3 + 9𝑥)| = + (8) + 9(2) = 31.3333
2 3 2 3
0

4) Find the work done on a particle that moves from the point (1,1) to the point (2,7)
along the parabola 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 − 1 under the influence of the force field

𝐹⃗ = (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦)𝑖̃ + (𝑦 + 𝑥) 𝑗̃

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 17

 Power
Power is defined as the time rate of doing work. Thus the power P is given by;
𝑑𝑤
𝑃=
𝑑𝑡

But 𝑤 = ∫𝑐 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡

Thus on differentiating both sides with respect to t, we get

𝑃 = 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑣̅
𝑑𝑟̅
Where 𝑣̅ = is the velocity of the particle
𝑑𝑡

Example
1) Find the instantaneous power applied to a particle of mass 5 units moving along a space
curve whose position vector is given by
𝑟̅ = (2𝑡 3 + 𝑡) 𝑖 + (3𝑡 4 − 𝑡 2 + 8)𝑗 − 12𝑡 2 𝑘
~ ~ ~

Solution
𝑑𝑟̅
𝑣̅ = = (6𝑡 2 + 1)𝑖 + (12𝑡 3 − 2𝑡)𝑗 − 24𝑡𝑘
𝑑𝑡 ~ ~ ~

By newton’s second law of motion

𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅
𝑑𝑣̅
Where 𝑎̅ = = 12𝑡 𝑖 + (36𝑡 2 − 2)𝑗 − 24𝑘
𝑑𝑡 ~ ~ ~

𝐹̅ = 5 (12𝑡 𝑖 + (36𝑡 2 − 2)𝑗 − 24𝑘)

~ ~ ~

𝐹̅ = 60𝑡 𝑖 + (180𝑡 2 − 10)𝑗 − 120𝑘

~ ~ ~

𝑃 = 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑣̅

𝑃 = (60𝑡 𝑖 + (180𝑡 2 − 10)𝑗 − 120𝑘) ∙ ((6𝑡 2 + 1)𝑖 + (12𝑡 3 − 2𝑡)𝑗 − 24𝑡𝑘)

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

𝑃 = 2160𝑡 7 + 2940𝑡

2) Find the instantaneous power applied to a particle of mass 4 units moving in space
curve given by 𝑟⃗ = 2𝑡 𝑖̃ + (1 − 𝑡 2 )𝑗̃ + 𝑡 3 𝑘̃

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 18

 Kinetic Energy
Theorem

Suppose that a particle of constant mass m is located at point 𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 at time

𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 respectively and moving at velocities 𝑣̅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣̅2 respectively, then the work
done in moving the particle from point 𝑝1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝2 is given by
1
𝑤 = 2 𝑚 [(𝑣̅2 )2 − (𝑣̅1 )2 ] - -- --------- (i)

1
The quantity 𝑚𝑣 2 is known as the Kinetic Energy of the particle denoted by K.E.
2

The above theorem is equivalent to saying that the work done in moving the particle from
points 𝑝1 𝑡𝑜 𝑝2 equals the difference in kinetic energy of the particle at points 𝑝2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝1 .
Proof of the theorem
Assume that the velocities of the particle at time 𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 are 𝑣1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 respectively,
then
𝑝2 𝑡2
𝑑𝑟̅
𝑤 = ∫ 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑑𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑑𝑡
𝑝1 𝑡1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣̅
Where 𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅ = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

Substituting we get
𝑡2
𝑑𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑟̅
𝑤=∫ 𝑚 ∙ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2
𝑑𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑟̅
𝑤 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑣̅ ∙ 𝑑𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝑣̅
𝑡1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣2
𝑚 2 𝑣2
𝑤 = 𝑚 ∫ 𝑣̅ ∙ 𝑑 𝑣̅ = 𝑣 |𝑣
𝑣1 2 1

1
𝑤 = 𝑚(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
Example
1) A particle of mass m moves in the x-y plane so that its position at any time t is given by
𝑟̅ = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑗 , where 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are positive constants with 𝑎 > 𝑏
~ ~

i) Show that the locus of the particle is an ellipse

ii) Show that the force acting on this particle is directed towards the origin
solution
a) The position vector is given by
𝑟̅ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑗
~ ~ ~ ~
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 19
 𝑥
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑎
𝑦
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ sin 𝜔𝑡 =
𝑏
Squaring and adding we get
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = cos2 𝜔𝑡 + sin2 𝜔𝑡
𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2
Which is an ellipse
𝑑𝑣̅
b) 𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅ = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟̅
𝑣̅ = = (−𝑎𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡𝑗 )
𝑑𝑡 ~ ~

𝑎̅ = −𝜔2 (𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑗 )

~ ~

𝐹̅ = −𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑗 ) = −𝑚𝜔2 𝑟̅

~ ~

Thus if 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔 are constants the force 𝐹̅ will be pointing towards the origin
2) For the motion in example 1 above, determine
a) The kinetic energy at points 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑏
b) The work done in moving the particle from the point 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 = 𝑏
solution
1
a) 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2

𝑑𝑟̅
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑣̅ = = (−𝑎𝜔 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑏𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡𝑗 )
𝑑𝑡 ~ ~

𝑣 2 = 𝑣̅ ⋅ 𝑣̅ = 𝑎2 𝜔2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 2 𝜔2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡
1
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎2 sin2 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑏 2 cos2 𝜔𝑡)
2
1 𝑎2 𝑦 2 𝑏 2 𝑥 2
𝐾. 𝐸. = 𝑚𝜔2 ( 2 + 2 )
2 𝑏 𝑎

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎 , 𝑦=0
1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑏 2
2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 = 𝑏 , 𝑥=0

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 20

 1
𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑎2
2
1
b) 𝑊 = 2 𝑚𝜔2 (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )

3. A car is moving at a uniform speed of 80 km/h and using 7.2 litres of petrol per 100 km.
each litle of petrol contains 2.5 × 107 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 of energy. Given that the engine uses
only 30% of this energy to move the car, Calculate the average resistance (due to drag)
against the motion
Solution
At 80km/h, the car covers 100 km in
100
= 1.25 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
80
Thus the car uses 7.2 litres of petrol in 1.25 hours.
(7.2 × 2.5 × 107 )
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = = 40,000𝑗/𝑠
1.25 × 3600
Thus the energy required to run the car per second is
30
× 40,000 = 12,000𝑤
100
Since the car is moving at an average speed then the power required to balance the resistance
is 12,000 watts
But 𝑃 = 𝐹̅ ⋅ 𝑣̅
80×1000 200
Where 𝑣̅ = = 𝑚/𝑠
3600 9

12,000
⇒ 𝐹̅ = = 540 𝑁
200
9

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 21

Conservative and Impulsive forces

Conservative Force Field:

A force field 𝐹⃗ is said to be conservative if it has the property that the total work done in
moving a particle between two points is independent of the path taken.

Let F be a force field such that

𝐹 = −∇∅

Where ∅ is a scalar field, then the force F is said to be conservative. The function ∅ is
known as the potential function

Theorem 1: Let F be a conservative force field then 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 0

Proof:

Let 𝐹̅ be a conservative force field, the there exist a scalar potential function 𝜙 such that

𝐹̅ = −∇∅

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝐹̅ = −𝑖 −𝑗 −𝑘
~ 𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦 ~ 𝜕𝑧

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 |
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙|
− − −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | 𝜕𝑧 | + 𝑘 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 |
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 || − 𝑗 | 𝜕𝑥 =0
~ 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙| ~ 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 ~
| 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙|
− − − − − −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Theorem 2: let F be a conservative force field then the work done in moving the particle from
a point P to point Q by the force F is independent of the path followed and is
given by;

𝑤 = ∅(𝑃) − ∅(𝑄)

Proof:

Let 𝐹̅ be a conservative force field, then there exists a scalar potential function 𝜙 such that

𝐹 = −∇∅

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝐹̅ = −𝑖 −𝑗 −𝑘
~ 𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦 ~ 𝜕𝑧
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 22
𝑤 = ∫𝐹̅ ⋅ 𝑑𝑟̅
𝑐

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑤 = ∫ (−𝑖 −𝑗 − 𝑘 ) ⋅ (𝑖 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑗 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑘𝑑𝑧)
𝑐 ~ 𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦 ~ 𝜕𝑧 ~ ~ ~

𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝑤 = −∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧
𝑐 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑄
𝑤 = − ∫𝑑𝜙 = −𝜙|
𝑐 𝑃

𝑤 = 𝜙(𝑃) − 𝜙(𝑄)

Theorem 3: A force F is said to be conservative if and only if ∮𝑐 𝐹̅ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗ = 0 where c is a

simply connected and closed curve

Proof

Let F be a conservative force field then there exist a scalar potential ∅ such that

𝐹 = −∇∅
a
𝑏 𝑏 b
∮ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ −∇∅ ∙ 𝑑𝑟 = ∫ −𝑑∅ = ∅(𝑎) − ∅(𝑏) = 0
𝑐 𝑎 𝑎

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎 = 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 c

Proposition: The gravitational force is conservative

Proof:

Let 𝐹⃗ be the gravitational force i.e. 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗, we show that the work done by 𝐹⃗ along
any closed curve is zero.
Let 𝑐 be a simply closed curve as shown below
a
b

Then, c

𝑊 = ∮ 𝐹⃗ ∙ 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑐

𝑏
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑎

𝑏
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔⃗ ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑟⃗ since 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑔⃗

𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔⃗(𝑟⃗(𝑏) − 𝑟⃗(𝑎)) = 0 Since 𝑎 = 𝑏 for any closed curve c.

