Short Papers in the

Geologic and Hydrologic

Scienc;es, ·Articles 1-146
GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 424-B

Scientific notes and sum11taries of investigations

prepared by me1nbers of the Geologic, Water
.Resources, and Conservation Divisions in the
fields ofgeology, hydrology, and allied sciences

UNITED STATES GOVE'RNMENT PRINTING OFFI.CE, \VASH:INGTON : 1'961

 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

Thomas B. Nolan, Director

For sale by the s·uperintendent of Documents, U.S. Gove~nment Printing Office

\Vashington 25, D.C.
 ""I. r ·•

FOREWORD

The scientific and economic results of work by the United States Geological Survey during the fiscal
year 1961, the 12 months ending June 30, 1961, will be summarized in four volumes of which this is the
first. This volume includes 146 short papers on a variety of subjects in the fields of geology, hydrology,
and related sciences, prepared by members of the Geologic, Water Resources, and Conservation Divisions
of the Survey. These papers are of two kinds. Some are announcements of new discoveries or observations
on problems of limited scope, which may .or may not be described in greater detail subsequently. Others
summarize conclusions drawn from more extensive or continuing investigations, which in large part will
be described in greater detail in reports to be published at a· later date. ·
Professional Papers 424-C and -D include additional short papers of the same character as those in
the present volume. Professional Paper 424-A provide·s a synopsis of the more important new findings
resulting frqm work during the fiscal year.

THOMAS B. NOLAN
Director.
 CONTENTS

~\

Page

Foreword .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................------------------------------------------------------·----------------------------- III

'·
Geology of meta11iferous deposits
1. Temperature of formation of a Precambrian massive sulfide deposit, Copper King mine, Front Range, Colo.,
P. K. Sims and Priestley Toulmin, 3d·---------------------------·-----------~------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ B-1
2. Coffinite in uranium vein deposits of the Front Range, Colorado, by P. K. Sims, E. J. Young, and W. N. Sharp____ 3
3. Structural control of epigenetic uranium deposits in carbonate rocks of northwestern New Mexico, by Lowe11
S. Hilpert·----------------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------------------------------------------- 5
4. Origin of uranium and gold in the quartzite-conglomerate of the Serra de Jacobina, Brazil, by Max G. White ----- 8
Hydrologic studies
5. Mag·nitude and frequency of floods in suburban areas, by R. W. Carter ____________________________________-____________________________________ .. 9
6. Effect of artificial storage on peak flow, by William D. MitchelL_______________________________________________________________________________ 12
7. Distinctive characteristics of glacier runoff, by Mark F:
Meier arid Wendell V. Tangborn ------------------------------------- 14
8. Recent hyd1!olog·ic trends in the Pacific Northwest, by Wilbur D. Simons ________________________________________________________________ :___ 17
9. Precipitation as a variable in the correlation of runoff data, by William J. Schneider________________________________________________ 20
10. Regional low flow frequency analysis, by H. C. Riggs------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ·21
11. Modified conveyance-slope applied to development of stage-fall-discharge ratings, by William C. Griffin____________ 23
12. Flow in an artificially roughened channel, by H. J. Koloseus and Jacob Davidian------------------------------------------------------- 25
13. Dimensions of some stable alluvial channels, by Stanley A. Schumm__________________________________________________________________________ 26
14. Some factors influencing streambank erodibility, by I. S. McQueen____________________________________________________________________________ 28
15. An example of channel aggradation induced by flood control, by Norman J. King____________________________________________________ 29
16. Some effects of microclimate on slope morphology and drainage basin development, by Richard F. Hadley________ 32
17. Hydrologic significance of buried valleys· in glacial drift, by Stanley E. Norris and George W. White__________________ 34
18. Plan to salvage evapotranspiration losses in the central Sevier Valley, Utah, by Richard A. Young and Carl
H. Carpenter________________________________________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 36
19. Relation between storage changes at the water table and observed water-level changes, by R. W. Stallman_____ 39·
20. The significance of vertical flow components in the vicinity of pumping wells ip unconfined aquifers, by R. W.
Stallman ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41
21. Methods for study of evapotranspiration, by 0. E. Leppanen ----------------------------- ____ ------------------------------------------------ 43
22. Water movement and ion distribution in soils, by R. F. Miller and K. W. Ratzlaff______________________________________________________ 45
23. Compression of elastic artesian aquifers, by S. W. Lohman ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 47
24. Measurement of compaction of aquifer systems in areas of land subsidence, by Ben E. Lofgren ..... ------------------~---- 49
25. The coefficient of storage in a region of major subsidence caused by compaction of an aquifer syst~m, by J. F.
Poland _________________________________ :____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 52
26. Compaction of an aquifer system computed from consolidation tests and decline in artesian head, by Raymond
E. Miller ____________________________ :_~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------. -54
27. Development of an ultrasonic method for measuring stream velocities, by H. 0. Wires------------------------------~----------- 58
28. Preliminary design of an electric analog of liquid flow in the unsaturated zone, by R. W. Stallman·----------------------- 60
29. Direct-reading conductivity bridge, by I. S. McQuee.n and C. R. Daum·----------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
Geology and hydrology of eastern United States
30 Age of the "ribbon rock" of Aroostook County, Maine, by Louis Pavlides, Robert B. Neuman, and William
B. N. Berry-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- 65
31. Ratio of thorium to uranium in some plutonic rocks of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series, New
Hampshire, by Arthur P. Butler, Jr. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
32. Uranium and thorium in the older plutonic rocks of New Hampshire, by John B. Lyons--------------------------------------- 69
33. Distance between basins versus correlation coefficient for annual peak discharge of streams in New England,
by Jacob Davidian and M. A. Benson---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
,- 34. Pleistocene stratigraphy of Boston, Massachusetts, by C. A. Kaye·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 73
35.' Iron ores of St. Lawrence County, northwest Adirondacks, N.Y., by B. F. Leonard and A. F. Buddington _______ 76
36. Characteristics of seiches on Oneida Lake, N Y., by John Shen ------------------------~--------------------------------------------------------- 80

v
 J
VI CONTENTS f.

Page

Geology and hydrology of eastern United States-Continued

37. Variations of pH with depth in anthracite mine-water pools in Pennsylvania, by Wilbur T. Stua~t and Thomas
A. Simpson ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ B-82 I

38. Angular unconformity separates Catskill and Pocono formations in western part of Anthracite region, Penn- 'f,
sylvania, by J. Peter Trexler, Gordon H. Wood, Jr., and Harold H. Arndt·---------------------------------~--------------------------- 84
39. Reefs in the Fort Payne formation of Mississippian age, south-central Kentucky, by Robert E. Thaden, \
Richard Q. Lewis, J. Mark Cattermole, and Alfred R. Taylor _______________________________________________________________________________ _ 88
40. The Tuscaloosa gravel in Tennessee and its relation to the structural development of the Mississippi embay-
ment syncline, by Melvin V. Marcher _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ _ 90
41. Systematic pattern of Triassic dikes in the Appalachian region, by Philip B. King ___________________________________________________ _ 93
42. R~infall and minimum flows along the Tallapoosa River, Alabama, by H. C. Riggs _______________________________________________ _ 96
43. Stress model for the Bi\-mingham red iron-ore district, Alabama, by Thomas A. Simpson _____________________________________ _ 98
44. Water-temperature distribution in a tidal stream, by Frederick W. Wagener ___________________________________________________________ _ 100
45. Recent lead-alpha age determinations on zircon from the Carolina Piedmont, by William C. Overstreet, Henry
Bell, III, Harry J. Rose, Jr., and Thomas W. Stern------------------------------------------------------------------------------·---------------- . 103
46. Tidal fluctuations of water levels in wells in crystalline rocks in north Georgia, by J. W. Stewart _____________________ _ 107
Geology and hydrology of western conterminous United States
~
47. A new map of western conterminous United States showing the maximum known or inferred extent of
Pleistocene lakes, by J. H. Feth ·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------- 110
48. Recent flood-plain formation along the Cimarron River in Kansas, by S. A. Schumm and R. W. Lichty____________ 112
49. Abnormal bedding in the Savanna sandstone and Boggy shale in southeastern Oklahoma, by Thomas A.
Hendricks ----------------------------------------------~-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------· 114
50. Reservoir evaporation and seepage, Honey Creek, Tex., by F. W. Kennon--------------------------------------------------------------------- 117
51. Pre-Pennsylvanian Paleozoic stratigraphy, Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, New Mexico, by George 0. Bachman_____ 119
52. Preliminary results of test drilling in depressions on the High Plains, Lea County, N.Mex., by John S. Havens__ 123
53.· Lower member of Mural limestone of Early Cretaceous age, Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona, by Philip T. Hayes and
,,I
I

Edwin R. Landis ·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------c------------------------------------------------------------------------- 125

54. Origin of cross-strata in fluvial sandstone layers in the Chinle formation (Upper Triassic) on the Colorado
P la tea u, by John H. Stewart·------------------------------------------ ___ -------------------------------------------------------------------------------·-------------------- 127
55. Fossil woods associated with uranium on the Colorado Plateau, by Richard A. Scott _______________________________________________ _ 130
56. Late Cenozoic events of the Leadville district and upper Arkansas Valley, Colorado, by Ogden Tweto ___________ _ 133
57. Movement of the Slumgullion earthflow near Lake City, Colo., by Dwight R. Crandell and D. J. Varnes _______ _ 136
58. Relations of metals in lithosols to alteration and shearing at Red Mountain, Clear Creek County, Celo., by '\

P. K. Theobald,· Jr., and C. E. Thompson-------------------·------------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------··-··-···- 139

59. Hydrology of small grazed and ungrazed drainage basins, Badger Wash area, western Colorado, by Gregg
C. LusbY-----·····-----~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 141
60. Abandonment of Unaweep Canyon, Mesa County, Colo., by capture of the Colorado and Gunnison Rivers, by
S. W. Lohman·-------------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 144
61. Tripartition of the Wasatch formation near De Beque in northwestern Colorado, by John R. Donnell--------------- 147
62. Diamictite facies of the Wasatch formation in the Fossil basin, southwestern Wyoming, by J. I. Tracey, Jr., (t

S. S. Oriel, and W. W. RubeY-------~--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 149

63. Tongues of the Wasatch and Green River formations, Fort Hill area, Wyo., by S. S. OrieL _________________________________ _ 151
64. Age of the Evanston formation, western Wyoming, by W. W. Rubey, S. S. Oriel, and J. I. Tracey, Jr. ___________ _ 153
65. Permafrost and thaw depressions in a peat deposit in the Beartooth Mountains, northwestern Wyoming, by
William G. Pierce·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------,·----- 154
66. Evidence for Early Cretaceous folding in the Black Hills, Wyo., by Glen A. Izett, Charles L. Pillmore, and
William J. Mapel·---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 156
67. Structure of the Clark Fork area, Idaho-Montana, by J. E. Harrison, D. A. Jobin, and Elizabeth King _______________ _ 159
68. Pleistocene geology of the central part of the Lemhi Range, Idaho, by Edward T. Ruppel and Mortimer H.
Hait,. Jr·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 163
69. The Michaud delta and Bonneville River near Pocatello, Idaho, by Donald E. Trimble and Wilfred J. Carr ___ _ 164
70. Volcanic ash beds as stratigraphic markers in basin deposits near Hagerman and Glenns Ferry, Idaho, by
Howard A. Powers and Harold E. Malde·-----------------------------------~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 167
71. ~atterned ground of possible solifluction origin at low altitude in the western Snake River Plain, Idaho, by
Harold E. Malde·-------------------------------------------------------------~---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 170
72. Collapse structures of southern Spanish Valley, southeastern Utah, by G. W. Weir, W. P. Puffett, and C. L.
Dodson --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 173
73. Age relations of the Climax composite stock, Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nevada, by F. N. Houser and
F. G. Poole __________________________________________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 176
74. Rhyolites in the Egan range south of Ely, Nev., by Daniel R. Shawe _____________________________________________________________________ _ 178
75. Tectonic significance of radial profiles of_ alluvial fans in western Fresno County, Calif., by William B. BulL ___ _ 182 -,,
 CONTENTS VII
Page

Geology and hydrology of western conterminous United States-Continued

76. Soil-moisture storage characteristics and infiltration rates as indicated by annual grasslands near Palo Alto,
Calif., by F. A. Branson, R. F. Miller, and I. S McQueen ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- B-184
77. Causes and mechanics of near-surface subsidence in western Fresno County, Calif., by William B. BulL__________ 187
78. Specific gravity of sandstones in the Franciscan and related Upper Mesozoic formations of California, by
William P. Irwin·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·-------------------------------------------- 189
79. Some extremes of climate in Death Valley, Calif., by T. W. Robinson and Charles B. Hunt----------------------------- 192
80. Stratigraphy of desert varnish, by Charles B. Hunt ..... --------------------------------------------------------------------------~--------------------------- 194
81. Use of archeology in Recent stratigraphy, by Charles B. Hunt and Alice P. Hunt----------------------------------------------- 195
82. Evidence of strike-slip movement on northwest-trending faults in Mojave Desert, California, by T. W.
Dibblee, Jr·-------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 197
83. Zoning· of saline minerals at Deep Spring Lake, Calif., by Blair F. Jones--------------------------------------------------------------------- 199
84. Effects of rainfall and geolog·y on the chemical composition of water in coastal streams of California, by
J. H. Feth·--------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------~------------- 2·02
85. Ground water from coastal dune and beach sands, by E. R. Hampton·------------------------------------------------------------------------- 204
86. Mass budget of South Cascade Glacier, 1957-60, by Mark F. Meier__________________________________________________________________________ 206
87. Competence of a glacial stream, by Robert K. Fahnestock -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 211
88. Structural barrier reservoirs of ground water in the Columbia River basalt, by R. C. Newcomb._______________________ 213
Geology and hydrology of Alaska and Hawaii
89. Xenolithic nodules in the 1800-1801 Kaupulehu flow of Hualalai Volcano, by Donald H. Richter and Kiguma
J. Murata ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 215
90. Reconnaissance of the Kandik and Nation Rivers, east-central Alaska, by Earl E. Brabb 218
Geology of Puerto Rico
91. Hydrothermally altered rocks in eastern Puerto Rico, by Fred A. Hildebrand ___________________________________________________________ _ 219
92. Andalusite-topaz greisen near Caguas, east-central Puerto Rico, by Fred A. Hildebrand·------------------------------------- 222
93. Ash-flow deposits, Ciales quadrangle, Puerto Rico, and their significance, by Henry L. Berryhill, Jr.----------------- 224
Paleontology and plant ecology
94. Replaced Paleocene Foraminifera in the Jackson Purchase area, Kentucky, by I. G. Sohn, S. M. Herrick,
and T. W. Lambert----------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 227
95. Coal-ball occurrences in eastern Kentucky, by James M. Schopf__________________________________________________________________________________ 228
96. Age of the Ohio Creek conglomerate, Gunnison County, Colo., by ·D. L. GaskilL ___________________________________________·_______ 230
97. Bioherms in the upper part of the Pogonip in southern Nevada, by Reuben J. Ross, Jr., and Henry R.
Cornwall -----------------------·-------------------·--------~-------------------------··-----·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 231
98. Soil moisture under juniper and pinyon compared with moisture under grassland in Arizona, by R. F.
Miller, F. A. Branson, I. S. McQueen, and R. C. Culler _______________ ____________________________________________________________________________ 233
7
99. Corals from Permian rocks of the northern Rocky Mountain region, by Helen Duncan__________________________________________ 235
100. Occurrences of the Permian gastropod Omphalotrochus in northwestern United States, by Ellis L. Yochelson 237
101. Pennsylvanian rocks in southeastern Alaska, by J. Thomas Dutro, Jr., and Raymond C. Douglass.___________________ 239
Geophysics
102. Poisson's ratio of rock salt and potash ore, by R. E. Warrick and W. H. Jackson------------------------------------------- 241
103. Frequency content of seismog-rams of nuclear explosions and aftershocks, by S. W. Stewart and W. H.
Diment ------------------------------------------·----------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 243
104. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in and near Yellowstone National Park, by L. C. Pakiser and
Harry L. Baldwin, Jr.·------------------------------------------------------------------------------"------------------·--------------------------------------------------------- 246
105. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in the Snake River Plain, Idaho, by D. P. Hill, Harry L. Bald-
win, Jr., and L. C. Pakiser·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 248
106. Gravity, volcanism, and crustal deformation in Long Valley, Calif., by L. C. Pakiser____________________________________________ 250
107. Gravity study of the structural geology of Sierra Valley, Calif., by W. H. Jackson, F. R.. Shawe, and
L. C. Pakiser.--------------------------·------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 254
Mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology
108. Distribution of niobium in three contrasting comag·matic series of igneous rocks, by David Gottfried, Lillie
Jenkins, and Frank S. Grimaldi ·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 256
109. Beryllium content of cordierite, by Wallace R. Griffitts and Elmo F. Cooley________________________________________________________ 259
110. Germanium content of enargite and other copper sulfide minerals, by Michael Fleischer________________________________________ · 259
111. Chlorine and fluorine in silicic volcanic glass, by Howard A. Powers------------------------------------------------------------------- 261
112. Electronprobe analysis of schreibersite (rhabdite) in the Canyon Diablo meteorite, by I. Adler and E. J.
Dwornik ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---·-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 263
 I
VIII CONTENTS ~

Page
Mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology-Continued
113. The synthesis of large crystals of andersonite, by Robert Meyrowitz and Daphne R. Ross ----------------------------- B-266
114. Unit-cell dimension versus composition in the systems: PbS-CdS, PbS-PbSe, ZnS-ZnSe, and CuFeS~.~.,-
CuFeS~.~~o, by Philip M. ·Bethke and Paul B. Barton, Jr.-------------------------·-------------------------------------------------------------- 266
115. Unit-cell edges of cobalt- and cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites, by Wayne E. Hall-------------------------------------------:----:-- 271
116. X-ray diffractometer method for measuring preferred orientation in clays, by Robert H. Meade____________________________ 273
117. Molybdenum content of glacial drift related to molybdenite-bearing bedrock, Aroostook County, Maine, by
F. C. Canney; F. N. Ward, and M. J. Bright, Jr, __________ ·--------------------------------'------------------------------------------------------------- 276
118. Anomalous heavy minerals in the High Rock quadrangle North Carolina, by Amos M. White and Arvid A.
Stromquist ------------------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 278
119. Iron content of soils and trees, Beaver Creek strip mining area, Kentucky, by Eugene T. Oborn______________________ 279
120. Mineralogy ~f the Olive Hill clay bed, Kentucky, by John W. Hosterman and Sam H. Patterson----------------------- 280
121. Four environments of thorium-, niobium-, and rare-earth-bearing minerals in the Powderhorn district of
southwestern Colorado, by D. C. Hedlund and J. C. Olson________________________________________________________________________________ 283
122. Rhenium iu plant samples from the Colorado Plateau, by A. T. Myers and J. C. Hamilton------------------------------------- 286
123. Classification of elements in Colorado Plateau uranium deposits and multiple stages of mineralization, by
A. T. Miesch ______________________________________________________________________ ·---------------------· -----------------------· _____________________________________________________ :__ 289
124. Hydrogeochemical anomalies, Fourmile Canyon, Eureka County, Nev., by R. L. Erickson and A. P.
Marranzino ------------------------------------------------------------------------------.. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 291
125. Grantsite, a new hydrated sodium calcium vanadyl vandate from New Mexico and Colorado-a preliminary
description, by A. D. Weeks, M. L. Lindberg, and Robert Meyrowitz ·------------------------------------------------------------------- 293
126. Insoluble residues and Ca:Mg ratios in the Madison group, Livingston, Mont., by Albert E. Roberts_____________ 294
127. Mangl;l.nese oxide minerals at Philipsburg, Mont., by William C. Prinz______________________________________________________________________ 296
128. Uranium and radium in ground water from igneous terranes of the Pacific Northwest, by Franklin B.
Barker and Robert C. Scott ____________________________________________ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 298
129. Sborgite in the Furnace Creek area, California, by James F. McAllister________________________________________________________________ 299 .J!

Geology and hydrology applied to engineering and public health

130. Economic significance of a buried bedrock bench beneath the Missouri River flood plain near Council Bluffs,
·Iowa, by Robert D. Miller. _____________________________________________ ._______·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 301
131. Relation of supports to geology in the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel, Colorado, by E. E. Wahlstrom, L. A.
Warner, and C. S. Robinson ----------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------~----------------------------------------------------------- 303
132. Landslides along the Uinta fault east of Flaming Gorge, Utah, by Wallace R. Hansen------------------------------------- 306
Exploratiim and mapping techniques
133. Geochemical prospecting for copper deposits hidden beneath alluvium in the Pima district, Arizona, by
Lyman C. Huff and A. P. Marranzino ·----------------------- ·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 308
134. Measurement of bulk density of drill core by gamma-ray absorption, by Carl M. Bunker and Wendell A.
Bradley ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 310
135. Mechanical control for the time-lapse motion-picture photography of geologic processes, by Robert D. Miller,
Ernest E. Parshall, and Dwight R. CrandelL _________________ ~-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 313
136. Liquid-level tiltmeter measures uplift produced by hydraulic fracturing, by Francis S. Riley ___________________________ _ 317
137. A method of recording and representing geologic features from large-diameter drill holes, by Elmer H. Baltz
and James E. Weir, Jr.·---------------------------------------------------·------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 319
Analytical and petrographic methods
138. Methods for decomposing samples of silicate rock fragments, by John C. Antweiler ·--------------------------------------------- 322
139. Fatigue in scintillation counting, by Francis J. Flanagan ---------------------------------------------------------------·------------------------------ 324
140. A simplified method of concentrating and preparing carbonate shells for cu age determinations, by Thomas
C. Nichols, Jr. _______________________________________________________________________ :_______________________________ ,________________________________________________________________ _ 326
141. Colorimetric determination of iron in small samples of sphalerite, by Leonard Shapiro ·and Martha S. Toulmin _ 328
142. Indirect semiautomatic determination of alumina· with EDTA, by J. I. Dinnin and C. A. Kinser -------------------- 329
143. Determination of copper in plant ash with neo-cuproine, by Claude Huffman, Jr., and Dwight L. Skinner _______ _ 331
144. Direct-reading spectrometric technique for determining major constituents in natural water, by Joseph
Haffty and A. W. Helz ---------------------------------------------------·----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 333
145. Rapid quantitative estima~es of quartz and total iron in silicate rocks by X-ray diffraction, by D. B. Tatlock _____ _ 334 -,
146. The Koberg-Daum wind-direction and wind-velocity recorder, by G. E. Koberg and C. R. Daum ------------------------- 337
Index
Subject --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 339
Author ---------------------·--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·· -------------------------------------------------------- 343
Finding- list of article page numbers --------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 344
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146

GEOLOGY OF METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS

1. TEMPERATURE OF FORMATION OF A PRECAMBRIAN MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSIT, COPPER KING MINE,

FRONT RANGE, COLORADO

By P. K. SIMS and PRIESTLEY TOULMIN, 3d, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C.

The Copper King mine, at Prairie Divide in Lari- of the ore minerals and the textural relations ob-
'·· mer County~ Colo., contains ore deposits of two types served in the field and in polished sections indicate
and ages-massive sulfide-magnetite deposits of that they were deposited during a single stage. The
Precambrian age and a vein uranium deposit of minerals crystallized in the commonly observed
early Tertiary age. The ore deposits and the geologic paragenetic order: magnetite, pyrrhotite, pyrite,·
setting of the mine have been described previously sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. The sphalerite is dark
(Sims, Phair, and Moench, 1958). This report pre- reddish-brown and apparently homogeneous. It con-
sents some new data concerning the temperature of tains oriented blebs and blades of chalcopyrite and
formation of coexisting sphalerite, pyrrhotite, and sparse randomly distributed blebs of pyrrhotite,
pyrite from one of th~ massive sulfide deposits in which are interpreted to have formed from exsolu-
the mine. .tion on cooling.
The sulfide-magnetite deposit is a small, elongate, The temperature of formation of the deposit can
roughly tabular body that is mainly in cummingto- be estimated by use of the sphalerite and pyrrhotite
nite-anthophyllite skarn. The ore minerals form geothermometers (Kullerud, 1953; Arnold, 1958).
massive layers and lenses a few feet in maximum Barton and Kullerud (1958) have extended the
breadth and width and a few tens of feet in length earlier work of Kullerud (1953) to show that if
that conform to the foliation and lineation of the sphalerite formed in equilibrium with pyrrhotite
host rock. The deposit consists, in order of de- (with or without pyrite) below a temperature of
creasing abundance, of pyrite, sphalerite, pyrrhotite, 600°C., the temperature of formation can be deter-
chalcopyrite, magnetite, and molybdenite. The re- mined from the FeS content of the sphalerite, using
lation of the ore minerals to the host rock clearly the solvus curve determined for the binary systems
indicates that they formed mainly by replacement FeS-ZnS. The sphalerite at the Copper King mine
of amphiboles. The deposit and its host rock are is in contact with both pyrrhotite and pyrite and
enclosed entirely within a biotite-muscovite granite contains exsolved bi'ebs of pyrrhotite, and therefore
of Precambrian age, which has been called Silver probably crystallized in equilibrium with these
Plume granite (Lovering and Goddard, 1950, pl. 1). minerals. The sphalerite in five samples from various
Magnetite from the deposit a~d monazite from a parts of the deposit exposed in the mine workings
pegmatite in the granite have both been dated as contains 13.6 to 15.6 formula percent FeS, as shown
late Precambrian (Phair and Sims, 1954). in table 1, which corresponds to a range in tempera-
Except for molybdenite, the ore minerals are ture of crystallization from 440°C. to 490°C. (Bar-
closely associated and commonly intergrown, al- ton and Kullerud, 1958, fig. 33). The low amounts
though the quantities and proportions of the sep- of manganese, copper, and cadmium in solid solu-
arate mineral phases differ from one ore-bearing tion in the sphalerite would have little e·ffect on the
layer or lens to another. The close spatial assqciation solubility of FeS in ZnS.

B-1
 B-2 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.1.-Spectrochemical analyses of sphale'rite and esti- broader than that of pyrrhotite CK-64, presumably
mated temperatures of crystallization reflecting a range of composition. The mean value
[Analyses by R. G. Havens, U.S. Geological Survey] of d<1o2> is approximately 2.066A, corresponding to
a composition of 47.3 atomic percent metals. Both
Estimated this higher mean metal content and the greater
Samples Analyses (percent) temperature
of formation spread in composition of pyrrhotite CK-3 probably
(degrees
Serial No. Field No. Fe FeSl Mn Cu Cd Zn centigrade) 2
reflect partial reaction with the late pyrite. Pyrrho-
- --- -- --
E-1860 ...... A.......... 9.1 15.6 0.13 0.63 0.26 0.015 490±10 tite that has a composition of 47.3 atomic percent
1861 ...... B .......... 8.6 14.8 .13 1.1 .28 .014 480±10
1858 ...... CK-69 ..... 8.2 14.1 .12 .95 .28 .013 455±10 metals is in equilibrium with pyrite at about 325°C.
1857 ...... CK-201 .... 7.9 13.6 .13 .52 .26 .012 440±10
1859.: .... UG-20 ..... 7.9 13.6 .13 .69 .26 .011 440±10 If the massive sulfide deposit is genetically related
to the granite, as seems probable from their close
1 Formula percent.
spatial association and their similar absolute ages
2 Not corrected for total rock pressure. If the rock cover at the time of
mineralization was 5 miles, the sphalerite temperatures would be raised
(Sims, Phair, and Moench, 1958, p. 200), the de-
about 50° C. posit necessarily formed after the adjacent granite
had crystallized and cooled to about 500°C. On this
Compositions of pyrrhotite from two samples assumption, it is unlikely that the ore-forming solu-
( CK-64 and CK-3) collected from the same part of tions could have come from a source near the sul-
the mine as the sphalerite samples have been deter- fide body; instead they must have been derived from
mined from measurements of d(lo 2 > (Arnold and a more distant source, possibly subjacent crystalliz-
Reichen, 1959). Pyrrhotite CK-64, associated with ing magma.
pyrite, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, has d 11 0 2> equal
to 2.063A, corresponding to 47.03 atomic percent
metals. Assuming Fe to be the only metal present, REFERENCES .}

we may apply the solvus curve in the system FeS- Arnold, R. G., 1958, The Fe-S system: Annual report of the
. FeS 2 to find a temperature of 400°C. This tempera- Director of the Geophysical Laboratory, .1957-58, Car-
ture is somewhat lower than that indicated by the negie Inst. Washington Year Book 57, p. 218-222.
composition of the associated sphalerite. A similar Arnold, R. G., and Reichen, Laura, 1959, Application of the
relationship between "pyrrhotite temperatures" and pyrrhotite X-ray determinative curve to natural pyrrho-
tites: Annual report of the Director of. the Geophysical
"sphalerite temperatures" has been found in several
Laboratory, 1957-58, Carnegie Inst. Washington, Year
other studies (for example: Stone, 1959; Skinner, Book 58, p. 155-:-156.
1958) and probably is a consequence of differe.nt Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1958, The Fe-Zn-S
reaction rates in the two systems. System: Annual report of the Director of the Geophysicai
Comparison of the reaction-rate data on sphalerite Laboratory 1957-58, Carnegie Inst. Washington Year
in the system FeS-ZnS (Kullerud, 1953, p. 98) and Book 57, p. 227-229.
on pyrrhotite in the system FeS-FeS 2 1 shows that Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system, a geological
pyrrhotite equilibrates with pyrite at 325°C. as thermometer: Norsk geol. tidsskr., v. 32, p. 61-147.
rapidly as sphalerite equilibrates with FeS at 750°C. Lovering, T. S., and Goddard, E. N., 1950, Geology and ore I.

deposits of the Front Range, Colorado; U.S. Geol. Survey

Thus as a pyrite-pyrrhotite-sphalerite assemblage Prof. Paper 223, 319 p.
cools slowly in nature, one would ~xpect the pyrrho- Phair, George, and Sims, P. K., 1954, Paragenesis and age of
tite to continue to react at temperatures below that the uranium minerals in the Copper King mine, Larimer
at which the sphalerite composition had been effec- County, Colo. [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 65, p.
1385.
tively "quenched in" by decreasing reaction rates. Sims, P. K., Phair, George, and Moench, R. H., 1958, Geology
Pyrrhotite CK-3 is also associated with pyrite, of the Copper King uranium mine, Larimer County, Colo.:
sphalerite, and chalcopyrite, and is cut by a late U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1032-D, p. 171-221.
generation of pyrite probably related to the Tertiary Skinner, B. J., 1958, The Geology and metamorphism of the
uranium mineralization. Its (102) peak is much Nairne pyritic formation, a sedimentary sulfide deposit in
South Australia: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 546-562.
1 Pyrrhotite-pyrite equilibrium relations between 325° c. and 743° c. by Stone, J. G., 1959, Ore genesis in the Naica district, Chihua-
Ralph G. Arnold, unpublished Ph.D .. thesis, Princeton Univ., 1958, p. 41. hua, Mexico: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1002-1034.

/_
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-3
'
2. COFFINITE IN URANIUM VEIN DEPOSITS OF THE FRONT RANGE, COLORADO

By P. K. SIMS, E. J. YOUNG, and W. N. SHARP, Denver, Colo.

Coffinite, a uranous silicate with hydroxyl sub- The known occurrences of coffinite in the Front
stitution, is associated with pitchblende in some Range are listed in table 1. At the Copper King, .
hydrothermal vein deposits in the Front Range, and Fair Day, and Foothills mines, and possibly also the
locally is an important ore mineral. Previously re- Schwartzwalder mine, coffinite constitutes a substan-
ported occurrences of the mineral in the ·united tial part of the uranium ore; at the other. localities ·
States (Stieff, Stern, and Sherwood, 1956; Frondel, it is sparse.
1958) have been mainly from the black, unoxidized
vanadium-uranium ores of the Colorado Plateau.

TABLE 1.-Known occurr.nwes of coffinite in the Front Range

Mino District or area County Principal associated minerals Source of data

Blue .Jay Jamestowr1 Boulder Fluorite, uraninite, and Identified by X-ray powder
uranothorite photographs, this report. ·
Copper :King Prairie Divide J~arimer Pitchblende, siderite, pyrite, Reported by Sims, Phair,
'·· sphalerite, marcasite, quartz and Moench (1958).
--
Ji'air Day .Jamestown Boulder Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Identified by X-ray powder
sphalerite, chalcopyrite photographs and in polished
and thin sections, this report.
Foothills Idledale Jefferson Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Identified by X..:ray powder
potassium feldspar, carbonates photographs, this report.
Old Leyden eoal Leyden Jefferson Meta-tyuyamunite, autunite, Reported by A. J. Gude, 3rd;
uranophane, and pyrite see also Gude and McKeown
I' __ .,. __ (1953).
Sehwartzwaldm· Halston Buttes Jefferson Pitchblende, pyrite, quartz, Reported by J. D. Schlottman,
earbonate minerals, potassium U. S. Atomic Energy Commis-
feldspar sion ·(oral communication, 1960).
Stanley Idaho Springs Clear Creek Pitehblende, pyrite, sphalerite, Reported by R. H. Moench,
and a carbonate mineral (oral communication, 1961).

Coffinite typically occurs in the Front Range in erally cannot be distinguished megascopically from
veins that are characterized by abundant open pitchblende. It can be identified with certainty, how-
cavities and conspicuous crustification, features gen- ever, by X-ray powder photographs, and in some ores
erally conside~ed diagnostic of epithermal veins at least can be recognized in thin and polished sec-
(Lindgren, 1933, p. 444-445). It is associated with tions. Polished thin sections are particularly u~eful
pitchblende, pyrite, and sparse sulfides that rarely for study of the coffinite ores. · .
are visible megascopically, chiefly sphalerite (nearly In transmitted light, the coffinite is brown or
pure ZnS), chalcopyrite, and marcasite. Quartz- ·yellowish brown, translucent to different degrees, and
or quartz, ankerite, and potassium feldspar-is mostly isotropic. It occurs predominantly as .aggre-
the principal gangue mineral in most deposits, but gates of extremely small particles that form spheroi-
siderite is dominant in one, the Copper King deposit. dal or other rotund forms. Rarely, the aggregates
Two exceptions to this mode of occurrence are have a visible fibrous structure, with the fibers
known. At the Stanley mine, coffinite fills fractures oriented perpendicular to the colloform bands. The
that cut sulfide and gangue minerals of a mesother- fibrous aggregates show a generally weak but con-
mal vein; at the Old Leyden coal mine, coffinite is spicuous dichroism (darker color perpendicular to
associated with fractured and silicified coal. fibers). In general, the optical properties agree with
The coffinite is black in hand specimen and gen- well crystallized coffinite from the Woodrow mine,
B-4 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Laguna district, New Mexico (R. H . Moench, writ-

ten communication, 1961).
Refrq,ctive indices, reflectivity, and unit cell sizes
of coffinite from two mines are listed below:

Coffini te
-----------c---- -------~---------

Locality Refractive Reflectivity 1 Unit cell size

index (percent) (A)
--·----------,-·--- - - - - - - - ------------1----------
Fair Day mine . .. .. . • 1.77 ± 0.005 7.8-9 .8 A, = 6.93,
c, = 6.2!,
Copper King mine . . ...... •. .. (') 8.2- 8.6 A, =6. 97 ,
C0 = 6.28o

1 Determined in orange lig ht with a Hallimond visual microphotometer,

according to the method descr ibed by L eonard (1960).
2 Coffinite is finely admixed wi th siderite and othe r minerals, and a re-
liable refractive index was not dete rmin ed. Index is know n to be lower than
for coffinite from the F a ir D ay min e.

