Ecosystem is the functional unit of nature where living organisms interact among themselves and also with the

surroundings physical environment.

Ecosystem- Structure and Functions

Ecosystem : There are two basic categories of ecosystem , namely the terrestrial and the aquatic.

Terrestrial ecosystem – forest, grassland , desert etc.

Aquatic ecosystem – ponds, lake, river estuary etc.

The biotic and abiotic factors of ecosystem work in integrated manner for flow of energy within the components of ecosystem. Interaction of biotic and abiotic components results
in a physical structure that is characteristic for each type of ecosystem. The vertical distribution of different species occupying different levels is called stratification.For example,
trees occupy top vertical strata or layer of a forest, shrubs the second and herbs and grasses occupy the bottom layers.

The components of ecosystem that are seen as functional unit are

(i) Productivity
(ii) Decomposition
(iii) Energy flow
(iv) Nutrient cycling.

Productivity- Primary production is defined as the amount of biomass or organic matter produced per unit area over a time period by plants during photosynthesis. It is expressed in terms of weight (g –2 ) or
energy (kcal m–2 ). The rate of biomass production is called productivity. It is expressed in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m–2 ) yr –1. It can be divided into gross primary productivity (GPP) and net primary
productivity (NPP). GPP of an ecosystem is the rate of production of organic matter during photosynthesis and NPP is the remaining biomass after respiration (R).

GPP –R = NPP

NPP is the available biomass for consumption to heterotrophs. Secondary productivity is defined as the rate of formation of new organic matter by consumers.

Decomposition- breakdown of complex organic matter into inorganic substances like carbon dioxide, water and nutrients is called decomposition. Dead plants remains like leaves, bark, flowers and dead
remains of animals constitute detritus. Decomposition involves following steps- fragmentation, leaching, catabolism, humification and mineralization.

Fragmentation of Detritus: Detritivores feed on detritus —breakdown — increases the surface area of detritus particles for microbial action.
Leaching: Soluble inorganic nutrients dissolve in water -– percolate through the soil —removed due to leaching action.
Catabolism: Decomposers (bacteria, fungi) release enzymes — decompose detritus — simpler inorganic compounds.
Humification: Simplified detritus— converted to humus
– Humus is a Dark, Amorphous substance.
– Highly resistant to Microbial Action
– Undergoes Decomposition very Slowly.
– Reservoir of nutrients (due to colloidal nature)

5. Mineralisation: Humus is degraded – releases inorganic substances

Factors affecting rate of Decomposition:

1. Chemical composition – decomposition rate will be slow when detritus is rich in lignin and chitin and rate increases when detritus is rich in nitrogen and water soluble substances like sugars.

2. Climatic conditions – warm and moist environment favour decomposition and low temperature and anaerobiosis inhibit decomposition.
Energy Flow- All living organisms are dependent for their food on producers, directly or indirectly.
There is a unidirectional flow of energy from the sun to producers and then to consumers.
Photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) is responsible for synthesis of food by plants. Animals
obtain their food from plants, so they are called consumers. The process of eating and being eaten
is called food chain in which energy flow from producers to consumers. In Grazing food chain (GFC)-

The detritus food chain begins (DFC) begins with dead organic matter. It is made up of decomposers
which are heterotrophic organisms (fungi and bacteria). These are also known as saprotrophs (sapro:
to decompose). Decomposers secrete digestive enzymes that breakdown dead and waste materials
into simple, inorganic materials, which are subsequently absorbed by them.Natural interconnection
of food chain forms the food web.
Based on source of food, organism occupies a specific place in food chain that is known as trophic level.

Each tropic level has a certain mass of living material at particular time called as standing crop. It is measured as biomass of
living organism or number in unit area.

The number of trophic levels in the grazing food chain is limited as the transfer of energy follows 10 percent law that is only 10
percent of the energy is transferred to each trophic level from the lower trophic level. In GFC, following trophic levels are
possible- producer, herbivore, primary carnivore, secondary carnivore.

Ecological Pyramids

Ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of an ecological parameter (number, biomass, energy) sequence wise in
various trophic levels of a food chain with producers at the base and herbivores in the middle and carnivores at the top tiers. It
can be upright, inverted, or spindle shaped
Three common ecological pyramids are

a) Pyramids of number- employs the number of individuals per unit area at various trophic levels with producer at base and various
consumers at successively higher levels. It is generally upright.

A pyramid of number in case of a big tree is generally inverted because number of insects feeding on that tree generally exceeds in
number.

b) Pyramids of biomass- represent the biomass in various trophic levels. A pyramid of mass is upright except in aquatic food chain
involving short lived plankton.

A pyramid of biomass in sea is generally inverted because biomass of fishes generally exceeds that of phytoplankton
c) Pyramids of energy- that give s graphic representation of amount of energy trapped by different trophic levels per unit area. Pyramid of
energy is always upright, can never be inverted, because when energy flows from a particular trophic level to the next trophic level, some
energy is always lost as heat at each step e.g in feeding, digestion, assimilation and respiration.