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 23
Example
1. Show that the force field defined by
𝐹̅ = 2𝑥𝑦 𝑖 + (𝑥 2 + 2𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑗 + (2𝑦 2 𝑧 + 3𝑧 2 )𝑘
~ ~ ~
𝑖𝑠 a conservative force field hence determine the work done in moving a particle
under the influence of this force from the point 𝐵(2, −3, 5) 𝑡𝑜 𝐴(1, 0, −2).

Solution
For a conservative force field 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = || |
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥𝑦 𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧 2
2
2𝑦 2 𝑧 + 3𝑧 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 | 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | − 𝑗 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 |
~ ~
𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧 2
2 2
2𝑦 𝑧 + 3𝑧 2 2𝑥𝑦 2𝑦 2 𝑧 + 3𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕
+ 𝑘 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 |
~ 2 2
2𝑥𝑦 𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 (4𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑥𝑦) − 𝑗 (0 − 0) + 𝑘(2𝑥 − 2𝑥) = 0
~ ~ ~
Thus 𝐹̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

Its potential function is given by;

𝜙 = − {∫ 2𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 2𝑦𝑧 2 𝑑𝑦 + ∫ 3𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 }

𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 𝑧 3

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑤 = 𝜙(𝐴) − 𝜙(𝐵)

𝑤 = 𝜙(1,0, −2) − 𝜙(2, −3, 5)

𝑤 = 0 − 0 − (−2)3 − (12 − 225 − 125) = 346

2. Show that the force field 𝐹̅ defined by 𝐹̅ = (𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 )𝑖 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 𝑗 +

~ ~
(3𝑥𝑦 2 2 2
𝑧 − 6𝑥 𝑧)𝑘 is conservative hence find the work done in moving the particle
~
from point 𝐵(1, −2, −1) 𝑡𝑜 𝐴(−2, 1, 3).

Solution
For a conservative force field 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 0
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 24
 𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = || |
|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 𝑧 − 6𝑥𝑧 2
2 3
2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 | 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |− 𝑗| 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 |
~ ~ 2 3
2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 2 2 2
3𝑥𝑦 𝑧 − 6𝑥 𝑧 𝑦 𝑧 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 3𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 2 𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
+𝑘| 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 |
~
𝑦 𝑧 − 6𝑥𝑧 2
2 3
2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 (6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 − 6𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 ) − 𝑗 (3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 12𝑥𝑧 − (3𝑦 2 𝑧 2 − 12𝑥𝑧))
~ ~
+ 𝑘(2𝑦𝑧 3 − 2𝑦𝑧 3 ) = 0
~
Thus 𝐹̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

Its potential function is given by;

𝜙 = − {∫ 𝑦 2 𝑧 3 − 6𝑥𝑧 2 𝑑𝑥 }

𝜙(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = −𝑥𝑦 2 𝑧 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑧 2

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒

𝑤 = 𝜙(𝐴) − 𝜙(𝐵)

𝑤 = 𝜙(−2, 1, 3) − 𝜙(1, −2 , −1)

𝑤 = 155

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 25

Potential Energy

This is the type of energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position in the force field. A
force field is a region in which a force exists.

Let F be a conservative force field then there exist a scalar function ∅ such that

𝐹 = ∇∅

The function ∅ is known as the potential energy or the scalar potential of the particle.

Recall that if a particle moves under the influence of the conservative force field F from a
point p to another point q then the work done is given by;

𝑤 = ∅(𝑞) − ∅(𝑝)

Thus, the work done in a conservative force field equals the difference between the potential
energies of the particle between the two points. In general, the potential energy of a particle is
given by;
𝑟
∅ = ∫ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑟
𝑟0

Where 𝑟0 is some standard position vector of the particle. Thus, we note that the potential
energy ∅ depends on the position 𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of the particle.

Example 1

Show that the force field defined by 𝐹 = (2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 )𝑖 + 𝑥 2 𝑗 + 3𝑥𝑧 2 𝑘 is a conservative

force field hence determine

a) The potential energy and

b) The work done by this force in moving the object from (1, −2, 1) 𝑡𝑜 (3, 1, 4)

Solution
For a conservative force field 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 0
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 |
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = || |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 𝑥2 3𝑥𝑧 2

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
̅
𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹 = 𝑖 |𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | − 𝑗 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 | + 𝑘 | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦|
~ ~ ~
𝑥 2
3𝑥𝑧 2 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3𝑥𝑧 2
3
2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 𝑥2
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹̅ = 𝑖 (0 − 0) − 𝑗 (3𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 2 ) + 𝑘(2𝑥 − 2𝑥) = 0
~ ~ ~
Thus 𝐹̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 26

The potential function is given by;

𝜙 = ∫(2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 3 )

And the work done is given by;

𝑤 = 𝜙(3,1,4) − 𝜙(1, −2,1)

𝑤 = (9 + 192) − (−2 + 1) = 202

Example 2

A construction man drops a hammer from the floor of a building 30m high. If the hammer has
a mass of 1.5 kg, calculate the velocity of the hammer at an instant when it strikes the ground
(ignore air resistance)

Solution

The potential energy of the hammers is given by

𝑃. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

This energy will be converted to kinetic energy. Thus we have

1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2

𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ = √2(9.8)(30) = 24.25 𝑚\𝑠

Example 3
A 6.0kg mass is connected to a 1.5kg mass by means of a string passing over a light

6kg

frictionless pulley as shown below;

The 6.0 kg mass slides over a frictionless table. Calculate the speed of the system when
the 1.5kg mass has descended a distance of 0.5m

Solution 1.5kg

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 27

By principle of conservation of energy

𝐾. 𝐸 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 = 𝑃. 𝐸 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡

1 1
𝑀𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
1 1
Where 2 𝑀𝑣 2 is the kinetic energy gained by the bigger mass (𝑀 = 6𝑘𝑔) and 2 𝑚𝑣 2 is
the kinetic energy gained by the smaller mass (𝑚 = 1.5𝑘𝑔) while 𝑚𝑔ℎ is the potential
energy lost by the smaller mass as it moves downwards.

𝑖𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡

2𝑚𝑔ℎ 2(1.5)(9.8)(0.5)
𝑣=√ =√ = 1.4 𝑚\𝑠
𝑀+𝑚 6 + 1.5

Example 4
A particle of mass m moves along the x-axis under the influence of a conservative force field
having the potential 𝜙(𝑥). 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 the particle is located at points 𝑥1 & 𝑥2 at times
𝑡1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡2 respectively, prove that
𝑚 𝑥2 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥1 √𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)

Where E is the total energy.