The pitchblende associated with coffinite from the

Fair Day mine has a reflectivity of 13 in orange
light. As the coffinite from both the Fair Day and
Copper King mines contains some finely intergrown
pitchblende, the measured reflectivities are slightly
higher than would be obtained from homogeneous
coffinite.
In reflected light, coffinite resembles pitchblende
in its optical and physical properties and in having
rotund forms and ubiquitous shrinkage cracks. It
is gray and isotropic, and has a hardness similar to
that of pitchblende. It can be distinguished from
pitchblende because it has (a) weak internal reflec-
tions, (b) a lower reflectivity, and (c) a local radial-
fibrous structure in colloform aggregates, which can
be seen most clearly under oil immersion.
Metallographic studies of the black uranium ores FIGURE 2.1.--Photomicrographs of polished section·s of
ore from Fair Day mine (c, coffinite; p, pitchblende).
from the Fair Day mine, which have a delicate coHo-
form structure, indicate that coffinite formed later
than pitchblende. In all sections examined, coffinite in outline. In the lower photomicrograph, of part of a
embays and veins pitchblende, in a manner such as coffinite veinlet that transects a spheroidal grain of
that illustrated in figure 2.1. The upper photomicro- pitchblende, it can be seen that the veinlet is highly
graph shows a spheroidal grain of pitchblende that irregular and consists of coalescing aggregates of
is almost surrounded by coffinite. The coffinite em- individual rotund forms that are smoothly convex
bays the host irregularly and has replaced much of toward the host. The largest node has conspicuous
the outer part of the original sphere. One veinlet growth bands. This photomicrograph shows also a
extends completely across the sphere. Replacement small veinlet of coffinite that appears to follow a
clearly preceded complete solidification of the host, shrinkage crack in pitchblende; this relation is rare
for shrinkage cracks in the pitchblende in part ex- in the ores.
tend outward into the coffinite, suggesting that Paragenetic studies of the black uranium ores
shrinkage was partly simultaneous in both minerals.
If the pitchblende had completely crystallized and from the Copper King mine are less definitive. Typi-
shrunk before it was replaced, the coffinite should cally, tiny rotund forms of pitchblende, at most a
occur preferably in and along the shrinkage cracks. few microns in diameter, occur in dominantly coHo-
In detail, the contacts between pitchblende and coffi- form coffinite. Even under magnification of several
nite are sharp, even when observed under high mag- hundred diameters, there is no evidence that the
nification, and are commonly bulbous or mammillary pitchblende is corroded by coffinite.
..... SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND 'HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-5
The occurrences of coffinite in the Front Range Gude, A. J., 3d. and McKeown, F. A., 1953, Results of explora-
indicate that the mineral characteristically forms in tion at the Old Leyden coal mine, Jefferson County, Colo-
rado: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report.
veins in a low temperature-pressure environment. Leonard, B. F., 1960, Reflectivity measurements with a Halli-
Coffinite· has not been identified from the uranium- mond visual microphotometer: Econ. Geology, v. 55, p.
bearing mesothermal sulfide veins of the Front Range 1306-1312.
mineral belt (Sims, 1956), except at the Stanley Lindgren, Waldem.ar, 1933, Mineral deposits, 4th ed.: New
mine (table 1), where coffinite is clearly later than York, McGraw-Hill, 930 p.
Sims, P. K., 1956, Paragenesis and structure of pitchblende-
the dominant vein minerals and therefore could have bearing veins, Central City district, Colorado: Econ.
formed under considerably lower temperatures than Geology, v. 51, p. 739-756.
the main mineral assemblage. Sims, P. K., Phair, George, and Moench, R. H., 1958, Geology
of the Copper King uranium mine, Larimer County,
Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1032-D, p. 171-221.
REFERENCES Stieff, L. R., Stern, T. W., and Sherwood, A . .M., 1956, Coffin-
Fronde!, Clifford, 1958, Systematic mineralogy of uranium ite, a uranous silicate with hydroxyl substitution: A new
·nnd thorium: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1064, 400 p. mineral: Am. Mineralogist, v. 41, p. 675-688. ·

3. STRUCTURAL CONTROL OF EPIGENETIC URANIUM DEPOSITS IN CARBONATE ROCKS OF

NORTHWESTERN NEW MEXICO

By LOWELL S. HILPERT, Salt Lake City, Utah

Wo1·k done in coope?·ation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

A compilation of data on more than 100 uranium above the water table, are yellow and yellow-gre~n
deposits in carbonate rocks in northwestern New uranyl vanadates and silicates, which coat the:.walls
Mexico shows that the deposits are generally asso- of fractures and the pore spaces along silty layers
ciated with tectonic structures. The· deposits occur in the limestone.
mostly in the Colorado Plateaus Province in the The Todilto deposits are roughly tabular with ir-
Todilto limestone of Jurassic age ; and a few occur regular outline, thus resembling many uranium de-
in the Basin and Range Province in .the San Andres posits in sandstone in the Colorado Plateaus Prov-
and Madera limestones of Permian and Pennsyl- ince and elsewhere. They generally conform to the
vanian ages, respectively (fig. 3.1). All the deposits bedding but in detail cut across it. M·ore than 50
are considered to be of epigenetic origin-that is, deposits have been mined, and individual deposits
they were emplaced some time after the host rocks have yielded from a few tons to as much as 100,000
were deposited. tons of uranium ore.
In the Todilto limestone the uranium minerals are Control of the uranium deposits in the Todilto
of primary and secondary ·origin. The primary. min- Iim·estone has been ascribed to :diagenetic folds and
erals, which are finely disseminated, are uraninite larger scale fold and fault structures (Gabelman,
and coffinite, accompanied by the vanadium oxides 1956, p~·· 389, 391-392). The diagenetic folds are
paggite and paramontroseite (Truesdell and Weeks, referred to hereafter as intraformational folds.
1959, p. 1689-1960). These minerals fill pore spaces, However, a close spatial relation between the de-
and replace limestone along silty layers. They are posits and the larger scale structures is difficult to
accompanied by the accessory minerals pyrite, hema- establish. In fact, these structures may be younger
tite, fluorite, and barite (Laverty and Gross, 1956, than the primary uranium minerals (Hilpert and
p. 195-201). The secondary uranium minerals, gen-. Moench, 1960, p .. 443-444) as they probably are
erally closely associated with the primary minerals related to a system of large-scale structures that has
B-6 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

37"f- ------ 108"

---
COLORADO
- - - - - J.......... -
NEW MEXiCO
~)
I ~
107"

- _ _....,,
I

r,...
,.J
I
G> Shiprock
I
G> Farmington

I
<Iz
l
R I 0 A .R RIB A

-21
i:2t I
<,~
I,___ _
SAN JUAN

I
I
I
z

36"~---------+ -----.
>
,Q
a::
a..

: I SANDOVAL

II @~~
M c KINLEY.
II

II
I
I
I
Santa Fe

I Llt>~ I I
SANTA

FE

I ----~~----
1 I
l I Grnnts ~~ Laguna
\ ---------~
Al~uquerque I
+
G> G>

35 J+
L.:-.. _ _ _ _•
I
.
V A L E N C I A G>
~
o
~ '
+ B E R N A L I L L 0 1- -
L_ 35"

I . ~6. g .o \ ,-~. I
0 z
u <( -----
. I- - - - -
109"

EXPLANATION
I
I

----.----- ------
I
ITORRANCE
I
Uranium deposit or group of deposits in
~~ l
""'I
Todilto limestone
1

Uraniu~ deposit in San Andres limestone

CAT R 0 N 1 ----
I

Uranium deposit in Madera limestone 1

0 5 10 15 20 25 MILES
0
34"
108"
l--
107"
Socorro

FIGURE 3.1.-Map of northwestern New Mexico showing uranium deposits in the Todilto, San Andres, and Madera limestones.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 · B-7
been interpreted to be later than early Eocene in age County (fig. 3.1) where the limestone has been
(Hunt, 1938, p. 74-75). On the other hand, the brecciated along a north-trending high-angle fault.
deposits are closely related to the intraformational In these deposits also the uranium occurs in yellow
folds because they generally occur along the flanks vanadates and possib~y in silicates that coat the
and in some places along the axes of the folds. fracture surfaces. The largest mineralized zone is
The intraformational folds are of many types. about 100 f~et in diameter where exposed at the sur-
Some are broad and open, some are recumbent, face, and is several feet thick. The highest grade
others are parts of larger intraformational folds, material is near the fault and some ore has been
and still others are associated with intraformational mined.
faults that have displacements of only a few inches The deposits in the San Andres and Madera lime-
or more. In size the folds range from a few inches stones are probably of late Tertiary age or younger·
to about 30 feet in width and amplitude, and from because the faults that apparently control the de-
a few feet to hundreds of feet in length. They are posits displace the Datil formation (Wilpolt and
generally confined to the Todilto limestone, but some Wanek, 1951), which is probably of late Tertiary
extend a few feet into the overlying or underlying age.
formations. Many occur in clusters and if so the In summary, the uranium deposits in carbonate
axes of individual folds may· be parallel or sub- rocks in northwestern New Mexico are almost en-
parallel. These structures are developed best in tirely associated with folds, faults, and minor frac-
McKinley and Valencia Counties and a few occur in tures. These deposits are of epigenetic origin; they
western San Juan and Rio Arriba Counties (fig. 3.1). occur in two geologic provinces in formations of
These intraformational folds are ·apparently tec- three geologic ages, and they probably represent
tonic in origin, as they are related to tectonic fold- two different periods of mineralization. Because
ing (Hilpert and Moench, 1960,· p. 437-444). They they were formed under diverse geologic conditions
are probably of Jurassic or Early Cretaceous age; in which the tectonic structures are the only fea-
and the associated primary ore minerals are prob- tures common to all, it must be· concluded that locali-
ably of Late Cretaceous or early Tertiary age (Hil- zation of the uranium deposits is controlled by the
pert and Moench, 1960, p. 450). · tectonic structures. A brief review of the geologic
literature reveals that most epigenetic uranium de-
Deposits in the San Andres and Madera lime-
posits in carbonate rock are controlled by tectonic
stones also occur where the rocks have been de-
structures. Therefore, it is concluded that only de-
formed. These deposits may be wholly secondary in
formed carbonate rocks are good host rocks for epi-
origin, as only secondary minerals have been identi- genetic uranium deposits.
fied-but it is possible .that primary minerals will
ultimately be revealed by further .exploration or
REFERENCES
study.
Gabelman, J. W., 1956, Uranium deposits in limestone, in
In the San Andres limestone the urani urn is in
Page, L. R., and others, compilers, Contributions to the
conspicuous yellow vanadates that coat fracture geology of uranium and thorium by the United States
surfaces, bedding surfaces, and fill open space in Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for
the rock where it has been broken by faulting. Two the United Nations International Conference on peaceful
uses of atomic energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S.
deposits in north-central Socorro County (fig. 3.1) Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 387-404.
are in a sandy zone in the limestone where it is Hilpert, L. S., and Moench, R. H., 1960, Uranium deposits of
broken by a north-trending high-angle fault. The the southern part of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico:
largest mineralized zone, from which some ore has Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 429-464.
been mined, is about 50 feet in diameter and 35 feet Hunt, C. B., 1938, Igneous geology and structure of the Mount
Taylor volcanic field, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey
thick. A deposit also occurs in the San Andres lime- Prof. Paper 189-B, p. 51-80.
stone in Valencia County, but the geologic relations Laverty, R. A., and Gross, E. B., 1956·, Paragenetic studies of
.· are not clear. At this locality a yellow uranium uranium deposits of the Colorado Plateau, in Page, L. R.;
mineral has been reported to occur in fractures in and others, compilers, Contributions to the geology of
the San Andres limestone near igneous intrusive uranium and thorium by the United States Geological
Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the United
rocks.
Nations International Conference on peaceful uses of
Two uranium deposits also occur in ·a sandy zone atomic energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. Geol.
in the Madera limestone in north-central Socorro Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 195-201.
B-8 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Truesdell, A. H., and Weeks, A. D., 1959, Relation of the Wilpolt, R. H., and Wanek, A. A., 1951, Geology of the region
Todilto limestone uranium deposits to Colorado Plateau from Socorro and San Antonio east to Chupadera Mesa,
uranium deposits in sandstone [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Socorro County, New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and
Bull., v. 70, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1689-1690. Gas Inv. Map OM-121.

4. ORIGIN OF URANIUM AND GOLD IN THE QUARTZITE-CONGLOMERATE OF THE SERRA DE JACOBINA,

BRAZIL

By MAX G. WHITE, Washington, D. C.

The Serra de Jacobina is in the north-central restricted to the western flank of the Serra, where
part of the State of Bahia, northeast Brazil. It is they lie in contact with weathered granitic rocks. /.
a narrow prominent range that stands out in sharp On the eastern border of the Serra the white quart-
relief over adjacent plains. The mountainous coun- zite is overlain by slate and phyllite. Scattered pock-
try rises generally to altitudes of 600 to 800 meters ets of high-grade manganese oxides are found in the
with peaks of approximately 1,100 meters. The ad- quartzite.
jacent plains have an average altitude of about 450 .The rocks in the Serra de Jacobina dip easterly at
meters. The principal town in the area is Jacobina, high angles (45° .to 70°), and strike northerly, ).
,
about 3~0 kilometers, by road, west of the port city parallel to the trend of the range; Details of the
of Salvador, Bahia. structure are not well known, but considering the
The gold deposits of the r~gion have been known steep dip of the rocks and the relatively narrow
since the latter part of the 17th century. Lode and width ( 6 km) of the Serra, any divergence in strike
placer deposits have been mined on a small scale. of the quartzite from the trend of the Serra would
Currently only the Canavieiras gold mine is operat- carry the basal conglomerate away from the Serra
ing in the district. · at some short distance north of Jacobina. Many
Uranium discovered in the pyri'tic gold ores of high-angle faults cut the Serra de Jacobina and
Jacobina in early. 1954 (White, 1956) has been de- many of the morros (hills) that make up the range
scribed in fair detail at the Canavieiras mine (White, are fault blocks. The conglomerates may have been
1957; Bateman, 1958). The gold-uranium mineral- removed by faulting north of Jacobina. In a few
ized quartzite-conglomerates have been traced in places highly weathered dark-colored dikes of what
discontinuous outcrops from about 3 kilometers north probably was an ultramafic rock (possibly pyroxen-
of Jacobina ·southward to the Rio do Almoco, a ite) cut across the quartzite~conglomerate. No pre-
distance of 23 kilometers.·· The. co.nglomerates are ferred orientation of the dikes has been observed,
known to extend an additional 6 'kilometers south- but many of them lie in the north-trending faults.
ward into an
area that has hot yet been investigated A similarity of these rocks and their ore deposits to
for uranium. the well-known gold-bearing conglomerates of South
Fieldwork o~ the gold- and uranium-bearing con- Africa has been noted by earlier writers (Oliveira
glomerates at: Morro do Vento, 2 kilometers s~mth of and Leonardos, 1943).
the Can a vieiras mine, constitutes the basis for the
present report. ORIGIN OF DEPOSITS
'I" •
The uranium mineral in the Serra de Jacobina
GEOLOGIC SETTING AND STRUCTURE
conglomerates has been identified by X-ray diffrac-
Roc~s exposed in the. Serra de Jacobina (Branner, tion as uraninite. It occurs in close association with
1910) in 'the viCinity of ~he· town of Jacobina con- gold and pyrite in silicifieq quartzite-conglomerate.
sist'" of white qvartzite, that in the upper part has The mineralized rock is green,. owing to the presence
some nonco.ngl~;>;meratic sandstone, and in· the lower of chrome-bearing mica, or brown to yellow owing to
part. n,um~rous conglomerate beds that contain py- limonite formed from oxidation of pyrite. On Morros
ritic gold-uraniQm deposits .. The conglomerates are do Vento, a mineralized zone 1,260 meters long has
l: .
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-9
an average content of 0.008 percent equivalent similar South African deposits, and for gold-bearing
UaOH and 10 grams of gold per metric ton of rock. conglomerates of Blind· River, Ontario (Davidson,
This mineralized zone ranges from one-half to 10 1957). Rather, the minerals probably were emplaced
meters in thickness but averages about 2 meters. by hydrothermal solutions introduced along a pos-
The mineralized zone apparently parallels the strike sible north-south fracture or fracture zone, appar-
of the enclosing sedimentary rocks and from place ently parallel to the bedding. This conclusion is
to place it consists of either conglomerate or quartz- strengthened by the presence of quartz stringers and
ite. Numerous sections measured across the mineral- veins and the extensive sericitization and chloriti-
ized zone show that about 45 percent of the host zation ..
rock is quartzite and the remaining 55 percent is
conglomerate. The boundary of the mineralized rock REFERENCES
at some places coincides with the edge of a con- Bateman, J. D., 1958, Uranium-bearing auriferous reefs at
glomerate lens or a quartzite bed, but at other places Jacobina, Brazil: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p. 417-425.
the boundaries ~r~ within lenses or beds having Branner, J. C., 1910, The geology and topography of the Serra
de Jacobina, State of Bahia, Brazil: Am. Jour. Science,
otherwise uniform lithology. Some mineralized zones 4th ser., v. 30, p. 385-392.
or shoots that have well-defined boundaries transect Davidson, C. F., 1957, On the occurrence of uranium in ancient
both quartzite and. conglomerate beds. conglomerates: Econ. Geology v. 52, p. 668-693.
It is apparent that the mineralization does not Oliveira, A. I., and Leonardos, 0. H., 1943, Geologia do Brazil,
2nd ed.: Ministerio da Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro.
favor any 'lithologic unit in the quartzite-conglom- White, M. G., 1956, Uranium in the Serra de Jacobina, in
erate sequence. Moreover there seemingly is no cor- Peaceful uses of atomic energy: Geneva, United Nations
relation between high values of gold and uranium Internat. Conf. Proc., v. 6, p. 140-142.
and any particular rock type. It would appear, there- White, M. G., 1957, Uranium in the auriferous conglomerates
at th~ Canavieiras gold mine, State of Bahia, Brazil:
fore, that this ore deposit is not a placer, which is Engenharia, Mineracao e Metalurgia, v. 26, no. 155, Nov.,
the origin that has been suggested for the somewhat p. 279-282.
~

HYDROLOGIC STUIJIES,

5. MAGNITUDE AND FREQUENCY OF FLOODS IN SUBURBAN AREAS

By R. W. CARTER, Washington, D. C.

The effect of suburban development on the mag- between rainfall excess and the flood hydrograph is
nitude of floods may be evaluated by examining the decreased because of storm sewers and improve-
relations between floqds of ..a given recurrence in- . ments to the principal stream channels. The net
terval and the drainage area, lag time, and a length- effect of these changes on the magnitude and fre-
slope parameter. Although
I'
these relations may•
not quency of floods in the vicinity of w·ashington, D.C.,
measure the effect as. Pr~cisely as would be possible has been evaluated.
with "before and after" records of rainfall and The percentage of imperviou!' surface area in
streamflow, they d~ per~it fairly accurate predic- basins in which suburban development is virtually
tion, using existing 'records, of the effect of suburban 'complete is fairly low. For example, the percentages
development upon flood. peaks. for Little Falls Branch near B~thesda, Md., and
Suburban development changes two of the basic F.our Mile Run near Alexandria, Va., based on aerial
elements that determine the magnitude and timing photographs taken in 1955, are 12.6 and 11.5, re-
·of the volume and peak of the flood hydrograph. The spectively. An approximation ·'of the effect of im-
average infiltration rate is decreased beca.use roof- pervious area on flood peaks is given by equation
tops and city streets are impervious. The lag time ( 1), which is based on the following assumptions:
B-10 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

1. The average rainfall-runoff coefficient of 0.3 as Values of lag time for basins that are partly
determined from rainfall-flood volume studies for sewered, but with the principal stream channels
storms in the Washington, D.C., area applies to maintained in their natural condition, should plot
flood peaks as well as to flood volumes. between curves 1 and 3. The points numbered 7,
2. The effect of the changes in impervious area is 10, 22, 23, and 24 on figure 5.1 are for such basins
independent of the size of flood. in the .vicinity of Washington where suburban de-
i,
3. Seventy-five percent of the rainfall volume on velopment is virtually complete. These points tend
impervious surfaces reaches the stream channel. to define ·curve 2 which can be expressed
4. The impervious area consists of many fairly
small areas randomly distributed throughout the
L )o.6 (4)
T= 1.20 ( yS
basin.
The slopes of curves 2 and· 3, figure. 5.1, have
K = 0.30 + 0.0045 I (1) been made identical to the slope of curve 1, although
0.30 the slopes of the curves 2 and 3 are not well defined
In this equation K is the factor by which all flood by available data.
peaks are increased by the ·percent of impervious The effect of changes in lag time on the magnitude
area, I. For example, if 10 percent of the area is . and frequency of floods may be determined by a
impervious, the value of K is 1.15. The effect of multiple regression technique. The magnitude of
imperviousness is small relativ:e to other effects of floods of a given recurrence interval 'for undeveloped
suburban development on flood peaks. basins is considered to be a function of T and A,
The average time interval, T, between the cen- where A is the size of the drainage basin in square
troids of rainfall excess and of' the resulting flood miles. Data for developed basins may also be used
<
hydrograph, was determined for each of 20 streams to determine this relation if the effect of impervious- I

in the immediate viCinity of Washington, D. C. The ness on flood peaks is first accounted for, and if it is
time distribution of rainfall excess was determined assumed that the effect of T and K are independent.
from continuous records 'of rainfall and time-infil- Data for developed and undeveloped basins have thus
tration curves. The criteria for selection of storms been used to define an equation of the form,
were (a) a uniform areal distribution and (b) a
Q
short duration time relative to the lag time. K = f(A,T) (5)
In figure 5.1, lag times are shown as a function
of L/ y S where L is the total length from the gaging The magnitude of the flood discharge Q in cfs,
point to the rim of the basin measured along the which corresponds to a recurrence interval of 2.33
principal channel, and S is the weighted slope of an years, was determined for each of 18 streams from
order of 3 or greater of all. stream channels in the the record of maximum annual peak discharges. For
basin. The weighted slopes were computed as fol- each stream the annual peaks were plotted against
lows: the re~urrence interval computed as (n ·+ 1)/m
where rri is the order number and n is the number
(2) of years of record. The period 1951 to 1959 was
used. The value of Q for each stream was determined
Curve 1 on figure 5.1 is the relation for unde- from the discharge-recurrence relation ..
veloped areas in the Piedmont province near Wash- The constants in the functional expression of
ington, and may be ~xpressed as
equation ( 5) were defined by multiple regression
L)o.6 (3)
using values of Q and T computed from records for
T = 3.10 ( yS each stream and using the value of K from equ~tion
Snyde~ (1958) found that a similar equation with · 1. The value of K from equation 1 was 1.00 for nine
different coefficients, but the same exponent, applied of the streams and ranged from 1.00 to 1.19. The
to areas in California, Virgi~ia, and other states. equation of the regression is
· The lower limit of the· relation of lag time to·
L/y S is probably defined by curve 3 on figure 5.1, Q = 223 A o.s5 r-o.45 (6)
K
which is based on data given by Snyder for basins
that are completely sewered and have no natural with a standard error of -22 and +29 percent.
channels. The value of the exponent of A. is significant at the
l.,
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-11

13

10 . /4<(,~'\,
15" ~.
~- 0
4 6
.o
0
3

en
0:::
=>
0
:I:
z
~
u.i
~
t=
C!J
~ 1
..,·
7 23 ./
QQ /

0 Natural basins ·

Q Partially sewered

e Completely sewered

1.

0.1~-L--------L---~---L--~~~~~--------~--~--~--~~~~~--------~--~
0.1 . 1 10
L/{s, L IN MILES, SIN FEET PER MILE

FIGURE 5.1.-Effect of suburban development on lag time~

99 percent confidence level; the value of the exponent perviousness is increased from 0 to 12 percent. Then
of Tat the 98 percent level. Data used to derive the 0 45
= ( 3.10 ) · ( .354) =
equation include a range in A from 3.9 to 546 square Q (Suburban)
...:.tJ...---:,(U
___n_d_e_v--=el-op....:....e--=d-)- - 1.20 · .300 l.S
miles, and a range in T from 1.2 to 18.6 hours.
The effect of suburban developments on floods The ratio 1.8 is believed to be the maximum effect
,·
with a recurrence interval of 2.33 years may be evalu- of complete suburban development on flood peaks
of any recurrence interval for drainage basins larger
ated by use of figure 5.1, and equations (1) and (6).
than 4 square miles in the Washington area.
For example, assume that the relation between T
and L/ V S changes the values given in ctirve 1 to REFERENCE
the values given on curve 2 (fig. 5.1) because of Snyder, Franklin F., 1958, Synthetic flood frequency:. Am.
suburban development, and that the percent im-· Soc. Civil Engineers Proc. v. 84, no. HY5, 22 p.
B-12 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

6. EFFECT OF ARTIFICIAL STORAGE ON PEAK FLOW

By WILLIAM D. MITCHELL, Champaign, Ill.

As a supplement to the .regular network of gaging Reservoir routing requires an expression of the
stations, many districts now operate a network of formS= KO'c, in which Sis the storage, K is a con-
high-water partial-record stations. Practical con- stant depending upon the relative capacities of the
side~ations have dictated that many of these be lo- reservoir and the outlet, 0 is the outflow, and x de-
cated at culvert~, or other channel constrictions, at pends on the relative slopes of the stage-discharge
which the peak flows may be materially affected by and stage-storage curves. The minimum value of x
artificial storage. To be of maximum value in · is 0.67 which would apply only to outflow at critical
regional flood studies, th~ recorded amounts of depth from a reservoir with vertical sides. The
maximum x is indeterminate, but for many sites its
such peak flows should. be increased to account for · value appears to be near 1; in fact, it is a common
the effect of artificial storage. The problem is com- assumption in many reservoir problems that S =
plicated· by the lack of complete hydrographs for KO, and the storage is said to be linear. (Preliminary
most sites; only the peak stage and outflow dis- studies indicate that the methods here described may
charge are observed for any given flood, therefore be expanded to include nonlinear storage, but the
the usual methods of flood routing cannot be ap- present analysis treats only linear storage.) In the
plied. How, then, can an observed outflow peak be expression S = KO, K has the dimension of time,
transformed to the corresponding inflow peak? and is reduced to a dimensionle~s base by dividing
Various arbitrary solutions have yielded highly by T.
Sixteen dimensionless inflow hydrographs were
varying results, leading to the conclusion that a
routed through varying degrees of linear storage to
satisfactory solution could be obtained only by
obtain 128 outflow .hydrographs. From these rout-
making a tabulation of I 10 (inflow peak divided by
ings, pertinent tabulations were prepared as shown
outflow peak) resulting from routing all possible
on table 1. On the first line, KIT. = 0, so that the
inflow hydrographs· through all possible reservoirs.
data are for the inflow hydrograph. Other lines are
Then, given an appropriate description of a specific
for outflow hydrographs, with KIT increasing to
inflow hydrograph and specific reservoir, the tabu-
lations would provide the appropriate correction 2.0. The three central columns of the table repre- ·
sent,· respectively, the time of occurrence of the
factor. Obviously, it would be impractical to route
an infinite number of hydrographs through an in- peak, the magnitude of the peak, and the time of
finite number of reservoirs, but it appeared feasible passage of· the centroid of volume. The ratio for
to make detailed studies of a few combinations, and time of travel through the reservoir, triT, may be
arrange the. results in such manner that interpola- obtained by subtracting value of t jT for KIT = 0
1

tions rnight be made for others. It is possible to from other values of t.,/T.
make such interpolations if infl<:>w hydrographs and
storage-outflow relations are reduced to dimension- TABLE 1.-Results of routing infiow hydrographs through
linear storage
less bases.
Inflow hydrographs may be described in terms of [kiT= 1.0; D/T = 0.1]
. t
Q, the instantaneous . discharge, and H, the time ·
from beginning of rainfall excess, and it is postu- KIT tp/T QT/APe tV/T l/0
lated that Q. is determined by H; A, the size of the·
drainage area; P ('' the amount of rainfall excess· D 0.0 ...... 0.88 443.0 1.264 ............
the duration of the rainfall excess; and T and k: . 1 ....... .98 420.0 1.369 1.031
.3 ...... 1.16 359.6 1.588 1.204
characteristic times for a given drainage basin that .5 ...... 1.30 309.4 1.790 1.399
indicate the time lag between rainfall and runoff. .7 ...... 1.44 272.4 1.977 1.590
These factors are combined into the dimensionless 1.0 ......
1.5 ......
1.60
1.80
232.4
188.5
2.237
2.636
1.863
2.297-
ratios (QTIAPe), (HIT), (kiT), and (DIT), lead- 2.0 ...... 1. 96 159.6 3.012 2. 713
ing to families of· inflow hydrographs in which the
first ratio is the ordinate, the second is the abscissa,
and the third and fourth are distinguishing param- The data .may be arranged in several ways, but
eters. the most convenient arrangement appears to be that
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-13
3.8~----------------------------------------------------------------

l/0

.10 .20 .30 .40 .. 50 .60

FIGURE 6.1.-//0 as a function of tr, tv, and k/T.

shown as figure 6.1, in which I 10 is plotted as ordi- Not all of the points plotted fit the curves per-
nate against t,.ltv as abscissa for different values of fectly, but only 2 of the 128 values are more than 10
kiT. Analysis of the tabulated data indicates that, percent from the curve, and these are for extreme
for purposes of this plot, the ratio t,.ltv should be conditions. (Both are for kiT= 0.3, DIT = 1.5; for
computed by the formula: KIT = 1.5, the error is 11.5 percent; for KIT= 2.0,
· 12.0 percent.) .Two-thirds of the true values are
t,./t.v = 0.9 KIT I (1.00 + 0.7 DIT + 0.9 KIT) within about 3 percent of the curve values.
B-14 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
' .
To use figure 6.1, it is necessary to have values for Until these methods become available, .it is suggested·
D, K, T, and k. Values of D may be estimated from that T may be computed_ by one of the several for-
rainfall records, and K may be estimated from the mulas now available -for computing time -of· concen-
storage-outflow curve. Work is continuing, as a tration; values of k/T may b.e estimated from the
part of another project, from which it is hoped to steepness of the recessio:t~ curve of surface runoff,
derive methods of ·estimating T and k from ·the using 0.3 for very rapid recession, 1.5 for very slow
physiographic characteristics of the drainage area. recession, and· 0.7 for average recession.
,,
~ '

_..

7. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF GLACIER RUNOFF

By MARK F. MEIER and WENDELL V. TANGBORN, Tacoma, Wash.

Salient features of glacier runoff patterns may between precipitation and runoff that is characteris-
be brought out by comparing runoff data from two tic of glacier-covered terrain. The curves from in-
glacier-covered basins with data from three moun- termediate basins show that, as the mean elevation
tain basins that do not retain any significant snow- and amount. of glacier-cover increases, appreciable
fields throughout most years. These comparisons runoff is delayed until later in the water year, and
also show the influence of climatic factors, such as in a largely glacier-covered basin the highest monthly
precipitation, on the runoff. runoff occurs in July or August.
Most American glaciers behave as natural storage The role of the various solar and atmospheric
reservoirs that retain a predominant portion of the energy sources in the production of meltwater runoff
ye~rly total precipitation during a winter period of from either type basin is not developed in this
high precipitation, and release large quantities of article. However, there is an obvious qualitative
water during a summer period of high temperatures relation between air temperature and runoff for a
and low precipitation. Thus, the annual variation of glacier-covered basin. This is shown by the cumu-
runoff from glacier-covered basins bears little or no lative degree-:days above 32°F and runoff measured
relation to the annual variation of precipitation. at the outlet of the Grinnell Creek basin (fig. 7.1).·
This behavior is typical of all mountain drainage Pronounced diurnal fluctuations in discharge are
basins in areas of heavy snowfall, but the effect is characteristic of the runoff from glacier-covered
most extreme for glacier-covered basins. basins, reflecting diurnal fluctuations in the energy
The distributions within a water year of runoff, supplied for melting ice. Average daily curves of
precipitation, and degree-days for selected basins in icemelt and runoff during clear weather are shown
Washington and Montana are shown in figure 7.1. in figure 7.2 for the South Fork Cascade River basin.
The four basins in Washington are on the western The asymmetric nature of the melting curve is due
slope of the Northern Cascade Mountains and in- to a slow morning rise of incident solar radiation,
clude basins that are in both the non-glacier-covered caused by the basin's high eastern rim and a north-
foothills and on the largely glacier-covered crest of westerly slope of the ice surface. This condition
the range (table 1). Runoff and precipitation pat- occurs over about half of the basin area. The total
terns from a different climatic environment · are daily runoff is less than the indicated daily icemelt
shown for. a partly glacier-covered basin in the because the icemelt recorder was located in a re-
Northern Rocky Mountains of Montana. The data gion of higher-than-average melt rates. At this time .J

used in plotting the precipitation curves were not of the year the mean time of transit of meltwater
obtained from stations located within these basins from its point of generation to the gaging station at
but from selected Weather Bureau stations that are the outlet was of the order of magnitude of 4 hours.-
believed to have similar annual precipitation dis- In general, a thick, complete snowpack stores
tributions. rainfall, releasing it gradually or retaining it as
These curves clearly demonstrate the long lag ice, whereas a bare ice or firm surface permits rapid
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-15

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0~~~~~~----~~~----~~~----~----~~--~~~
Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.
MONTH MONTH

FIGURE 7.1.-Cumulative runoff and precipitation for selected drainage basins in the Northern Cascade Mountains, Wash.,
and the Northern Rocky Mountains, Mont.

a, Average precipitation at Darrington, Diablo Dam, and e, Runoff of South Fork Cascade River at South Cascade
Sedro Woolley, Wash. Glacier, Wash.
b, Runoff of Day Creek near Lyman, Wash. f, Precipitation at Summit, _Mont.
c, Runoff of South Fork Nooksack River near Wickersham, g, Runoff of Grinnell Creek near Many Glacier, Mont.
Wash. h, Degree-days above 32 oF at Grinnell Creek near Many
d, Runoff of Stetattle Creek near Newhalem, Wash. Glacier, Mont.

r1,1noff of rainfall and produces a "flashy" hydro- thickness and density of the snowpack, (c) snow
graph. temperature, (d) whether the snow has been chan-
The effect of individual rain or snow storms on neled by previo1,1s rain or periods of high melt rate,
the runoff hydrograph is shown in figure 7.3. In- and (e) perhaps other factors. These factors show
spection of these data shows that it is very difficult a normal seasonal variation, but may change rapidly
to forecast runoff from a given rainstorm. The and unpredictably in the fall.
rate of runoff following a rainstorm depends on (a) Perhaps the most distinctive aspect of glacier
the amount of basin area covered with snow, (b) the hydrology is the natural change in ice storage from

TABLE 1.-Characte?·istics of d1·ainage basins

\Yater Altitude Drainage Percent Total

Basin year area of area yearly Physiographic description
Mean ivlaximum (square glacier- runoff
(feet) (feet) miles) covered (inches)

Day Creek near _Lyman, Wash ......... 1959 2,310 . 4,311 36.3 0 121 Low altitude forested foothills and
low mountains.
South Fork Nooksack River near 1959 3,000 6,400 103 0 120 Forested foothills and few high
Wickersham, Wash. peaks.
Stetnttle Creek near N ewhalem, Wash .. 1959 5,000 7,200 21.4 2 155 Forested valleys and high peaks near
crest of range.
South F01·k Cascade River at South 1959 6,4.40 8,265 2.39 61 191 Bare slopes, jagged high peaks,
Cascade Glacier, \Vash. little vegetation.
Grinnell Creek near Many Glacier, 1960 6,780 9,541 3.47 14 93 Bare slopes, jagged high peaks,
Mont. some vegetation.
 B-16 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

year to year. The storage changes tend to counter-

.020 act the effects of cool wet, or warm dry years, as
shown by table 2, which presents data from South
Fork Cascade River during two contrasting years.
0:
Departures from long-term means of temperature
:::>
~ .015 and precipitation are reported for Newhalem, the
5C1. nearest station for which these data are available.
~ Loss of water through evaporation was found by our
~
..: measurements to be negligible during the summer,
~ .010 and measurements on other glaciers have shown this
:::>
0:
to be generally true during the whole year. Thus, ·,
gs
8::;: changes in the mass of a glacier represent true addi-
~
tions to, or withdrawals from, ice storage.
TABLE 2.-Water budget for South F01·k Cascade River at
South Cascade Glacier, Wash., for two cont'rasting years

South Fork Cascade River

at South Cascade c:tacier, Wash. Newhalem, Wash.
0 6~~~~~~~12~~~~~~-6~~~~~~~12~~~~~~

Noon Midnight Water Change in Precipitation Temperature

TIME· year Precipitation I Runoff 2 storage 2 departure 3 departure 3
(inches) (inches) ·(inches) (inches) (oF.)

FIGURE 7.2."-Mean diurnal variation in rates of icemelt and

runoff for 14 days of clear, warm weather occurring dur- 1958 ... . 4 130 4 200 -51 -·14.2 +3.0
ing period July 13-30, 1958. Icemelt was measured at
station A, elevation 5,527 feet, on South Cascade Glacier. 1959 ... . 210 191 +17 +32.5 -0.8
Runoff was measured at South Fork Cascade River at
1 As measured at P1, 6,160 feet elevation, on South Cascade Glacier.
South Cascade Glacier, Wash., and was averaged over the 2 Average values for whole drainage basin.
total area of ice and snow in the drainage basin. 3 Departures from 1931-55 means, by U.S. Weather Bureau.
4 Part of the record estimated.

,--~----
-------------L Dashed where estimated
____ , _________________ Runoff
, ____ =;-=-=-=-=--=-=i"-:.::__ _ _- - r - - - - - , - - - - - - - - - , - - - - - , - - - - -

Precipitation ~ 'l
1

_,ruJ\!LA, ~N__ J_
40
30
20
l1 .
Snow-free ground

/
,.---l
'l.J~:._!>ashed where esti~~t~ ...... ········· -~~~---
T ---.
__
.NU.J
_____, ...---
,_.._ __ rt

[/
20:c
~

l15~"'
110 .._
I~ • ~:: •/ , --k_ ~~ -~ . ., ____ -----· ~-------- ·'". L'1/ ~..... js
0 -~
~

z~60
:;~so Temperature 1\ .JI\,.; \ A .I\.
~ j'
0

~~
40
!J MA fl •
~~3ol~~v~~v~------------------~~---------+~vv~~vocv--~~~ovv~~.----~----------~~~~~---1
0 rj,/) rVI! uMI. rv ~-~
~~20
;:e ...
~~1ol
~ 0 .-,--=-Oc-:-t.--.----:-N-:-ov-.-.---=-oec-.--··r -:ian~ ----~----Feb.- Aug. Sept.
.,.

FIGURE 7.3.-Variation of runoff, precipitation, snow depth, percent of snow-free ground, and temperature for the drainage
basin of South Fork Cascade River at South Cascade Glacier, Wash., during the 1960 water year. Dashed lines indicate
periods of estimated record. Precipitation distribution during the period October 1, 1959, to April 3, 1960, and at several
later short intervals was computed on basis of known total precipitation on South Cascade Glacier at Pl (6,160 feet)
and kn<;>wn daily precipitation values at Darrington, Wash. Precipitation is differentiated into rain (solid black bars),
mixed rain and snow (dotted bars), or snow (clear bars), _on basis of free-air freezing levels over Seattle or actual observa-
tion. Snow depths were measured at P1 (6,160 feet). Temperature record is a composite of Darrington daily means minus
16oF (lapse-rate correction) ~hown by light lines, or actual measurement at !esearch station at South Cascade Glacier
(elevation 6,040 feet) shown by heavy lines.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-17

8. RECENT HYDROLOGIC TRENDS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

I

By WILBUR D. SIMONS, Tacoma, Wash.

Annual runoff and annual precipitation in the Trend curves of annual streamflow for seven index
Columbia River basin decreased, and annual mean stations are shown on figure 8.2. A distinct down-
temperature gradually increased between 1885· and ward trend for the years prior to 1940 and an up-
1945, according to an analysis by McDonald and trend during succeeding years are evident. At 5 of
Langbein ( 1948). To determine if these trends have the stations shown the 15-yeai~ average for the period
.,. continued, data for runoff, precipitation, ·and tem- 1946-60 was the ma~imum 1~-year average of
peratures have been exam.ined for the period 1885 record, being surpassed only at those ~tations that
to 1960-15 more years of record than was available had records during the 1890's. The flow of the
to McDonald and Langbein. Annual deviations from Columbia River near The Dalles, Oreg., without con-
the 1911-60 means were weighted for running 5- sidering the changes in flow regimen caused by the
year periods according to the formula: works of man, was only 7 percent less during the
a + 2b + 3c + 2d + e period 1946-60 than during the period 1891-1905.
9 Annual precipitation might be expected to show
in which a, b, ... are data for consecutive years, and trends similar to those exhibited by streamflow data.
the deviations were plotted against the middle year. Trend .curves for five precipitation stations are
The period 1911-60 was chosen as a reference be- shown on figure 8.3. An upward trend during the
cause it was the longest period of concurrent records. past 15 years is discernible in three of the five sta-
'!' In this preliminary analysis no adjustments of run- tions studied but at only one stati~m is the precipi-
off were made for irrigation diversions or other tation greater during the past 15 years than during
modifications caused by the works of man. the late 1800's. The trends in annual precipitation

~ +:T
~+2"[~----------L----------L----------~----------L-----------L------------L------------~-----------~
o Missoula, Mont.

I::J Spokane, Wash.

,-

1960

FIGURE 8.1.-Weighted deviations, in degrees Fahrenheit, from 1911-60 average annual temperatures at selecteq stations in
the Pacific Northwest.
B-18 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

-20

Pend Oreille River at Z Canyon near Metaline Falls, Wash. (,

..·

Spokane River at Spokane, Wash.

,.

1..1..1
<.!)
c(
1--
z
1..1..1
(.)
0:
1..1..1
Q.

0
1..1..1
I-.
:r:
<.!)
w
~ Similkameen River near Nighthawk, Wash.

Chelan River at Chelan, Wash.

+J'---------'--__.l.....___L.__j_.~· _.!______L_____

Deschutes River near Biggs, Oreg.

+20

- 2Ps7
so~------~~------~~~--------L----------L~-------~~93~o~------~~~9~4o_________l_9L5o
_________l~960
Columbia River near The Dalles, Oreg.

FIGURE 8.2.--Weighted percentage deviations from 1911-60 average annual precipitation at selected stations in the Pacific
Northwest.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-19

FIGURE 8.3.-Weighted percentage deviations from 1911-60 average discharges at selected gaging stations in the Columbia
River basin.
B-20 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

are similar to the trends in annual runoff but are Thus the analysis of data for the total 75-year
less clearly defined. period shows significant changes in trends and
Trend curves for four temperature stations are demonstates the necessity for continuing data col-
shown on figure 8.1. Earlier records indicated a lection and analysis in order to provide reliable in-
gradual rising temperature that reached a maximum formation for development and evaluation of water-
about 1940. A downward trend since then is quite use projects.
pronounced at each of the stations for which records
were studied. However, at only one station do the
recent temperatures reach the lower temperatures REFERENCE
of the 1890's. The general tendency is for hot and McDonald, C. C., and Langbein, Walter, 1948, Trends in run-
dry years or wet and cool years to coincide. off: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 29, no. 3, p. 387-397.

9. PRECIPITATION AS A V ARIABL;E IN THE CORRELATION OF RUNOFF DATA

By WILLIAM J. SCHNEIDER, Washington, D. C.

Differences in runoff between basins are at least In equation (2a) the adjusted runoff for the con-
partly caused by differences in precipitation. Pre- trol basin is obtained as follows. The precipitation-
cipitation data, therefore, should be useful in im- . runoff relation for the control basin is developed
proving the correlation between runoffs from differ- from the existing data. From this relation, two
ent basins. expected values of runoff (RJ>n and RJ>c) are deter-
The effect of differences in precipitation on cor- ·mined. The first, (Rpv), is the expected value based
relation of runoff can be expressed by either of two on the precipitation for the dependent area, the
equations: second, · (RJ>c), is the expected value based on the
Rn = f(Rc, D.P) (1) precipitation for the control area. The difference
(Rp 11 -Rpc) represents the expected difference in
Rn = f(Rc (adj)) (2) runoff from the control basin due to the difference
in which Rv is the runoff of the dependent basin, Rc in precipitation (D.Rp), taking into account the mag-
is the runoff of the control basin, D.P is a measure of nitude of the precipitation. This difference in run-
difference in precipitation between basins, and off is then added to the measured runoff to give
R c ( adj) is the runoff of th~ control basin adjusted
Rc (adj) = Rc + D.RI' (3)
for differences in precipitation between basins.
Investigations to date indicate that a logarithmic which is then correlated directly with the runoff
transformation of runoff data is necessary to obtain from the dependent basin.
an essentially homoscedastic variance. The model A moderately extreme example of th_e effect of
equations using transformed runoff variables are: precipitation differences on the runoff relation be-
tween two basins is shown in the following results.
log Rn = a + b1 log Rc + b:2D.P (la)
Correlation of annual runoff of Albright Creek at
log Rn = a + bt log Rc (adj) (2a) East Homer, N. Y., (drainage area, 7.08 square
The term D.P in equation (la) may be obtained by miles) with runoff of SCS Watershed 97 at Coshoc- (I

using precipitation for either basin as the subtrahend ton, Ohio, (drainage area, 7.16 square miles) for
in obtaining the difference in precipitation. Use of the 15-year period 1941-55 gave a correlation coeffi-
precipitation data for the dependent basin as the cient of 0.4 7 and a standard error of estimate of + 43
subtrahend will give a positive coefficient for b2 ; and -30 percent, based on the Coshocton area as
use of precipitation data for the control basin as the the dependent variable. The inclusion of precipita-
subtrahend will give a negative coefficient. tion data in the form of D.P .as shown in equation
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-21
(1a) reduced the standard error of estimate to +15 area, 1.'51 square miles) are less than 25 miles apart.
and -13 percent, and resulted in a correla.tion coeffi- The correlation coefficient between annual runoffs
, cient of 0.93. Thus, the. inclusion of t:.P accounted for the 22-year period 1936-57 is 0.87 and the stand-
for an additional 64 percent of the variance in the ard error of estimate for Sage Brook is + 12 and
data, reducing the residual variance from 78 to 14 -11 percent. Including precipitation data as de-
percent. The use of adjusted runoff as indicated in scribed in equation (1a) reduced the standard error
equation (2a) reduced the standard error of estimate of estimate to + 8 and -7 percent, and resulted in a
to + 14 and -13 percent, and resulted in a correla- correlation coefficient of 0.92. Model equation (2a)
tion coefficient of 0. 95. All regression coefficients gave similar results.
were highly significant in both equations. Although the models used are considered satisfac-
Improvement in determining runoff relations can tory, it is not implied that they are the best ones for
also be demonstrated for basins that are close to- estim~ting runoff. The two examples are cited above
gether. The areas drained by Sage Brook near South merely to illustrate the feasibility of improving a
Berlin, N.Y., (drainage area, 0.70 square miles) and determination of the relation between runoffs by
by Cold Spring Brook at China, N. Y., (drainage considering differences in precipitation.

10. REGIONAL LOW FLOW FREQUENCY AN'ALYSIS

By H. C. RIGGS, Washington, D. C.

The distribution of the population of annual Regional analysis is useful only when the correla-
minimum flows at a stream site would be useful in tion coefficient between minimum flows at two sta-
planning the optimum development of the flow. In tions is less than 1, but greater than some mi,nimum
hydrology the distribution of the population is never value. Remembering that the purpose of regional
known; it can only be estimated from the data ob- analysis is to reduce sampling error in the frequency
tained at the site. The sample distribution so ob- curve, it can be seen that flows which are completely
tained may be considerably different fron1 the correlated must also have the same sampling error
population distribution; therefore some method is and, therefore, combining the experience cannot re-
sought for obtaining a better estimate of the popu- duce this sampling error. Now consider the other
lation distribution. extreme of poor correlation between flows .. Poor
The shape and position of a frequency curve . correlation, might. indicat~ that different weather
6vhich is the sarnple distributiOJ1) of annual mini- . samples were experienced at. different basins, or
mum flows based on observational data at one site that the ;reactions to a particular weather occurrence
differ from' those of a curve ·for another site be- were different, or both. The last is the ~ost likely.
cause of differences in physical characteristics of Here,. the combined experience averages deviations
the basins and because of differences in weather ex- that consist both of sampling errors and of effects, of
perienced. Examples are shown on figure 10.1. Both .differences in basin characteristics. Averaging
curves differ from their respective population curves values of the latter component ordinarily will not
because· of the short periods of weather sam-pled. It· improve the' estimate of the frequency curve; it may
is postulated that weather samples differ areally . even produce an estimate of re~uced reliability ..
within a common time period. Therefore, some Between total correlation and some minimum value
method of combining the exp~rience at several sta- of correlation is a range in which there is an op-
tions while maintaining the characteristics of each portunity ·for reducing individual sampling errors·
individual station record should result in better esti- (some of which are assumed t~ be plus and some
mates of the frequency distributions. Such a method minus). This may be done by (a) relating the mag-
is ·called a regional .analysis. nitude of the annual
.
minimum flow ·at a· certain
.
 B-22 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

The computed regression is-

300
log Q2 0 = -2.58 + 1.13 log Q2 -0.22 log A
' o,o
~0..
+ 1.35 logS + 0.09 (log Q.2) [log (A/Q2)]
o-oooo~
I o o o 0-.l)-o:::-2-
The standard error of Q20 is -20 percent and + 25
100 percent. The regression coefficient for the last term
Buffalo River near Flat wciods
Drainage area=447 sq. mi.
o-;--· 0
- is statistically significant at the 5-perceri~ level. All
others are highly significant. Streams used in de-
fining the equation have the following ranges of
0
variables:
~o,
(i)
1.05 < Q2 < 1,770 cfs
u.
~
~
0
....1
10 o,
o, 4.12 < A < 11,220 sq mi
u. 0~
:!:
::>
oo
"0
6. 7 < S < 94 percent
:!: '{ 0 ..
z Harpeth River at Belleview~
The equation was solved for Q:!o for each of the
~
....1
c(
Drainage area=404 sq. mi.
0~ 47 sites and for 61 additional: 25 in Tennessee, 4 in
::>
z o,
California and Washington, 24 in North Carolina,
z
c(
0~ and 8 in Turkey. The computed value of Q20 for each
0
of the 108 sites is plotted against the corresponding

"'"'~ value obtained from the individual frequency curve

~ on figure 10.2. No geographical bias is apparent

from study of the deviations. The wide range in
~ magnitude of Q:!o and the wide geographic range
0.1
encompassed indicate that the relation should hold
1.1 1.5 2 4 ~ 8 10 20 40
wherever (a) the rate of summer-and-fall base-flow
RECURRENCE INTERVAL (YEAR~)
recession is consistent from year to year and (b)
FIGURE 10.1.-Frequency curves of two Tennessee streams. the annual minimum flow occurs in the late summer
or fall.
recurrence interval to the median annual minimum
flow and to indexes which describe the differences in
basin characteristics, and then (b) using the com-
puted. value rather than the value obtained from the
1000

~
.
.,Y-..
frequency curve. 100
if)

""7{'
The method of regional analysis just described is IJ..
8
applied to frequency curves of annual minimum 7- UJ
>
0:::
day average flows for 47 sites in the regions, roughly, ::I
:u
y.·
(.)
10
of New England, Georgia, and Kansas. The de- >-

,..
• •
(.)

• • ••
z
pendent variable is Q 2., the disch~rge at 20-year re- UJ
::I
0'
currence interval from the frequency curve based on
.~\'-
UJ
0:::
observations. The median annual minimum, Q 2 , is IJ..

•' ..
also taken from the frequency curve. The effects of 0
0::: / • •
IJ..
basin characteristics are d~scribed by drainage area 0

(A) and by an index (S) of the slope o~ the base- 0 0.1

71
~/-· I
flow recession curve, which is defined as the ratio
(
(expressed as a percentage) of two discharges from
the recession curve; the denominator of the ratio is 0.01
Q2 and the numerator is the discharge 10 days after 0.01 0.1 1 . 10 100 1000
Q20 FROM REGIONAL EQUATION (CFS)
the Q 2 discharge. The index S describes the inte-
grated effect of geology, topography, vegetal cover, FIGURE 10.2.-Comparison of Q~" from the individual frequency
and to some extent climate, on the minimum flows. curve with the corresponding Q~o from the regional equation.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-23
The reliability of the regionalized values of Q:!o time. However, the standard error of 25 percent
is directly related to the proportion of the regression does not seem· excessive when one considers that
error that is sampling error, and to the reliability there is some minimum sampling error below which
of Q:!. These two factors cannot be assessed at this no advantage would be gained by a regional analysis.
~

11. MODIFIED CONVEYANCE-SLOPE APPLIED TO DEVELOPMENT OF STAGE-FALL-DISCHARGE RATINGS

By WILLIAM C. GRIFFIN, Washington, D. C.

The common gaging-station rating is a relation be- mation of conveyance at the measuring section. A
tween discharge and gage height. Ratings for gaging value of 0.03 was selected for n; conveyance was
stations on streams with variable backwater effect computed for each of a sequence of discharge meas-
must include an additional variable, fall (F), which urements; and the relation between conveyance and ·
is the difference in water-surface elevation at the discharge was defined graphically (fig .. 11.1). It was
ends of a reach of channel. Such ratings are called postulated that the shape of the conveyance curve
stage-fall-discharge ratings. All methods in general would be more important than its position. Hence,
use for development of stage-fall-discharge ratings an error in n would be critical only if instead of
require trial and error solutions. This paper pre- being constant as was assumed, n should have varied
sents a direct approach. with stage.
486 The square root of energy slope was computed for_
In the Manning formula , Q = 1. n AR:!!ilSI/2
' each measurement, by dividing measured discharge
Q is discharge in cubic feet per second; n is a rough- by conveyance, and plotted against fall to define the
ness .factor; A is cross-sectional area; R is hydraulic right-hand curve of figure 11.1. This curve can be
1. 48.6 used in combination with the conveyance curve as
.
ra d IUS; an d S IS
. energy s.1.ope. Th e term --AR:!;a
the stage-fall-discharge rating for the station. To
n
use the rating, if gage height and fall are given,
is commonly called conveyance, K. Thus, the for- conveyance and v Scan be obtained from the curves
mula reduces simply to and the corresponding discharge is the product of
Q = KyS. (1) these two.
The rating just described is virtually the same as
A curve of conveyance against stage could be de- the conventional constant-fall type of rating for
veloped from an instrument survey, and inasmuch variable backwater effect. This similarity would be
as Q and K have the same units of cubic feet per more readily apparent if, for this particular station,
second (slope is dimensionless), ·the stage-convey- equation 1 were modified as follows:
ance curve could be used as the base stage-discharge
rating. The only additional requirement for a com- Q = 0.01 K(100 yS).
plete rating is a relation for determining y S. Intui- The advantage of the procedure described, then, is
tively, fall i~ the most logical factor to use in a rela-
not that a new type of rating can be developed, but
tion curve to yield y S. If values of .square root of
that a direct approach can be used to get a result
slope as computed from the ratio of measured dis-
charge to conveyance, when plotted against fall, de- that might never be apparent if an indirect method
fine a satisfactory curve of relation, the rating is attempted.
process is complete. The fact that a workable relation was developed
An example is given below for ..the Ohio River at without the use of trial and error procedure probably
Cincinnati, Ohio. Data were not' available for ac- means that there was no significant variation of n
curately defining a conveyance curve, but discharge with stage. Any error that may have been made in
measurements provided sufficient information, ex- the choice of 0.03 for n would have been compen-
cept for the roughness factor, n, for a fair approxi- sated for in the computed values of y S.
B-24 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

50

45

40

35
!='
LLJ
LLJ
u..
'-'30
1-
J:
(.!)
w
J: 25
LLJ~
(.!)
ct
(.!)

FIGURE 11.1.-Stage-fall-conveyance relation for the Ohio River at Cincinnati~ Ohio·.

-~ ~ ; ~-.

.One recognized limitation in the use of the modi- described by Mitchell ( 1954, p. 145) as the upper
fied conveyance-slope procedure for variable back- limit of discharge unaffected by variable backwater.
water ratings is at stations of the limiting-fall type, Doubtless, other limitations will come to light as
where backwater is ·not present all the time. ; A additional applications are niade; their recognition
characteristic of stations o( this type is that, for. a will aid in delineating the conditions. under which
given stage, discharge reaches a maximum rate at the method can be used .to aavantage.
some amount of fall and does not increase with in- .d
creasing fall. At such stations the modified con- REFERENCE
veyance-slope pr9cedure would be applicable only Mitchell, W. D., 1954, Stage-fall-discharge r~lations for steady
for falls less than .the limiting values, and it would flow in .prismatic channels: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-
be necessary to use the type of li1)1iting-fall curve Supply Paper 1164, 162 p. ..

.· ~

..' r· '.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES; ARTICLES 1-146

~'I.--. : • ;, ·:
(I

1.2. -FLOW. IN AN A~TIFICIALLY ROUGHENED CHANNEL

By H. J. KOLOSEUS and JACOB DAVIDIAN, Iowa City, Iowa

Wo1·k done in coope·ration with the Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research

A resistance coefficient, such as the''>D'arcy-W eis- 'Experimental data plotted on figure 12.1 define
bach f or the Manning n, is frequently ~sed to eval- the relation. .
uate the energy losses due to the retarding'effect of
channel surfaces on a moving fluid. The coefficient
is assumed• to. be a . tfunction·• of·' the relative
. .
rough-
~~= 2log [ 0.14 A -o!l (4h/k) (2) J
ness, the· shape· of the channel, .and the Reyl)olds The s.catter of values about the line for equationj (2)
. . .' .. \. . '.
and Froude· numbers; however, the relationship has (fig. 12.l) is· r~markably. small o·v~~ 4-fold variation
not been defined for most cases of open-channel flow. i:p fcl 4h..and the 64--fold v~riation. in A. . . '·
Hence, the re~istance· coefficient is estimated on the
• .
Equation ,1
.. (2,). reduces to that of Nikur~dse ( 1993) J ' ~

ba~is of j u9~ment ~nd, exp~rien<;~. ;n .

.J • • •

.
. fori flow in sa~~-ro';lghened pipes. when . .the· rough}
As a first step, toward a more.•)}Jrational determi~, ness-concentration .factor is ignored. Comp~rable
1 • \
0
, •' f.\_ f I •

natio!l ~f .t~e{e~i~.ta~ce coeffl~i~!lt, a labor~ tory study changes in .·..magnitude . . .

of either k/ ~h. or: A have ap-
...·t

of the effect of; roughness concE:mtrati~n -on open-

channel fio~ was u'ndertaken. The roughness ele- proxi~~tely the .same effe<rt on the:~~~sistanc~ coeffi-
ments,. :y, u-inch metal cubes, were arranged in dia- cient.1' J\s w-i~h relative height, the rou~hne~s eon-:.
mond ·patterns ·c.ommensurate in size with particular ,, ..
1:' .,1 ·•. ·' I'J• ·,.
ropghrtess concentrations. The upstream face of each :.o; '' ko
cub~·. was placed normal to thei ·:UH:!an direction of ·,.;.:, 9.51--+i-~-l---,--J-..:--l-~--l-. ~.T-,---.I-,,-.-,,,--. ofo- +-.- .

fi~jd motion. Tests were conducted in two;.rectangu- ·'I." . ,·i . ·. . ~: (j.' ··/ I j.'~
'..'•' ':
0