Solution
By the principle of conservation of energy
Total energy of the system is the sum of the potential and Kinetic energies
𝐸 = 𝐾. 𝐸 + 𝑃. 𝐸.
1
𝐸= 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝜙(𝑥)
2
𝑑𝑥
Where 𝑣 = is the velocity of the particle at any instant.
𝑑𝑡

Substituting back, we get

1 𝑑𝑥 2
𝐸 = 𝑚 ( ) + 𝜙(𝑥)
2 𝑑𝑡
On transposing

𝑑𝑥 2 2
( ) = (𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥))
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Taking the square-root on both sides yields

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 28

𝑑𝑥 2
= √ (𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)) (𝐼)
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

And

𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚 1
=√ =√ ⋅
𝑑𝑥 2(𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)) 2 √𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)

Integrating both sides with respect to 𝑥 , we get

𝑡2 𝑥2
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √ ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
𝑡1 𝑑𝑥 𝑥1 2 √𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)
𝑡2 𝑥2
𝑚 1
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ √ ⋅ 𝑑𝑥
𝑡1 𝑥1 2 √𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)

𝑚 𝑥2 1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2 𝑥1 √𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥)

Example 5
1
Given that the particle in example 4 above has the potential 𝜙(𝑥) = 2 𝑘𝑥 2 and that it starts
from rest at 𝑥 = 𝑎, prove that

𝑘
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos (√ ⋅𝑡)
𝑚

Solution
From equation (I) in example 4

𝑑𝑥 2
= √ (𝐸 − 𝜙(𝑥))
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

We substitute
1 2
𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
2
Thus
1
𝑑𝑥 2 1 2
= √ (𝐸 − 𝑘𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 2
𝑑𝑥
But = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎 ie. The particle is initially at rest and at a point 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑑𝑡

Thus

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 29

 1
2 1 2
0 = √ (𝐸 − 𝑘𝑎2 )
𝑚 2

From which
1 2
𝐸= 𝑘𝑎
2
Substituting back, we get
1
𝑑𝑥 2 1 1 2
= √ ( 𝑘𝑎2 − 𝑘𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑚 2 2

𝑑𝑥 𝑘 1
= √ (𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 )2
𝑑𝑡 𝑚

Which is a first order ODE and we solve by separation of variables, thus

1 𝑘
𝑑𝑥 = √ 𝑑𝑡
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑚

1 𝑘
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √ ∫ 𝑑𝑡
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑚

𝑥 𝑘
sin−1 ( ) = √( ) 𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑚

But 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
Substituting we get

𝑎 𝑘
sin−1 ( ) = √( ) ⋅ 0 + 𝑐
𝑎 𝑚
𝜋
Or 𝑐 = sin−1 1 = 2

Thus the solution becomes

𝑥 𝑘 𝜋
sin−1 ( ) = √( ) 𝑡 +
𝑎 𝑚 2

𝑥 𝑘 𝜋
= sin (√( ) ⋅ 𝑡 + )
𝑎 𝑚 2

𝑘 𝜋
𝑥 = 𝑎 sin (√( ) ⋅ 𝑡 + )
𝑚 2

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 30

Or

𝑘
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos (√( ) ⋅ 𝑡 )
𝑚

Example 6

Find the work done in moving a particle in the force field

𝐹̅ = 3𝑥 2 𝑖 + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 along

~ ~ ~

a) A straight line from (0, 0, 0) to (2, 1, 3)

Soln
The equation of a straight line in space is given by
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑧 − 𝑧1
= =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑥−0 𝑦−0
=
2−0 1−0
1 1
Or 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 , 𝑑𝑦 = 2 𝑑𝑥
And
𝑥−0 𝑧−0
=
2−0 3−0
3 3
From which 𝑧 = 2 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑧 = 2 𝑑𝑥
(2,1,3)
𝑤=∫ 3𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + (2𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦)𝑑𝑦 + 𝑧𝑑𝑧
(0,0,0)
2
9
𝑤 = ∫ ( 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
0 2
2
3 3 2
𝑤 = [ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ] = 16
2 0

b) The space curve defined by 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 𝑡, 𝑧 = 4𝑡 2 − 𝑡 from

𝑡 = 0 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 1
Example 7

A particle of mass 3 units moves in the plane under the influence of a conservative
force having the potential 𝜙 = 12𝑥(3𝑦 − 4𝑥). Given that the particle starts from rest
and at a point with position vector 𝑟⃗ = 10 𝑖 − 10𝑗 , find
~ ~

a) The force 𝐹⃗ acting on this particle

b) The position of the particle and
c) Its velocity at any later time 𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 31

Solution

The position of the particle at any instant is given by

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗
~ ~

And the force 𝐹⃗ is given by

𝐹⃗ = −∇ 𝜙 since 𝐹⃗ is conservative
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝐹⃗ = − (𝑖 +𝑗 )
~ 𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦

Where 𝜙 = 12𝑥(3𝑦 − 4𝑥) = 36𝑥𝑦 − 48𝑥 2

𝜕𝜙
= 36𝑦 − 96𝑥
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜙
= 36𝑥
𝜕𝑦
Thus
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
𝐹⃗ = − (𝑖 +𝑗 ) = − (𝑖 (36𝑦 − 96𝑥) + 𝑗 (36 𝑥)) (𝑖)
~ 𝜕𝑥 ~ 𝜕𝑦 ~ ~

Applying the Newton’s second law of motion

𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎
where 𝑚 = 3
𝑑2 𝑟
And 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 2

We get

𝑑2 𝑟
𝐹⃗ = 3
𝑑𝑡 2
But

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗
~ ~

Thus

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝑦
𝐹⃗ = 3 (𝑖 + 𝑗 )
~ 𝑑𝑡 2 ~ 𝑑𝑡
2

Substituting back, equation (i) becomes

𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑦
3 (𝑖 2 + 𝑗 2 ) = − (𝑖 (36𝑦 − 96𝑥) + 𝑗 (36 𝑥))
~ 𝑑𝑡 ~ 𝑑𝑡 ~ ~

Or

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 32

 𝑑2𝑥 𝑑2𝑦
𝑖 + 𝑗 = −𝑖 (12𝑦 − 32𝑥) − 𝑗 (12 𝑥)
~ 𝑑𝑡 2 ~ 𝑑𝑡
2 ~ ~

Equating the corresponding components, we get

𝑑2𝑥
= −12𝑦 + 32𝑥 (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑦
= −12𝑥 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡 2
From equation (iii)

1 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑥=− (𝑖𝑣)
12 𝑑𝑡 2
And

𝑑2𝑥 1 𝑑4𝑦
=− (𝑣)
𝑑𝑡 2 12 𝑑𝑡 4
Substituting (iv) and (v) into equation (ii), we get

1 𝑑4 𝑦 32 𝑑2 𝑦
− = −12𝑦 −
12 𝑑𝑡 4 12 𝑑𝑡 2
From which

𝑑4𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
− 32 2 + 144 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡
Which is a fourth order ordinary differential equation. The characteristic equation is
given by;

𝜆4 − 32𝜆 + 144 = 0

32 ± √322 − 4 × 144
𝜆2 =
2
𝜆2 = −4 𝑜𝑟 𝜆2 = 36
Thus the roots become

𝜆 = {±2𝑖, ±6}
Thua the general solution becomes

𝑦 = 𝑐1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 2𝑡 + 𝑐3 𝑒 6𝑡 + 𝑐4 𝑒 −6𝑡

And

1 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑥=−
12 𝑑𝑡 2
1 1
𝑥= 𝑐1 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 2𝑡 − 3𝑐3 𝑒 6𝑡 − 3𝑐4 𝑒 −6𝑡
3 3

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 33

Exercise.

1) A particle of mass 4 moves in the force field defined by

200
𝐹̅ = − 𝑟̅ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟̅ = 𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
|𝑟|3 ~ ~ ~

(i) Show that 𝐹̅ is conservative

(ii) Find the potential energy

2) Show that the force field defined by

𝐹̅ = (𝑦 2 − 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 3 )𝑖 + (3 + 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑥 2 𝑧 3 )𝑗 + (6𝑧 3 − 3𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑘

~ ~ ~

Hence find its scalar potential function

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 34

IMPULSE

The impulse of force acting on a particle of mass m on an interval of time t is defined as the
change of momentum of the particle

Consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity 𝑣1 suppose that a force 𝐹̅ is applied over
a time t so that the velocity of the particle changes to 𝑣2 then the impulse I is given by

𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1 = 𝑚(𝑣2 − 𝑣1 )

𝑡2
𝑑𝑣
𝐼=∫ 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑑𝑡

𝑡2 𝑡2
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑚𝑎 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐹̅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1 𝑡1

Thus the impulse of the force is the time integral of the force. Suppose that the force 𝐹̅
grows very large over time then the interval of time 𝑡1 𝑡𝑜 𝑡2 will be chosen to be small
enough so that the integral remains finite. Such a force is known as impulsive force

Example

A particle of unit mass moves in a force field defined by 𝐹̅ = (3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡) 𝑖 + (12𝑡 − 6)𝑗 +
~ ~
2
(6𝑡 + 12𝑡 )𝑘 where t denotes time.
~

a) Find the change in momentum of the particle from 𝑡 = 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 2

b) If the velocity when 𝑡 = 1 is 4𝑖 − 5𝑗 + 10𝑘 determine the velocity of the particle

~ ~ ~
when 𝑡 = 2

solution
𝑡2
𝑎) 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐹̅ 𝑑𝑡
𝑡1

2
𝐼 = ∫ ((3𝑡 2 − 4𝑡)𝑖 + (12𝑡 − 6)𝑗 + (6𝑡 + 12𝑡 2 )𝑘 ) 𝑑𝑡
1 ~ ~ ~

𝐼 = 𝑖 + 12𝑗 + 37𝑘
~ ~ ~

𝑏) 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1

⇒ 𝑣2 = 𝐼 + 𝑚𝑣1 = 𝐼 + 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚 = 1

𝑣2 = ( 𝑖 + 12𝑗 + 37𝑘) + (4𝑖 − 5𝑗 + 10𝑘 ) = 5𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 47𝑘

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 35

Impulsive force: A force 𝐹⃗ is said to be impulsive if it causes instantaneous change in
momentum. It is a force that acts for a very short time.