Ia.r tiltable flumes, one 2 feet wide and 30. :fleet long,'
and the other ·2.5 feet wide and 85 feet long.
The· experimental program was designed to maxi.:
. .t16.0
""i
·----
~ f ~'1 t'' \ •
('• .'_.• ' ' ~ •
1 .J ,' r \
~-.
t I • t
~~~~.~: --;-'~:zf'
'
·. : • I : l'

mize the·· relative importance of the roughness· in-

~-rr·---f-/-·- · l - r - - - 1 - · - l
fluence. Koloseus (1958, Ph. D. Thesis lo~a State
..
.... 5.5'
I•
'J . J.
University.) has previously -shown'' for supercritical
flow .that the resistance coefficient .for a rough chan:..
nel of this type is -independent-·of gravitat'ional ef-
fects when the. Froude number is less than 1.6, and is
independent of viscous effects wher{vt;R· k'/4h ex-
ceeds 600. Within these limitations; it is assumed'
thatJ is a!: function of the relative ··height and· the
cube concentration; that is ·. ·.
-.-,
.·• • ,·r · 1
~· 't G(k/4h, A) (1).
' I ' ... . " ' ft . . 'I~ "" • . ' j t,.. f !'

where f is the ~r.esistance coefficient, 8ghSiV'2; .... G

means ·"function of"~; g is the acceleration of gravity;
h is depth of flow; S is the ~nergy gradient ; V is· the '·:. 3.0
average velocity; ·k is height of· roughness (k/4h is
called the relative height of roughness) ;'i\' is rdugh-
:ness concentration, denoting the ratio of the total
projected area. of the· roughness· in the ·dir.ection;:of
mean fluid movement· to the total floor area:;·· R is
Reynolds number, 4Vh/v; and v is kinematic vis-
cosity. · ·~
B-26 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

centration must be more than doubled in order to REFERENCE

obtain ·a two-fold increase in the resistance co- Nikuradse, J., 1933, Stromungsgese~ze in rauhen Rohren:
efficient. V erein Deutscher Ingenieure, Forschungsheft 361.

13. DIMENSIONS OF SOME STABLE ALLUVIAL CHANNELS

By S. A. SCHUMM, Denver, Colo.

Several attempts have been made to develop a banks (Sh), percent silt-clay in the perimeter of the
series of equations that can be used to calculate the channel (M) calculated as a weighted mean
dimensions of stable alluvial channels (Leliavsky,
M _ S(. X w +
Su X 2d
1955). During recent investigations into the mor- - w +
2d
phology of streams in a semiarid environment, in-
As an indication of the range of variables occur-
formation was collected that may have a practical
ring among the sampled sections, the extreme values
application in the solution of such problems. This
for some alluvial, hydrologic, and morphologic char-
information indicates that the shape of alluvial chan- acteristics of the channels are as follows:
nels and the stratification of channel deposits are
Drainage area above gaging station __________ sq mi.. .. 212 to 56,700
significantly related to the type of sediment found Channel width __________________________________________________ feet.... 25 to 800
within these channels (Schumm, 1960a, 1960b). Maximum channel depth _______________________________ feeL _ 2.3 to 18
In this analysis the silt-clay content of alluvium is Width depth ratio______________________________________________________ 2.5 to 138
used as a simple but significant parameter for sedi- Median grain size (bed) __________________________________ mm..... 0.02 to 8.0
Median grain size (bank) ________________________________ mm.... 0.01 to 0.33
ment description. Silt-clay as discussed here is sedi-
Silt-clay in banks ______________________________________ percent____ 23 to 97
ment that passed a 200-mesh sieve or that is smaller
Sift-clay in bed ··--------------------------------------~--percent____ 0.2 to 87
than 0.074 mm. The percentage of silt and clay in a Silt-lay in perimeter of channel __________ percent ___ . 1.4 to 89
sample gives an indication of the physical properties Mean annual discharge ____________________________________ cfs.... 5.8 to 5,155
of the sediment, for as the silt-clay fraction increases, Mean annual flood ___________________________________________ cfs .... 311 to 48,000
cohesiveness of the sediment increases, permeability That a relationship exists between channel width
decreases (Burmister, 1952, p. 20), and tractive and depth and discharge is well known and has been
resistance increases (Dunn, 1959). discussed most recently by Nixon ( 1959). The col-
The information was collected at 41 cross sections lected data afford an opportunity to relate channel
near Geological Survey gaging stations, located on 29 width and depth not only to discharge but also to
other variables.
rivers and creeks in Kansas, Nebraska, South Da-
Analyses of variance show that at the 0.05 level
kota, Wyoming, and Montana. The channels are
the following are significantly related to width:
considered stable, for gaging-station. records show
Percent silt-clay in banks, mean annual flood, mean
only minor changes in the stage-discharge relation annual discharge, weighted mean percent silt-clay.
through the years of record. The selected channels Percent silt-clay in the channel and median grain
contained less than 40 percent gravel, but neverthe- size in bed and banks are not significant at the 0.05
less displayed a considerable range of alluvial and level. Mean annual flood and weighted mean per-
hydrologic characteristics. The information collected cent silt-clay are most significantly related to width,
includes the following: Channel width ( w), maxi- for they are significant at the 0.001 level. These two
mu·m channel depth (d), width-depth. ratio (F), · variables were chosen for a ·multiple correlation
mean annual discharge ( Q), mean annual flood or analysis with channel width. The analysis yields the
the total discharge with a recurrence interval of following equation for channel width:
2.3'3 years ( Qd, median grain size of bed and bank
sediment (D:.o), percent silt-clay in bed (Se) and (1)
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-27
T~e results of tests of the reliability of simple cor- introduction of a parameter for sediment type seems
relations and the multiple correlati~n between w, necessary before the accuracy of calculations of
Q1n and Mare as follows: channel width and depth can be improved.
wand Qb wand M wand (Qb, M) Although within the limits of the data used chan-
Coefficient of variation (r) ________ 0.71 0.55 0.83 nel width can be calculated with some confidence,
Coefficient of correlation ( ?') ------ .85 .74 .91 the calculation of maximum depth is considerably
Standard error in log units (Se) .21 .26 .16 less accurate. However, maximum depth can be cal-
culated in another way, by the use of an equation
The coefficient of variation indicates that 71 per- developed previously for width-depth ratio. Using
cent of the variation of width from the mean is ex- data collected at 69 stations, which include the 41
plained by the use of Q,) alone. Fifty-five percent of with runoff data, it was found (Schumm, 1960b)
the variation of width from the mean is explained
by the use of Malone. When Q,1 and M are combined
that the channel shape expressed as a
width-depth
ratio (F) is related to M as follows:
by multiple correlation analysis, 83 percent of the
variation of width from the mean is explained. The F = 255 M-t.o~o~ (3)
use of M explains 40 percent of the variation unex- In a practical application of the above to the
plained by the use of Q,) alone. prediction of stable channel dimensions, width-depth
Analyses of variance indicate that of all variables ratio can be calculated by equation 3 and channel
tested, Q11 and M are most significantly related to width by equation 1. Maximum channel depth can
channel depth, for they are significant at the 0.01 be calculated by the use of equation 2 or by dividing
level. Multiple correlation analysis yields the fol- the calculated width obtained by equation 1 by the
lowing equation: calculated width-depth ratio.
M·"'s Q,/211 (2) It is recognized that equations 1 and 2 are em-
d = 5.37 pirical equations developed from a 'small amount of
existing data; however, they demonstrate that equa-
The results of tests of the reliability of simple cor-
tions for the calculation of -ehannel wic;.l~h and depth
relations and the multiple correlation between d, Q,),
can be significantly improved by tqe introd~ction
and M are as follows:
of a parameter for sediment type.
d and M d and Q1. d and (M, Qb)
Coefficient of variation ( 1.:.:) -------- 0.13 0.10 0.41 REFERENCES
Coefficient of correlation (?')______ .35 .32 .64
Standard error in log units (Se) .21 .21 .16 Burmister, D. M., 1952, Soil mechanics: New York, Columbia
Univ. Press, 155 p.
Partial correlation analysis shows that only 13 per- Dunn, I. S., 1959, Tractive resistance of cohesive channels:
cent of the variation of depth from the mean is ex- Am. Soc. Civil ·Engineers Proc., Soil Mechanics and
Foundations Div. Jour., Paper 2062, v. 85, no. SM 3.
plained by the use of M and only 10 percent through
Leliavsky, Serge, 1955, An introduction to fluvial hydraulics:
the use of Q,) alone. When Q,) and Mare combined in London, Constable and Co. Ltd., 257 p.
the above equation, 41 percent of the variation is Nixon, Marshall, 1959, A study of the bank-full discharges of
explained. This is a considerable improvement, but rivers in England and Wales: Inst. of Civil Engineers
the unexplained variation is still great. · Proc., v. 12, p. 157-174.
In both cases the use of M improved the accuracy Schumm, S. A., 1960a, The effect of sediment type on the
of calculation of channel width and depth. Con- shape and stratification of some ~odern fluvial deposits:
Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258, p. 177-184.
siderable variability remains in the correlations, but
- - , 1960b, The shape of alluvial channels in relation to
perhaps some of this may be explained by the innate sediment type: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 352-B, p.
variability of ephemeral streams. In any event, the 17-30.
B-28 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961.

. ,J :I 'i:

14. SOME FACTORS JNFLpENCING STREAMBANK ERODIBILITY·

. .
By I: S.' McQUEEN, Denver, Colo;
I I . ·~. '

' ) .. A : ,•:

A device ·des'ign'ed 'to simulate' the erosive action flow velocity of 1.2 fps measun~d at a·'point 0.1 foot
of· a gently flowing stream was used to erode pre- from the bank. ..., ·
..
:J..t
I·

pared samples oLsediments to determine what physi- - ~ircul~r pats of disturbed sediments were pre-
cal ·properties c.<mtrol the erosion processes.· . pared:bY two methods (dry packed and puddled) as
' Circular pats of· disturbed s'edimEmts : were prl. foll<?_';VS: _
pared and. their moisture contel)t and packing were pry _packed ....c_300 g of ~9il passing a No. 10 U. S.
controlled. Preli-minary results·; (tables 1· and ·2) in::. Standard sieve (2 mm) was .placed .in a paper-lined
dicate qualitatively which soil- characteristics are ~uchner funnel with_ a funnel .tremie. After satura-
important in contr~lling susceptibility to erosion. tion from the bottqm with distilled water a vacuum
was applied to the funpel to consolidate the s~mpl~
TABLE l.~AveTage erosioh ·rates, in milligrams per squ·are pat and redue~ th.~ !flOisture content to approximately
! .: 'Centimete·r of erosion: sU'r/.ace per .minute, •imd
field capacity.
:,_~:.<physical P'r'Oper.ties of sediment· samples from
~.sources in Colorado. and. Wyoming
Puddled.----,.300 g ()f ~P.il passing a No. JO U. S.
Standard._sje,ve (2. min) wa& saturated with ·distilled
water and ~ixed thoroughly. This was tht;m tr~ns 7
• j I,. iiJ
·Soils

Hoi! properties
-·------~-·"-------------
···j·-·1 1 '
ferred to a paper-lined Buchner funnel and vacuum a
was applied to reduce _the moisture content to ap-
A·- B C '· D E proximately field capacity.
---.------:-:---:--r;:-~_:_ -;---- -----:"':" - - - - - - - , - - -

Air dried. soils: · • i ~. , ... , .

- Following pr.eparation,-, the pats were removed
· .ErosiOn rates ......... mg/cm /min · )213.7
2 319.6 579 14.1 from the funnels and some of each kind of pat were
Moisture content .......... percent 2. 0 . 2. 0 _, 1. 2 ..
•BulkdeJisity.'.•.· .......... L.g/cc .' '1.58 1.62 1.61 ".'.i:i;6 ... i:sa··
Moist samples: tested in the erosion device immediately, some were
Erosionrates ......... mg/cm /min •144. ~
2 238 '') 491 7.7 4.9
Moisture content .......... percent 20.0 18.0 13 2 15 7 26.4 seasoned on a Richards pressure plate at specified
Bulk density ................. g/ cc I. 37 1. 62 1: 59t'i 1 : 36 1. 35
Grain size distribution: . .. , _ ,.. . ,;}._''' :: · moisture tensions, and some were air dried .before
Sand> .0625 mm ......... percent·
Silt .004 to .0625 mm ........ do.... '42 :·
22 .,. 30
52
35
46
tes_ ting. · -'· · · - ·
. Clay <·.004:nm ...... .'... ,-.do.:. 36 r.);)8~ ;(
'-·
19 ·! iE'.
In addition to the disturbed soil pats, four. rela-
Median diameter (d11 0 ) .•.••.••..•• mm .012 .037. .060
Sorting coefficient ( vd15/d2s).......... 6.44 · 2.83 · 2:13 .·
tively_ undisturbed samples of two soils _(D and E,
table 1) were pbtained with a Lutz sampl~r. Two
TABLE 2,~Eff~cts of packing' and ~oisture CO'f/-te~t 0~ erodi- of these···were saturated~ and then; dra-ined to field
. ··-~~{ ·,.' · ~ili(y of pat!J ofsoil_ ~:. .'. '·'.'." ::.·.:, .'. moistu're condition on a Richards pressure plate be-
fore testing. The other two were· air dried before
'" .... Moisture
(percent)·
Bulk density
(g/cc)
Erosion
(mg/cm /min)
2 tesfing on the erosio~ .de"vice. ·· ... .
_ _:_:;._____ , _ .._ _ _ _L_...L,. __ ----··-'· - - -
· · 'Pretreatment · · 'The results of 'the. eros·ion tests and the p'hysical
Dry Dry Dry ' '·
._ ~ . pac~. Pud~led pack Puddled pack PuMled properties of the sarrtples are shown in tables 1 and
----·----'·-"------~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.' Grain size distribution was not obtained for the
1
Freshly prepared pat .......... : 20 16.6' 1:33 1.71 237.4 3.9
•••
Seasoned at ~ atmosphere ....... . 20.1 - ,. 17.2 ~.1.41- . ,1.80 50.0 .4 undistu-rbed samples. ....
Seasoned at .!/::; atmosphere: t ·; ~· • ! t

~;, di~;:: ;· •••.i•.•• •••.• •••:•

14.8 18.3 }:56 I. 79 •125.2 .3
14.9 18.3 1.51 1.81 140.9 .5 SOIL FACTORS AN:p ERODIBILITY
2'.o 1.9 1.65 1. 92 205.8 91.2
2.0 1.9 1.51 2.12 221.7 115.7 Among the important s6il properties that control
- - - - - -I. - --- --- ---
Average................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48 I. 86 163.3 35.3 erosion are antecedent moisture, grain size distri-
bution, packing, and chemistry. The soils used were
chosen and the sample pats· were prepared to indi-
APPARATUS AND METHODS
cate which soil properties have the greatest influence •,
The erosion device was designed to apply a uni- on erosion.
form eroding force to the vertical face of a cylindri- Differences in antecedent moisture cause differ-
cal pat of soil 3 inches in diameter and up to 3 inches ences in the erodibility of a soil (table 2). Air dry
high. The force applied is equivalent to that of a pats erode rapidly because of forces developed by
stream flowing past a vertical st:reambank with a the hydration of clay particles and reduced cohesion
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND H"?:DROLOG'IC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-29
between particles. This is more evident in the fined by the data obtained because it was, masked by
·~ puddled than in the dry-packed samples because the the effects of packing and antecedent moisture
expansion of the clay particles is more disruptive content.
in a consolidated tightly packed sample. This hydra-
tion or "slaking" action may explain why intermit- CONCLUSIONS
tent str~ams sometimes have higher rates of erosion This study was undertaken to explore the feasi-
than perennial streams. The erosion rate of moist bility of determining in the laboratory an erodibility
• soils increases as ·moisture content increases. index for soils. For such an index to be of value, the
The erodibility of soils is influenced by the grain- erodibility of a given soil would have to be constant
size distribution· (table 1). In general, a poorly or would have to h~.ve a direct relation to. some
sorted sediment with a small median-grain size will measurable property of ·the soil. The data obtained
resist erosion better than a well-sorted sediment with indicate that erodibility of a given soil is extremely
a larger median-grain size. This may not, however, variable. It is influenced by packing and by ante-
hold true for coarse sands in streams with low cedent moisture content. Erosion rates determined
velocities. on disturbed samples have little relation to actual
Packing includes a group of related properties erosion because the change in packing resulting from
such as porosity, bulk density, structure, texture, the disturbance changes the erodibility. Changes in
cen:tenting, and pore-size distribution that are asso- moisture content and the freezing and tl;lawing of
ciated with the way the sedim·ents are deposited and natural undisturbed sediments may change .their
the forces applied to them since deposition. The two packing and hence change their erodibility so much
methods of sampl'e preparation were used to simu- that any i~~ex obtained would have little meaning
late extremes of packing. The erosion rates of th.e ·in terms of actual field erosion rates.
dry-packed samples were. from 2 to over 400 times Comparisons can be made between different sedi-
as high as the corresponding puddled samples (table ments to determine which are more susceptible to
2), indicating that differences in packing can cause erosion but the rate of erosion to be expected under
extreme differences in the erodibility of a sediment. a given set of conditions cannot as yet be determined
The effect of chemistry on erodibility was hot ·de- 1 from laboratory analyses of sediments.

15. AN EXAMPLE OF CHANNEL AGGRADATION INDUCED BY FLOOD CONTROL

By NORMAN J. KING, Denver, Colo.

Studies by Leopold and Miller ( 1956) show that depth and vel.ocity to discharge. It follows, .there-
ephemeral streams, like perennial streams, maintain fore, that width-the channel dimension in ephe-
a quasi-equilibrium betwe'en .. erosion and deposition. me!"al streams that can be measured m~st easily-
1

A change in one or more of the h~draulic factors is also the most responsive to changes in discharge.
affecting the stream· system results in adjustme.nts Measurements above and below arroyo junctions
in the other factors accordingly. ~elow a stream made by Miller (1958, table 4) show that with few
junction, for example, the increased discharge should . exceptions the width below the junction of all but
be accompanied by a corresponding increase in chan- very small arroyos is equal to or greater than the
nel dimensions since. Q . wdv, in which Q is dis- width of the larger tributary. Based on the expres-
charge, w is width, d is depth, and v is velocity. sion a = k ( b +c), in which a is the channel width
Leopold and Miller ( 1956) show that width, depth, below the junction and b and c are the tributary
and velocity change in the downstream direction as widths,' Miller's measurements show the coefficient
simple power functions of discharge. Significantly, k to average 0.68.
the power function re~ating width to discharge ap- If lncreased discharge forms a wider channel be-
proximates the sum of the power functions relating low a junction, it might be reasoned that a decrease
B-30 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

fi
I

(,

5 FEET

Section 3

100 0 100 200 FEET

CONTOUR INTERVAL 2 FEET

EXPLANATION

Monumented channel cross

section for repeat surveys

Survey of October 1960

-~
Survey of Oc Iober 1959

Survey of October 1957

Survey of June I 955

FIGURE 15.1.-Cross sections showing progressive aggradation in the channel of Conant Creek downstream from the mouth of
Logan Draw, Fremont County, Wyo.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-31
in discharge in one of the tributaries as a result of Beaver Rim, experience the same general storm
artificial controls would have the opposite effect. At events, have similar topography, and are underlain
first, aggradation would be expected because flow by the same general rock types. It is probable, there-
emerging from the uncontrolled tributary would fore, that both channels experience flow simul-
spread across the wider reach thereby decreasing taneously, that their discharge is of about the same
its depth and velocity of flow. According to Schumm magnitude, and that the peak discharges reach the
and Hadley (1957) aggradation would continue un- junction at about the same time. A comparison of
til the bed of the channel becomes oversteepened ; channel cross sections above and below the junction
.then the newly formed deposit would be trenched by (fig. 15.1) show an increase in width below the
headward erosion to form a channel that is once junction. Depending on the points of measurement
again in quasi-equilibrium with the discharge. the coefficient lc of Miller (1958, p. 13) ranges from
Completion by the Bureau of Land Management in about 0.6 to 0.8.
1~53 of .a flood-control and water-use project on Since completion of the water-control structures
Logan Draw in the southeastern part of the Wind in Logan basin, no flows have reached the mouth of
River basin, Wyoming (King, 1959), is affording an Logan Draw, whereas numerous runoff events have
opportunity to test the above reasoning, to measure occurred in Conant Creek. The channel downstream
the rates of aggradation, and to determine the time from the junction has aggraded as expected (fig.
necessary to complete a cycle of channel adjustment. 15.1) . This in turn has induced aggradation in both
Logan Draw is an ephemeral stream that heads on tributary channels for a short distance above the
Beaver Rim and trends generally northward to its junction (sections 5A and 5B, fig. 15.1). However,
junction with Conant Creek, which in turn drains the newly formed deposit thins rapidly upstream so
through Muskrat Creek to the Wind River. Above that no aggradation has occurred at section 6B (fig.
the junction of Logan Draw and Conant Creek the 15.1) on Logan Draw and almost a foot of channel
drainage basins of the two streams are very much degradation has occurred at section 6A (fig. 15.1) on
alike. Logan Draw has a channel length of 21.3 Conant Creek. In the aggraded reach the small
'·' miles, a drainage area of 60.4 square miles, and a inner channel that normally contained low flows has
sandy bed that carries perennial underflow. Conant been largely filled and is now protected by vegetation
Creek above the junction has a channel length of that induces further aggradation (fig. 15.2). Repeat
18.4 miles, a drainage area of 58.9 square miles, and surveys (fig. 15.1) show that the greatest aggrada-
a sandy bed that also carries perennial underflow. tion (2. 7 acre-feet in the surveyed reach) occurred
Both basins head at about the same altitude on during the period 1955-57. Aggradation in the

FIGURE 15.2.-Conant Creek channel downstream from the mouth of Logan Draw (1960). Only vestiges remain of the inner
channel that once carried low flows.
 B-32 ,, .. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: RESEARCH 1961.

same reach during the periods 1957-59 a·nd 1959-60 s·uggest that runoff and the amount of sediment de-
r.{vas 0. 7 and 0.3 acre-foot respectively~ "'' ., ·r·. posited in the reach shown on' figure 15~ 1 are directly
The number o:ftunoff events, the amount of run-. proportionaL :, 1

off, ·or the maximum discharge of Conant Creek dur-

ing the period '(1955.:...60). is nof''known. However," ,.- REFERENCES
..these data are available for Logan Draw and are -Ki.hg, N. J., 1959,· Hydrologic 'datil, ·wind River and;FifteEln
believed to be representative of Conant Creek basin Mil~ Creek basins, Wyoming; 1947:-54:' U.S. Geol. Survey
for reasons previously stated: These data show no Water-Supply Paper 1475-A, p. 1-44. ·
·unusual· storm events or high· discharges, but they .Leopold, L. B., and Miller, J, P., 1956, Ephemeral stream~~
:aO' show a wide range in runoff during· th€Fperi6ds Hydraulic factors and their relation to .the drainag~ net:
U.S. qeol. Surv~y Pr.of. Paper 2~2-;-A, p. 1-37. ; ,0·c_.
between surveys.· For· example, runoff ·during the
Miller, J.P., 1958, High mountain streams~Effects,of geology
period 1955-57 was 28.3 acre-feet per- square mile on chann~l chanicte~istics and bed material:· New Mexico
compared to 5.1 and '3.2 acre-feet per 1 square mile r. · B~r. Mines and l\n'neral Resbu~ces ·M~·m." 4, p. ,1_:_52.
· du'ririg the·· periods 1957--'59 and 1959-60, respec- . Schumm, S. A., and Hadley;· R. F·., l957, Arroy.os -~-~d the se'mi-
tively~l\ The data are ·admittedly meager,· but they arid cycle'of er~sion: Am. Jour. ·Sci.,'v:·255, p; 161-174>
! . . ·. '1 .

,!

. t.' I: '
. I : ' . {~ .
·..• ~ .1 •' . ~

[J;>. :.
1
t· I • T/i..), f •t _; J
:·· .
.:··.
··. -.. :11 . \: ' . : - -~ .
. 16. SOM;E
. ,_
EFFECl'S·
. .
OF, MICROCLIMATE:
. . . ... .. . ON
.
SLOP
. .1
E.:MORP»OLOGY
. . .AND
. DRAINAGE BASIN
. D.EVEI;.OfMENT
. '. .. . \ \ ~

~-; t : ·, : 1~ '
I~\ f '

':·i. r l . . ~ '· - ... ~-.' ---

.. -:-.-.-. ~ -~~ .

:.· · . Ndrth'edy !f~cin~ siopes- generally ·~re ste~per, 'le~s : metri~al b~sin. 'devel~pment. that rhight be. caus.ed by
::disse~ted, and support a more luxurian(growth·'of folding." . . ; . ·, •., . ',i '. ·:··.. :

vegetation than southerly facing slopes,· whi¢h often . Slope gradients ar~· coinpared with exposure 6n
ar·e deepiy r~~lle.d and. nea:riy barr~i1.' Becahse··bf these figure 16.. 1 for an· area of· one-half. squlare rriile 'th.at
differen'ces e~osion there isIn a
tendency for the inCludes p·art o'f the drainage areas"of the sfx basins
thalweg of the major stream channel in an east-west in which the other measurements were made. The
oriented basin to be shifted to the south side of the slope of the land surface and direction of exposure
valley floor by the debris fans and alluvial aprons of were measured at 50 points equally spaced in a grid.
eroded material derived from the south-facing slopes. The diagram shows that the steepest slopes face
This type of channel migration has caused a~. asym- north;. northeast, and northwest, whereas the gen-
metrical development of many drainage "ba~ins tlest slopes face south, southeast, and south-south-
studied· by the writer ~p. the High Plains, by Bass west.
( 1929) in Kansas~·· Me'iton\ (<l96o·)· in sol,ith~qstern .Vegetation: c·ounts made ·on several' slopes using
Wy.oJl?.ing and s~mthern Arizona, and Emery '(1947)' :une-intercept t~ansects.sho~ that the plant cover on.
in so~'t:hern ··Cali~ornia where geology and regional southerly-facing slopes is only 28 percent of that
.;;;.climati'c cohditi.otik· are distinctly different. An at- occurring on northerly-facing slopes. The sparse
· tempJ is made here to state quantitatively the effects vegetation cover on southerly-facing slopes is prob-
on basin morphology and drainage development due ~bly caused by moisture deficiency due to rapid
to.· direction of slope or. the exposure, or more pre- evaporation and melting of snow cover on the slopes
.ciselyi due to the microclimate. ·that receive more direct solar radiation. Vegetation
protects the slope from sheet erosion and rilling.
· '·· A· P.F~liminary study wa~ made in the Cheyenne Drainage density, expressed as miles of channel
·.. River basin of ea'st-central Wyoming in six small p·er squa re m1·1 e of d ra1nage · area, was d et ermine· d
drainage basins· underlain by the Fort Union for- separately for both the north and south sides of the
mation of Paleocene age._ The bedrock units are six drainage basins. The basins were divided into
virtually flat-lying, thus minimizing the possibility two .sides by a line. virtually parallel to the axial
.or' ddwndip ~igration 'o:f ·stream. chann~ls :~nd ·a~y;m- · ·channel in. each basin. Result's of th~se computations,
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND ~YDROLOGIC. SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146

NORTH divide to the meaq value of all measurements to. the

southern di~ide .i1' .each basin is term~d the index
of sym;metry. An .index of 1.0 de:riotes perfect sym-
metry:.· The 'index.es of symmetry rang·e from 1.22
to 1. 97· for ··the six basins indicating that the main
channel ~:p. each of these basins has been displaced
appreciably to the !south by erosional debris derived
from south-facing .slopes.
A reconnaissance has been made of basins having
a wider range of bedrock and climate to determine
the relative importance of the several variables
being considered. A group of drainage basins was
selected,. along a tra~erse. nearly parallel to the 15-
irtch rainfalr ·'line i.~)he ·western part -~f ~~e. High
Plains from central . Texas t,o . northweste'rn N,e-
'braska .. ':rhu"'S·,·~the variable pa~aineter of mean an-
nual rainfa)l, ~·as· it might affect slope erO'sion and
I J)lant life, ·was minimized and the differences caused
SOUTH . by mean annual temperature, particularly the fre-
quency of freezing and thawing, were accentuated.
FIGURE 16.1.-Diagram showing relation between e?'posure
and degree of slope at 50 localities.
The basins· in the southep.n part of the High Plains
were underlain by the Ogallala formation of Pliocene
tabulated below, show that the drainage density on age and the basins in northwestern Nebraska were
the south-facing sides of the basins is more than underlain by the Brule and Chadron formations of
twice that on the north-facing sides. Oligocene age. Measurements I
included degree and
If•. direction of slope and basin symmetry. These data
D1·ainage clensity, in ?niles pe1· square mile, fiir "six bas'iris in are summarized as follows :
east-cent1·al Wyoming
:,• ,,],' : .::~
Number of Average· Mean slope (percent)
Drainage density basins Location of basins index of
symmetry
North-facing South-facing
Drninngc basin
(fig. 10.2)
Area
(sq miles) North-facing
side
South-facing
side ------
,
---·--~- ·------ -------------- 4 .......... Lat :~2° N.; near
Big Spring, Tex.
1.a8 20 Hl
1 ............... .. 0. Hi ' 5.0 15.1
2 ................ . .10 :l. :l 12. I 4 .......... Lat 41° N.; near O.H2 24 2:~
:l ................ . .0!) ' ti.2 \7.0 9heyenne, w~~ .. '. (
. i
4 ................ . .14 T I (;~'2 I • i ,' ! q 8.5 •
5 ................ . .76 5.0 8.5 2 .......... Lu.t 4:3° N.; near 1.:n 2:~ Hi
6 ................ . .2:~. -5.6 6.7 Harrison; Nebr.
Avet·nge ..... 5.2
~·

The indexes of symmetry for the basins near

I I

Drainage basin asymmetry has been expressed as Cheye~i-le, Wyo. are contradict~ry to the indexes for
the difference in slope angles on the north- and the other basins studied, but this may be due to
south-facing slopes within a si~gle basin .(Emery,: differences in the resistance to erosion of gravel in • . .' . . •j . . • . . . . ·'

1947; ,Melton, 1960) .. In the six .. drainage basil)s. the Ogallala formation; which underlies the· ·basins.J..· i • ,' . l • ~ : . • •

considered here, af:1ymmetry is simply. a measure of

~he ~eviation of the mai·n chan~el from a position ' . ' ··... :l '
along .the central axis of..the basin. Se~eral measure- Bass, N., W., 1929, Geology of Cowley County, Kansas:. Kansas
m~nts were made. of the distance from the main State Geol. Survey Bull. 12; .p. 19:' ·· ·" .~
channel to both. north and south' dr~in~ge ~i.vides. in Em~ry, K. 1947, AsY.nimetrical valieys of Sa~ Di~.g~ o:,
··county, Ca:lif.: B\lli. So. Calif.·;Acad: Sci., v. 46, 'pt:·~2:
e.~ch of the basi~s in figure 1~.2 (p .. ~::-3.4). The lines ···p.; 61'-70. . . . I.' ' ,

o.f measurement were perpendicular to the axis of Melton, ·:M. A., 1960,. Irit'ravalley variation in slope angles
th~ ~hannel. . The. ~ati.o of th~ me~n val~e of .all related.to microclimate·. and erosional environment: Bull.
measurement~ . :(rom the. .channel to .the. northern.
\ ~ p.eol. Soc. America,_ v. 7~, .P: 133-144.
B-34 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

r·(------71~-------~;-----·--,

' ~~ \ ! "
I

I .I

I= 1.75 I= 1.50 I= 1.22

U
.
-
~
\
Casper •
'
!
I /~._,;:J
i J
L_____ _______________________ j
r-:
INDEX MAP OF WYOMING SHOWING
LOCATION OF STUDY BASINS

4
1=1.48
5 I= 1.52

I= 1.97
N

r 0 1 MILE

FIGURE 16.2.----.:Maps of drainage network in six basins. I is index of symmetry.

17. HYDROLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE OF BURIED VALLEYS IN GLACIAL DRIFT

By STANLEY E. NORRIS and GEORGE W. WHITE, Columbus, Ohio

Wo·rk done in cooperat·ion with the Ohio Depa-rtment of Natural Resou1·ces, Division of Wa.ter

Bedrock valleys containing permeable outwash have been discovered in northeastern Ohio, in the
deposits are recognized as impo.rtant sources of course of current investigations on the hydrology
ground-water supply in glaciated regions. Com- of the glacial deposits. Such valleys have been ob-
monly, in water-resources investigations of drift- served in deep cuts for highways and strip mines,
covered areas, contour maps are made of the bed- and recognized elsewhere by analysis of subsurface
rock surface, and the buried valley systems are and hydrologic data. For example, near Ashland,
described and interpreted. These studies have pro- Ohio, during construction of Interstate Route 71 in
vided data of considerable value, not only about November 1958, a spring with a discharge of ap-
ground-water resources, but also about the sequence proximately 165 gallons per minute was opened by
and chronology of Pleistocene events. Similarly, the power shovel when a deep cut was made in thick
buried valleys cut in till, rather than in bedrock, till. The water flowed from an interbedded deposit
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-35
of silt and sand containing a minor amount of SW NE
FEET
75 100 125
coarse gravel which, at the orifice, occurs in a shal- 25 50

low valley in a gray unnamed till at what is now

known to be a disconformity between this till and an
overlying till recently named the Millbrook (White,
written communication, 1961). The relatively. large
discharge of the spring strikingly demonstrates that ·
large quantities of water can be transmitted through
glacial materials of generally low permeability.
Permeable deposits in till-enclosed valleys consti-
tute zones of relatively high permeability in the
till, and are highly important in ground-water cir-
culatory systems in areas of glacial terrane. They
function much as do open joints and solution cavi- FIGURE 17.2.-Sketch of cut made for superhighway, center of
sec. 27, Perry Township, Richland County, Ohio, showing
ties in limestone in conducting water through an buried shallow valley in lowest of three tills. 1, Till, dark
otherwise poorly permeable medium. The depo:;;its drab gray, calcareous; 2, till, olive-brown, calcareous; 3,
they contain are typically referred to by well drill- · silt, yellow; 4, gravel and coarse sand, calCareous, water-
ers as "gravel pockets" or "gravel stringers" in the . bearing; spring in each of 3 units; 5, till, bluish-gray,
till. Locally, the deposits are sources of water to calcareous; 6, till, yellow-brown, calcareo~s; 7, till, dark-
-~· farm and suburban wells; however, their signifi- brown, calcareous below 4 feet; depth of leaching shown
by dashed line.
cance as aquifers has been generally overlooked ..
These buried deposits are important as potential weathering of the deposits could take place. The
sources of water in many so-c~lled "water-short" examples illustrated are typical of many that have
areas in northeastern Ohio, where thick till gener- been found. Some, as in figure 17.1, ar.~Lco.mpletely
ally overlies relatively impermeable bedrock. preserved beneath a later till cover; others, as in
Some of the buried valleys in till. appear to have figure 17.2, have had part of their fillings .(and
been cut by streams in interglacial or interstadial probably part of their upper valley walis'· a;~· well)
times and filled during these times, as illustrated in
removed by erosion before or during later till
figure 17.1. Others, as in the example in figure 17.2,
deposition. These may 'Qe similar, in part, to buried
appear to have been cut by meltwater streams from
meltwater channels in Minnesota described by
·nearby ice and filled by ice readvance before any
Schneider and Rodis (1959), at least some of which
may have been cut in glacial drift rather than
sw NE bedrock.
These buried valleys are unconformities and oc-
cur at the contact between two tills. Individual tills
in northeastern Ohi·o have been distinguished and
mapped (White, 1960, and Art 176) on the basis
of variations in their mineralogy, petrology, · tex-
ture, color, and mechanical properties. Identifica-
tion of till contacts in the subsu.rf~ce provides clues
to the location of buried valleys ·that may contain
permeable sand and gravel deposits.
FIGURE 17.1.-Sketch of cut made for superhighway, NEIA,-
NWI4 sec. 33, Perry Township, Morrow County, Ohio, REFERENCES
showing buried valley in till. 1, Till, very dark gray, Schneider, Robert, and Rodis, H. G., 1959,· Aquifers in melt-
calcareous; 2, till, yellow-brown or olive-brown, calcare- water channels along the southwest flank of the Des
ous; 3, till, yellow-brown, noncalcareous; 4, san.d, fine, Moines lobe, Lyon County, Southeastern Minnesota
calcareous, water-bearing; 5, silt, sandy, upper part non- [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70, p. 1671.
calcareous; 6, clay, very dark gray; 7, silt and colluvium, White, G. W., 1960, Classification of Wisconsin glacial deposits
highly weathered; 8, till, dark-brown, c~lcareous; 9, soil ·in northeastern Ohio: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1121-A.
and weathered dark-brown till. 12 p.
B-36 GEOL0GICAL SURVEY iRESEARCH 1961

·, ;:
/.
. .,
18.. PLAN TO SALVAGE EVAPOTRANSPIRATION LOSSES. IN THE CENTRAL·SEVIER· VALLEY, UTAH
' • >.• ~· '-:.' (.~•· •l I •

! 'I '· ~ · f t! •, ''()

By RICHARD A. YouNG and CARL H. CARPE:NTER, Richfield,,';.Uta,h.,,. ··~·

' .. J '•',.

. ·-.!

Work don:e in cooperation with the Utah State Engineer .. ;.;· 1 . ·h~r., ·' ~ !• •

-~--~------

The Sevier River, as a· ·source of irrigation water, premi~e but-also suggest that some water~~-~ wasted
is one of the mo~t highly developed streams in the by lo\V-val'ue vegetation.·m.~~ _be salyageq. The con~
United States. ··At four points· aiong its course in fining materials 'that cover the artesian 'basins in
the· cenfral· Sevie.r Valley are ·pe:Fm~able·:'. Thus the
the.· central Sevier Valley .the ·stream . is -completely
artesian· pressure from ·uri·Cfern~~th, together .·with
diverted into· irrigation systems, but· retnrn· flow saturation by irrigation ·from above, ~' 1raises the
and ground-water discharge replenish the flow. for water table to a Jevel within reach of phreatophytes.
downstream users; Severe >drought conditions, ex- Dense growths of ·low-value phreatophiytes · cover
t;:nsi~e Invasion ~-Y; phreatoph.yt~s o~ l~w ec~nornic much_ of -the. land sur{ace) overlying~~ the·· artesian
value, poor drainage practices, and outmoded irri- al;'eas,. and an estimated .60,000 .to 70,000 acre-feet of
gation'systems h~ve eorp.bined in the past decade to ground water is lost by evapotransp,i_ratioll; annually
diminish the irrigation supply. A ground~water in- from the ,three ~ain. basins. Much of the phreato-
vestigation, begun in 1956 and completed in 1960, ph:v.te growth occurs along riv'er qanks, creek chan-
has resulted in a greater ·knowledge :of the 'hydroiogy ilels·, ·drains, and irrigation canals. ·A· ·coordinated
of .this .highly ·complex -river system .. _;; -·. program· of phreatophyte e'radicatl'ori~: improved ir..:
rigation management, and lowering of the high water
The .central Sevier ·valley (fig. 18.1) ;occupies· a
table by improv.ed·drainage· practices and·by pum·p-
s;yncline modified by:a graben (fig. l8.2).lThe iii1fh11 f
ing of .wells could salvage as much as 50 percent of
syncline was formed in late-Jurassic time, 'and fold-
the water .. annually lost to· evapotr'arispiratiori · by
.ing continued throughout;· cr·etaceous and Tertiary low-value plants. · ·· ~ ; ·
times.~ The' faulting that formed the graben· inay
It is :difficult to estimate to what extent pumping
have started -after Miocene time' becaJse it involves may be utilized to salvage' evapotranspiration· losses
volcanic rocks of Oligocene or iM:iocetie age. Re-
without interference with established water rights,
newed faulting took place in Pleistocene ~rid Recent
but careful development should minimize that inter-
time and: cut ·the Sevier. River: formation ·of late
ference. The following table gives a breakdown of
Pliocene or early Pleistocene age. The graben-" was
estimated annual ground-water discharge from the
~ubsequently filled ·with alluvium· from the side
three main .basins·: ·· - · ·
slopes and with poorly sorted valley fill deposited 'by
the ancestral Sevier Rivet .. Faulting, lava flows,
and~. salt-dome intrusions' have' resulted in constric- ' -: I£stinui'ted · Other artificial and natural
tions across the valley that for~ basins ·which con- Basiu
loss by
low-valur
discharge from the ground-
water basins.· Includes springs,
tain large supplies .of ground) water. Largest ·of phreatophytes
(acre fert)
drains, flowing wells, and
pumped wells (acre feet)
these basins are Circle Valley, the· Sevier-Sigurd
- - - - - - - - - - - - -·- - - - - -
..
area, and the G~nnison-:Seyier Bridge area. . . --------------'-~·

The ground w'ater in ·these basins is in. approx.i-· Cir<:le Valley .. ·..... . 10,000 5,000
mate dynamic equ.ilibrium ·; that is, "gr.ound-water
Sevier-Sigurd .... .- .... :~o,ooo . :H,OOO
inflow essentially equals ground-water outflow. The .
basins are filled to capacity and the ground water Gurini~on-Sevier Bridge .... :m,ooo t8,ooo
is under artesian pressure throughout much of the Total .......... : .. 70,000 60,000
valley. The Sevier River acquires the .overflow or
natural ground-water discharge from each basin;
this flow is diverted at some· downstream point to · Th'~s table il'l:dicates, that ··more water is lo~t by
satisfy irrigation demands. l(;>w-value phre~tophytes than .i~. q.sed ..from all pres-
It :has long been considered 'impossible to utilize
ent ground-water sources. If half the. water .now
ground water to stabilize or increase the irrigation
supply without interference with established water lost to low-value phreatophytes could be salvaged by
rights. Results of this investigation verify this pumping without seriously affecting the present
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE ~GEOLOGIC 'AN.D HYDROLOGIC SQ;IENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-37!

EXPLANATION
·.~------
Bound~ries of ground-water areas
. '! ,;,.. .....
/ I
/ I
/ I

Boundaries of ground-water storage areas

Boundary of alluvium l'

:,,
'')

A- -A'
Location of cross section lo")

-
0
,£:·
Well used in constructing cross section ":f
.f'
I'
; '

{).

,.
N

·: \ . .
.·.
AREA. } ' . .
,.
'

~o:"'.. .., •. i . .
_. r ;.\ t{ J
: ~ ·' ,.
1 .

..· ···~ ,.. I :

.i I
' •'
-.r: •'.

:
0 5 io 15 MILES

J ~·~
., C.J t.

\ ;' i :·
:~~ l .. ~ .~

FIGURE 18.1.-Map of central Sevier Valley, Utah, showing areas of ground-water storage.
B-38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

A A'
EXPLANATION
Pleistocene and Recent deposits, undifferentiated

5750' 5750'
Sand, silt, and clay deposi~s Water-bearing gravel deposits

Crazy Hollow formation

(Spieker, 1949) ~
..0
"'
5500' "'
1.0
("t)
~
~
5500'
1.0
("t)
M'I
("t)
M'I
N !-
("t) ~ N
I N
8 I Q) ·i: Q)
0 ~ 0
8 ..r::. !- ..r::.
·~
5250' "" 5250'

Flagstaff limestone
5000' 5000'

4750'
J
0::11- 0::1-
4750'

0...J W...J
Zl::>
lij<! >=>
w<!
(f)LL
Li11LL
4500' 4500'

0 2 MILES 1.

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X16

FIGURE 18.2.-Geologic section across Sevier Valley. r.'·

rights, an additional 30,000 to 35,000 acre-feet might land surface. If large wells were spaced and con-
be made available in the central Sevier Valley. structed properly, the_ Sevier.:Sigurd basin might
A water-budget study was made in the Sevier- yield an additional 15,000 acre.-feet of water to wells
Sigurd area to estimate the annual yield that might annually without seriously affecting present flowing
be obtained by pumping. This study indicated that wells and springs. Similarly, in Circle Valley and
evapotranspiration amounted to about 55,000 acre- in the Gunnison~Sevier Bridge area an additional
feet of water in 1957 and about 65,000 acre-feet in 5,000 and 15,000 acre-feet respectively might be de-
1958-about half of it consumptive waste. The veloped, for a total of about 35,000 acre-feet in the
central Sevier Valley.
water-budget study also ·indicated that, for a decline
of one foot in average ground-water level, about REFERENCE
20,000 acre-feet of ground-water was discharged.
Spieker, E. M:, 1949, The transition between the Colorado
The artesian head of the .wells and springs in the Plateaus and the Great Basin in central Utah: Utah
Sevier-Sigurd area ranges from 1 to 7 feet above Geol. Soc. Guidebook no. 4, 106 p.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE9LOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-:!.46 B-39

19. RELATION BETWEEN STORAGE CHANGES AT THE WATER TABLE AND OBSERVED WATER-LEVEL
CHANGES

By R. W. STALLMAN, Denver, Colo.

Meinzer ( 1923, p. 28) defined specific yield as the

ratio of (a) the water removed by gravity drainage
from a saturated rock to (b) the volume of the rock.
Specific yield, both as a concept and as a characteri-
zation of the hydraulic properties, of water-bearing
materials, plays a useful role in hydrologic studies.
However, in many situations the variables affecting
Unsoturo ted
the ground-water flow system are .not interrelated zone
adequately by the basic assumptions inherent in the
specific yield concept. Specific yield may be defined
algebraically as
dh
q == Sv dT (1)
} - · s Y at
dh .A.t
where q is the rate of increase of water storage in
the saturated zone (expressed as a length per unit
time)' s/1 is the specific yield, and dh/ dt is the slope
of the curve water-table height (h) versus time ( t).
Equation (1) was adopted as the basis for the "trans-
piration-well method" by White (1932), was applied
by Gatewood and others (1950) for measuring
ground-water use by vegetation, and is still in use
(Stallman, Art.-20). FIGURE 19.1.-Flow relations in the saturated zone.
If the position of the water table changes in
response to changes in flow in the saturated zone, In equation ( 1), q generally is a_ssumed to be the
equation ( 1) may be 'considered an abbreviation of a rate at which water is removed from the saturated
differential equation which defines the relationship zone by evapotranspiration. This presumes that
among head, storage, and aquifer-conductivity with q == W, and that the first term in equation (2) is
respect to water movement. Two-dimensional flow· negligible compared with W. Though this might be
through a homogeneous unconfined aquifer may be considered a reasonable presumption, there has been
exl?~essed approximately as little, if any,. evidence developed to support it. From
data for one small group of wells (Stallman, 1'956, p.
o:!h o:!h] oh
T [ ox:!+ oY'.! +W == SJ/~ (2) 454) it was determined that lateral flow cha.nges,
given by the first term in equation (2 }, accounted
in which T is the aquifer transmissibility, and W is for more than one-third of the calculated W during
the rate of recharge to the saturated zone expressed a short period of observation. One set of water-level
as a length per unit time. altitudes showed W to be a positive quantity while
Flow in the saturated zone as defined by equation oh/ot was negative according to analysis by equa-
tion (2). Thus, equation (1) would have indicated a
(2) is illustrated in figure 19.1. The first term on
water loss from the zone of saturation even though
the left side of equation (2) is an expression of the recharge occurred, as- demonstrated by the analysis
rate of change of storage due to variations in flow using equation (2), This one example suggesting
in the x-y plane. The accretion rate W also accounts· analytical inadequacy in equation ( 1) cannot be eon-
for a part of the total rate of change of storage and sidered conclusive evidence that equation (~) must
is either added to or subtracted from the flow through always be used for calculating W; it emphasizes the
the aquifer. Thus, the rate W, as defined, represents need for ~ more cautio1:1s approach in assigning
the rate of interchange of liquid between the sat- physical significance to q a~ calculated by means of
urated and unsaturated zones. equation ( 1).
B-40 .'~1. . . ! ·GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 .

In the derivation of equations (1) and (2) it was

assumed that flow in the unsaturated zone does not
affect ·'the storage changes in the sAturated zone. 8 Discharge
This assumption is inherent in the definition of A
specific yield. However, the saturated anq, un~atu­
rated zones form one continuous hydraulic system. Ql
c:
Thus, even though the hydraulic characteristics of 0
N
both zones are different from one another-, --it ·should "0
Ql
be evident from the fundamental concepts of hydrau- .i;d:
. ''- .
lics that any change of either head or velocity in ~ !D
·0
en
the unsaturated zone will be reflected to some degree C:·
----- .____ 0
··;'
~
as a change of head everywhere in the saturated ·': · " :
0
- wat'er -table positions
zone. Therefore, the water table ·will move in re- Ql •.
c: .. ...; -·-·-- ../2_
sponse to the distribution 'of flow in both contiguous ,N
0
:,, t
zones, and it does n()t appear reasonable ito relate ·"0 .I.
~<t·
the position of the water t3:ble s~J~Jy to flow in the I';~ !D.
saturated zone as has been done in the derivation· :::J
+-
0
of equations (1) and (2). (/)

The relation between discharge from the saturated· - - Distant point in aquifer
zone and its effect on the position of the water table
'1
is show..n schematically-· in figure. 19.2. The column
shown -~epresents a flow tube wh.ich. extends from
FIGURE 19.2.-Cfiange· of th~ water-table position d~e · to
some distant point where head· . is controlled ~Y say,. . changes in 'rate of 'discharge fro~ the saturated zo~e.
surface-water stages, through the aqqifer, tp a)point ·
on the land surface~ Flow through the saturated tion. From such data,' 'it 1 should be possible to make
'zone discharges into· the; _unsaturated zone, from a·:direct evaluation of the adequacy of equations· (1)
which it is discharged into' the atmosphere by evapo- and• (2), and· to document the· sHs'nificance ·o~ the
transpiration~ At a particular discharge rate A, a· concept ·iUust.rated by .figure 19.2. ·• ·
given head distribution will be . established in· the· ''l!f,.. ,... .,~.

·system cdmmensurate· with' all' the hydrauliC ·bound- REFERENCES .f ·.I

ary conditions imposed on the aquifer. The resulting G~tew~od, J. S., Robin~~n, T:
'w.:, Colby, B ..R.,, Hem, ·J.D.,' and
w~terl..table positiori is at a. If the discharge through. : '' Haipenny', L:'b:, 1950, -qse of water ~:y_.b?t1fm-la1_14 .v.ege-
the;~surfac·~ lis· i'r:i'creas·ed 'to ~rate'·B·; lhe: head· at· all , tation 'in lower· Safford Valley; Arizona: U.$. Geol. ,Sur,.. "
points irF the system will be· decreased to acc~mmo-· veyW ~ter-S~pply :Paper '1103,· 210 ·'p~ ·. 1• , .

dat€;:: the increase in1 veloC"ity '··at all; •tpo1nts in the Meinzer,· o:: :E.; i_92.3/ :outline of groJ:fid'-wat~r hydrol()gy:
systElm. -Thus, with ldischkrge at rate: B' the :po'sitidn' ··u.'s·. ·Geol: Survey Wate~.:Supply· Pap~r :494, 7.1 p. : '
M6setti; 'Fernlbo, 1960,' Thermometric st~d·y of the m~:VemEmt
of the water table 18 'b'.-;~.For ·a:.igiven~:·vatu'e.. 6f·A/B·,. of ground water: (Pres~nt~d' ·'orally bi•·P:rof; ':M:ario.
the. diff~rence' between 'the 'altitudes. 'of .d/ a~d.' 6: ii Picotti), J~ternat. Union· Geodesy and, Geophysics Mtg.,
chi~1flY depe~i;dent Oil
' '· ·,.' T )
(
the .r~il6: pf2f th~. Qyiita~ii'c cb·ri·~
: : • • • • I { ' • -~ ' r.~ j :. ); t • • •• ) J. t I ~ .~ I •{ • ' ' /' • .I·.~ . . . .-
Helsinki.'' - · ·
qJ,ic1~+~~~~~;s .9f: ~thr, ~~i~~t_{lt,ep ~fl~-~4. lln.~~tu!\_~ttf.~ zpp,e~ Stallman, R. w.;\ l956, Numerical analysi~ of regional water
· t,o st~~dy7 st.~.te.ifl.ow, arid ther.e~~re\ts not_nece~sariJy~ ; lev:~ls>,to d~:fine, .~ql}ifer hydrol~gy: .Am. Geophys. Union
dir.ectly related to a change of storage in,the;system•.:
1', • ' • . ;, • ' I,, .... -''· • • . J
.)·. Tr~~~·· v .•~7· p. 451-4.60. .· : . . . . r ·:· . ; j( •..•. :
--,-1960, :N'otes sur l'emplo1 de rese1gnements therm1ques
lflpw ·lthrpughJ :the unsaturated zone<-.js·': chiefly.
pour !'evaluation de 'la vitesse d'e~u s~uterraine -(Not~~
! \

ve.rttcai..~· Thus;rthe· exterit:.to. whicih!the· water'-table n' ; on. the. use!··· of :ietbperature data J for--+ computing .ground--
position:·, [s .dependent· on ) flow. ;_,i~n···the .unsa!turated. £'.: w3.1ter veloCity').: Soc( .llydrotech.nique·de'Fran'ce,.Jbur; de
zone;Cmight ·be' determined· frorti 1stti(:ly ofVve:fticaJ -:;. {;1/hYJGlrauliqpe ·(Nan_cy,i 1~60),:Quest;11',' Ra>ppi 3, p~:1-7.t! i
flow comp·o:nents~)in1~tlier\ticih.ityr' of 'lHe:··wate.r·;t3:hle! ~}\zuki, : S. ettaro, , 1~6.0, Per-colation. measu·rements based . on
Fieia -~ea:Suremen't ·bf Stich' ~Jrticai flqw 1 c'ompon_e'nts heG\t flow through soil with spe.cial· ref~r~nce to pa~dY.
is' not'·phteticable' by yhet techriicfileis Jiqw_ ~\i~il~_bl~,
1
:· ·.· ._:fi'eid~: J~u~. Ge~phys: R~s., p. ,28~3;-~~8.5., . ,< ,.. 1 1 ,: I , .'
··u· ·l. :,, . . . .... . . ·• . . • .'· ~~· · ·· ·
b'uPrec.erit: ·w ork (Mo·s~~tti; '1966;. silillki: i9~·<r 'a$'d Wn1te, W .. N ., 1932; .f\. method .of ~stmwtmg_ g:r,ou.n~bw~t~_r
1
1
t.t; (L~~IS~~ie~ ba'~e'd ~k dis~harg.e b~/ -P.l~~ts a·;;d ~~~p~~.~t~oil
0 1

s·taihit'iin3 : '1960f h~is . :.g{(:i'i\~~ted.i the 'r~dsib'nity:··',.d¥

11

')''I :-r·q 1·,c ·' , ... ~·"li•r·'·r··:-~.·; -:-r.:; · ,. n · '~:Y·I,·i 1 . , , ... :(' .• <:·.' .. fr'drtC soil :~·:}~~{at~ of i~vestigatibhs in Ekca:lante -'valley,
rri.e~suring verY'· ~maW g'found.:.water ... velociti.e,s. by . _',: .Utaih: u~-s~.: 'G~ol. ·srut~rey· ·W·ater:.·sup'ply Paper 659-'A;
; • < t... \ , : \
I • :: _',
• I • :, ' :' ' I • 1 • ' ~· o ' ,-• I : • • • t,:' ~

a'nalysis of the underground' teinperat~re 9ist~ibu,. 105 p. >.··;i~' • · 'I· ,-;;;;[ i,f ,;i.: ·' i ;

.,
.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE. GEOLO.GIC AND· HY,DRQLOGI.C SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-41

20. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF VERTICAL FLOW. COMPONENTS IN THE VICINITY. OF PUMPING WELLS IN,
UNCONFINED AQUIFERS· . 1r ,.
l.
By R. ·w. 'STALLMAN, Denver, Colo .
. .. :0:1. .·.
"I·-~··, ~-
I
. ·:.!'I
Most algebraic equations used for analyzing pump-:: ' of. pumping ~is required befoterrflow may be: sa tis~
ing tests ·(see Theis, 1935; Wenzel, 1942; Ferris, factorily defined by the. assumptions made ·in de-
1949; Jacob, 1950; and Brown, 1953, for example) riving:analytical expressions like -the Theis. equation.
have been derived usi-ng the assumptio:n that flow .Boulton· (1954): ·and· Kirkham (1959) ·have de-
to wells occurs only in horizontal planes as shown veloped methods 'for· analyzing unconfined ;flow to
schematically on figure 20.1A. However, where the wells, taking account of the vertica-l flow components
upper surface of the ground-water body is uncon- at the·i water. table. . However, these- methods· are
+ fined and free to move as head in the aquifer changes, founded -or:i other restrictiVe assumpt-ions, and p·ro-
paths of flow originate at the unconfined or free sur- vide little.· or no direct evaluation of. the .~ffects; of
face and terminate at. the well: as shown schemati- vertical flo~ coni.pcments on' r1diai' i flow relation~.
cally on figure 20.1B. bownwa~d flow from the free Without such' an· evaluation the nee'd for more
surface is most pronounced during the initial period lengthy· anaJyt'ic~l m:ethods is ·open· to question.
of pumping. The water table is lowered most rapidly The relative effects of vertical flow components on
near the pumpeq well, and in that region the effects changes in head the 'water table rpight be ascer- at
of downward movement on flow become progres- t'ained by a f.orm of Boulton's. (t95.4, p. 568) differ-
sively less ·significant as pumping continues. Thus, ential equation defining the f~ee·· ~n~rface. ·For· an
it is generally recognized-- that flow conditions be- anisotropic' formation, Boulto.il's ·equation· is ..
come essentially like those found in artesian aquifers
.." only after long periods of pumping in unconfined
aquifers. Nevertheless, it is common practice to (1)
utilize the equations defining artesian conditions to
determine the characteristics of_ unconfined aquifers in whi~h S,~~ i~ the· specitic ,Yiel1d,~ ~ ._i,s .the decli:n_e· o'f
from pumping_ tests lasting ·only a few hours. Valid 7 the water table, r is the distance fro~. the center of
ity of such practice
. has been supported more. by the well to the point where the decline is observed, z
wishful thinking than by·. real evidence that the is the distance upward from the confining bed to the
assumption of purely horizontal flow leads to ·a point where the decline is observed,, ,t is time, and
satisfactory analysis. Furthermore, there are as yet Pr and Pz are the permeabilities. for radial and verti-
no quantitative data to indicate _how long a per_iod cal ~ow of :wa~er, respectively. )f the. value of the
I·,

Pumped
well
Pumped
weli

Pumping
level - ...... /h
""...,t/
. . '' ·. --. t-. '!"'j ,
...,
•• _)j, ! .. t~-----·-'
::-. ... :' :.·/ ;.,:,·Jt;·; l•i:.t ....::, ·•·• ·_l'·l·.·-'Pumpin.g
fl.' .'·• .'·· ~~ ·;!l'.' Iff 'v'l'·i't ir~·:-1 ··. ~--: , ~Jl:· level•i·- ,,
(li.':. ::. (• !'\. J.: ,,; ·..••. ·~!:.:.-".It~ I ':;:.:j

· ·<~ ~-' ... """"' :,: .• J .,,r· :;·:J·,·: , t · \.:.:.·\. ~.l .l·· \'

·- .r,
.: ._,

, ...··

,,:..
~.; . Cor~ining beds, . 1 , . ~ ' ...: .{ ~' .' '~ ::
A. ~RTESIAN CONDITIONS B. WATER-TABLE CONDITIONS r • '~' • I

;i ~~-~' • f,: 'l ~.

>. •, i (.
0 : '\ I J ... l'

,··•,J I
 B-42 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

left side of equation (1) is nearly equal to (o.~lor):.!,

the effects of vertical flow components on the rate
of water-table decline are negligible and the flow is
essentially horizontal. cs~ 6s = 0.58 = 0 029
cr 6r 20 .
Pumping-test data collected near Grand Island,
~ 1
Nebr,, by Wenzel (1942, p. 117-122) afford an op- w
~
portunity for demonstrating, by means of equation z
H
( 1), the effects of vertical flow components. The z
aquifer at the test site is composed of unsorted ~
sands and gravels and is about 100 feet thick. The
pumped well was 24 inches in diameter and was
~
0
2 6s

drilled to a depth of about 37 feet below the water

table. Dra wdowns were ·observed in 80 nearby ob-
.· servation wells. According to Wenzel's (1942, p.
125) analysis of the field data, S" = 0.2 and Pr = 140 ~~0----~L------4~0------L-----~------~----~80
ft. per day, approximately. However, laboratory
tests indicated (Wenzel, 1942, p. 118) that the value RADIUS, IN
of Pr at the water table may be much less, say as low Time equals 300 minutes
as 65 ft. per day.
Graphs of s versu~ rand s versus t are shown on o~----~,------1~----~,------~,-----~,--~
figure 20.2 to illustrate the finite-difference method
used for comp:Iting as/at and as/or from test ob-
servations. This procedure was applied also to draw- cs ~ 6s = 0. 40 = -3 I
ct 6t 200 2xl0 ft min
downs observed at other times after pumping began.
2.88 ft/day-
Values of as/at and as/or computed for selected -
·,...
times are given in table 1.
0

0~,=
TABLE 1.-Drawdown mtes and water-table g1·adients at
r = 50 feet for Wenzel's (1.942) Grand Island, Nebr.,
pumping test 6s 0.40 -

08
Su osl
l>t = 200 --j ~ 0
c
t at
(min) (ft/day) Pr '&

I I I I I
50 ...... . 11.0 2.7xt0- 2 1.6XI()-2 3. 4X t0- 2 7.3XI0- 1 ·
200 400
100 ...... . 7. 2 2.sx10- 2 I.OX J0-2 2.2XJ0- 2 li.2X to- 1 600
300 ...... . 2.9 2.9X 10- 2 .t.tx to-~ 8.9XIO-~ 8.-txw-~ TIME, IN MINUTES
700 ...... . 1.0 2.4XI0-2 1.4X IO-~ 3.1X J0- 3 5.8xw-~
2,000 ...... . . 45 2. 4X J0-2 6.4X to- 1 1.4XI0-3 5.8xw-~ Distance equals 50 feet

1 Letting Svl Pr = 0.2/140 day per ft from Wenzel's (1942, p. 125) pump-
ing-test analysis. FIGURE 20.2.-Drawdown changes with respect to distance and
!! Letting Su/Pr = 0.2/65 day per ft from Wenzel's (1942, p. 118) labora- time (after Wenzel, 1942, p. 117-122).
tory value of Pr near the water table.

It is evident from table 1 that the radial flow com- pumping-test analysis, and this was also assumed
ponents were not the chief influence on the rate of to be the case in table 1. However, pore drainage
water-table decline, even after about a day and a above the water table varies with time, and s!l is
half of pumping. This can be seen by comparing small during the first few minutes of pumping, grad-
ual1y increasing to a value of 0.2 after a long period
the value of~:~~ =1.4 X 1o~a with(~:)!!= 5.8 X of pumping. A three-dimensional electric analog
study of the drawdowns observed during the first ten
10--t, using Pr from laboratory tests. Probably the minutes of pumping indicated that s!l probably did
value of Pr determined in the laboratory is more not exceed 0.01 during that interval. Such a low value
nearly correct than the value obtained from Wenzel's of S,, in the early part of the test would materially de-
analysis of radial flow through the entire depth of
the aquifer. ast , b ringing
S,, -
crease th e va I ue of p. . . ·t I
1 more near y
The coefficient S", the specific yield, is generally r 0
considered a constant in the equations used for equal to (as/or):! than indicated in table 1.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE.OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1·146 B-43
It can be shown that, at any time REFERENCES

-Q =271"
8 ~
00
1' 1,.
(6.8)
-O.t r
r· O.T (2)
Boulton, N. S., 1954, The drawdown of the water table under
nonsteady conditions near a pumped well in an unconfined
11
formation: In st. Civil Engineers (British) Proc., p. 564-
in which Q is the rate of pumping, an~ 'tw is the 579.
radius of the pumped well. According to equation Brown, R. H., 1953, Selected procedures for analyzing aquifer
(2), 8 11 == 0.11 at t =50 minutes in the Grand. Island test data: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 45, p. 844-
test. The error in the latter analysis is believed to 866.
be less than 20 percent. Thus, the conclusion drawn Ferris, J. G., 1949, Ground water, Chap. 7, in C. 0. Wisler and
from table 1, that vertical flow components at this E. F. Brater, Hydrology: New York, John Wiley and
Sons, 408 p.
site are significant for at least 11/:! days of pumping,
is not affected appreciably by changes in s!l with Jacob, C. E., 1950, Flow of ground water, Chap. 5, in Hunter
Rouse, Engineering Hydraulics: New York, John Wiley
respect to time.
and Sons, 1039 p.
The aquifer tested is not unique in thickness, spe-
Kirkham, Don, 1959, Exact theory of flow into a partially
cific yield, or permeability; therefore, vertical .flow
penetrating well: Geophys. Res. Jour., v. 64, p. 1317-1327.
components may be important in most unconfined Theis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the lowering of the
aquifers during the initial period of pumping. Equa- piezometric surface and the rate and duration of dis·
tions based on the assumption that flow is essentially charge of a well using ground· water storage: Am.
horizontal thus are likely to yield erroneous values Geophys. Union Trans., p. 519-524.
of both P and 8 11 , and additional error due to as- Wenzel, L. K., 1942, Methods for determining permeability of
suming 8 11 con.:tant may be expected if the duration waterbearing materials: U.S. Geol. Survey Water·Supply
of the test is only a few hours. Paper 887, 192 p.

21. METHODS FOR STUDY OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

By 0. E. LEPPANEN, Phoenix, Ariz.

The evaporation processes of nature are the larg- sirable not only for direct practical application-
est item in the water balance of the United States. but also for development of a better understanding
The 17 Western States receive 2,000 maf (million of the physical mechanism involved, so that waste-
acre-feet) of precipitation of which MacKichan ful evapotranspiration can be controlled.
(1957) estimated that only 5 maf is used directly The most direct method of measuring evapotrans-
by man. C. H. Hardison (written communication piration is a water budget: first, the inflow (precipi-
Feb. 21, 1952) calculated the runoff from these states tation, irrigation) and outflow (seepage, runoff) are
to be 440 maf-about 22 percent of the precipitation. measured, then after accounting for changes in soil-
J. S. Meyers (written communication, 1960) esti- moisture storage, the net loss is attributed to evapo-
mates that evaporation from free-water surfaces is transpiration. This method fails, except under very
24 maf. Thus, most of the precipitation in the West special circumstances, because of difficulties in
returns to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration measurement.
from vegetation and land surfaces. Another method is the energy budget. Directly
Most quantitative estimates .of evapotranspiration analogous to the water budget, the energy budget
are made by considering long-term averages of rain- accounts for inflow, outflow, and storage of heat.
fall and runoff in a basin, or by analysis of irriga- The singular advantage of this method lies in the
tion records. These methods are not suitable for fact that the term that describes evapotranspiration
L
estimating short-term water demands or for assign- is large numerically, having been weighted by the
ing relative water-us.e indices to various vegetation- energy necessary for change-of-phase. Measurement
covered surfaces. More sensitive methods are de- errors in water flow become less significant. The
B-44 GEOLOGICAL' SURVEY· RESEARCH' .1961

energy budg~t has been applied successfully to the temperature and humidity· gradients above the sur-
me~surement of evaporatiop from lakes ap.~ there is face were determined by measurements in the vege-
no ~heoretical reason why it could not be applied also tation and at levels of.. ·lf:!, 1, 2, and 8 I!,leters above
to mea~urement of evapotranspiration .. L'.J:·~ ·• the vegetation. Anemometers were also installed at
Experiments have been made in an are~ in eastern these levels .. About-1A . million··observations'of tem-
N ebraska to test the application of the.energy budget. peratures and humidities ·were· analyzed using an
A site ·near Fairmont, Nebr., was carefully chosen eleCtronic computer. · ·
in a loess plain with soil formed on Peorian loess. . . · r ., i. · . · · :· ·
Below the Peorian, at a depth of about 5 meters, lies Evapotra.nspl'ration, . calculated. from th~ water
the Loveland ·loess. Nearby" wells :indicated ground budget d~~ing a)68-dayseason, was 0.46 em per day.
water to be at depths exceeding 30 meters. The sur- Evapotranspir3;~ion; . calculated from the energy
face has a slope of abo_ut 1:750, arid no runoff was budget ranged,~from 0.5~ em to 0.92 em per day,
anticipated or observed. The area had been ·seeded depending on the levels above the surface that w:ere
with alfalfa late in the previous season. The alfalfa used in selecting the meteorological. data needed to
grew. sl<?wly in April,' rapidly· in May, matured in calculate ··the Bowen . ratio. These results suggest
Jun:e, an~ :was mowed on Ju~e30. Asecond crop th~~ that the Bowen ratio, 'as calculated· in this ex-
grew, but·some;what less vigorously. periment, is nof ·applicable· to· evapotranspiration
A water pudget was first computed using the rec- measurement.·
ords from 'a local raingage a~d soil mois.ture , data ·· · · ·
that were obtained from six sets of soil samples taken To investigate the data fo~· .seasonal bias, and to
during'·t.~e .study:.·~ Information. from. a neutron-sc~t- 9pser:ve the eff~~t· of changi~g the len.gth of the
tering soil-moisture meter, which ~~s ll.sed ~~~eral observation. peri~d, evap~transpiration wa.s calcu-
times weekly, allowed interpolation between samp-. lated for six periods of about a month each. Results
lings. Deep seepage, or percolation, was considered are listed in table 2. The levels above the vegetation
to be zero because of the existence at a depth of 5.2 used in calculating the Bowen ratio are lj~ and 1
meters of a buried soil that apparently was very · meter.
impervious to soil-moisture movement.
The results of the water budget are shown in TABLE 2.-Comparison of water-budget and energy-budget
table 1. : :} ~ evap,_o~rartspiratiQn rates for intervals throughout
the season, in centimeters of. water pe·r day
TABLE 1.-Evapotr·anspir·ation computed . f"r.otn !.!1.e . water· ·
budget for the experimental site at Fairmont, - - - - - - - - - - - - - : - - - - - - - - , . - - - - - -
Period, 1958
Nebr., for selected periods, in centimeters of water Water-budget Energy-budget
evapotranspiration evapotranspi~ation

· Period, 1958
,. From
--------·- ----------
~0'
- - - -"- - - ·-----------
·_·.:_:_ __c._.::..:::. .L!.::..._ _ _ _ _•. ·_ _ _ :_ Change in <: Evapo- April14 ............. May t3 ........ ~ ..... ~ 0.18 0.41 :
soil-moisture P~~cipitation transpiration
~~~~~~:::·:::::;:::· i~~fs.·.-·.:::::::<:::
. 79
·From To storage ~~ .
1
:?g· .58

April 1-1............. May 13 ........... . + 1.9 i~~~u~f·5:::::::::·::: :~:t~~~~~r·2::::::::-:: · :~~ '· :~~ ·~:.
~f~ember 2......... September 2~......... ·-~-~.iJ. . • ,, , .42
s~~~ ·J~:::: :.:::::::: i~~~ ! 5.·. ·.:::::: :::-::
9 -:-23.0.
+ 9.3
. ..,... 2. i.
~-------~---------~--------
_ ·.';.........· August ·s•........ :~ .. •·
iuulgyu!5t . ...... ··.:·. :... '!;.
5 September 2.: ...' ... -13.2
,Scp,tem?e.r 2; f·... .. . . . September~29 .... , . + 6.4
Th~ results 'for the shorter periods show no bette·i-
Total ..... : .. , , ......... ·....... .
a~reerilent with ~the water budget than ·do the sea-
1 1
sonal figures. L .G ·· · • • · · •· J ;

Measurement ·of. items): -in the energy tbntftig:eti.te- ' • • ,· ; f • • 'i.

quireclltexterisive instrume'ntatiort A· netr'.excihia~rtge

Compa~ison, with data fr9m lake~- .inQ.icates. thaJ
radiometer measured thermal radiation,:tthe'l majiOr the. conduct~~;:1e:r.ergy term ~s a large item .in the
energy(source. ·Changes in !heat storage in~~the soil, evapotranspiration energy· bu·dget .but. is .a, small
although.smaU,~were~ measur-ed. Heat~ brough~dn by iterp,. in a lake~evaporatioJl; energy budget.. The rea-
rain was. a,ccounted .,fo:ru)JHeat conducted frotnuthe son is ·,that water absorbs and stores most .of the .\.·

surface of vegetation' ·as 'sens'ible!heat· was co"ffll)l.ifed radiant energy Aalling upon it, but vegetation con~
.using the :.tatio deve1oi?ed·\by Bowen· (1926) 1 • The verts .radiant energy to· a combination of conducted
\ . ~~\"" r~:(..., . l'.. . fJ\ ~ . \...~· andcJatent heat .. Thtis, the theory and. m~thod ·of
. . 1 Brc~~se.a practical_, field in~.t~ume_~t.. to,)m.e,asure the "qnd.ttcted :heat .is calculati·ng the Bowen .rati<:r becomes· critical in the
not yet ava1lable, the Bowen rat10, · wh1ch relates heat lost by conduction
·to heat lost by evaporation, has been•widely used t'o comput'ti conducted' heat. i .evapotranspiration energy budget.· The· energy-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYD-ROLOGIC SCIE'NCES, ARTICLES 1-146

budget ·method is, however, theoretically correct, and REFERENCES: · ..

further analyses of the data from this and similar Bowen, J. S.,: 1926, The rat_i_o of heat los~es ~y- cond'\].ction and
! by evaporation from any water surfkce: Phys. R_ev., v. 27,
experiments •in determining the conducted energy
' p. 779-787. .
should resol~e · discrepancies in results. fro~ the M~cKichan, K. A., 1957, Estimated use _of water in t}le United
w~1.ter-budget and energy-budget methods. States, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey. Cite. 398, 18 p .

.., ,·
'1: I''

.i-l

22. WATER MOVEMENT AND I9N !JISTRIBUTION IN SOILS

)

By R. F. MILLER and K. W. R;\TZLAFF, Denver, Colo.

:· :

· Divalent calCium and magnesium both have greater ·A residual coarse-silt loam soil near Palo Alto,
replacing ability than monovalent ·sodit:m in ion ex- ·Calif., (table .I arid fig. 22.1) is characteristic of:soil~
change reactions with soil colloids. (Kelley, 1948,' p~ with uni:mpeded internal drainage. Winter rainfall
57). Therefore, ·when calcium 2.nd ·magnesium e:x-· frequently provides enough moisture to wet the:base
ceed the sodium in water moving through the ·soil, of the soil profile. The soluble sodium percentage in-
the proportion of calc:ium and magnesium in solution creases with depth, a:s a result of progressive ad~orp­
should decrease in the directi'On of water· movem·ent tio1 'o(calcium and magnesium from soil water· o'rito
as a ·result of adsorpti(.n ·to ion exchange surfaces~ the lion· exchange surfaces, whereas sodium is dis-
and· the proportion of S')dium should increase 'in th~· P~filC~d from ion exchange surfaces into the ~ater
direction ·of water movement :as a ·result ·of its ·dis- . . m,oving down through the soil profile. A gradual
placement from ion. exchange surfa·ces (Rible and decrease in total salts in the soil with depth reflects
Davis, ·1955). the loss of ions from solution to ion exchange: sur-
Because of this relation, the direction and pattern- faces and .frequent flushing. of the soil. A higher
of· moi~ture movement- in soils can be interpreted concentration of both·calcium plus magne'sium and
~rom soil ch.emistry. The depths to which untilled sodium in the. top. five inches of ~oi•i as compared
soils in .arid and semiarid . climates are most fre- with the next layer below~·-'indicates that··precipita-
quently wetted also are reflected by the relative .con-. tion of salts occurs as they ·are concentrated by
centr~tions' of soluble ions in the. soil profiles. . evaporation. ·
The greater solubility of sodiu~' salts also permits An ·all~vial'. medi~m-silt. ·loam soil near ·.Fort
sodium to move farther t~ropgh _the soil in the direc- Apache, Ariz., (table 1 and fig. 22.1) is characteris-
tion of water movement than ca~cium or magnesium. tic of deep. perm~'able soils that commo:rily ,do not
This is especiaJly true when the ions in solution are receive enough moisture to become. wet thr'o~gho~t
concentrated' by the pro.ces.ses of ev~poration and the p~~file. The A hor.izon. i~ ·~oist~~ed by summer
the. use of water by plants-a condition that causes show:ers,. b,ut. the B hprizon is moistened .t9. .tiel~ ·ca-
precipitation of the less soluble salts '(Gardner and pacity prjmarily by sn-~wmelt. Moisture appa~ently.
others, 1957). moves. do~n into the .C horizo:ri only i~ res pons~ .to
The relations between w·ater movement and .. ion temperatur~. and moisture tension gradie~ts. · Ap-
distribution in two soils with different internal drain- parently the buried B horizon impedes capillary
age characteristics have been studied by the writers. movement of water downward.
The relative proportions of soluble calcium plus mag- The increase in soluble sodium percentage from
nesium and sodium in consecutive vertical portions the 2A horizon into the 1A horizon reflects capillary
of the two soil profiles are expressed as differences rise of water as the surface soil dries. The decrease
in soluble sodium percentage (SSP). in calcium plus magnesium and the increase in
Soluble Na sodium indicate that ion exchange is primarily re-
SSP == Soluble Na + (Ca + Mg) X 100 sponsible for the increase. The gradual increases in
B-46 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
r
SOLUBLE SODIUM PERCENTAGE TABLE l.-Dist1·ibution of ions with depth in soils
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
Residual coarse-silt loam Alluvial medium-silt loam
1A 1 soil near Palo Alto, Calif. soil near Fort Apache, Ariz.

2A 1 Extrart from saturated Extract from saturated

Depth soil paste Depth soil paste
10 below soil (!\filii-equivalents per liter) below soil (l\Iilli-equivalents per liter)
surface surface
(Inches) (Inches)
Ca+Mg Na Total Ca+Mg Na Total
- o-s-:-:--:-:--:-:--:-:- -6li9- oll7- -r-66- --o::r:--:-:--:-:--:-:--:-:- --:tlio- o~l- -:r-31
5-9 ........ 3.90 .78 4.68 3-i ......... 4.88 .30 5.18
9-13....... 3.16 .97 4.13 7-12. 4.40 .30 4. 70
20 13-17 ....... 2.30 .97 3.27 12-17 ........ !i.20 .31l 5.58
17-20.5..... 2.17 1.19 3.36 17-24........ 4.20 .46 4.66
20.5-24. . . . . I. 83 I. 23 3. 06 24-30. . . . . . . . 4. 00 . 46 4. 46
24-27...... 1.54 1.37 2.91 30-36........ 4.88 .85 5. 73
36-42........ 4.08 1.25 5.33
42-48........ 5.52 2.54 8.06
48-54 . .. . . . . . 5. 60 3. 81 9 . 41
w 30 54-60. . . . . . . . 8. 00 i . 55 15 . 55
u
<(
60-65 ........ 12.12 11.10 23.22
1.1.. 65- 74. . .. . . . . 17. 60 I i. I0 3-l. 70
0:::
::>
en
3: accumulation of moisture above the more porous cal-
g 40
w
Ill
careous C horizon; but there is no evidence of capil-
en
w
lary rise from this zone of possible moisture accumu-
J:
u lation. The top of the C horizon is apparently the
~ 50 depth to which water frequently penetrates and is
retained at or near the field storage capacity.
Movement of some moisture down through the C
horizon by capillarity is reflected by the sharper
60 increase in soluble sodium percentage with depth.
This sharper increase indicates precipitation of cal-
cium from solution and is apparently the result of
70
,both ion exchange and salt solubility. The increase
in soluble sodium percentage in both directions from
the top of the B horizon reflects capillary rise from
accumulated moisture above the impeding B:!., hori-
80~--._--~---L--~--~~--~--~---L--~--~
zon and some movement of water down through the
FIGURE 22.1.-Changes in soluble sodium percentage (SSP) impeding B:!., horizon. The accumulation of salts but
with depth through a residual coarse-silt loam soil ·near no increase in soluble sodium percentage reflect the
Palo Alto, Calif. (curve A), and an alluvial medium-silt
loam soil near Fort Apache, Ariz. (curve B). Numbers entrapment and evaporation of accumulated water
and letters to left of curves designate soil horizons. at the impeding zone.

soluble sodium percentage to the base of the B REFERENCES

horizon and the little corresponding increase in total Gardner, R., Whitney, R. S., and Kezer, A., 1957, Slick spots
ion concentration reflect downward movement of in Western Colorado soils: Colorado State College Exp.
water and frequent flushing. The increases in soluble Sta. Tech. Bull. 26, p. 1-13.
Kelley, W. P., 1948, Cation exchange in soils: New York,
sodium percentage are attributed primarily to ion
Reinhold Pub. Corp., 144 p.
exchange. The slight accumulation of calcium plus Rible, J. M., and Davis, L. E., 1955, Ion exchange in soil
magnesium at the base of the B horizon reflects some columns: Soil Science, v. 79, p. 41-47.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-47

23. COMPRESSION OF ELASTIC ARTESIAN AQUIFERS

By S. W. LOHMAN, Denver, Colo.

The concepts of the occurrence of water in artesian The next important step in our understanding of
aquifers have changed considerably in the last 35 the manner in which artesian aquifers release water
years. Artesian aquifers formerly were considered from storage was the development by Theis ( 1935),
to have only the properties of conduits for conduct- through analogy with the mathematical theory of
ing water from the recharge areas to the points of heat conduction, of an equation for the non-steady-
discharge (such as wells) and to have no property of state flow of ground water through permeable media
storage, ~s now known. · Confining beds were re- to a discharging well, which is
garded as impermeable, whereas we now know that
an artesian aquifer may be confined by a relatively s ==
. Q
411'T
!00
r-!!S (e-"/u)du (1)
impermeable stratum or simply by a stratum having
4Tt
permeability lower than that of the aquifer. Only
wells that flowed at or above the land surface were in which s is the drawdown in water level at dis-
considered artesian by many earlier workers. Now tance r- from a well discharging at constant rate Q
artesian wells are considered by most authorities to from an extensive homogeneous and isotropic acqui-
be those in which the water is confined under pres- fer having a coefficient of transmissibility T (perme-
sure beneath a relatively impermeable stratum or ability times thickness) and a coefficient of storageS
a stratum of lower permeability than the aquifer, after a period of discharge t. This important equa-
and in which the water rises above the point at which tion, which for the first time introduced the elements
it is first found in drilling. of time ( t) and coefficient of storage (S), has be-
Meinzer and Hard ( 1925, p. 90-93) were the first come the foundation of quantitative ground-water
to recognize that an artesian aquifer does not per- hydrology. The coefficient of storage (S), which is
form like a rigid system, but as one having volume a dimensionless constant, was defined by Theis
elasticity and hence variations in storage capacity ( 1938, p. 894) as " * * * the volume of water, meas-
with changes in the internal buoyant force due to ured in cubic feet, released from storage· in each
changes in artesian head. The evidence that a large column of the aquifer having a base 1 foot square
part of the water discharged from artesian wells and a height equal to the thickness of the aquifer,
came from storage by compression of the aquifers when the water table or other piezometric surface is
with loss of artesian head led to Meinzer's classic lowered 1 foot." Thus, if in an artesian aquifer
theory of the compressibility and elasticity of arte- having a coefficient of storage of 2 X 10-4 (0.0002)
sian ·aquifers ( 1928). the head is lowered 400 feet in an area of one square
It has long been recognized that two types of com- mile (about 2.79 X 10.7 ff!), more than 2.23 X 106 ff1
pression are involved: elastic compression of elastic of water is released from artesian storage.
.1.
media, such as a clean sand or sandstone; and plas- Jacob (1940, p. 575, 576) pointed out that the
tic deformation of bodies, lenses, or beds of clay in release of water from artesian storage involves not
or adjacent to the aquifer. The amount of elastic only compression of the aquifer but also elastic ex-
compression, with which the remainder of this paper pansion of the contained water, and that the com-
is chiefly concerned, is small but nevertheless signifi- ponents of the coefficient of storage may be defined
cant. The amount of plastic deformation of clay by
bodies may be rather large, and has caused sub-
sidence of the land surface of from a few feet to
several tens of feet where artesian water or oil has
S = y8m [i., + 8~-;-J (2)

been withdrawn in large quantities. (See Gilluly in which S is the coefficient of storage; y is the
and Grant, 194~; Winslow and Doyel, 1954; Poland specific weight of water (62.4 lb ft-a/144 in 2 ft- 2
and Davis, 1956; and the report of the Inter-Agency = 0.434 lb in-2 ft- 1 ) ; (} is the porosity of the aquifer;
Committee on Land Subsidence in the San Joaquin m is the thickness of the aquifer, in feet; '$w is the
Valley (1958); see also papers in this volume by bulk modulus of elasticity of water (3X J.On lb in-2 ) ;
Poland, Art. 25; Lofgren, Art. 24; Miller, Art. 26), b is the effective part of unit area of the aquifer that
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. ·RESEARCH 1961 . :" ...

responds elastically 1 ; and E., is the bulk modulus of politan area are about: S 5 X 10-4, (} = 0.33,
elasticity of the aquifer. It i~. convenien.t~.to .. u.se the 1 . ?'! , ,,2,0P ;f~, }ln~ ~P. = ~~0 lb in-:! ( 600 ft decline in
. . 1 · . head). Using equation (6) :!
reciprocal f3 In place of E., the value .. of ~ bei~g.. .1 :; ·. .. .: . .
3.3 x 10-11 in:! lb-t.
11
• • 'A 2.6 X 10:! lb in-:! [ (2.31 ft 1~- 1 in:!) (5 X lO--t)
1

m... ·
. By combining Hooke's Law of ~lasticity with ~q~a- _ ( 0.33) (2X 10::? ft) (3.3 X 10-11 in:! lb-1) J
twn;(2L lshalLpropose an.equatwnJor determ~ning ·' . . .......· .. . ..... _. .. · · ·, ·Jq:· .. ,; .i· ·
the am<;m~t.,of ~l~stj_c sul;>siden<;e orcompressiqnlfrom · 2.6 X ,10- ~~ In-- ..; . , 1 • • . uvr. · . :.
other kno~n factors~~ Hooke'.s Law statesthat,,~itJ~i_n .[11.55 x·,lO•'\ ft lb-1 in:!_ 2 Xnlo-.. ft lb-t in:!]
the elastic limit, ~trai~is.:propo~tional to. stres~. · Ip = . . 0 ~ 25 ft"' . 1 ..: 1 · ~11~ l '~ . ;.
notation.. conv~nie:nt 1 to .the problem, Hoo~e's. Law ·. · · · ·
.' Using the. aboV~ \iallie 'of ~in', :and' other knoWn
ma;y be:~_~ritten.· .·~. .. 1 . ..• . . .· . . ')··· '''·"' . , .· · · . · . . ·•
·.. ~ ••
factors, equations"(3.) or (5) may be solved for E.,,
• , ~• e t •l i • • l f "'( \ j "[ : I . . • , f ', / . '. . • ( . • •. I • ' I

(3 ) wh.Ich Is found to be about 2:1 X 10;; 'lb In- 2 -a rea-·

sort~ble iv~ilue for' 'a .$ali'dstone) or cohglo'm.erate.' ' .: ' t

in which ~m; ''is the in thickness

'
change \(reduction)
' ;-
'~.The~ studies riow· .in progress by' Mr. 'cliase w!ill
of the aquifer (amount'. of elastic subsidence), in include com'patison a. :the''tot~l· 'cblnpt·t~d elas.tic of
corhpression of: this arid' 'over:l yirlg 'and 'underh~irt'g
1

fe~t; m .aiJd. EH a;re a~ drpn~d ~or equation (~) ;. anq

4P .is· th~. chan~e. (;r,ed, uctio;n). ;inr artes~~:p. pres~ure, drtesian'' ~quife'rs .:With the 'lot:;tl suhsiden~e qf' the
in 'lb ft- 2 • · " •· - · . · land ~s"indicated b~'old ailct' new leveling,by the u.:~t'
' • ,

DjvJding
,..
I

both.
.;J
, J•

siaes
··. ii
jj (j 9 {: • ·:,.· ' ,
of
r I '

equatiqn.
.' ; .... ' .· .
(2)
•,.

by
,; '.:.I • , .
y,;.assurp.-
' I·~ ( ~ ~~

I
~ ~,
Coas't 1l:tnd. Geod~tie urve~r.' ·- .·, ·.- s . . " .. " . :. ··
ing b to be unity, substituting the reciprocal /3: .for
I I • ••••• L, .. : ••

-":It, sh.ould ·again be stres'sed 'that equat!o}:t' (6)

g'i v:e~'. only the -'elastic. ·.~orhpression or' subsidence'~·
{ , and exp~n,di~;:,~qu~t~on. (2)·'hecomes• . , '
an<f that ;the :g.:r~ater sub~!idence: that ha~· bccu'rred
·. ~ ,• • i ~ ~
1n··m~{ny Jreas fs due· .to'plas_tic:de!bifu~Pioti 6f ·asso-
, i '·" • • ', • '- t • i '• ' ' ' ) :' i ; ' j;' I ' ' ' I '

~ .'' ~
, · '( 4>' ciated clay. · ' ~ ·1• • brL'' J- ·
1!' · • · 1 ,. , ·a · ,. (').:;I

Equation· {3) may be written·

.: '

-<:...
·) : ( ·.