By Newton’s second law of motion, the force can be expressed as

Δ𝑣 mΔ𝑣 Δ(m𝑣) Δ𝑝
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 = = =
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡

𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑝
𝐹= ----------- (1)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑑𝑝 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒.

The product of the impulsive force and time is known as the impulse thus the impulse is
equal to the change in momentum

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑢) where 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 are initial and final velocities respectively. Thus,
the impulsive force may be defined as the rate of change of momentum

Example

A force of 1,000N acts on a car whose mass is 2,000kg for a period of 10 seconds, calculate
the impulse and the change in the velocity of the car

Solution

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

𝑑𝑝
From equation (1), 𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡

Thus 𝑑𝑝 = 𝐹𝑑𝑡

𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 (𝐼) = 𝑑𝑝 = 1000 × 10 = 10,000 𝑁𝑠

Velocity

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 (𝑝) = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

or 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣

thus 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢 = 𝑚∆𝑣
𝐼 10,000
from which ∆𝑣 = 𝑚 = = 5𝑚/𝑠
2,000

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 36

Impulse – Momentum Theorem
Definition: the impulse of a force is the product of the average force F and the time interval
∆𝑡 during which the force acts
Thus 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝐹̅ ∆𝑡
Definition: The linear momentum 𝑝̅ of an object is the product of the object’s mass and
velocity
Thus 𝑝̅ = 𝑚𝑣̅
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢) 𝑚𝑣−𝑚𝑢
But 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

Or 𝐹̅ ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
Which is known as the impulse – momentum theorem and may be stated, thus “When a net
force acts on an object,then the impulse of the net force is equal to the change in momentum
of the object”.
Example
1. An object of mass 5 kg is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 20 m/s.
Calculate the time of flight of the object
Solution
𝐹̅ ∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑢
𝑚(𝑣−𝑢)
∆𝑡 = 𝐹

Where 𝑚 = 5, 𝑣 = 20, 𝑢 = −𝑣 = −20, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔

5(20−(−20))
∆𝑡 = (5×9.81)
= 4.08 𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 37

Angular Momentum of a Particle
Consider a particle of mass m that moves along a space curve c whose position vector is 𝑟̅ .

let 𝑣̅ denote the velocity of the particle at any time t sec as it moves along the space curve c.
𝑑𝑟̅
then 𝑣̅ = 𝑑𝑡

The angular momentum H of the particle also known as the moment of momentum is given
by;
𝐻 = 𝑟̅ × 𝑝̅ 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑝̅ = 𝑚𝑣̅ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒.
While the moment of the force also known as the torque and denoted by Λ is defined by
Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅
The magnitude of the torque is a measure of the “turning effect” produced on the particle by
the force 𝐹̅ .
Theorem
The moment of force about the origin equals the time rate of change of angular momentum
Proof;
Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅
But 𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅
Substituting this value we get
Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑎̅
𝑑
Λ = 𝑟̅ × (𝑚𝑣̅ )
𝑑𝑡
Applying the product rule of differentiation we get
𝑑 𝑑𝑟̅
Λ= (𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅ ) − × 𝑚𝑣̅
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Λ= (𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅ ) − 𝑣̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
Λ= (𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅ ) − 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑣̅ × 𝑣̅ = 0 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠)
𝑑𝑡

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 38

But 𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅ = 𝐻
𝑑𝐻
⇒ Λ=
𝑑𝑡
Example
1. A particle of mass 2 units moves in a force field depending on a time t given by;
𝐹̅ = 24 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (36𝑡 − 16)𝑗 − 12𝑡𝑘
~ ~ ~

At 𝑡 = 0, the particle is located at 𝑟𝑜 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 4𝑘 and is moving with velocity

~ ~ ~
𝑣𝑜 = 6𝑖 + 15𝑗 − 8𝑘 , determine
~ ~ ~

a) The torque
b) The angular momentum about the origin

Solution
Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅

Where 𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑣̅ = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

From the Newton’s second law of motion, we have

𝐹̅
𝑎 = 𝑚, thus on substituting back we get

24 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (36𝑡 − 16)𝑗 − 12𝑡𝑘

𝐹̅ ~ ~ ~
𝑣̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 2

𝑣̅ = ∫ 12 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (18𝑡 − 8)𝑗 − 6𝑡𝑘

~ ~ ~

𝑣̅ = 4𝑡 3 𝑖 + (9𝑡 2 − 8𝑡)𝑗 − 3𝑡 2 𝑘 + 𝑐̅
~ ~ ~

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑜 = 6𝑖 + 15𝑗 − 8𝑘
~ ~ ~

Thus 𝑣𝑜 = 6𝑖 + 15𝑗 − 8𝑘 = 𝑐̅
~ ~ ~

Substituting this value we get

𝑣̅ = (4𝑡 3 + 6)𝑖 + (9𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 15)𝑗 − (3𝑡 2 + 8)𝑘
~ ~ ~

𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫(4𝑡 3 + 6)𝑖 + (9𝑡 2 − 8𝑡 + 15)𝑗 − (3𝑡 2 + 8)𝑘 𝑑𝑡

~ ~ ~

𝑟̅ = (𝑡 4 + 6𝑡) 𝑖 + (3𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 + 15𝑡)𝑗 − (𝑡 3 + 8𝑡)𝑘 + 𝑐̅2

~ ~ ~

Inserting the initial conditions, we get

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 39
𝑐̅2 = 3𝑖 − 𝑗 + 4𝑘
~ ~ ~

And
𝑟̅ = (𝑡 4 + 6𝑡 + 3)𝑖 + (3𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 2 + 15𝑡 − 1)𝑗 − (𝑡 3 + 8𝑡 − 4)𝑘
~ ~ ~

Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
Λ = |𝑡 4 + 6𝑡 + 3 3𝑡 3 − 4𝑡 + 15𝑡 − 1 2
𝑡 + 8𝑡 − 4|
3

24𝑡 2 36𝑡 − 16 −12𝑡

Λ = (8𝑡 4 + 32𝑡 3 − 130𝑡 2 + 64𝑡 − 104)𝑖 − (12𝑡 5 + 192𝑡 3 − 168𝑡 2 − 36𝑡)𝑗
̃ ~
− (36𝑡 5 − 80𝑡 + 360𝑡 − 240𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 + 48)𝑘
4 3
~

2. Show that the magnitude of the angular momentum of the earth with sun as the origin is
given by (Assume that the orbit is circular)
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 2
|𝐻| =
𝑡

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑚 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ,

𝑟 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑡 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

Solution
|𝐻| = |𝑟̅ × 𝑚𝑣̅ | = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 sin 𝜃 (by definition of cross product of vectors 𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝐴||𝐵| sin 𝜃 𝜇̃ )
where 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑟̅ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣̅

𝑣̅
𝑟̅
Earth
Sun

Assuming that the orbit is circular, then 𝑟̅𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑣̅ hence 𝜃 = 900
And |𝐻| = 𝑚𝑣𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900 = 𝑚𝑣𝑟
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 2𝜋𝑟
But 𝑣 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

where 2𝜋𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡 and t is time for one complete rotation (1
year)
substituting back we get

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 40

 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋𝑚𝑟 2
|𝐻| = 𝑚 ( )𝑟 =
𝑡 𝑡
3. Given that the mass of the Earth is 5.98×1024 kg and its distance from the sun is
1.50×1011 m and by assuming that its orbit is circular, calculate the magnitude of
its angular momentum with Sun as the origin. Assume that the year has exactly 365
days.
Solution
2𝜋𝑚𝑟 2
|𝐻| =
𝑡

𝑚 = 5.98 × 1024 , 𝑟 = 1.5 × 1011 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑡 = 365 × 24 × 3600𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 3.1536 × 107 sec
Substituting these values we get

2𝜋(5.98 × 1024 )(1.5 × 1011 )2

|𝐻| =
3.1536 × 107

|𝐻| = 2.6808 × 1040 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 /𝑠

4. A particle of mass 5 units moves in a force field depending on a time t given by;
𝐹̅ = 15 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (10𝑡 − 5)𝑗 + 20𝑡 3 𝑘
~ ~ ~

At 𝑡 = 0, the particle is located at 𝑟𝑜 (1,2, −1) and is moving with velocity 𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑖 −

~
4𝑗 + 7𝑘, determine at 𝑡 = 1
~ ~

i) The torque
ii) The angular momentum about the origin
Solution
Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅

Where 𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑣̅ 𝑑𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑

𝑣̅ = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

From the Newton’s second law of motion, we have

𝐹̅
𝑎 = 𝑚, thus on substituting back we get

15 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (10𝑡 − 5)𝑗 + 20𝑡 3 𝑘

𝐹̅ ~ ~ ~
𝑣̅ = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑚 5

𝑣̅ = ∫ 3 𝑡 2 𝑖 + (2𝑡 − 1)𝑗 + 4𝑡 3 𝑘
~ ~ ~

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 41

𝑣̅ = 𝑡 3 𝑖 + (𝑡 2 − 𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑡 4 𝑘 + 𝑐̅
~ ~ ~

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣𝑜 = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 7𝑘
~ ~ ~

Thus we get
3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 7𝑘 = 𝑐̅
~ ~ ~

Substituting back we get

𝑣̅ = (𝑡 3 + 3)𝑖 + (𝑡 2 − 𝑡 − 4)𝑗 + (𝑡 4 + 7)𝑘
~ ~ ~

When 𝑡 = 1, we have
𝑣̅ = 4𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 8𝑘
~ ~ ~

𝑑𝑟
= 𝑣 from which
𝑑𝑡

𝑟̅ = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ (𝑡 3 + 3)𝑖 + (𝑡 2 − 𝑡 − 4)𝑗 + (𝑡 4 + 7)𝑘 𝑑𝑡

~ ~ ~

1 1 1 1
𝑟̅ = ( 𝑡 4 + 3𝑡) 𝑖 + ( 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡) 𝑗 + ( 𝑡 5 + 7𝑡) 𝑘 + 𝑐̅2
4 ~ 3 2 ~ 5 ~

At 𝑡 = 0, 𝑟 = 𝑟0 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
~ ~ ~

Thus 𝑐̅2 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 𝑘
~ ~ ~

Substituting back, we get

1 1 1 1
𝑟̅ = ( 𝑡 4 + 3𝑡 + 1) 𝑖 + ( 𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 − 4𝑡 + 2) 𝑗 + ( 𝑡 5 + 7𝑡 − 1) 𝑘
4 ~ 3 2 ~ 5 ~

Substituting 𝑡 = 1 yields
17 13 31
𝑟̅ = 𝑖− 𝑗+ 𝑘
4 ~ 6 ~ 5 ~
And 𝐹̅ = 15𝑖 + 5𝑗 + 20 𝑘
~ ~ ~

Λ = 𝑟̅ × 𝐹̅
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
233 215
Λ= | 17 −
13 31 |=− 𝑖 + 8𝑗 + 𝑘
3 ~ ~ 4 ~
4 6 5
15 5 20
𝐻 = 𝑟̅ × 𝑚 𝑣̅
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
~ ~ ~
112 125
H= | 17−6
13 31 |= 𝑖 − 46𝑗 − 𝑘
3 ~ ~ 3 ~
4 5
20 −20 40

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 42

5) A particle of mass 2 units moves in a space curve whose position vector is given by
𝑟⃗ = 𝑖 (𝑡 3 + 3𝑡) + 𝑗 (2𝑡 3 − 𝑡 2 + 8) + 𝑘(𝑡 4 + 8𝑡)
~ ~ ~

Dretermine at 𝑡 = 1
a) The torque
b) The angular momentum

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 43

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:
States that every point mass in the universe attracts every other point mass with a force that is
directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them
𝑚1 𝑚2
i.e. 𝐹 = 𝐺 𝑟2

where F is the force of attraction between the masses 𝑚1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 whose separation
distance is 𝑟
𝐺 = 6.674 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 /𝑘𝑔2 is the gravitation constant
Example 1
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth whose mass is 5.98 × 1024
kg and a 100 kg object positioned at sea level, a distance of 6.38 × 106 m from earth's center.
Solution;
The gravitational attraction is given by;
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 𝑟2

Where 𝑚1 = 5.98 × 1024 , 𝑚2 = 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 6.38 × 106

Substituting these values, we obtain

(6.674×10−11 )×( 5.98 × 1024 )×100

𝐹= (6.38 × 106 )2
= 980.50 𝑁

Example 2
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth and the moon given that
Mass of the earth = 5.98 × 1024 𝑘𝑔
Mass of the moon = 7.35 × 1022 𝑘𝑔
Distance between the earth and the moon = 3.84 × 108 𝑚
Solution
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 𝑟2

Where 𝑚1 = 5.98 × 1024 , 𝑚2 = 7.35 × 1022 𝑘𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟 = 3.84 × 108 𝑚

Substituting these values, we obtain

(6.674×10−11 )×(7.35× 1022 )×(5.98× 1024 )

𝐹= = 1.989 × 102 𝑁
(3.84×108 )2

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 44

Frictional Forces
Friction is the force that tends to resist the motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers and material
elements sliding over each other and may be expressed as;
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁

Where 𝜇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛,

𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

When the object is pulled or pushed horizontally then the normal force equals the weight of
the object i.e. 𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
And the equation becomes 𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔

Example
1. A car of mass 1,500 kg is moving with a speed of 80km/h on a wet road whose
coefficient of friction is 0.25. Determine the car stopping distance when the emergency
brakes are applied
Solution
Work done to stop the car = kinetic energy of the car
1 1 80×1000 2
Thus 𝑊 = 2 𝑚 𝑣 2 = 2 (1,500𝑘𝑔) ( 𝑚/𝑠) = 370,370 𝑗
3600

But 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘(𝑊) = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐹𝑓 ) × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒(𝑑)

𝑊 𝑤 370,370
Or 𝑑 = 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑚𝑔 = 0.25×1,500×9.8 = 100.78 𝑚
𝑓

2. A body of 30N resting on a horizontal surface is acted upon by a force of 10N at an

angle of 60𝑜 to the horizontal. Determine the coefficient of friction (𝜇)
Solution

𝐹𝑣 𝐹 = 10𝑁

600 𝐹𝐻

𝑚𝑔 = 30𝑁

𝐹𝑣 = 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝐻 = 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600

thus the resultant vertical force R is given by;
𝑅 = 30 − 10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 =21.33N
Thus the frictional force is given by
𝐹𝑓 = 𝜇𝑁 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 = 21.33 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹𝐻
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 45
 𝐹𝑓 𝐹𝐻
From which 𝜇= 𝑁
= 𝑁
10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 600
𝜇= = 0.2343
21.33

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 46

Uniform Force Fields
A force field is said to be uniform if it has constant magnitude and direction or constant field.
eg. If a constant force of magnitude 𝑓0 is directed towards the 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 direction then
𝐹̅ = −𝑓0 𝑘
~

Example 1:
A particle of mass m moves along a straight line under the influence of a constant force of
magnitude 𝐹 . Given that its initial speed is 𝑣0 m/s, determine,
a) The speed
b) The velocity and
c) Distance covered at any later time t sec.
Solution
Assumption: The particle moves along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 thus 𝐹̅ = 𝐹 𝑖
~

Since the initial speed of the particle is 𝑣0 , then its initial velocity is 𝑣0 𝑖
~

Thus by Newton’s second law of motion

𝑑𝑣
𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
From which
𝑑𝑣 𝐹
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝐹
𝑣=∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝐹
𝑣= 𝑡+𝑐
𝑚
But 𝑣 = 𝑣0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
Thus we get
𝑣0 = 0 + 𝑐
𝑐 = 𝑣0
Substituting back, we get
𝐹
𝑣= 𝑡 + 𝑣0
𝑚
Which is the speed of the particle at any time t
The velocity of the particle is given by
𝐹
𝑣̅ = ( 𝑡 + 𝑣0 ) 𝑖
𝑚 ~

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 47

While the distance 𝑥 is given by

𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝐹
𝑥=∫ 𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝐹 2
= 𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑐1
2𝑚
We assume that the particle is initially at the origin, thus 𝑥 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
Thus
𝑐1 = 0
And
𝐹 2
𝑥= 𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑡
2𝑚
Example 2
For the motion in example 1 above, determine the velocity of the particle at any point 𝑥
Solution
By Newton’s law of motion
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
But 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡

Substituting back, we get

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
𝐹=𝑚 ⋅
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 =𝑚𝑣
𝑑𝑥
From which
𝑑𝑣 𝐹
𝑣 =
𝑑𝑥 𝑚
𝐹
∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑚
1 2 𝐹
𝑣 = 𝑥+𝑐
2 𝑚
But 𝑥 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 𝑣0
Thus
𝑣02
𝑐=
2
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 48
Substituting back, we get
1 2 𝐹 𝑣02
𝑣 = 𝑥+
2 𝑚 2
From which

2𝐹
𝑣=√ 𝑥 + 𝑣02
𝑚

Example 3
A particle of mass m moves under the influence of a uniform force of magnitude 𝑓0 .
Show that its acceleration is uniform.
Proof;
By Newton’s second Law of motion
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹
𝑎=
𝑚
Assuming that the particle moves along the x – axis then
𝐹 = 𝑓0 𝑖
~

Thus
𝑓0
𝑎= 𝑖
𝑚~
Which is constant since 𝑓0 is a constant.