'.' '(5) .
Gilluly, 'Jam~s,·and ·G~afit; U.' 1949';· Sub~iderice irl the Lring
·Beach Harbor are·a,.·.caiif. ::· · GeoL ·Soc~ America Bull., \r.
s.;
).; ' ' ... .. · i.
, , -·60, p. 461-52.9, 28 fig. ·.~, ; .Lt. )'~[!J,. '

Combining. equations t4) and (5) and solving for.~m ~nter-A,gency Committee on] L~~<;I Subsjden<;e ·in ·.the San
,gives the· desired equation· ; r .. · 1
.
. Joaquin. Vlillley,. 1958, Progress report ~n ·Iand-sub~idence
· ' fnvestigations in the San 'Joaq~i~ Valle·y~ Calif., through
!
tirr{ ·;
r,
·ap· '(Sly-:-Omf:J)
' I' r •j '
'(6) · ·1957; Sacrainento; 'Caii:d,' i6o· p:, 45. pis. · · ·. · · · ,\)
Jacob, C.:·E.,-1940, On the flow of water in ·an elast'ic artesian
...'.Thus, in. an ·elastic ·.or reas.onably ·elastic artesian · aquifer:. Am. Geophys . .p nion ·Trans., pt. 2, p. 57 4-586, ·.4·
aq~i~~r, .for, )¥_hiGh S ·;is 'kn.oin. f~om .a . pumping fig~ . .
(Theis, 1953) . ,or flow. (Jacobr:.and Lohm~n, 195:1). J~~qb, .Q. E., an9. ~ohman, 'S. :w.,,,1952, )\l"onsteady ,flo,w to a
test, () is ~.nown ,f:r:om core or ·Sample. tests, m ·l·S . well. of constant drawdown in an extensive aquifer: Am.
Ji: Geophy~~· Uni~~ Trans.; v. 33,'p~ 559-569,.9 11i: · · ·-: ·
known from a dri"lfe~'s.log or electric log, it.'is pos-
sible. to co~p~t~ from. equation (6) tJ:le am~u.nt ·.of Meinze;r; o. E~;;192S; ··compressibility ~uia-·elasticityof artesian
aquifers: Econ. Geology, v. 23, 'p. ·263-291: ti r r. . ·
elastic suhsiqence. of the.. land surface ( GOmpression Meinzer, ·o. E., and :Hard, H. H., 1925, ..The artesian. water
of aquifer)' ~m, ·for a'given regional de~lirie 'in arte- .: .:".· sup~ly of. the Dakota s~n.dsti:m~l in ·Noxr~h Dako.ta; wjth
sian pressure' d;p> For ~~ample', although studie·s ~f . ,.,special reference .to the .Edgeley quadr~ngle: U.S.: Geol.
the 'Denver artesia'ri· jbasin ar~ .not yet c·ompleted~ . Su,rvey Water-Supply Pap~r 520~E, p. · 73-95, pl. 6, 7,
·fig.c'7,·8.: -· ') · ·. '· · · · · ·:' · ·
preliminary information (George H. Chase, U.S.
Geological Suryey, written communication, Jan. 23, Pohmd'~•'J. F:, ·and Davis, G:: H., '1956', 'subsi(Umce of the· ·fand 1

~surface in the .Tulare-Wasco· · (Del an b) and Los · Ban~s,;;

1961) indicated that average values for wells in the . K~ttleman City ar.ea, S;;~.n ·Joaquin Valley,. Calif.: Am.
basal
r\
sandstone
.-~ .· . \
and, . . conglomerate
, !
of the Arapahoe
..~
, . . .•.· • .J • • :.
:qeophys_. Union Trans~, v .. 37,.no. 3, p. 28T-29.6, 12 . figs.
formation (Upper Cretaceous) in the Denver metro-
~
Theis, .C. V., i935,. The r~lation between .the iowering of the
. piezometric sur.face and the rate and duration. ~f .dis-
' I I ' ' : • ' '• •

; 1 In :an aquifer com :Posed of· uncemented granular. material the value of 'charge' of a' well us'in~ft ground~ water. stor~ge: Am.
b .js unity. In a solid aquifer •. afl- a limestone having, tubular channels,: b is · Geophys. Union Tran·s: !16th Aim. Mtg., p. 519-524, 2 figs:
apparently ~qual to 'the porosity. The value of b for a sa'ndstone doubtless
ri!~ges between these limits, but in the deveio:pment that f()llows, a valuejbf 2 It is" convenient to us~ the' 1eci~roc~i of 'Y (0:434 lb in-~ ft-1), which
unity. has. been assumed. 1 ro, is 2.3.1 ft lb-1 in2.. • .• :. , , ) ..... : ..
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE' GEOLOGIC -AND HYDROLOGIC ·sciENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-49
Theis, C.. v., 1938, The significance and nature 'of the cone of ·Winslow, A.- 'G., and Doyel, W; W., .1954, Land-surface·1sub-
depression in ground-wat~~i bqdies; Econ. ~eo logy, v .. 3~, sidence and its relation to the withdrawal of g-round
p. 889-902, 2 figs. . .. ,. , . ,, water. in the Houston:-Galveston. region, Texas: ··Econ.
Geol'ogr. v. 49, p·.· 413~42~. · .·. ·

I 1 :• (

:i . . I/ .. I .<

\ • ~a r (

• " } r .,
,•a' •

24. ' MEASUREMENT OF· COMPACTION OF AQUIFER SYSTEMS IN·· AREAS OF LAND ·suBSIDENCE'
. '
.'\ '~ . .. . : .. ··{ .. ' . . '

'1; 1. By.BEN.E. LOFGREN, Sacramento, Calif.

'f1' I • ; • , ( I • ' ~ ; I •

·. I.'· ~ •f ·. . . ., . ., I 1: ' ·' .:-.r

Wq1·k .d.?p.e,in .coope_1'fJ,tion,w~t!t. ~h~, palifO?·n_iq, Department-of W~ter Res9urces_
.'!'

.. • I , ~ , • ~, ;· r• , \ J '. ~ t • • •¥ I , , ;
. t •~ • i ~ ..
t •••
,, .
1 1

. , Land subsidence, affects ap, area of mor.e than ,2!500 If

I ,.
[

square miles in t_he San Joaquin yalley, Cal,if., ~nd

is t~e r~sult of.comp~cticm. of _unco.n~_olidat~d al~uvial ~q .l '; . ')
Metal table on
an~ lacustrine. ideposits ~s groun~-wat~r levels .~re concrete platform
l_owered by_,heav.y pu,mping. Th,e subs~dence .. occur~
in areas 'where the aquifers are confined or semicon-
fined. Twenty specially designed compaction re-
corders h.a y~_peen inst~lled in the a;re~s .oLm~?.Ci.J)1JHP...
subsidence. Two to 5 ye·ars of records show that
compaction measured by recorders is directly related
to changes in water level, ~nd is approximately equal increments
to the surveyed subsidence·"of the larid surface. ·
In a~eas of. maximum subsidence, ground-water
levels show a general downward trend, a:(.ld --sub~
sidence rates range from 0.4 to 1.5 feet per year. In
these areas, 1 foot of St!b'siderice. has been observed
for each 10 to .25 feet of water-level decline. Com-
paction· of· the unconsolidated deposits takes place
as the artesian pressure decreases, thus tran~ferring·.
more of the overburden load to grain-to:.grain con.- ..
tacts of the aquifer. The compaction is due chiefly··
to a nonelastic.. rearra.ngement of the grains of the
deposit and· . ·results in· a permanent decrease in
volume~ A small part of the compaction is,--elastic; ·
and samples tested in the laboratory for co,nsolida-
tion sh9w minor rebound· when unloaded. However,
rebound or expansion of the: aquifer system :has not
been observed in the ,fie,ld me~surements. ,.' '·
. :.
\
\- ·.. · ..
FIGURE 24.1._:_Diligram of co~pactipn~recorder installation.
EQUI~M~NT

A special type•of r~corder is being used to meas~re.­ ,w_eighted at the land surface to maintain constant
the rate and ·.;magnitude. of compaction occurring at_- tension .. A monthly recorder mounted .over the open
depth. As _sht5w.n in figu~-~ ~~.1, the assembly con-. casi_ng is .
used to _measure direct~y _the ;:tmount of
sists of a heavy_ w~ight emplaced in the form~~ion cable tha:~. appears. above tJ?~. cas_ing __ as subsidence
below the bottom. of a well casing, with an attached: occurs. At the land surface it appears as if the
cable st~~~cheq upward, in_ 1 ;th~ ~a~~ng and cou~t~r:- . bot~om-hole wei~ht ~s,rising:;· actu_ally, the land sur-
. B-50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

face is settling ·with respect to the bottom-hole generally installed in or near the compaction-re-
weight. corder well to record fluctuations and trends of
The success of this method and equipment de- ground-water levels as compaction continues.
pends largely on the elastic characteristics of the
cable under tension. After considerable experi- RESULTS
mentation, a specially manufactured lj8 -inch, stain- A compaction recorder of the type shown in figure
less steel, 7 X 7 stranded, plastic-coated cal;>le was 24.1 installed in well19/17-35N1 has been measuring
selected, and seems to meet the rigorous require- the rate of compaction in the upper 2,000 feet of
ments very well. Ball-bearing sheaves are used to unconsolidated alluvial deposits near Huron, Cali-
reduce the frictional drag of the system. fornia. Subsidence of nearby bench mark B 889
Compaction recorders have been installed in un- has been d~termined by periodic leveling traverses
used irrigation wells and in specially drilled wells. of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In addition,
At most sites, the bottom weight is placed in an the changes in hydraulic support in the underlying
_,
open hole 15 to 25 feet below the bottom of the well artesian aquifer system have been determined by
casing so that measurements of vertical shortening frequent water-level measurements in well 19/18-
are independent of the casing. 27Ml.
At several locations in the San Joaquin Valley, The correlation between subsidence of the surface
compaction recorders have been installed in two or bench mark, vertical compaction, and water-level
more closely spaced wells. Bottom-hole weights in fluctuation is shown in figure 24.2. The water level
these wells are placed at different depths so that the in well 19/18-27M1 fluctuates 50 feet or more each
compaction occurring at different depth intervals year in response to heavy pumping in the area, and
can be computed. Water-level recorders are also has declined about 40 feet during the 4.8-year period

r---------~----r-------------~.---------------r---------------~------------~358
";
1-
UJ
UJ
1.1..

~
LJ"
0
:::>
1-
i=
...J
<(

::;:::
1- 0::
tj 0 ........-----------r--------------,

-- ----
<(
1.1.. ~
z· ±
u
;1r------------1~~~~-----J------------~ z
UJ
0 L-----------J 352 en
t2~-------~-------~---~~~~±-----------,
<(
Q..

~3L_________L __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _L __ _ _ _ _ _ _+------~----~~----------.3
()

1-
UJ
UJ
1.1..
~ 360
~
UJ
~ 380~-------~~--~-4~--~t-~~t-------~~~--t-~F-~---~-t-t-~-t------j
3:
0
1-
::r::: .400~----------~----------~--------~t-~~--~-t--t-~-~~-----,
1-
Q..
UJ

420~---------~---------t----------t----------t------~~---j
0

1956 1957 1958 1959 1960

FIGURE 24.2.-Graph showing measured subsidence, compaction, and water-level change near Huron, Calif.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-51
shown on the graph. This water-level decline has Inspection of figure 24.2 shows that each major
resulted in a measured compaction of 3.8 feet within change in hydraulic support, as indicated by the
the 2,000-foot depth interval of the compaction re- hydrograph of well 19/18-27M1, is reflected in the
corder, and a total subsidence of the land surface compaction graph. During periods of rapid water-
of 4.6 feet. Thus, subsidence near Huron is con- level decline, compaction occurs at a maximum rate.
tinuing at a rate of 0.96 foot per year, and 1 foot of Conversely, during periods of rising water levels,
subsidence has occurred for each 10 feet of water- the compaction rate declines. No expansion has
level decline. The compaction that occurred in the been detected by the compaction recorder during
upper 2,000 feet of deposits during the 4.8-year periods of water-level rise.
period represented 82 percent of the total subsidence, Figure 24.3 A is a diagrammatic cross section
suggesting that 18 percent, or 0.84 foot of compac- through an area of active subsidence near Oro Lorna,
tion, occurred in the deposits below 2,000 feet. This Calif. The relative positions of the depth anchors
assumption is reasonable, because nearby wells with- of the three compaction recorders operating at this
draw water from below 2,000 feet. site are shown in relation to the principal hydrologic

COMPACTION RECORDERS
COMPACTION RATE, ft X 10-"lftlyr
16H3 16H4 16H2
0 2 3 4 5 6 1

'
~Nov. 1, 1958, to Nov. 1, 1959
I
I
~ Nov.1, 1959, to Nov.1, 1960
200
I
I
I
I
16H3 1-~-r:- L - - - - - - - - - : - - - - ~-- 1

400

.. ~
UJ
16H4
UJ
u...
~ 600
Upper confined aquifer
::i
~
a..
UJ
a

800

.
1000
Lower confined aquifer
16H2~--------------------------------~------
..

Approximate base of aquifer

-------
A. RELATION OF MULTIPLE RECORDERS TO B. MEASURED COMPACTION RATE OF DEPOSITS
THE HYDROLOGIC UNITS IN THREE DEPTH ZONES

FIGURE 24.3.-Compaction rates near Oro Lorna, Calif., as measured by three compaction recorders. A, Relation of multiple
recorders to hydrologic units; B, measured compaction rate of deposits in three depth zones.
.B-52 i .. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961. ·

units; .Recorder 16H3 measures the total compac- · the 350- to 500-foot depth zone. decreased greatly
tion ·occurring between the. surface and the anchor during the second year of record.
at 350-foot >(lepth .. Siinilarly, . recorders 16H4 and ·From November 1, 1959, to .November 1, l960,
16'H2 measure the' compaction occurring· between 0.014 ·foot of compaction occurred in the 0- to 350-.
the 'surface and their respective ·500-foot and 1,000- foot depth zo.ne (0.40 X10""4 .ft/f~/y:r), 0.016 foot of
foot anchor deJitl~s~ · By· coni paring the rec·ord of compaction oc.curred. in the· 350- to. 500-foot depth
zone ( 1.07 X 10-4 ft/ft/yr), .and 0.292 foot of. com-
ahy two 'recorder's, the magnit'ude' and' rate of com-
paction occurred in the 500- to 1,000-foot depth zone
'pacti()n ;occurring in each d'epth zo~e' ate obtained.
( 5.84 X 10-4 ft/ft/yr). The total 0.322 foot of com-
.Figure 24.3 B shows th~ rate of :compaction that paction measured .by the 1,000 foot recorder· approxi-
occ~rred.·i~·each of three depth zones fo~ 'two peripds mately equaled the amount of subsidence of a nearby
.of .recorqing;!_,Fo~ compariso'n, .theserates hav·e· btr~n Coast 'and Geodetic Survey bench mark. · These
.converted to unit values and represent .the. average measurements suggest that during this 1-year period,
.amount ·of vertic~J..shortenipg that .occurred in each little or no compaction was ocgurring within the
foot of thickness each year. The compaction rate in unconsolidated deposits below· 1,000 feet.

1.'·

. . !... -·-I '• . ·.' , . . . .. . ,~

25. THE COEFFICIENT OF STORAGE IN A REGION OF MAJOR SUBSIDENCE CAUSED BY COMPACTION OF

AN AQUIFER SYSTEM ,

By J. F. PoL!A.No, Sacramento, Calif.

·.:/. 1

Meinzer (Meinzer and Hard, 1925) .was the first beds. He concluded that t~e third source is probably
to conclude that the water discharged :by wells tap- the chief one in the usual case. He stated (p. 574)
ping an artesian aquifer (the Dakota sandstone) " * * * that because of the low permeability of the
had been derived largely from storage.' He rea:~(med clays (or shales) there is a tip1e-lag between the low-
that water withdrawn from storage was released by ering of pressure within the aquifer and the appear-
compression of the aquife·r: Subsequently· Meinzer ance of th=it part of the water which is derived from
(1928) c<;>nsiderecr··release from storage by' expansion storage in those clays (or shales)." To avoid mathe-
of the water, described evidence for the compressi- matical complications, however, he assumed that
bility ang elasticity of artesian aquifers, and stated release of stored ~ater from th~ clay. bed~ (i~ in-
(p. 289) that"* * * artesian aquifers are apparently stantaneous. He defined the coefficient of storage in
all more·· or less compressible and elastic though terms of the three sources of water, as
they. differ widely in the degree .and relative im-
portartce" of these properties." · .
.· [ 1 - b . ' c
S=y8m .. -E +:8..E +-E·
II'
(1)
.~ I'
J
•
Following development in 1935 of Theis' equation
for non-steady-state flow of water to a discharging In this equationS is the coefficient of storage; y is
well, Theis ( 1938, p. 894) defined the coefficient of the specific weight' of water (0.434 lb/in:!/ft); () is
storage as " * * * the volume of water, measur~d in the porosity of the aquifer; m is the thickness of the
cubic fee_t, released from storage in each column of. acquifer, in feet; Eu- 1 is the bulk modulus of elasticity
the _aquifer ;having a base 1 foot squ~re :;tn<l a height of the water (3 X 10" lb/i·~t) ;. b is the proportion of
equal to the thickness of the aquifer when the water the plane of contact between the aquifer and the con-
table or other piezometric surface is lowered 1 foot." . fining layer over which the hydrostatic pressure is
Shortly thereafter Jacob (1940) postulated that
effective (unity. for an aquifer composed 'of un-
when water is removed from and pressure is· de-
cemented gran~l~r material) ; E.~ i~· .the bulk modulus
creased in an elastic artesian aquifer, ..stored water
is derived from thre~ sourc~s: (.a') expansion of the of elastiCity of the aquifer matrix; Ec is the modulus
confined water,' (b) comp.ression of the aquifer, and of compression of clay beds; and c is a dimensionless
(c) compression of the adjacent arid included ·clay · . 1/3, the reciprocal of E,.:. is 3.3 x. 10-o in2Jb-·1.
•'!
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE ·GEOLOGIC;:AND HYDRO'LOGIC SCIEN:CES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-5'3
quantity that depends largely on the thickness, con- We can compute approximate values for the coin-
figuration, and distribution ·of the intercalated clay ponents of the;coefficient of storage in equation (1)
beds. · for an example in the Los Banos-Kettleman City
El~ewhere in this volume Lohm3;n (Art. 23) briefly area. Average values used for the confined aquifer
reviews the development of the concepts of .the oc- system· are .as follows: ·coefficient of storage from
currence. of water. in artesian aquifers· beginning short-term pumping tests about 1 X io-a,. () = 0.4, m
with Meinzer's c'lassic work, and derives an equa- i \ . 790 _feet .(aqui.fe:r th:i.ckness, ,excluding ·,for this
tion for determining the am.ount of' elastic co~pres- example the clayey interbeds aggregating about .?00
sion of artesian aquifers from known declines in feet in thickness), and 6.p = 130 lb in-2 (300 feet·
adesian. pressure an~Lknown hydrologic properties· decline in. head). . · ·
of the aquifers. Lohman's equation (Art. 23, this The first element of equation (i), the component
volume) is expressed' inr.t·he form of S due to elastic expansion of the water (ide'ntified
' ~ !'r,·: n . . . here as sl) is y0m(3. . .·
, : 6.?1~ =r= D-P . (S/y - OntfJ}, (2)
in which' D.nt is th:e reduction in 'thickn.ess of the sl = (0.4 34 6lb in-:! 1
ft- ) (0.4). (700· ft) (3.3 '
X 10-. in. Ib- ) •.. 4 X 10-4
2 1
aquifer: (amount.: ,of .~~astic compression), in feet,
and'6p ·is the redu-ction ip artesian pressure in lbs/ft:!. The elastic c.ompression of the aquifer (elastic
The:other te~ms a~e as'tlefined for equation (1). Loh- subsidence· ·of the land _.surface) can be computed
man's equation· '(2) ·affords a: means of evaluating . from equation (2), using the S obtained from short-·
the second component of equation (1), ymb/E.,, when term pumping tests, as follows:
E .• is not known.
In areas where intensive ground-water develop- .. 6.m · 130 lbs in-2 [ (1 X 10-a)/ (0.434lb in-:! ft- 1 ) -
ment has drawn down the artesian head substantially
(a hundred to several hundred feet) in highly com- J
(0.4) (700ft) (3.3 X. 10-6 in 2 lb- 1 ) = 0.18 ft
pressible confined aquifer systems containing many Thus, the second component of s in equation ( 1),
cl3:y interq~~s, major subsidence of the Ian~ s~rface ide.ntified here as s2 , is the elastic compression di- · •·
has occurred. For example, land subsidence ,from
this cause has reached 2 to more than 20 feet in vided by the artesian-head decline or 0.18 ft/300 ft
parts of the San Joaquin Valley (see Art. 24 by -. _6 ·X 10- •
4

Lofgren and Art. 26 by Miller) and 9 feet in the The component of storage derived from compac-
Santa Clara Valley, both in California, and several tion of the clayey interbeds and confining beds (Sa)
feet in the Houston:.:Galveston area in Texas (Wins~ can· be estimated approximately from the gross sub-
low and'Wood, 1959),. · The· subsidence probably i~ sidence of the land surface. In this· area, the ratio
caused ·almost wholly by compaction of the inter- of s.ubsiden~e to: 'head decline ranges' about from
calated and confining .beds of clay, silty clay, and · l/10 to 1/25. if ·~e use a.' rati'o of 1/20· (subsidence
clayey 'silt, both by ''plastic deformation and me- = {5 .feet for 300 feet of head decline)~ 'the':h '"the.··
chanica! rearrangeme~t ~f grains,. a~d to that ex- compo.nent of ~torag·e deriveq from compactio~. (both
tent is inelastic and permanent. In such aquifer elastic and inelastic) of~the ·clayey sediments is ·
+ systems the ~water take;n ~rorri ·storage as defined by 15 ft _..._ 0:18 ft = . X _· •
the coe.f!icient of s!orage derived from short-term . 300 ft . 0·05 or 5 10
.
2

P\lmping tests may-::rep:r;-~sent a very small part of Summing the three components, S 1 +. ·s'2· Sa~ +
the water actually removed from storage.: gives·a long-term unit stor~ge yield of 0.051.' _Thus~
It' I , ' ' \
1
}f: r : '

APPLICATION TO THE LOS BANOS-KETTLEMAN· CITY Sa, the stored water released by compr~ssion or c.om-
;f'! -1
. AREA
; il / . ; .'
•'!
' paction of the clayey bed~, is about 50 times'as great
Subsi,dence in the Los :Panos-Kettleman City area as the·iwater. released.- by elastic expansion ·Of the
on the central west si~~;of the San Joaquin Valley water ,...
and elastic
. , ,.I
compression of the aquif,er (com-
I. . . ·

(for ·location see map in Art. 26 by Miller) extends ponents sl anq S2). )n other words, i~~thi~ ex:ampl~.l
over 1,100 square miles.and ranges from 1.to, 22 feet. the coefficient of.. storage .derived from a sport-term
In most of this area, about all the subsidence is pumping test gives a vo~ume only about one-fiftieth
known to be caused by compaction of the. confined that of the long-:-term ( 15 to 25 year.s) yield from
aquifer system (see Art. 24 by Lofgren). storage.
B-54 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

This is an extreme example because it is computed REFERENCES

for one of the most compressible aquifer systems for Jacob, C. E., 1940, On the flow of wa~er in an elastic artesian
which data are now available. However, it serves aquifer: Am. Geophys. Union Trans. 21st Ann. Mtg., pt.
2, p. 57 4-586, 4 figs.
to emphasize that the storage derived from compac- ·Meinzer, 0. E., 1928, Compressibility and elasticity of artesian
tion of the clayey interbeds and confining beds may aquifers: Econ. Geology, v. 23, p. 263-291.
be many times as great as that derived from elastic Meinzer, 0. E., and Hard, H. A., 1925, The artesian water
supply of the Dakota sandstone 'in North Dakota, with
expansion of the water and elastic compression of
special reference to the Edgeley quadrangle: U.S. Geol.
the aquifer. Survey Water-Supply Paper 520-E, p. 73-95, pls. 6-7,
Moreover, this component, S:h is a variable. The figs. 7-8.
Theis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the lowering of the
stored water yielded by the clayey beds would be piezometric surface and the rate and duration of dis-
large only during the first decline of artesian pres- charge of a well using ground-water storage: Am. Geo-
sure. If the pressure subsequently recovered to (or phys. Union Trans. 16th Ann. Mtg., p. 519-524, 2 figs.
Theis, C. V., 1938, The significance and nature of the cone of
near to) the initial conditions, and then was drawn
depression in ground-water bodies: Econ. Geology, v. 33,
down again through the same interval, the com- p. 889-902, 2 figs.
pression of the clayey beds, if mostly preconsolidated Winslow, A. G., and Wood, L. A., 1959, Relation of land sub-
during the first drawdown· phase, would be only a sidence to ground-water withdrawals in the upper Gulf
Coast region, Texas: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Petroleum
small fraction of that in the first phase of pressure Engineers Trans., v. 214; Mining Engineering, p. 1030-
decline, probably less than 10 percent. 1034.

26. COMPACTION OF AN AQUIFER SYSTEM COMPUTED FROM CONSOLIDATION TESTS AND DECLINE IN
ARTESIAN HEAD

By R. E. MILLER, Sacramento, Calif.

In the parts of the San Joaquin Valley shown on pumping from the confined aquifer system has
figure 26.1, the land surface has been subsiding at caused a substantial drawdown of artesian head.
rates up to 1.5 ft/yr owing to large withdrawals of The procedure for making the computations was
artesian water from poorly consolidated late Ceno- as follows:
zoic sediments. By refining a method outlined by 1. The upper and lower limits of the confined
Gibbs ( 1960), the compaction in the confined aquifers aquifers were determined from the electric
is being computed at selected core-hole sites in the logs of nearby wells.
San Joaquin Valley. The method of computation is 2. Then, as shown in figure 26.2, the aquifer and
based upon Terzaghi's theory of consolidation (1943, overburden is divided into sufficient segments
p. 266-267), using the results of one-dimensional so that each segment could be represented by
consolidation tests made upon core samples of the a single consolidation test typical for that
aquifer system, and the decline in artesian head that segment.
has occurred. An extension of this technique can be 3. The artesian head of the confined aquifers was
used to predict future subsidence. determined from the static levels in nearby
wells and converted into pounds per square
COMPUTATION OF AQUiFER COMPACTION inch. The decline in aquifer pressures was
The computation of aquifer compaction at core estimated for the aquifer system for the period
hole 12/12-16H1 in the Los Banos-Kettleman City 1937-59 using t}:le static-level records of the
area in the western part of the San Joaquin Valley wells for previous years.
(fig. 26.1) is a typical example of the method being 4. The overburden load on the aquifers in pounds
used in the present studies. In this area there has per square inch was computed from the wet
been no decline in the water table, but intensive unit weight of the core samples. There has
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-55
7. The compaction occurring in each segment of an
aquifer system can be computed for any speci-
fied aquifer pressure decline if the effective
load change on the segment can be determined.
·o In determining the e'ffective load on the seg-
ment, the buoyant weight of any overlying
aquifer segments is added to the effective
I weight of the overburden load. The aquifer
' pressures at the core-hole site are shown in
'" figure 26.2 and the effective loading on each
aquifer segment is listed in table 1.
As illustrated in figure 26.2, two confined
aquifers are present in this area. The prin-
'
<I?
"' cipal aquifer is the lower one. Pumping from
this aquifer was locally decreased shortly after
/' "' 1953, owing to the availability of surface water
~ ' from a nearby canal. Consequently the static
levels of wells perforated in the lower aquifer
were lowest in 1953 and have shown a slight
amount of recovery since that time. The great-
est effective load on the lower aquifer was in
0 1953, therefore, and the load at that time was
---· used as a maximum for computing compaction
in the lower aquifer. In the upper aquifer,
FIGURE 26.1.-Areas of land subsidence in the San Joaquin
Valley, Calif. which is tapped by only a few domestic wells,
there has been a small but steady decline in
been no decline in the water table in this .area static level between 1937 and 1959.
between 1937 and 1959. This means that no 8. The compaction due to the load change on each
compaction occurred in segments 1, 2, and 3 segment of the aquifer system was computed
from the void-ratio change which was deter-
during this period and that there was no de-
mined graphically from the extension of the
crease in overburden load on the confined
straight-line part of the one-dimensional con-
aquifers owing to dewatering of the sediments
solidation curves. Compaction was computed
above the water table.
by the equation
5. The effective load on the top segments of the
confined aquifers was computed for the periods ~h = e1 - e:! h
for which the aquifer pressures had been de- 1 + e1
termined by subtracting the aquifer pressure in which ;j.h = compaction, in feet; e1 == initial
from the bulk weight of the aquifer overbur- void ratio; e:! == void ratio after loadjng, and
den. The maximum load that could occur would h == thickness of aquifer segment, in feet.
be when the artesian pressure is zero and the The ultimate compaction determined for
1
full weight of the overburden bears on the the confined aquifers as a result of the change
1

aquifer. in artesian pressure from 1937 to 1959, and

6. One-dimensional consolidation tests were made the part of that compaction computed to have
on the core samples of the aquifer system for occurred by 1959 are shown in table 1.
the maximum load range that could occur in 9. A complicating factor that must be considered
the aquifers. These tests were made in the is the time lag of compaction. In segments
Earth Laboratory of the Bureau of Reclama- of the aquifer that have very low permeability,
tion at Denver, Colo. An increase in loading years or even decades might be required before
results in a decrease in the void ratio of the enough water is displaced so that all of the
sample tested. Clays tend to consolidate more · computed compaction can occur. The time re-
under load than sands, but not as rapidly. quired for the computed compaction to be
 .B-5,6 GE;OLOGICA~ SUR_Y~Y RESEARC!I 1961

SELF~' i · ·· . VECTORS SHOWING

POTENTIAL. . RE~I~TIVITY $EGME~TS ,,. . DESCRIPTION
PRESSURE-LOADING DISTRIBUTION
0~~~~~+---~----~--~~~~--------------+---------------------------~--~
· Millivolts· : · Ohm-meters
\
30 . '.

100 1-~----s--+-+-----:--~
·.? \' ~ 1 • OVERBURDEN LOAD ON
ARTES!AN AQUIFERS

', -:· 1; OVERBURDEN

: '(Silt, clay, and ~ome sand) 400 psi

::.·: ,200 ~-:-'-'----)-;_:-.. -J~,{--il''"?~~~-----!

(· ..... , ... 1)4.·;. '•:

..•' .. '\' ) .·. 'Jl

t : .. )

'' 300' !--~..=:--+~~;_·'-'--'~-~

('----------l
. ' 644 psi
; rr<: ·~ · - - - - - - - - - -f;--.,...-~--1
·,,, :t 2
- · - - - ~- ~ 1-'-';.:..''-----!
. 'I ··; ".'-.I ;j ., .. 3
t --.------
. t;. 400 1---_:__-f--1"-1-,------'-....j .· .... ~

I· UP.PER CONFINING CLAY

· (Diatomaceou~)

·t-
. .
, I , , ~ . --:-- ......... - - - ~-------h--:-------------l---r----L----r------'-----11----------j
LIJ
LIJ ~ ~
'•I.L.· :i
z '500 ~-~--~~+----------l~--~ ·0'1 1i•A-• :.·I
,· )>
_,-

~·
·.-· :.:(·J. >--~---,--:-

,; \.~" -1-.,~~~[~===== ·: UPPER ARTESIAN

"
-
M
0'1
-LO
0'1

t •:._..,. '
AQUIFER .. ·. 145 psi I J•

II v . ., : . ' 8 . (Fine sand, silt, and. clay) . ! .,169 psi - .~.!

600 ~----~~~~~,~,----:-~--~~

j~} f .. .i J'
t
(
. . . .i
9
'l.
·: ,.
;> . ' . ·_ ,· 'ARTESIAN PRESSURE

.. i;
·., ..
t\...,.------- '

10
------ -.-j..;--___:-4----------+-----------:-----t---------,
11 LOWER CONFINING CLAY '-~;,;) 1.

--------~---~~-------,--~--+-~~----~----,-~~~---------;
12
-------1-------1
aoo~~---+---1-4-----~ 13

• I • I '1
14
- ...:_._---- -1!--~_;..;.--1

I ; ~- lj 1

15 LOWER ARTESIAN'. 206 psi

9901-_.. --:-----,-~>~--;-.~.-f>~.----.,-.T----.:-----.. ~-~--~.. ~.~ ~~(Fine
AQUIFER·'
to coarse sand,
.f r ·~·

i' -~~ t f) 11 .r,- . u !·1 _ . n i260 psi

silt, an9 clay)
lt ;r: . ··< : ~~ ( j r ?(' '
16'
· \ .• · -~. ::T!•-·'J . I. j>J)I • .;!· '.(";! . I .I I
10001-------~~~L-----~~+-----~ . ARTESIAN PRESSURE
• , ~ o I j ( l t_): ,' J~ ~ •• '-!:: ~ ·. I 'J ::J •• ,•• !.~ i

. 0 L :, I. -~ -~'.·1 )• ! ......

:' c. ;, \ ... : ~ ' !., I ~·

.. FH:iu·R~ 26.2._:_Logs ·an'd' diagr~hi;;~:f- press\fre~loading .distribution -f~r: th~ ~duifer system at' cor~ hole '12;/ 12~i~~ 1·, Sari .Joaquin
··:HU . l't~.j(' . ,: · :I Valley, Cali:i~.. . , . . fi: -: :; .• I

::ll. •'•':(/ ~~ ' . .t

J I(~ !"ri-;J J:..~ 'I.;
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-57
TABLE 1.-E.ff'ective loading and compaction, at core hole 12/12-16H1 computed lo1· the period 1937-59
------- - - - - ---~-,------,-----------

Effeetive load rltimate rompac:tiun completed by 1959 Amount of

:;~llllll'llt
ntunhrr
(:;cc fiK. 26.2)
'
ThiC'km·s~
(fret)
Efft•<'tivc
load 10:~;
(psi) I -~0-=~~~~·~-~~:~:~1--~:)~;~(:·i~~~~-
\JlSil I (JlSi) I
compaetion
(feet)
t
--------·-.------
Percent Feet
residual
compaction
as of 1959
(feet)

1------2-5.:>--- 1 · - - - - - ------------ ·-------

:> ....... . ·... . 48 2:~1 I . 1:3 8B 1.00 0.1:~
H....... -·~· .. ,~5 247 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,,... 27.1 .56 100 5() .00
7 ........... . 20 265 289 .52 100 .52 .00
8 ........... . 25 272 2!)6 .16 100 ,1() .00
9 .......... .. 87 284 :308 .76 2() .20 .56
.10 .......... . 2-l :{2:3 J ..j.'j . 12 100 .12 .00
.1.1 .......... . :38 ;{:l4 :358 .:35 6:l .22 . l:l
12 .......... . 24 :384 .28 100 .28 .00
J:3 .......... . 52 :{!)5 .34 100 .:H .00
14 .......... . a2 JHJ .31 100 .:31 .00
15 .......... . 71 4:{:~ 1.08 100 1.08 .00
·u; .......... . li\) 465 .75 100 .75 .00
17 .......... . 1()0 1. 7-:1: .00
I .. I~.
-H>5 1.74
l--~-----l~----l-----~--l--~--.--.~.~~·~.-l-------
1'obtl .... ·......... . 8.10 7.28 0.82

1 Pounds per square inch.

2 Compaction estimated to occur as result of artesian-head change, 1937-59.

·completed can be estimated from the consoli- /Similarly, half· of the compaction ·would be
dation coefficient which is determined as part completed in about 1,600 years, but 10 percent
of the one-dimensional consolidation test. The of the compaction would be completed in only
equation given by Terzaghi and Peck (1948, about 60 years. ·This would indicate that only
p. 241) for computing the compaction time is a small amount of compaction has occurred in
~·
Th':! ' ·this confining clay segment during the rela-
t == -c-:-·I! tively ~short period between 1937 and 1.95~.
in which t == compaction time, in years; T == ·By this method the percent of co~pacti<;>.n
time factor; h == thickness of aquifer seg~ent, .
. completed in each segment of the aquifer
I "• • . .
at
in feet; and C,. · CQnsolidation coefficient, in core. hole 12/12-16Hl was computed an<:} is
ft!!/year. · , shown in .~able 1. Secondary consolidation ef-
If drainage can t~ke place from b~th top and fects ~ave not been. considered in these ap-
bottom of the a?-uifer segment, ( h/2):! is used proximate computations of ~o.mpacti.on. •,: ,.
in plac.e of h!!. The time required for various
percentages of compaction to be compl~ted is COMPARISON OF ·coMPUTED SUBSIDENCE TO
not a linear , relation, f9r the time depends MEA~URED SUBSIDENCE

upon T, which is a pure number nonlinearly Releveling of bench marks by the U. S. 'Coast and
related to the percent of compaction completed.
·Geodetic Survey indicated that 7.8 ·feet of' '!arid-
...~ Thus T == 1.0 for about 93 percent compaction,
surface subside.nce occurr~d in· the vicinity of cor¢
J
T =
0.2 for 50 percent compaction, and T :z
hole l2/12-16H1 between 1937 and 1959. 'The total
0.0076 .for 10- percent compaction.
Compaction of the upper confining clay oq- ..
ultimate
.
.computed
.. .
compaction
.
of
.
the'. ' aquifers
. f ) i f•
oue.
curs by 'qrainage into the underlying aquifer to pressul,'e decline between ~937 and 1959 '_is 8.~
as a result of the downward pressure differen- feet. The part of thi~ ultimate' compaction co~put~d
tial. The time required fo~ this compaction to have occurr.~d by 19~~ fo.r segm~~ts 5 thro~gq: 17
to be nearly completed (about 93 percent) can (~g. ?6~2) is 7.28 f~et. I~ aqd~tjon, th~. rate o! ~om­
be estjmated from the preceding equation, pacti.o!l of the. upper confinin.g. clay 1( s~gment .4•) .-has
using the values T == 1, h == 86 . feet, and d,... .been calculated as approxiJriately 0.01 foot .per.,year.
== 0.92 ft:!/yr for the load range of 200 psi to Thus, the .total compaction ...computed. to. have· ':Oc-
400 psi. curred in segments 4 through.17 from 1937· to 195~
1 X 86!! is 7.5 feet, 'compared.'to a tneasuted~·-iand-surface
t == •.0.92 ... ·subsidence··o{ 7.8 feet:l·'The 'resi.dtial 'compaction
B-58 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

estimated to occur after 1959 as a result of the de- REFERENCES

cline in artesian pressure from 1937 to 1959 is 0.8 Gibbs, H. J., 1960, A laboratory testing study of land sub-
foot in segments 5 through 17. Additional compac- sidence: The First Pan American Conference on Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Proc., 1959,
tion in the upper confining clay (segment 4) is esti- Mexico City, v. 1, p. 13-36.
mated to continue at a rate of roughly 0.01 foot a Terzaghi, Karl, 1943, Theoretical soil mechanics: New York,
year unless the artesian pressure in the upper arte- John Wiley & Sons, 510 p.
Terzaghi, Karl, and Peck, R. B., 1948, Soil mechanics in engi-
sian aquifer recovers appreciably. neering practice: New York, John Wiley & Sons, 566 p .

27. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ULTRASONIC METHOD FOR MEASURING STREAM VELOCITIES

By H. 0. WIRES, Columbus, Ohio

Wo1·k done in coperation with the U.S. Army Co'rps of Engineers and the Califo?·nia Department of Wate1· Resou1·ces

Continuous records of streamflow in tidal or back- not be achieved. The extreme fluctuations of phase
water reaches are difficult to obtain by. conventional and amplitude encountered could be ascribed to
methods because the velocity of flow is not a simple multi path interference phenomena due to such· causes
function of water-surface elevation. The number of as thermal and energy gradients and boundary
such reaches in which flow records are needed is in- reflections.
creasing as more streams are controlled by reser- A second system has been devised, which elimi-
voirs and as the flow in tidal reaches becomes. in- nates the defects of the continuous wave transmis-
creasingly. important in the total development of sion system. The basic characteristics of the new
water resources. Continuous records of velocity system, which is known as the pulse repetition fre-
would allow computation of flow at any time, and quency (PRF) method, are:
efforts have been directed toward development of 1. Upstream and downstream sound velocities are
instrumentation for that purpose. measured simultaneously over a single acoustic
A system has been devised that utilizes the differ- path.
ence in velocity of propagation of sound in the up- 2. A transmitted pulse with a sharp leading edge is
stream .and downstream directions to measure the used to eliminate multipath effects. .The first
velocity of streamflow. In this system transducers
are installed near each streambank at an angle () with
the direction of flow as shown on figure 27.1. Ultra-
sonic waves are generated and received at both in-
stallations. The difference in travel time of the wave Wuff/&/d#4·~
in the upstream and downstream direction is re- /
lated to the velocity of streamflow and this relation Flow.
can be derived mathematically. 8 ,/
A continuous wave transmission system using re-
ceived-wave displacement as a measure of the dif-
ference in travel time was first designed and con-
structed under contract by Raytheon Manufacturing
/7/~7/7/;#..'7$/;'////!f; ' /

Company. After testing the system at several loca-

tions and under many separate conditions it was
concluded that phase stability requirements could FIGURE 27.1.-lnstallation of transducers in a stream channel.

.,.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-59
arrived signal is used and any immediately fol- c = velocity of sound with no flow
. lowing signals are gated out. d = length of acoustic path
3. Flow velocity is related to the mean of the dif- () = angle between downstream acoustic path
ferences between the downstre~m and , up- and downstream flow path
stream propagation velocities. Then: Velocity of sound propagation downstream
A system having these characteristics is shown·
diagrammatically on figure 27.2. A 135- acoustic
C12 = C +V COS ()
Velocity of sound propagation upstream
pulse is transmitted from the upstream transducer c:! 1 = c - v cos ()
and received at the downstream transducer. The The times of travel are
energy from this pulse activates a keying circuit
and another 135- pulse is transmitted from the up- d d d d
t1'> =-= c +
v cos ()
and t·>t = - = - - - - -
- c - v cos ()
stream transducer. The 85- electro-acoustic circuit - c12 C:!1

operates simultaneously with, and in the same man- The pulse repetition frequencies, l12 and l2 11 are
ner as, but in the opposite direction from the 135- given by the reciprocals of these equations and the
circuit. The two-pulse repetition frequencies (PRF) velocity of the streamflow is
are fed into a computing circuit, the output of which
is proportional to the difference frequency. d
v = 2 cos () (11'2 - 12d
It is easily shown that the difference frequency is
proportional to the velocity of streamflow. The computing circuits consist of two PRF multi-
Let: v = velocity of moving medium pliers, two motor-driven amplifiers, a synchro-differ-

Flow

t I
I

I
PRF=f 2
I &
Transmitting,
receiving, and
I 1/8 keying circuits
85kc
I
•·
')'~L
II
~I
I
I I Computing
I l circuits
I I
I I
t I I
I
Transmitting,
receiving, and 10 inch strip
keying circuits chart recorder
135kc PRF::;: t 1

FIGURE 27 .2.-Diagram of the PRF system.

B-60 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

entia!, and a syrichro-generator. The multipliers are accurately measured. As the upstream and down-
used to bring the pulse repetition frequencies close · stream transmissions are sent simultaneously the
to 60 per second.· The synchro-differential subtracts effects of any fluctuations caused by changes in the
the two frequencies, and the output of the synchro- acoustic properties of the water are eliminated.
generator ·is proportional to this difference fre- The PRF system has· been -installed on the Sacra..:
quency. The generator output is fed into a circuit ·men to River at Sacramento, Calif. Several problems
which multiplies this signal by the constant d/ (2 cos in the original design and operation of the equip-
0). This product voltage appears on a meter and is ment, such as selection of proper ·cable for adequate
recorded on a 10.-inch strip chart. transmission, determination of automatic gain con-
The velocity of flow equation shows that, in addi- trol requirements, and prevention of extensive· rec-
tion to the two pulse-repetition frequencies, it is ord blanking from occasional missed pulses, have
necessary only to determine d and (} to compute the been resolved, and a record is now being obtained
river velocity. These t~o quantities are easily ahd to be used for analysis of the method.

I •

28. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF AN ELECTRIC ANALOG OF LIQUID FLOW IN THE UNSATURATED ZONE

By R. W. STALLMAN, Denver, Colo.

The solution of hydrologic problems, in which the Youngs (1957), by laboratory studies, demonstrated
details of liquid flow through the unsaturated zone that Philip's method gave accurate forecasts of flow
are significant, has been hampered by a lack of ensuing from infiltration. Nelson ( 1960) recently
simple means for computing the relation between determined nonsteady liquid drainage from initially
time, flow, moisture content, and space. saturated sediments by solving the differential equa-
Normally flow in the unsaturated zone· is one- tions of flow using digital computing equipment.
dimensional, nonsteady, and occurs approximately Youngs ( 1960) applied the c~pillary-tube hypothesis
vertically. The differential equation ·relating the of unsaturated flow to calculate drainage from satu-
variables of liquid flow for this condition may be rated media as a function of time.
stated as ' Use of Philip's iteration process is limited to a
I

k ?J'2~~
I a~
2
+
oz az 1
·+
~k, [ah; J: : : ci> -ao~
. at (1) face.
hydraulically homogeneous · profile and increasing
water content during infiltration from the land sur-
Although digital computing equipment · is
':ln which k; i~ the copdrlctivity to liquid flow, h 1 is the capable of solving the problem regardless of com-
liquid head at point z above an arbitrarily.established plicating nonhomogeneities and variable boundary
horizontal reference plane, ci> is the porosity, (} 1 is conditions; experience has indicated 7that the costs
the liquid content expressed as a fraction. of ·the of. such solutions are generally highe-t than can be
porosity, and t is· time. The conductivity k 1 is a non- afforded in ordinary hydrologic investigations. In
linear function of the liquid content of (} 1 ; conse- an effort to obtain a versatile and low-cost computing
quen'tly it·-is very difficult to find mathematical solu..; system for the study of liquid flow· through the un-
tions satisfying both equation {1) and the highly saturated -zone, electric analog techniques for solving
variable field boundary conditions at the upper and . equation . ( 1) were considered. The following de-
lower limits of the unsaturated zone. Philip (1955) scribes preliminary plans for an electric analog
devised an efficient iterati'on process for findin,g a system believed capable of solving problems. in one-
solution to a form of equation {1) for continuous dimensional vertical flow through nonhomogeneous -r-
infiltration from. the land surface. Subsequently profiles under' a variety .of boundary 'conditions.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-61

10 10 2 2
c hfl' d e 1
I ~
dZ.2 ~ ~z2 R
~ A

d log k,e ldh.e

8 8 I ~
B dZ
·--+
Ldz
1]
db£
_,__.,c de
IC~ D!l ct ...... e dt
/IB
6 6
., r<\
0
'Ic
.c.~
I
~
><
.!I.~
l
4 4
..,. C\J
I
0
~
jz
:<
Q~

2 2
f-.
FIGURE 28.2.-Electrical currents analogous to terms in
-4 equation of flow.

Static head reference

---'(")e-
(Bias)

FIGURE 28.1.-Hydraulic characteristics of unsaturated porous

media.

For electrical simulation, equation ( 1) may be

more conveniently written in .the following form:
+ 1
[ a:!.ht] +a log k1 [ah1 + 1 ] _ D 1 ah~ == 0
n
az:t. az az at (2)
e~ -z
in which D 1 == : a~~, the liquid diffusiv~ty of the I
1 al ~B
unsaturated porous media. Neglecting hysteresis,
the curve of D1 versus 01 may be obtained directly
from curves of kt versus 01 and h 1 versus 01 charac-
terizing the porous media. An ~example of a set of n - 1
these curves is given in figure 28.1.
Consider equation (2) as comprising three sep-
arate terms, each defining a single compone11-t of
flow accumulation at a point, z. The first gives the e+
r~te of change of storage for a hydraulically homo- FIGURE 28.3.-Schematic diagram of analog and bias circuits.
B-62 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Model
n + 1 G-- Sununing et;:::;'h£ (n + 1)
~----~------------~--~----------------------------~---------,
Bias G--- amplifier
n + 1 -~