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 49

Motion in a Resisting Medium
When a body moves through the media such as air or water, it experiences a resistance.
The resistance forces tend to hinder the motion of the body and are known as the
resistive, damping or dissipative forces. These damping forces are usually proportional
to the velocity of the body thus if 𝑅 denotes the resistive force, then
𝑅∝𝑣
Or
𝑅 = −𝛽𝑣
Where 𝛽 > 0 is the proportionality constant.
Consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity 𝑣 in a medium whose resistance
force is proportional to the velocity, then the resultant force is given by;
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 − 𝛽𝑣
Or
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝐹=𝑚 2
−𝛽
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑥 is the distance of the particle from the origin.
Example 1
A body of mass 5 kg falls in a medium for which the resistance is proportional to the
velocity of the body. Given that the upthrust on the body is a quarter of the weight of the
body and its terminal velocity is 6 𝑚𝑠 −1 .
i) Set-up a differential equation describing this motion.
ii) Solve the differential equation in part (i) above to determine the velocity of
the body at any later time t sec.
iii) Find the magnitude of the resistive forces on the body (use 𝑔 = 9.81𝑚𝑠 −2 ).
Solution
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 (𝑅) − 𝑈𝑝𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 (𝑈𝑝 )
1
Where 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔, 𝑅 = 𝛽𝑣 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑈𝑝 = 4 𝑚𝑔

Substituting back, we get

1
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣 − 𝑚𝑔
4
3 3
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣 = (5)(9.81) − 𝛽𝑣
4 4
𝐹 = 36.7875 − 𝛽𝑣
Applying the Newton’s second law of motion

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 50

 𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 5
𝑑𝑡
Substituting back, we get
𝑑𝑣
5 = 36.7875 − 𝛽𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
5 + 𝛽𝑣 = 36.7875
𝑑𝑡
Dividing both sides by 5 yields
𝑑𝑣 𝛽
+ 𝑣 = 7.3575
𝑑𝑡 5
Which is a linear first order ODE.
The integrating factor I is given by
𝛽 𝛽
( )𝑡
𝐼 = 𝑒 ∫ 5 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 5

And the solution becomes

𝛽 𝛽
( )𝑡 ( )𝑡
𝑣𝑒 5 = 7.3575 ∫ 𝑒 5 𝑑𝑡

𝛽 5 (𝛽)𝑡
( )𝑡
𝑣𝑒 5 = 7.3575 ( ) 𝑒 5 + 𝑐
𝛽
36.7875 𝛽
−( )𝑡
𝑣= +𝑐𝑒 5
𝛽
As 𝑡 → ∞, 𝑣=6
36.7875
6=
𝛽
36.7875
Thus 𝛽 = = 6.13125
6

Thus the resistance force (R) is given by

𝑅 = 6.13125 𝑣
Example 2
At a time 𝑡 = 0, a parachutist having a mass m is located at 𝑧 = 0 and is moving vertically
downwards with a speed 𝑣0 . The force resisting the motion of the parachute is proportional to
its instantaneous speed. Find the speed, distance travelled and the acceleration of the
parachute at any later time t sec.
Solution
The resultant force (F) is given by
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 51

Applying the Newton’s second law of motion,
𝑑𝑣
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
Thus
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝛽𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑚 + 𝛽𝑣 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑑𝑡
Dividing both sides by m yields
𝑑𝑣 𝛽
+ 𝑣=𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Which is a linear first order ODE, the integrating factor is given by;
𝛽 𝛽
∫𝑚𝑑𝑡 ( )𝑡
𝐼=𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑚

And the solution becomes

𝛽 𝛽
( )𝑡 ( )𝑡
𝑣𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑔 ∫𝑒 𝑚 𝑑𝑡

𝛽 𝑚 ( 𝛽 )𝑡
( )𝑡
𝑣𝑒 𝑚 = 𝑔 ( )𝑒 𝑚 + 𝑐
𝛽
𝑚𝑔 𝛽
−( )𝑡
𝑣= +𝑐𝑒 𝑚
𝛽
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 substituting, we get
𝑚𝑔
𝑣0 = +𝑐
𝛽
𝑚𝑔
𝑐 = 𝑣0 −
𝛽
Substituting back, the solution becomes
𝑚𝑔 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 )𝑡
𝑣= + (𝑣0 − )𝑒
𝛽 𝛽
Which is the speed of the parachute at any time t.
The distance 𝑧 is given by

𝑧 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡

𝑚𝑔 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 )𝑡
𝑧 = ∫( + (𝑣0 − )𝑒 ) 𝑑𝑡
𝛽 𝛽

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 52

 𝑚𝑔 𝑚 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 )𝑡
𝑧= 𝑡 − (𝑣0 − )𝑒 + 𝑐2
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
But 𝑧 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
thus
𝑚𝑔 𝑚 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 )(0)
0= (0) − (𝑣0 − )𝑒 + 𝑐2
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
𝑚 𝑚𝑔
𝑐2 = (𝑣0 − )
𝛽 𝛽
On substituting back, we get
𝑚𝑔 𝑚 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 𝑚 𝑚𝑔
)𝑡
𝑧= 𝑡 − (𝑣0 − )𝑒 + (𝑣0 − )
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽 𝛽
Or
𝑚𝑔 𝑚 𝑚𝑔 𝛽
−( )𝑡
𝑧= 𝑡 + (𝑣0 − ) (1 − 𝑒 𝑚 )
𝛽 𝛽 𝛽

Acceleration (𝑎) is given by;

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑘
~ 𝑑𝑡

𝛽 𝛽
𝑚𝑔 −(𝑚 )𝑡
𝑎=− ((𝑣0 − )𝑒 )𝑘
𝑚 𝛽 ~

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 53

Simple Harmonic Motion
If the acceleration of a particle is proportional to the distance travelled by the particle
and that it is always directed towards a fixed point, then the particle is said to move in a
simple harmonic motion (SHM).
Consider a mass m attached to a spring of spring constant 𝑘 and resting at equilibrium
point. Suppose that the mass is given an initial displacement A from equilibrium point
and then released. Then the resultant force acting on the particle is given by the Hookes’
law
Thus
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 (i)
Where 𝑥 is the distance of the mass m from the equilibrium point
Applying the Newton’s second law
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 (ii)
Thus by equating (i) to (ii), we get
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
But
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡 2
Thus on substituting back, we get
𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑑2𝑥
𝑚 2 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑡
Which is a homogeneous second order ordinary differential equation. The initial
conditions are given by
𝑥(0) = 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ′ (0) = 0
The characteristics equation of the differential equation (iii) is of the form
𝑚𝜆2 + 𝑘 = 0
Whose solution is

𝑘
𝜆 = ±𝑖 √ = ±𝜔𝑖
𝑚

𝑘
Where 𝜔 = √𝑚

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 54

The general solution becomes
𝑥 = 𝑐1 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝜔𝑡
Or
𝑥 = 𝑅 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)

Where 𝑅 = √𝑐12 + 𝑐22 is the amplitude

And 𝛼 is the phase angle.
Applying the initial conditions, we have
𝑥(0) = 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝛼) (iv)
𝑥 ′ (𝑡) = −𝜔𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)
𝑥 ′ (0) = −𝜔𝑅𝑠𝑖𝑛(0 + 𝛼) = 0
Thus
sin(𝛼) = 0
Hence 𝛼 = 0
Substituting back into (I), we have
𝐴 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠 (0)
𝑅=𝐴
And the solution becomes
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos (𝜔𝑡) (v)
While the velocity of the particle is given by
𝑑𝑥
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = −𝜔𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡
Since the value of cos 𝜔𝑡 varies from −1 𝑡𝑜 + 1 then from equation (v), we note that the
mass m oscillates between −𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 𝐴.
The greatest displacement of the mass m from the equilibrium point is known as the
amplitude. Thus for the motion above
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 = 𝐴
The time taken for one complete oscillation is known as the period and is denoted by T
and defined by
2𝜋
𝑇=
𝜔
Frequency

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 55

The term frequency refers to the number of complete oscillations per second and is
given by
1 𝜔
𝑓= =
𝑇 2𝜋
Example 1
A particle of mass 2kg moves along the x-axis attracted towards the origin by a force
whose magnitude is 8 times its distance from the origin. Given that the mass is initially
at rest and at a distance of 20 units from the origin, find
a) The position of the particle at any later time t sec.
b) The speed and the velocity of the particle at any time t.
c) The amplitude, period and the frequency of vibrations.
Solution
The equation of motion is given by
𝑑2𝑥
2 + 8𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
Or
𝑑2𝑥
+ 4𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
With initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Characteristic equation
𝜆2 + 4 = 0
𝜆 = ±2𝑖
General solution
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡
When 𝑡 = 0
𝑥(0) = 𝑎 cos 0 + 𝑏 sin 0 = 20
𝑎 = 20
𝑥 = 20 cos 2𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝑡
Differentiating
𝑑𝑥
= −40 sin 2𝑡 + 2𝑏 cos 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
When 𝑡 = 0

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𝑑𝑥
| = 0 = 2𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑡=0
Thus 𝑏 = 0
Substituting back, we get
𝑥 = 20 cos 2𝑡
And
𝑑𝑥
= −40 sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Thus the speed (𝑣) of the particle is given by
𝑣 = 40 sin 2𝑡
While the velocity is given by
𝑣⃗ = −40 sin(2𝑡) 𝑖
~

Amplitude
𝐴 = 20
Period
2𝜋
𝑇= =𝜋
2
Frequency
1 1
𝑓= =
𝑇 𝜋
Example 2
A particle moving with simple harmonic motion has a speed of 3m\s and 4m\s at
distances of 6 cm and 8 cm respectively from the equilibrium point. Find the period of
oscillation.
Solution
For simple harmonic motion
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)
And
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) (1)
𝑑𝑡
But

sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) = √1 − cos 2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼)

Where

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 57

 𝑥
cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) =
𝐴
Thus on substituting back we get

𝑥2 𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 1
sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝛼) = √1 − = √ = √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐴

Substituting this into equation (1), we get

1
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔 ( √𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 )
𝐴

𝑣 = −𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
When 𝑣 = 3, 𝑥=8
Substituting, we get

3 = −𝜔√𝐴2 − 64 (2)
Also when 𝑣 = 4, 𝑥=6
Substituting, we get

4 = −𝜔√𝐴2 − 36 (3)
Solving equations (2) and (3) simultaneously, we get
1
𝜔=
2
𝐴 = 10
The period T is given by
2𝜋
𝑇= = 4𝜋
𝜔
Example 3
A particle moves along the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 attracted towards the origin by a force which is
proportional to its instantaneous distance from the origin. Given that it starts from rest
and at a distance of 5 cm from the origin and reaches 𝑥 = 2.5 𝑐𝑚 for the first 2 seconds.
Find
a) Its position at any later time
b) The speed at 𝑥 = 0
c) The amplitude, period and frequency
d) The maximum speed

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Damped Harmonic Oscillator
We consider a harmonic oscillator with damping. The damping forces whenever present
are proportional to the velocity thus the equation of motion for a damped oscillator
becomes
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝛽
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Dividing both sides by 𝑚 we get
𝑑 2 𝑥 𝛽 𝑑𝑥 𝑘
+ + 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
Or
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
+ 2𝛾 + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝛽 𝑘
Where 2𝛾 = 𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜔2 = 𝑚

The characteristic equation becomes

𝜆2 + 2𝛾 𝜆 + 𝜔2 = 0
Whose solution is

−2𝛾 ± √4𝛾 2 − 4𝜔 2
𝜆=
2
𝜆 = −𝛾 ± √𝛾 2 − 𝜔 2

CASE I: Critically Damped Motion

If 𝛾 2 = 𝜔2 then the characteristic equation has real and equal roots, the solution to the
differential equation will take the form

𝑥 = (𝑐1 𝑡 + 𝑐2 )𝑒 𝜆𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

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Case II: Over-Damped Motion
If 𝛾 2 > 𝜔2 then the root of the characteristic equations are real and distinct and the
differential equation has a solution of the form

𝑥 = 𝑐1 𝑒 𝜆1𝑡 + 𝑐2 𝑒 𝜆2 𝑡
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑐1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐2 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠.

Note: Critical damping and overdamping both describe types of damping that result in a
system returning to its equilibrium position without oscillation. However, there is an
important difference between the two:

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 i) In the case of critical damping, the system returns to its equilibrium position as
quickly as possible without overshooting it. This means that the motion is
critically damped, but not over-damped. The damping coefficient in the critically
damped case is equal to the critical damping coefficient, which is a specific value
that depends on the mass, spring constant, and other properties of the system.
ii) In the case of overdamping, the system returns to its equilibrium position without
oscillating, but the motion is slower than in the critically damped case. This is
because the damping coefficient is larger than the critical damping coefficient. In
the overdamped case, there are two decay modes, and the motion is described by
an exponential decay with no oscillation.

In practical terms, the difference between critical damping and overdamping can be
important for designing mechanical systems. For example, in a car suspension system,
critical damping may be desired to ensure that the car's wheels return to their resting
position quickly and without bouncing, while in other applications, such as in the
damping of oscillations in electronic circuits, overdamping may be desirable to ensure
that the system returns to a steady state with minimal oscillation.

CASE III: Under-Damped Motion

If 𝛾 2 < 𝜔2 then the roots of the characteristic equation will take the form
𝜆 = −𝛼 ± 𝑖𝛽
And the solution of the differential equation becomes
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑐1 cos 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑐2 sin 𝛽𝑡)
Or
𝑥 = 𝑅𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos(𝛽𝑡 − 𝜙)
𝑐
Where 𝑅 = √𝑐12 + 𝑐22 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜙 = tan−1 (𝑐2 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
1

The motion in this case is oscillatory with the amplitude

𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒 −𝛼𝑡
Thus the amplitude decays exponentially as function of time.

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Example 1
A particle of mass 5 kg moves along the x – axis under the influence of two forces;
i) A force of attraction towards the origin which is 25 times the instantaneous
distance from the origin.
ii) A damping force which is 20 times the instantaneous speed.
Given that the particle starts from rest and at a distance of 10 cm from the origin
a) Set-up the differential equation and the initial conditions describing this motion
b) Solve the differential equation in (a) above to find the position of the particle at
any time t seconds.
Solution
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑚 = 5, 𝛽 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 25
Substituting back, we get
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5 2
+ 20 + 25𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Or

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𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
+4 + 5𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0.1𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The characteristic equation if given by
𝜆2 + 4𝜆 + 5 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝜆=
2𝑎
−4 ± √16 − 20
𝜆= = −2 ± 𝑖
2
And the general solution is given by
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 (𝑎 cos 𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 𝑡)
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0.1
Thus
0.1 = 𝑎 cos 0
𝑎 = 0.1
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 (0.1 cos 𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 𝑡)
𝑑𝑥
= −2𝑒 −2𝑡 (0.1 cos 𝑡 + 𝑏 sin 𝑡) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 (−0.1 sin 𝑡 + 𝑏 cos 𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑑𝑡 = 0

Thus
0 = −2(0.1 + 0) + (0 + 𝑏)
From which 𝑏 = 0.2
Substituting back, we get,
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 (0.1 cos 𝑡 + 0.2 sin 𝑡)
Example 2
A particle of mass 4 units moves along the x-axis attracted towards the origin by a
force whose magnitude is numerically equal to 13 times its instantaneous distance
from the origin. Given that the particle is initially at rest and at a distance of 20 units
from the origin and that it experiences damping whose magnitude is 8 times its
instantaneous velocity,
i) Set up the differential equation and boundary conditions describing the
motion of this particle

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 ii) Solve the differential equation in part (i) above to find the position of the
particle at any time t seconds
Solution
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑚 = 4, 𝛽 = 8 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 13
Substituting back, we get
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 2
+8 + 13𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The characteristic equation if given by
4𝜆2 + 8𝜆 + 13 = 0

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝜆=
2𝑎
−8 ± √64 − 208 3
𝜆= = −1 ± 𝑖
8 2
And the general solution is given by
3 3
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑡 (𝑎 cos ( 𝑡) + 𝑏 sin ( 𝑡))
2 2
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 20
Thus
20 = 𝑎 cos 0
𝑎 = 20
3 3
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑡 (20 cos ( 𝑡) + 𝑏 sin ( 𝑡))
2 2
𝑑𝑥 3 3 3 3 3
= −𝑒 −𝑡 (20 cos ( 𝑡) + 𝑏 sin ( 𝑡)) + 𝑒 −𝑡 (−30 sin ( 𝑡) + 𝑏 cos ( 𝑡))
𝑑𝑡 2 2 2 2 2
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

Thus
3
0 = −1(20 + 0) + (0 + 𝑏)
2
40
From which 𝑏 = 3

Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 64

Substituting back we get,
3 40 3
𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑡 (20 cos ( 𝑡) + sin ( 𝑡))
2 3 2
Example 3
A particle of mass 5 kg moves along the x- axis under the influence of two forces
i) A force of attraction towards the origin which is 40 times the instantaneous
distance from the origin.
ii) A damping force proportional to the instantaneous speed such that when the
speed is 10 units/s, the damping force is 200 units. Assuming that the particle starts
from rest and at a distance of 20 units from the origin,
a) Set-up the differential equation and the initial conditions describing this motion.
b) Solve the differential equation in (a) above to find the position of the particle at
any time t sec.
Solution
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
200
Where 𝑚 = 5, 𝛽 = = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 = 40
10

𝐷𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒(𝐷𝑓 ) = 𝛽 𝑣
𝑏𝑢𝑡 𝐷𝑓 = 200 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑣 = 10
Substituting we get
200 = 10 𝛽
From which
200
𝛽= = 20
10
Substituting back, we get
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
5 2 + 20 + 40𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Dividing both sides by 5 yields
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2
+4 + 8𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 20 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
The characteristic equation if given by
𝜆2 + 4𝜆 + 8 = 0

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 −𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝜆=
2𝑎
−4 ± √16 − 32
𝜆= = −2 ± 2𝑖
2
And the general solution is given by
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 (𝑎 cos(2𝑡) + 𝑏 sin(2𝑡))
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 20
Thus
20 = 𝑎 cos 0
𝑎 = 20
Substituting back, we get
𝑥 = 𝑒 −2𝑡 (20 cos(2𝑡) + 𝑏 sin(2𝑡))
𝑑𝑥
= −2𝑒 −2𝑡 (20 cos(2𝑡) + 𝑏 sin(2𝑡)) + 𝑒 −2𝑡 (−40 sin(2𝑡) + 2𝑏 cos(2𝑡))
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

Thus
0 = −2(20 + 0) + (0 + 2𝑏)
From which 𝑏 = 20
Substituting back, we get,
𝑥 = 20𝑒 −2𝑡 (cos(2𝑡) + 𝑏 sin(2𝑡))

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Forced Vibrations
Suppose that in addition to restoring and damping forces, a force 𝑓(𝑡) is impressed on
the mass 𝑚, then the equation of motion for the harmonic oscillator becomes
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
And its solution is of the form
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) + 𝑥𝑝 (𝑡)

Where 𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) is the solution to the corresponding homogeneous differential equation

𝑑2 𝑥𝑐 𝑑𝑥𝑐
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥𝑐 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The solution 𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) is known as the Transient Solution of the differential equation
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡) on the other hand is the particular solution to the non-homogeneous differential
equation.
𝑑2 𝑥𝑝 𝑑𝑥𝑝
𝑚 + 𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥𝑝 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
And is known as the Steady – state solution
For a harmonic oscillator, the solution 𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) is of the form
𝑥𝑐 (𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
And decays exponentially as a function of time 𝑡. After this time has elapsed, the motion
of the mass m depends only on the driving force 𝑓(𝑡) thus the solution is given by
𝑥𝑝 (𝑡). Such an oscillator is known as a forced harmonic oscillator.

Example 1
A vertical spring has stiffness factor 48N per metre. At 𝑡 = 0, a force 𝑓(𝑡) = 51 sin 5𝑡 is
applied to a 3 kg mass which hangs in equilibrium at the end of the spring. Assuming
that no damping forces present, determine the position of the mass at any later time
𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
Solution
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2
+𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑚 = 3, 𝛽 = 0, 𝑘 = 48 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) = 51 sin 5𝑡
Substituting these values, we get
𝑑2𝑥
3 + 48𝑥 = 51 sin 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
Or

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𝑑2𝑥
+ 16 𝑥 = 17 sin 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
Initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Transient solution
𝑑 2 𝑥𝑐
+ 16 𝑥𝑐 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
Characteristic equation
𝜆2 + 16 = 0
𝜆 = ±4 𝑖
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑎 cos 4𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡
Steady state solution
𝑑 2 𝑥𝑝
+ 16 𝑥𝑝 = 17 sin 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
(𝐷2 + 16)𝑥𝑝 = 17 sin 5𝑡
1
𝑥𝑝 = 17 ( 2 ) sin 5𝑡
𝐷 + 16
1 17
𝑥𝑝 = 17 ( ) sin 5𝑡 = − sin 5𝑡
−25 + 16 9
General solution
17
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 4𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡 − sin 5𝑡
9
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
Thus
𝑎=0
Substituting back, we get
17
𝑥 = 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡 − sin 5𝑡
9
𝑑𝑥 85
= 4𝑏 cos 4𝑡 − cos 5𝑡
𝑑𝑡 9
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

Thus
85
0 = 4𝑏 −
9
Dr. Mutuguta, Murang’a University of Technology Page | 68
 85
Thus 𝑏 = 36

Substituting back, we get the solution

85 17
𝑥= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 4𝑡 − sin 5𝑡
36 9
Example 2
A vertical spring has a stiffness factor 36N per meter. At 𝑡 = 0 a force 𝑓(𝑡) = 5𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑡 is
applied to a 4 kg mass which hangs in equilibrium at the end of the spring. Assuming no
damping forces present,
i) Set up a differential equation and the initial conditions describing this motion
ii) Solve the differential equation in part (i) above to find the position of the mass
at any later time t.

Solution
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝛽 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑚 = 4, 𝛽 = 0, 𝑘 = 36 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑡) = 5 cos 2𝑡
Substituting these values, we get
𝑑2𝑥
4 2 + 36 𝑥 = 5 cos 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Initial conditions
𝑑𝑥
𝑥 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡 = 0
𝑑𝑡
Transient solution
𝑑 2 𝑥𝑐
4 + 36 𝑥𝑐 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
Characteristic equation
4𝜆2 + 36 = 0
𝜆 = ±3 𝑖
𝑥𝑐 = 𝑎 cos 3𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡
Steady state solution
𝑑 2 𝑥𝑝
4 + 36 𝑥𝑝 = 5 cos 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2
(4𝐷2 + 36)𝑥𝑝 = 5 cos 2𝑡
1
𝑥𝑝 = ( ) (5 cos 2𝑡)
4𝐷2 + 36
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 1 5 1
𝑥𝑝 = ( ) (5 cos 2𝑡) = cos 2𝑡 = cos 2𝑡
4(−22 ) + 36 20 4
General solution
1
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 3𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡 + cos 2𝑡
4
When 𝑡 = 0, 𝑥 = 0
Thus
1
0=𝑎+
4
1
𝑎=−
4
Substituting back, we get
1 1
𝑥 = − cos 3𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛 3𝑡 + cos 2𝑡
4 4
𝑑𝑥 3 1
= sin 3𝑡 + 3𝑏 cos 3𝑡 − sin 2𝑡
𝑑𝑡 4 2
𝑑𝑥
When 𝑡 = 0, =0
𝑑𝑡

Thus
0 = 3𝑏
Thus 𝑏 = 0
Substituting back, we get the solution
1 1
𝑥 = − cos 3𝑡 + cos 2𝑡
4 4
We now plot this solution curve. To do this we use the MATLAB code below
t=0:0.01:10;
x=0.25*cos(2*t)-0.25*cos(3*t);
hold on
box off
ax = gca;
ax.XAxisLocation = 'origin';
grid on
title('Solution Curve')
plot(t,x,"b",'LineWidth',1.5)

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