,"-
.....,...,
fO w
)) ""'Y
t:::Oo ~1---------------1 log k£
. !1
""'f
Sununing ~ Q) s ~ versus h£
+ l - amplifier ' ____., .....,~ t------------"'"'i":J§ ~ function
1
,..-j I , ,. +~'\,'(, ~
generator
+ ~~~~

.c.~ I~
o log k£
·-r Q) e= oz
E to I !
Iconverter]
~ IB to node n

ModelG--
n - 1 Summing
Bias e--- amplifier
n - 1

FIGURE 28.4.-Computer for determining lB.

geneous element, the second identifies variations due 28.4. The output may be fed directly to node n. How-
to hydraulic heterogeneity and gravity, and the third ever, to effect a solution, only the e versus IJJ con-
accounts for changes as a function of time and verter (the last element in the circuit of figure 28.4)
storage capacity. The electrical counterparts of these need be constructed at each node. By adding memory
terms are currents (I) added to a point in a resistive to this converter, it will be possible to switch the
element, with a constant resistance (R) per unit circuit of figure 28.4 continuously over the network
of nodes, changing the value of In at each pass. Use
length, as shown in figure 28.2. The continuous
of such · a switching arr~ngement would permit
resistance element must be viewed as a series of
solving problems of one-dimensional flow with only
finite elements because it does not appear practical one set of the equipment shown in figure 28.4. The
to model Ill and I c at each point along its length. third term of equation (2) niay be simulated at each
Accordingly, a finite-difference approximation to node by an electronic element whose capacity changes
equation (2) is represented .by the electrical model as a function of voltage at the node. The latter ele-
shown in figure 28.3. A voltage divider at the right ment is to be designed s·o that the capacity versus
in figure 28.3 serves as a reference for static head node-voltage .curve is congruent with an appropriate
conditions in the profile and for dynamic evaluation curve of D, versus h1, such as the one shown in
of kt and Dt as the analysis proceeds. figure 28.1. Varying boundary conditions, in terms
As can be shown by finite-difference techniques, of either liquid head or flow rates, may be applied
I A to any node n in the model is simply the resultant to both or only one end of the resistor elements and
of current flow from points n + 1 and n - 1. Simu- bias control.
lation of Ill is much more difficult. A schematic of a Analog construction is underway with the objec-
proposed circuit for calculating Ill is given in figure tive of solving for drainage from homogeneous pro-
 · SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-63
files; computed results will be compared with labora- REFERENCES
tory data already available in the U. S. Geological Nelson, R. W., 1960, Ground water movement rates: Am.
Survey Hydrologic Laboratory, Denver, Colo. Once Geophys. Union Ground-Water Symposium, Pacific North-
these initial phases are completed, studies will be west Hydrologic Research Committee, Nov. 16, Portland,
made of drainage from nonhomogeneous profiles. It Oregon, oral presentation.
seems that the basic analog plan described here can Philip, J. R., 1955, Numerical solution of equations of the
more easily be modified to account for nonhomo- diffusion type with diffusivity concentration-dependent:
geneities than other analytical techniques thus far Faraday Soc. Trans., v. 51, p. 885-892.
considered. Nevertheless, the search for a more Youngs, E. G., 1957; Moisture profiles during vertical infiltra-
·• efficient analog system is being continued while de- . tion: Soil Sci., v. 84, p. 283-290.
velopment work . on the above electric analog - - - , 1960, The drainage of liquids from porous materials:
continues. Jour. Geophys. Res., v. 65, p. 4025-4030 .

....,

29. DIRECT-READING CONDUCTIVITY BRIDGE

By I. S. McQUEEN and C. R. DAUM, Denver, Colo.

One measurement that has been useful in selecting A transistorized oscillator supplies a 1,000-cycles-
desirable water sources and in identifying the per-second signal for excitation and a small high
aquifer supplying a given well is specific conduc- impedance earphone is used to detect the null or
tance, which is an indicator of the total dissolved balance point. The bridge measures either the re-
solids in water. Laboratory an~lyses of water sistance of a thermistor directly in ohms or the
samples usually include this measurement. A con- specific conductance of a water sample in millimhos
ductivity bridge that could be used in the field would by using a precision 10-turn variable resistor for the
permit more rapid selection and identification of measuring arm· and selected resistors for the ratio
water sources, and would guide in the choice of arms.
sources for which more complete chemical analyses The resistance of the measuring arm, using a 0- to
should be made. Available conductivity measuring 5,000-ohm variable resistor and a 10-turn microm-
·•
equipment did not appear to be suitable for field
use becau~e of inconvenient operation, lack of sen-
1 00
eter dial, is '
2
°
D ohms, in which D is the dial
sitivity, or instability. reading (0.00 to 10.00). Then, with the operation
Preliminary requirements for a suitable instru- selector switch slJ in position 2 and the bridge in
ment include the following: (a) a range of 0 to 10 balance, the following relationship holds:
millimhos, (b) provision for temperature measure-
1,000 D 600
ment and temperature compensation, (c) provision
for use of a conductivity cell with a cell constant of
2 Rth == 1,200
2 and for a limited range of adjustment for· varia- 1,000 D == Rt, (1)
tions between cells, (d) portability, (e) low power means that when measuring resistance the dial
consumption, and (f) simplicity of use. in which R 1, is the resistance of the thermistor. This
The newly designed instrument described here rea~s directly from 0 to 10,000 ohms to the nearest
fulfilled all these requirements and several that were 10 ohms.
subsequently proposed. The circuit diagram for the A thermistor with a nominal resistance of 2,000
completed bridge is shown in figure 29.1. ohms at 25°C is used to measure the temperature of
B-64 . 'GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RE~EARCH 1961

As required

R tc .
0-1,000 ..f"\_
1.
Temperature
compensator

Rc
Conductivity cell

Oscillator

FIGURE 2y}·---:C:onductivity bridge circuit.

solutions. A calibration curveI' for this thermistor these values in equation 2 and simplifying we find
was obtained by laboratory measurements, so that that: '
the temperature of a solution can be obtained from EC = D/1,000
this curve and the resistance readings. The tern- ·
perature-compensation dial on the bridge is set for Therefore, the dial reads directly irt millimhos. ·The
this temperature, and the bridge then measures the cell-constant compensation ·resistor was calibrated
conductivity adjust~d to a standard temper~ture-~f to keep the above equation in balance for cell con-
25°C. Temperature compEmsktion was calibrated ac- stants of 1.8 to 2.2 •
2

cording to data of U.S. Salinity Laboratory 1 • _;,Position 1 on the operations selector switch (81)
With the operatiort. selector switch in position 3 · was adqed to permit the use of a microdip. cell with
and the bridge in balance, the following· '·'i·ei~tion a cell constant of 0.1. The balance relation for this
:·holds: · · . · position' is:

1,000 D. 900· +.
R.cc .. ,. 1,000 D K/2 == EC (600 + Rec) 50
2(600 +
Rtc) Rot ..
.. l '' ~
: .-. When the cell constant is· 0.1· the bridge reads. di-
in which Rtr· is the resistance of the temperature rectly in millimhos. ·
correction resistor, Rcc is the resistance of the cell A sensitive balance was .difficult to obtain on
constant compensating resistor, and Ro is the re- samples with high conductivity when using a micro-
. sistance of the conductivity cell in an unknown dip cell; therefore, a ·small transistorized' amplifier
solution. By definition Rc · K/EC, in which K is (not shown in fig. 29.1) was built as a separate unit
the cell constant and EC is the specific conductance to sharpen the null point. A capacitor placed in
·of the solution. By substituting iri the above for- parallel with the ~90-ohm ratio arm· of the· bridge
mula we obtain: n
also sharpens the u11 point. The use of the micro-
dip cell had been limited to the laboratory in the
1,000 D K/2 = EC (600 + Rto) (900 + Rcc) (2)
past.
With a cell constant of 2 and a temperature of 25°C; A_ series of 17 samples was measured in the field
Rtr• =
400 ohms and Rcr: == 100 ohms. Substituting with fliis bridge. Repeat measurements were made
=
1 1,000 I 1 +
600 =
R 1c where I 1 temperature factors from table 15, 2
• °
1 00
K = 900 + Rcc. Wh en K = 1.8, R cc = 0, an d w h en K =
p. 90, Agricultural Handbook No. 60, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, and Rtc 2
is the resistance of the temperature-correction resistor. 2.2, Rcc = 200 ohms.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-65
using a standard conductivity bridge. The measure- students "t" for the paired data is 0.438 which in-
ments agree within about 2 percent. The. standard dicates that there is no significant difference be-
deviation of .the. ·differences is 9.3 micromhos and tween the pairs of analyses.

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF EASTERN UNITED STATES

30. AGE OF THE "RIBBON ROCK" OF AROOSTOOK COUNTY, MAINE

;
By LOUIS PAVLIDES, ROBERT B. NEUMAN, and WILLIAM B. N. BERRY, Beltsville, Md., Washington, D. C.,
and Berkeley, Calif.

Discovery of Middle Ordovician graptolites estab- slate, and overlain, at places gradationally, by more
lishes the age of at least part of the "ribbon rock" argillaceous rock.
in eastern Aroostook County, Maine. The '~ribbon The "ribbon rock" is highly deformed. Tightly
rock" (originally the ribbon limestone) was as- compressed folds plunge steeply, some are· nearly
signed as a member of the Aroostook limestone in vertical, and a few are inverted. Thus, most beds are
and north of the Presque Isle area (fig. 30.1) and steeply inclined or vertical, and some are overturned.
.,_
classed as Middle Silurian in age (White, 1943, p. Steep to vertical slaty cleavage is common, especially
129). Earlier, Twenhofel (1941, p. 169) suggested south of Mars Hill, where a steep lineation results
th3:t these rocks might be of Late Ordovician age from the intersection of bedding and cleavage.
and possibly equivalent to similar rocks, such as the Graptolites that for the first time permit reliable
Whitehead formation of the Gaspe Peninsula in age determination of the "ribbon rock" were found .
Quebec. Twenhofel's suggested Ordovician age as- in 1960 at a roadside exposure 2 miles east of Colby
signment was followed by Boucot and others (1960} (locality 3 of fig. 30.1) by_ W. H. Forbes, amateur
in a recent compilation of the geology of northern paleontologist of Washburn, Maine, who has made
Maine. "Ribbon rock" in the Br-idgewater area (fig. several other valuable fossil discoveries in this area
30.1) is reassigned as a member of a new formation (Berry, 1960a). The fossils occur through several
in a forthcoming report (Pavlides, in pres·s). feet of calcareous siltstone. They are, on the whole,
"Ribbon rock" underlies large parts of eastern poorly preserved, most having been stretched· or
Aroostook County (fig. 30.1) corresponding closely compressed. Many, however, are preserved in re-
with the fertile potato-growing regions. The unit lief, and some that are preserved as molds yielded
consists of beds of medium-gray to bluish-gray lime- latex peels that afford good material for study.
. stone several inches to several feet thick, separated W. B. N. Berry examined the collection and identi-
by somewhat thinner layers of gray calcareous to fied the following forms:
greenish-gray noncalcareous slate.. Limestone beds A mplexograptus sp.
range in composition from relatively pure carbonate Amplexograptus cf. A. perexcavatus (Lapworth)
layers to argillaceous limestone and to calcareous Climacograptus cf. C. typicalis mut. posterus Ruedemann
Diplograptus? spp. (two distinct kinds of this form are
siltstone. Some layers that are complexly deformed represented; one is long and slender, the other shorter
are found in sequenc'e with beds having more regular and wider)
stratification. Interbeds of graywacke, and lenses of Ortkograptus aff. 0. truncatus (Lapworth)
graywacke and slate and of slate, are also included Ortkograptus truncatus cf. var. intermedius ( Elles and
in the unit. Stratigraphic boundaries of the "ribbon Wood)
Other ·orthograptids of the 0. truncatus type
/"·
rock" are poorly defined and little studied over broad
areas; in parts of the Bridgewater area, however, Some of the orthograptids of the 0. truncatus type
the "ribbon rock" is underlain by· graywacke and are probably new. Their poor preservation, how-
B-66 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

ever, and that of the questionable Diplograptus, pro-

hibits more certain identification.
The assemblage of many orthograptids of the
truncatus group (especially the presence of 0. trun-
catus cf. var. intermedius), other large diplograptids,
and the Climacograptus of the C. typicalis group,
is pr.obably representative of the zone of Ortho-
graptus truncatus var. intermedius. Closely similar
assemblages have been recognized by Berry ( 1960b,
p. 38) from the Snake Hill and Canajoharie shales
in New York, and the Magog shale in Quebec. Berry
(1960b, p. 38-39) discussed correlation of the zone
with the standard New York Ordovician stages, and
concluded that it was equivalent to the Trenton.
Other fossils that have been found in the "ribbon
rock" include elongate aggregates of ovoid pellets
that were found about 1% miles southeast of Bridge-
water (locality 1 of fig. 30.1). These aggregates
are about 5 em long, and 1 em in cross section. The
individual pellets are closely packed and arranged
parallel to the borders of the aggregates. They are
2 to 3 mm long and slightly more than 112 mm in
diameter. Dr. Walter Hantzschel of the Geologisches
Staatsinstitut, Hamburg, examined these pellets in
1958 and he suggested they were the work of mud-
ingesting worms, perhaps worms that had been
given the generic name Tomaculum by Groom
(1902). Such pellets were originally found in Ordo-
vician rocks in England, and they have also been
found in Ordovician rocks of France, Germany, and
Czechoslovakia (Penau, 1941). It is noteworthy that
Dr. Hantzschel's identification preceded Forbes' dis-
covery of the graptolites, and came at a time when
many still considered these rocks to be of Silurian
.age.
Minute fossils, none larger than 3 mm and mostly
fragmentary, have been found in thin sandstone
layers about 5 miles southwest of Bridgewater (lo-
cality 2 of fig. 30.1).. The fossils include smooth
ostracodes, fragments of bryozoan zoaria, and
brachiopods, but the material is inadequate for spe-
cific identification. Brachiopods, represented by an
orthoid, a rhynchonellid, and a leptellid, do not con-
tradict the age assignment indicated by the grapto-
lites.
Rocks like those of "ribbon rock" are present to
the east in New Brunswick, and the northeast along
10 0 10 MILES highways between Grand Falls, N. B., and Mata-
pedia·, Quebec, at the southwestern end of the Gaspe
FIGURE30.1.-Known distribution of "ribbon rock" (Or) in
Peninsula. They extend, also, from Matapedia
Aroostook County, Maine. Northern part modified from
White, 1943, plate 24; southern half from geologic map- (Crickmay, 1932; Beland, 1958, 1960) across the
ping by Louis Pavlides. Numbers refer to fossil localities. I Gaspe P~ninsula to Perce (McGerrigle, 1953), the ·!o
Igneous rocks within "ribbon rock" belt not shown. . type locality of the Upper Ordovician Whitehead for-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-67
mation. Although the Whitehead has an unusual Crickmay, .G. W., 1932, Evidence of Taconic orogeny in Mata-
shelly fauna (Schuchert and Cooper, 1930; Cooper pedia Valley, Quebec: Am. Jour, Sci., ser. 5, v. 24, p. 368-
386.
and Kindle, 1936), its lithologic similarity to the
Groom, Theodore, 1902, The sequence of the Cambrian and
"ribbon rock" suggests that within this belt rocks of associated beds of the Malvern Hills: Geol. Soc. London
this kind span a considerable segment of Ordovician Quart. Jour., v. 58, p. 89-135.
time. McGerrigle, H. W., 1953, Geological map of Gaspe Peninsula:
Quebec Dept. of Mines.
Pavlides, Louis, in press, Geology and manganese deposits of
REFERENCES
the Maple and Hovey Mountains area, Aroostook County,
Beland, Jacques, 1958, Preliminary report on the Oak Bay Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 362.
area: Quebec Dept. Mines Prelim. Rept. 375, 12 p. P€mau, Joseph, 1941, Die Anwesenheit von Tomaculum prob-·
- - - , 1960, Preliminary report on Rimouski; Matapedia lematicum im Ordovicium West-Frankreichs: Sencken-
area: Quebec Dept. Mines Prelim. Rept. 430, 18 p. bergiana, v. 23, p. 127-132.
Berry, W. B. N., 1960a, Early Ludlow graptolites from the Ruedemann, Rudolf, 1936, Ordovician graptolites from Quebec
Ashland area, Maine: Jour. Paleontology, v. 34, p. 1158- and Tennessee: Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, p. 385-387. .
1163. Schuchert, Charles, and Cooper, G. A., 1930, Upper Ordovician
- - , 1960b, Graptolite faunas of the Marathon region, West and Lower Devonian stratigraphy and paleontology of
Texas: Texas Bur. Econ. Geology Pub. 6005, 179 p. Perce, Quebec: Am. Jour. Sci., ser. 5, v. 20, p. 161-176,
Boucot, A. J., Griscom, Andrew, Allingham, J. W., and Demp- 265-392.
sey, W. J., 1960, Geologic and aeromagnetic map of north- Twenhofel, W. H., 1941, The Silurian of Aroostook County,
ern Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report. northern Maine: Jour. Paleontology, v. 15, p. 166-174.
Cooper, G. A., and Kindle, C. H., 1936, New brachiopods and ·1 White, W. S., 1943, Occurrence of manganese in eastern
trilobites from the Upper Ordovician of Perce, Quebec: Aroostook County, Maine: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 940-E,
Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, p. 348-372. p. 125-161.

31. RATIO OF THORIUM TO URANIUM IN SOME PLUTONIC ROCKS OF THE WHITE MOUNTAIN PLUTONIC-
VOLCANIC SERIES, NEW HAMPSHIRE

By ARTHUR P. BUTLER, JR., Denver, Colo.

Wo'rk done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

Plutonic rocks of the White Mountain plutonic- uranium ratios in 24 samples of these rocks are
volcanic series, in New Hampshire, are slightly al- summarized here. 1
kalic and somewhat more radioactive than calc- Work toward the results reported here began in
alkalic rocks of other igneous suites in New Hamp- part under the leadership of the late E. S. Larsen,
shire (Billings and Keevil, 1946). Some additional Jr., and has benefited materially from consulation
study of the. distribution of uranium and thorium in. with E. S .. Larsen, 3d, and David Gottfried on many
rocks of this series is being carried on as one aspect problems.
of the Geological Survey's investigation of uranium The plutonic rocks of the series range in com~
and thorium in selected suites of igneous rocks. position from gabbro to granite. As shown. by
Preliminary summary of analyses for uranium has analyses (Chapman and Williams, 1935, table 1),
shown that felsic rocks of this series are 2 to 3 times most of the rocks (but particularly the felsic rocks)
as rich in uranium as their counterparts. among are slightly richer in sodium and potassium and
calc-alkalic rocks (Larsen and others, 1956, p. 70- poorer in calcium than corresponding types of calc-
72). Thorium analyses were not available when the alkalic rocks. The bulk of the rocks cropping out
i· summary of uranium analyses was reported. The
1 Lyons (Art. 82) presents somewhat similar data for rocks of three
amounts of thorium and uranium and the thorium- older plutonic series in New Hampshire.
 B-68 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

are granite, quartz syenite, and syenite (Billings plutonic series, two of the older calc-alkalic plutonic
and Keevil, 1946, table· 1). Biotite granite occupies series in New Hampshire (tables 2 and 4, Art. 32,
about 55 percent of the a:r,ea of outcrop qf the series . this volume). However, the average values of the
• The plutonic rocks are· int:ruded in many separate thorium-uranium ratio in biotite granite and amphi-
masses, some simple and some composite. The main bole granite of the White M·ountain series is 3.8 to
mass, also called the White Mountain batholith (Bil- 4.3, which falls within the range of the ratios 3.3
lings, 1956, p. 70), is a composite group of intrusions. to 4.3 reported by Lyons (Art. 32, this volume) in
It is about 33 mi.les long east-to-west and about 25 the two nearby older granites, and within the range
miles wide·. Granites of this ~ass. were sampled 3. 7 to 4. 7 reported by Lftrsen and Gottfried ( 1960)
fairly systematically in order to obtain nearly rep- in granites and quartz monzonites from_ three west-
resentative data for the largest mass of rock. Con- ern batholiths. In other rocks of the White Moun-
sequently, the data reported here are probably more tain plutonic-volcanic series, rather scattered data
n'early repr¢sentativ~ of th~ bulk of the granite in suggest somewhat larger values for ~he thorium-
the batholith than are the data for other types of uranium ratio in amphibole granite of outlying
rock:.and for granites from other locations. masses and in. some syenites than in biotite granite
Samples analyzed for thorium were chosen from and amphibole granite of the main mass.
a much larger number of samples analyzed for Among the granite masses of t~e White Mountain
urani~m (Larsen and others, 1956, p. 72; 'Butler, plutonic-vqlcanic series ~he roc~s of the main batho-
1956)". The samples so chosen rep:t;'~s,ent the rap.ge lithic m;;tss are slightly richer in both uranium and
of uranium contents and of the ro.el{ types sampled. thorium. than their counterparts in the outlying
They include samples of gabbro, biotite-quartz mon- masses. Also among the felsic rocks those with lesser
zonite, biotite and pyroxene-amphibole syenites, . uranium contents tend to have higher Th/U ratios
fayalite-amphibole quartz syenite, amphibole gran- than the rocks richer in uranium. This relation,
ite, and biotite granite (Conway). decrease in Th/U ratio with increase of uranium, is
Analyses for uranium and thorium were made in even more distinct if the samples of felsic rocks are
the Washington laboratory of the Geological Survey · grouped by intervals ·of uranium content without
by the methods described by Grimaldi and others regard to petrographic type· or geographic position
(1952) and Levine and Grimaldi (1958), respec- as shown on page B-69.
tively. A summary of the results of those analyses The biotite .g·ranite (Conway granite) is the only
and of the thorium-uranium ratios is given in table 1. rock. type for, ~hich there are enough samples to
The average uranium and thorium contents in make a similar comparison among samples of one
biotite granite and some amphibole granite of the rock type. In 5 samples of this granite containing
White Mountain plutonic series are somewhat 10 ppm or more uranium the value of the Th/U ratio
greater than the average contents of these elements is 3.1 whereas in 5 samples containing less than 10
in granites of the Oliverian ·and New. ·Hampshire ppm uranium it is 5.6. No petrographic features of

TABLE I.-Thorium and uranium contents and Th!U ratios in some igneous rocks of the White Mountain plutonic-volcanic
series, New Hampshire
[Analysts, A. B. Caemmerer, E. Y. Campbell, L. B. Jenkins, and Roosevelt Moore]

Uranium Thorium ~-
Number (parts per million) (parts per million) Th/U
Rock type and general location of
samples ---------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------------
Range Average Range Average Range Average 1

Gabbro, Belknap Mountains._ ... __ . _____ . __ ._. 1 • 0 •• 0 ••••••• 0. 0.9 •••••••••• 0 0 0. 0.9 • •• 0 ••••• 0 0 0 •• 1.0
Biotite quartz monzonite, Merrymeeting stock. _. 1 • • • • • • • • • 0 •••• :3.5 • 0 ••• 0 ••••••• 0 18.7 •••• 0 •••• 0 •••• 5.3
Pyroxene syenite, Pilot range ...... _______ ..... 1 • • • • • • 0 ••••••• 1.2 • 0 •• 0 ••••••• 0. 10.2 • ••••••••• 0 0 •• 8.5
Pyroxene syenite, main mass ................... 1 • 0 0 •••••• 0. 0 •• 2.5 . ............. 9.5 ••••••••• 0 •••• 4.5
Amphibole-biotite syenite, Belknap Mountains.·.. 2 6.9 - 8.0 7.5 25.0 - 33.5 29.3 3.1 - 4.9 3.9
Quartz syenite, north side Pilot Range mass ..... 1 • 0 ••••••••••••• 4.1 . ............. 27.0 . ............. 6.6
Amphibole granite, Pilot range mass ............ 2 2.4 - 3.5 2.9 14.0 - 21.0 17.5 5.8 - 6.0 5.9
Amp~ibole granite (Mount 'Osceola type), .
•main mass ......... ·..... ,. ..... , ............ 3 3.6 9.9 - 7.4 25.0 - 40.5 30.5. 3.4 - 6.9 4.3
'Biotite granite, smaller masses ................. 3 4.3 - 14.2 9.7 30.0 - 44.0 35.3 2.3 - 7.0 3.8
Biotite granite, main mass ........... .' ......... 9 5.2 - 25.5 13.0 33.0 - 77.0 49.4 2.0 - 8.2 3.8
-r
1 The aver~ge Th/U ratio is the ratio of the means of the Th and U contents.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-69
Butler, A. P., Jr., 1956, White Mountain plutonic series, New
Uranium
(range, in
Numb~r
of
Uranium
(average, in
Thorium
(average, in
' Hampshire, in Geologic investigations of radioactive de-
Th/U
parts p~r million) samples parts per million) parts per million) posits-Semiannual progress report for June 1 to Nov.
30, 1956: U.S. Geol. Survey TEl-640, issued by U.S.
Atomic Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv. Ext. Oak Ridge,
10-25 050 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 15.0 51.6 3.3 Tenn.
5-10. 0 •• 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 7.6 :36.0 4.7
1..2-5.0. 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 3.2 19.4 6.3 Chapman, R. W., and Williams, C. R., 1935, Evolution of the
White Mountain magma series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 20,
no. 7, p. 502-530.
the samples have been observed which might e~plain Grimaldi, F. S., May, Irving, and Fletcher, M. H., 1952, U.S.
Geological Survey fluorimetric methods of uranium an-
the differences in uranium contents from sample to . alysis: U.S. GeoL Survey Circ. 199, 20 p.
sample or the difference in Th/U ratios between the Larsen, E. S., Jr., Phair, George, Gottfried, David, and Smith,
group of samples richer in uranium and that leaner W. L., 1956, Uranium in magmatic 'aifferentiation, in
in uranium. At present, an explanation for this Contributions to the geology of uranium and thorium by
difference is lacking. .the United States: Geological Survey and Atomic Energy
Commission of the United Nations International ·Confer-
ence on Peacef~l Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Swit-
REFERENCES . zerland, 1955: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, ·p.
Billings, M. F., 1956, The geology of New Hampshire, Pt. II, 65-74.
Bedrock geology: New Hampshire State Planning and Larsen, E. S., 3d, and· Gottfried,· David, 1960, Uranium and
. Devel. Comm., Concord. thorium in selected suites of igneous rocks: Am. Jour.
Bjllings, M. P., and Keevil, N. B., 1946, Petrography and Sci., Bradley volume, v .. 2.58-A, p. 151-169.
radioactivity of four Paleozoic magma series in New Levine, Harry, and Grimaldi, F. S., 1958, Determination of
Hampshire: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 57, no. 9, p. thorium in the p~frts per- million range in rocks: Geochim.
797-828. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 1~, p. _93-97.

32. URANIUM AND THORIUM IN THE OLDER PLUTONIC ROCKS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE .~.

By JOHN B. LYONS, Hanover, N. H.

Wo·rk done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Ene1·gy Commission

Field studies in New Hampshire (Billings, 1937) HIGHLANDCROFT PLUTONIC SERIE;$

have established the existence of four Paleozoic plu- All intrusives of this series have been metamor-
tonic series, one of Taconic age (the Highlandcroft phosed to the· greenschist fa~ies. The· rocks iorig-
series), two of Acadian age (the Oliverian and New inally were quartz diorites, granodiorites, or quartz
Hampshire series), and one of post-Devonian age monzonites, and consist now of varying amounts of
(the White Mountain series). Chemical and spectro- albite, microcline, epidote, 'quartz, chlorite, horn-
chemical data relating to the distribution of uranium blende, sphene, zircon, apatite, and -opaque minera-ls.
and thorium in the three older series are summarized Uranium and thor~um analyses for some rocks of
in this report 1 • The analytical work was done in the this series are.. listed on table 1.
Geological Survey laboratories by Marian Schnepfe, Sphene (586 ppm), zircon (342 ppm)~: apatite (30
Alic'e Caemmerer, Roosevelt Moore, E. Y. Campbell, ppm), and epidote (5 ppm) are. the ~ost'uraniferous
and L. B. Jenkins. mineral~.. The sphene .and ·ep!d.ote,: account fQr ~p.:.
1 A paper by Butler (Art. 31, this volume) presents somewhat sinlilar
proximat~ly. 42 :percent. of all the· uraqium. i~, ~·h~
datn for rocks of the younger White Mountain plutonic,-volcanic series . rock. : ..

•
B-70 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-Chemical analyses for uraniurn and tho'riurn in TABLE 3.-Uraniurn contents of rnine'rals of the Olive'rian
'rocks of the Highlandc'roft plutonic se'ries plutonic series .
[In parts per million]
Number Uranium (ppm) Number Thorium (ppm)
of of - - - - - - - Mean
Rock type samples samples Th: U Number of
analyzed 1\-lean Range ::.nalyzed Mean Range ratio Mineral determilllltions Range Mean

Quartz monzonite.. . 3.7 2.7-5.0 12.6 10.6-14.8 3.4

-·----------- ------- - - - - - - - - - - - -
Granodiorite ...... . 3.0 11.8 . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Quartz ............. . .5 0. 25- 1. 45 0.77
Potassium feldspar ... . 5 .25- 1.45 .72
Sodaclase-tonalite... 3.1 11.3 3.6 Plagioclase ......... . 5 .25- 2.3 .97
Hornblende ......... . 1 .84 .84
Biotite and chlorite .. . 4 1.11-24.6 9.9
OLIVERIAN PLUTONIC SERIES Epidote ............ . 4 11.7 -204 85.
Sphene ............. . 5 220-:!11 308.
Domal plutons of the Oliverian series consist of Apatite ............ . 4 11.1 -26.3 19.1
the following petrographic types (Billings and Zircon ............. . 5 466-2ii0 1317.
Keevil, 1.946·,'·:':·p. 816) : quartz diorite, 10 percent;
granodiorite, 30 percent; quartz monzonite, 30 per- percent; and Concord (and other) granite, 29 per-
cent; granite, 17 percent; and syenite, 13 percent. cent. These rocks are surrounded by amphibolite-
These rocks are at grade with the surrounding epi- and granulite-facies metamorphic rocks, with which
dote amphibolite and amphibolite facies rocks, and they are at grade. Minerals include quartz, micro-
consist of varying quantities of quartz, microcline, cline, oligoclase-andesine, biotite, muscovite, garnet,
oligoclase-andesine, hornblende, biotite, epidote, hornblende, monazite, xenotime, allanite, zircon, and
muscovite, apatite, sphene, and opaque minerals. opaque minerals.
Uranium and thorium analytical data for rocks in Uranium and thorium contents of the major rock
the Oliverian series are presented on table 2. types of this series are listed on table 4.
Uranium contents of minerals concentrated from
Minerals have been separated from 4 samples of
5 samples of the Oliverian series are shown on table
the New Hampshire series and analyzed for uranium
3. There is a consistent relation between the uranium
content of each mineral and the kind of rock (table 5). Abnormally high urani urn concentrations
from which the mineral was extracted; the more recorded for some of the minerals in these samples
felsic the rock, the higper the uranium· content of are the result of the inclusion of a peg~atite sample;
each of its minerals. its minerals cause the abnormality.
Approxim.ately · 70 percent (59 percent to 78 per- Rocks of the New Hampshire series have between
cent) of the total uranium in any rock of the Oli- 50 percent and 90 percent of their total uranium
verian series is tied up in sphene and epidote-both distributed among the major rock-forming silicates.
of which are of metamorphic origin.
CONCLUSIONS
NEW HAMPSHIRE PLUTONIC SERIES
At leas~ three deductions or conclusions can be
Stocks and sheetlike plutons of this series consist drawn from the analyses: (a) Uranium and thorium
of the following rock types (Billings and Keevil,
1946, p. 812) : diorite, 1 percent; amphibolite, 1 per- TABLE 4.-Chernical analyses for u1·anium and tho1·iurn in
cent; quartz diorite to granodiorite, 23 percent; rocks of the New Harnpshi're plutonic se1·ies
Bethlehem gneiss (granodiorite to quartz monzo- +
Number Uranium (ppm) Number Thorium (ppm)
nihi), 14 p~rcent; Kinsman quartz monzonite, 26 Rock type
of
samples
·-------- of
samples
----------- Mean
Th:U
analyzed Mean Range analyzed !\lean Range ratio
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- ----
r ABLE 2.-Chern:ical analyses for uraniurn and thoriurn in rocks Granite ........... 4.3 2.8-5.8 5 18.3 10.7-28.5 4.3
of the Oliverian plutonic serieS.
Quartz monzonite
(chiefly Kinsman) 15 3.3 1.5-6.3 15. i 9.1-19.4 4.8
Number Uranium (ppm) Number Thorium (ppm)
of of Mean Quartz monzonite
Rock type samples samples Th:U to granodiorite
analyzed Mean Range analyzed Mean Range ratio (Bethlehem
------ --- -- ------ gneiss) .......... 28 3.6 2.2-5.2 10 14.9 11.7-18.6 4.1
Granite ........... 13 5.8 1.8-13.0 10 19.3 7.5-32 3.3 Quartz diorite ...... 3.1 2.9-3.4 12.2 ........... 3.9
Quartz monzonite .. 8 3.1 1.1-5.3 5 12.1 6.2-21 3.9
Granodiorite ....... 15 2.5 0.8-5.0 5 14.6 6.5-38 5.8 Pegmatite ........ 16.7 4. 7-39 3.9 2.8-5.0 0.23
Quartz diorite ...... 15 1.9 0.8-3.6 6 7.1 2.9-14.8 3. 7
I
I
Pegmatite ......... 3 9.1 1.3-13.7 2 4.2 3.6-4.7 O. .f'i Aplite ............. 7.2 28.6 -1.3-52 -1.0
Aplite ............. 3 9.3 2.1-15.9 3 39.2 5.5-57 4.2 3.3-14.2
Wall rocks and Wall rocks and ~}
inclusions ....... 1.3 0.6-1.8 ......... ....... ........... ....... inclusions .•...... 3.3 0.8-5.0 16.0 ........... 4. 9
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146
TABL~ 5.-U'mnimn contents of mine?·als of the New Hamp- general level of radioactivity, and the increase in
shi?·e plutonic se?·ies radioactivity in the more felsic rocks of these series;
[In parts per million]
(b) the thorium :uranium ratios for these rocks lie
Number of within expectable ranges for calc-alkaline plutons.
Mineral determinations Range Mean
Much lower ratios for pegmatites compared to aplites
(table 4) indicate that the two rock types belong to
Qunrtz .............. 4 0.10- 2.5 0.92 different fractions of the parent magma; (c) neo-
Potnssium feldspn.r .... 4 .10- 1.8 .67 crystallization during metamorphism apparently
Pln.gioclnse .......... 4 .30- 6.6 2.34
Biotite .............. 3 ..53- 2.6 1. 71 causes a redistribution of uranium and thorium.
Muscovite ........... 4 1.4 - 3.1 2.20
Gamet .............. 2 0.88- 5.5 3.14 ·Sphene and epidote formed during recrystallization
Magnetite ........... 4 2.0 -39.5 23.2 serve as traps for radioactive elements.
Ilmenite ............. 3 2.0 -32.7 17.0
l'yrit.e ............... 2 16.7 -373 195.
Apatite ............. 4 1.3 -16.4 13.8 REFERENCES
Monn.zite ........... : 3 624-2570 1516
Xenotime ........... 1 798 798 Billings, M. P., 1937, Regional metamorphism of the Littleton-
Zircon .............. 3 500-20,000 6700 Moosilauke area, New Hampshire: Geol. Soc. America
Bull., v. 48, p. 463-566.
Billings, M. P., and Keevil, N. B., 1946, Radioactivity of four
analyses confirm the earlier work of Billings and Paleozoic magma series in New Hampshire: 'Geol. Soc.
Keevil (1946), based on alpha 'counts, both as to the America Bull., v. 57, p. 797-828.

.. 33 . DISTANCE BETWEEN BASINS VERSUS CORRELATION COEFFICIENT FOR ANNUAL PEAK DISCHARGE
OF STREAMS IN NEW ENGLAND

By JACOB DAVIDIAN and M.A. BENSON, Iowa City, Iowa, and Washington, D. C.

One interesting sidelight of a recent investigation first 400 numbers of magnitude less than 165 were
of flood-frequency relations in New England was a listed; adjacent numbers were paired. Thus, 200
study of the coefficient of correlation between annual pairs of numbers of magnitudes 1 to 164, represent-
peak discharges for different pairs of str.eams in ing the stations with those numbers, were available
that area. Floods at many of the gaging stations in and their selection was shown by a statistical test
the area result ~rom a few major storms that are (chi-square) to be truly random ..
widespread and affect many streams at the same . The airline distance between the geographic cen-
time, rather th~n from scattered storms of small ters of the drainage basins of each pair of stations
areal extent. It was of interest to determine a was then measured. The distribution of these dis-
median coefficient of correlation of annual peak dis- tances for the 200 pairs of stations indicated that
charges between gaging stations in New England the median distance was about 94 miles, with a range
in order to determine the interdependence of the from 8 to 403 miles.
peak-flood data. The range of distances from 8 to 403 miles was
To avoid the prohibitive amount of work of com- subdivided into increments of about 20 miles, and
puting the 13,366 possible individual correlations a random sampling of the pairs of stations in each
between the 164 gaging stations used in the investi- increment was made to cut down further the amount
gation, an estimate was made by correlating data of work of computing correlations between stations.
for pairs of stations selected at random. The 164 Within the group of stations 75 to 110 miles apart,
stations were numbered consecutively from 1 to 164. all of the available pairs in the list of 200 were tested
Then, a table of random numbers was used from to obtain a better value of the correlation coefficient
which groups of three digits were selected. The for the median distance of 94 miles. A total of 54
B-72 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

1.0.-----------------------., averaged. For these 95-percent confidence limits,

08.~ ~-x.
0.95 confidence limit, 1.35 points would be expected outside the limits;
basins 75· to 110 miles apart
, ~::·1~
actually there are 4 points~ ·which is a significant
difference statistically and which suggests the pos-
•.t
~06~ . -~ • sibility of unknown factors causing more scatter

~ . than could be expected .by chance alone. Negative

coefficients of correlation are to be expected by
~0.4- .,
"· . chance for stations having relatively short concur-

~~-2~ ':~~~-
(.)

rent records. Had the average length of concurrent

•
LJJ • • •
record between . pairs . of stations been about 45
Q. •• . • •• years instead of 17.3 years, the 95-percent confidence
. t:: . .• • .• ·.--
~0.0~ limits for a median correlation coefficient of 0.30
(.)
•• would have been 0.0 to. +0.55 .
•••
-0.2- It is generally considered that :stations with like
• characteristics will have a higher degree of cor:r;-ebi-
I 1 I I I •I I I I tion than stations with unlike characteristics. There-
10 20 50 100. 400
DISTANCE, IN MILES .
fore, an attempt was made to relate the departures
of correlation coeffic~ent from the median curve of
FIGURE 33.1.-Relation. between corr~lation, coefficient of the graph shown with (a.). ·difference in drainage
annual peak discharges and distances between basins. area size, (b) ratios of drainage area size, (c) num-
ber of years of concurrent record, (d) difference in
pairs was used. The annual peak discharges for the an "orographic factor" evaluated in the New Eng-
selected pairs were listed for concurrent periods and land flood-frequency study, and (e) difference in
were ranked in order of magnitude. For each pair, average winter temperatures (a measure of the dif-
the Spearman rank coefficient of correlation was de- ference in the types of flood peaks). None of these
termined. Of the 54 pairs, 8 had negative correla- seemed to relate to the departures in the degree of
tion coefficients. correlation.
ln figure 33.1 the ·coefficient of correlation between . 'It might be. expected that a correlation between
sb1tions (arithmetic scale) is plott~d against dis:.. two' ·small drainage areas, for example 100 miles
tance between stations (logarithmic scale). A coef- apart, would ..be less. than the correlation between
ficient of correlation of ·about,. 0.26 corresponds to two l~rge are~s the same. distance apart. Any such
the median dfstance of 94 miles, and is taken to be differences cannot be detected in this set of data,
the median correlation coefficient for the 164 New possibly because the. differences . are. much smaller
England stations that were-considered . in the O'riginal . than the ..variations due to. chance. Apart from dis-
study. The curve has . been drawn so· ·tha;t the ex:.. tance between. stations, pr~sent hydrologic knowl-
tremes would be asymptotic to 1.0 and o.o.:; rh~ curv~ .edg~ ca~~ot aid us in .predicting which pairs of sta-:-
shows . an increasingly good· c(n:relatlori · with ·de:.. tions' w~~ld correlate well or which would correlate
creasing ·distance separating the ·basins.· · · t · • '· poorly. Even th~ugh two .drainage basins. were. sep,
·The 27 pairs of stations :between 75' 'ahd t10·1piles arated .qy a high mo_untain barrier 'transverse to the
apart we:re ·studied· more thoroughly· to test. the· sig- : storm winds, the annual peak discharges-.for each,
nificance of the ·scatter within the· ·hand.·· These ;27 though. far different .in magnitude,. might be pro~ i·
pairs have. an average of 17:.3 yea~s·· o.f' coirclirrent port:lonal. · · . ,
recor.ds. The 95-percent confidence · 11elt · 'for t'he · · . T,his ··~tl-!9Y indicates that .a high coefficient of
sample correl~tion coefficient of 0.26· iuid the sam pie correlatioiJ: bet~een the annual peak dis(!harges of
size of 17.3 ranges between -0.25:ahd -f-0.'64~ Tpis two stre~ms picked ~t random may be due to chance.
means that although a tnedian value; '6f ·o~26 is indi- ln estimating peak discharg~ for years of no. record,
cated on the illustration; pure: ch~nbe. alone le'ads . a~ station that ~ppears, to correlate best may not give
to ·a:··scatter between ~o~25 and 0.64 for 95 :Percent + . better·. results than on~ of the other· statio1,1s.. Addi.;.
of··t:he observations. The,se· .iimits· are somewhat. ap:
' ' I . • '·;' .
· tion.al·r~sea~c·h on the. use .of correlativ,e estimates of
proxini~te because .. th~ ·periods of record have been
! ·, .. , • ' '. •
~??d peak~. is: .needed.
·-~·, .'I

'I,' 1 I ~ I ,l'1 I

t ~· \ ·•'
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-7'3

34. PLEISTOCENE STRATIGRAPHY OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS

; By C. A. KAYE, Boston, Mass.

•'
An excavation in 1960 for a large underg~ound D·rift /.-In 9 borings at the garage site, as much
garage in the lower slopes of Beacon Hill, at the as 30 feet of very compact till was found at the base
western edge of the Boston Common, proved to be a of the Pleistocene section (fig:. 34.1). It is prevail-
key exposure for the unraveling of the Pleistocene ingly a pebble till, poor in cobbles and boulders, and
stratigraphy of the area. Evidence for 4-and prob- somewhat variegated in color. The high degree of
ably .5-ice advances and 3 marine trans.gressions compaction of the till is shown by standard penetra-
I • . '
occur In, or under, the garage and the .~urrounding tion tests (Terzaghi and Peck, 1948, p. 265) which
lowland. Study of many hundreds. of deep borings average more than 100 blows per foot. This thi.n
in the Boston basin, and soil-mechanic~ ~~st data on dense till has been found in many deep borings· 'in
C()mpaction of materials, support these conclusions. the Boston basin but has not been recognized on the
. Preglacial surface.-Bedrock beneath the garage surface.
(fig. 34.1) consists of argillite of the Cambridge Clay I.-As much as 25 feet of fairly soft 'to ·Com-
slate. The argillite is altered to a soft white'kaolinitic pact olive-gray unoxidized clay, sandy clay, and very
sap!"olite under the southeastern part :9f the site, fine sand was found between Drifts I and 11 in five
where it is buried by· about 85 feet cl Pleistocene garage borings. The clay is identical in appearance
deposits. Similar saprolite has been found in deep to. certain clays along the New England seaboard
borings ·in at least .six other places. ii}; the, Boston that are recognized from sparse fossils to be of ma-
basin. In one of the garage borings, weathered ar- rine origin. Standard penetration tests ranged from
gillite was found to be overlain by 10 feet of fairly 5 to 40. blows per foot. Clay I has not been recog'-
coarse quartz sand in a wh1te clay matrix. This re- nized in surface exposures, and borings in th~
sembles kaolinitic quartz sands of Late Cretaceous Boston area indicate that it has been preserved ih
age (Raritan(?) formation) on Martha's Vineyard, only a few places.
Block Island, Long Island, and New Jersey. Patchy Drift //.-This consists mostly <?f thick outwash,
remnants of Coastal Plain sediments may therefore but some underlying till is associated with it in
occur in the Boston basin. several of the garage borings (fig. 34.1). Outwash

Borings on, or referred to, this cross section

NORTH
30'

20'
X
Outline of
excavation
T T .

I
Outline of exca
·: 1
on-.l
y
SOUTH
30'

20·

SFA L(V(L S(A, LEVEL

20' 20'

40' 40'.

Drift II
60' 60'
_,..--- ?--..._ ;>
__.". -~
;>~
·~
Cambridge slate
80'

Drift I 100'
.. 50 100 FEET

120'

·FIGURE 34.1.-North-south geologic cross section, lower Boston Common, at .site of underground garage. .
B-74 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

of Drift II was well exposed in the garage excava- marked by alternating lighter and darker laminae-
tion and crops out at the surface quite widely in the is well marked in some zones. The contact of the
Boston area. It is characteristically a brown, well- clay and the overlying till is generally quite sharp;
oxidized coarse gravel interbedded with somewhat in places the bedding of the clay shows no disturb-
lesser amounts of fine gravel and sand and relatively ance whatever at the contact (fig. 34.2), in others
sparse layers of compact yellow silt. Outwash under gross bedding disturbances in the clay are evident
the garage is about 65 feet in maximum thickness to a depth of 3 or 4 feet below the contact. In several
and it is oxidized throughout. Sparse samples and places in the excavation the contact is deformed into
drillers' logs are inconclusive as to whether the fairly large waves (fig. 34.1) .
underlying associated till is oxidized. Pebbles of Drift III.-At the garage excavation more than
schist and argillite in the outwash show varying de- 30 feet of till overlies Clay II. It appears to be the
grees of decomposition, but, in general, most granitic major component of Beacon Hill drumlin and prob-
rocks and feldspars appear fresh. At the garage ably the other drumlins of the Boston area. It is
the gravel has been folded into a series of three very well graded but has sparse boulders up to 10
anticlines (fig. 34.1), presumably by the action of feet in diameter. Cobbles and stones are predomi-
the ice that deposited Drift III. nantly of Cambridge slate and are generally con-
Clay l/.- Another clay having the physical charac- spicuously striated. A fabric study of the pebbles
teristics of marine clays overlies Drift II at the shows a preferred orientation of axial planes parallel
garage excavation (fig. 34.1). It is unoxidized (blue to the long axis of Beacon Hill and adjacent drumlins
gray to slightly greenish gray) except where close (approximately S. 70 ° E.). The maximum depth of
to the present surface. Clay II was deformed with oxidation seen in the till at the garage excavation
Drift II. This is evident from numerous small faults was 25 feet, although deep borings in Beacon Hill
in the gravel, formed during the folding, which ex- show the till there to be oxidized to a maximum
tend up into the clay. Stratification of the clay- depth of 65 feet. Differences in depth of oxidation
are probably due mainly to differential erosion of
the oxidized zone by the ice responsible for Drift
IV. Fragments of shells-mostly very thick shelled
M er-cenar-ia m er-cenar-iar-occur in the till of Beacon
Hill and other drumlins. These are possibly derived
from Clay II.
Clay /l/.-This clay forms the bulk of the marine
clay in the Boston basin and attains a thickness of
180 feet in a few places. In physical appearance it
resembles the two older clays. It crops out as a
patch over Drift III in the northeast corner of the
garage excavation at about 15 to 25 feet altitude.
Many borings in the Boston area show that it over-
lies drumlin till (Drift III); therefore, there can be
no doubt that it is separate from, and younger than,
Clay II. Borings indicate that where overlain by
Drift IV, Clay III is oxidized to a depth of about 3
feet. Where exposed at the surface it is oxidized
to a maximum depth of 10 feet. Marine mollusks
were found in Clay III by the writer at West Lynn,
at the north edge of the Boston basin, and Foramini-
fera were reported by Stetson and Parker (1942, p.
42) from the clay in Boston Back Bay. Sparse em-
bedded cobbles and small stones suggest ice-rafting
and therefore deposition at a time when an ice front
may have been close to Boston. Spruce pollen is very
FIGURE 34.2.-Contact of Drift III (above) and Clay II (be-
abundant in the upper 10 feet at West Lynn (Estella
low), showing scant signs of disturbance. East wall of B. Leopold, written communication), thus supporting
excavation, underground garage, Boston Common . a cold climate-or periglacial-depositional environ-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE!OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-75

TABLE I.-Pleistocene deposits of Boston, Mass.

Deposit Description Remarks Depth of oxidation I Direction of Relative sea Suggested age Standard Pleistocene
ice flow level 2 in years sequence

Boston basin: In outwash Lower than 13,000 Late Wisconsin

mostly outwash. generally less -30 ft.
Drift IV Uplands: till and than 4 ft, in (Car~·sub-
.... outwash. till 17'? ft. stage; Lex-
ington sub-
stage of
Judson)
-----'---------- '------------------------ -------- 15 '000
Oxidation of Clay III Lower than
-35 ft.
---------------------------------------- 26,000
Marine chw. Possibh· de- 3 ft under Found to alti-
lVfore tha:n 180 posited ;,,·hen Drift IV, 10 tude +25 ft
ft thick under ice front was ft elsewhere. in Boston.
Clay III lowlands. Pre- not far from Contains fairly :\liddle
compressed to Boston. deep water Wisconsin
rlepths of 70 ft. fauna sug- (Tazewell
gesting sea substage)
level above
+50 ft.
- - - - - __________________ ,__ ______________ - - - - - - - - 28' 000
Oxidation of Drift III Lower than
- 20ft.
65,000
The drumlin till. :\laximum 65 ft.
Ver.'· compact PossiblY above
in drumlins;
in drumlins: +50 ft. EarlY \\"isconsin
Dt·ift III where less, ·
less compact (Iowan
as ground
oxidized zone substage)
moraine.
probably
eroded In·
Late \\"is<·on-
::;in ice.
---- --------- -------- -------- ------- -------- 75 '000
Probably marine. Prol.mbh· soun·e Xone where PossiblY about
of shefls in recognized. +50 h.
Drift III. :\lax have Earl~·Iowan ('?)
Clay II :\[a,· have heei1 erodNI. Sangamon
heei1 deposited interglacial
dming advance
of Iowan ice.
77,000 (?)
Oxidation of Drift II -45ft (?) Sangamon
interglacial
100,000
:\lost I.'· gra veil~· Folded in 65 ft ot· more Unknown. Below -75 ft.
)rift II outwash; some places. in sand and Illinoian
assoeiated till. gravel. Some
pebbles
decomposed.
---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ('?)
Probabl.'· marine. Recognized onl.'· X one noted; -45ft or EarlY
Cia~· I in borings. possibl~· above. Illinoian ('?)
eroded. Yarmouth (?)
------------------------------------------- (?)
Very compact till. Recognized with Xone noted. T;nknown. ('?) (?)
)rift I certaint.\· onlY Kansan or
in deep 'boririgs. Xebraskan

J
!" 1 Oxidized zone of all units but Drift IV was subject to erosion by later ice.
:! Altitudes refer to present mean sea level.
B-76 'GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

ment. Although much of the clay is very soft marked contrast to that of the drumlin-forming
(standard penetration test, 2 to 3 blow.s per foot), Iowan ice (table 1), which flowed approximately S.
soil mechanics studies (A. Casagrande', written com- 70° E.
munication) show that it is precompressed (Terza- Table 1 summarizes the more salient facts about
ghi and Peck, 1948, p. 67) to a depth of as much as the Pleistocene section. Relative ages were assigned
70 feet below its surface. It is thought that this to the later drifts primarily on the basis of their
precompression resulted from the ensuing glaciation depths of oxidation.
responsible for Drift IV.
Drift /V.-Overlying Clay III in many places in REFERENCES
Cambridge and the Back Bay are outwash gravels Judson, S. S., Jr., 1949, The Pleistocene stratigraphy of Bos-
that are only slightly ox.idized and rarely exceed 20 ton, Massachusetts, and its relation to the.Bolyston Street
feet in thickness. They are correlated with the poorly Fishweir, in Johnson, F., ed., The Boylston Street Fish-
compacted and barely oxidized tills (oxidation gen- weir II: Phillips Acad., Robt. S. Peabody Foundation for
erally less than 2 feet) that are found with patchy Archaeology Papers, v. 4, no. 1, p. 7-48.
distribution on the uplands surrounding the Boston Stetson, H. C., and Parker, F. L., 1942, Mechanical analysis
of the sediments and the identification of the Foramini-
basin. This drift belongs to what Judson (1949)
fera 'from the building excavation, in Johnson, F. and
termed the Lexington substage of the Wisconsin. It
others~ The Boylston Street Fish weir: Phillips Acad.,
is now fairly certain that the late Wisconsin ice re- Robt. S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology· Papers,
sponsible for it flowed approximately S. 20° E. and v. 2, p. 41-44.
covered the entire Boston basin, probably reaching Terzaghi, Karl, and Peck, R. B., 1948, Soil mechanics and
the outermost moraines off the southeastern New engineering practice: New York, John Wiley & Sons,
England shore. The direction of ice movement is in 566 p.

35. IRON ORES OF ST. LAWRENCE COUNTY, NORTHWEST ADIRONDACKS, NEW YORK

By B. F. LEONARD and A. F. BUDDINGTON, Denver, Colo., and Princeton, N. J.

·, •• l

St. Lawrence County is a major producer of mag- into variously oriented isoclinal ~olds against but-
netite and crystalline hematite co:pcentrates from tresses of older granitic rock (fig. 35.1). Other major
low-grade ores of Precambrian age. The rocks of structural ·controls for iron-oxide mineralization
the district are mainly .granitic. They are separated have been recognized. All the major deposits are
'into an older quartz syenite gn~iss series and a (a) on or within a mile of the borders of great areas
younger granite and granite gneiss series. Metasedi- of subperpendicular lineations, or (b) ·well within
mentary rocks, migmatites, and other rocks are the ce:p.tral zone of subparallel lineations at places
subordinate. All the rocks except some granites and where ~·dineations culminate, diverge, or change
basaltic dikes have in some measure been dynamo- markeoly in trend.~.· AU the deposits are within a
thermally metamorphosed. mile of the axes of major synclinal folds. Moreover,
The iron ore bodies are restricted to. a structural all the deposits are within 500 feet of at least one
knot of metasedimentary rocks and younger granitic facies of the younger granite aria granite gneiss.
rock, the· latter representing members of the granite . The iron ores are of two types: magnetite de-
and granite gneiss series. · Within this knot, de- posits in skarn or marble (skarn ores), and mag-
veloped at the intersection of two dominant regional . .. . '· ;: . '
1 Subparallel'Iineations are mineral lineations whose rake is ·within 30°

structural trends, the metasedimentary rocks and of the strike of the foliation, and subperpendicular lineations are those
-r
whose rake is within 30° of the direction of dip of the foliation (Budding-
sheets of younger granitic rock have been pressed ton, 1956).
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-77

.,.

EXPLANATION

Q
Younger granite and granite gneiss series ~

~
Quartz syenite gneiss series
-~
~

D ~
Metasedimentary rocks, migmatites, and

-----
subordinate amphibolite

Contact

--- __..--1
Fault, approximately located
·Queried 'whert• i >ifcrred

•
Magnetite deposit of skarn type
•
Magnetite deposit of granite gneiss type

Geology by A F Buddtngton
and 8 F Leonard. 1943-49

FIGURE 35.1.-Relation Qf magnetite ~eposits to major rock units and fold axes, St. Lawrence County magnetite district, New
r York.

netite deposits-with or without hematite--in micro- spar, fluorite, barite, and scapolite before introduc-
cline granite gneiss (granite gneiss ores). tion of the magnetite.
Magnetite, virtually nontitaniferous, is the only The granite gneiss ores contain magnetite, accom-
significant iron oxide in skarn ores. The principal ·panied in some places by slightly titaniferous pri-
gangue mineral is green clinopyroxene, though bio- mary crystalline hematite. This hematite, with or
tite or dark amphibole is conspicuous locally. The without martite, forms sizable or.e bodies locally.
skarn ores are variable in grade (generally ·30-44 The principal nonmetallic minerals are quartz, un-
percent magn~tic Fe), complex in structure, and twinned barium-bearing potassium feldspar, bio-
small to moderate in size, tending to yield massive tite, manganiferous almandite, and sillimanite. The
ore bodies. One major deposit and parts of several granite gneiss ores form disseminated deposits of
others are in skarn that was partly replaced by uniformly low grade (generally about 25 percent
quartz, untwinned barium-bearing potassium feld- recoverable Fe), remarkable continuity, and moder-
B--78 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

ate to very large size. One ore deposit is in gneiss deposits in the Grenville lowlands northwest of the
that was partly replaced by quartz, barium-bearing massif. (Cf. Engel and Engel, 1958.)
potassium feldspar, fluorite, barite, and spessartite The first major deformation of the A~irondack
before introduction of iron oxide. rocks took place after the consolidation of the quartz
The iron ore deposits are mainly concordant with syenitic rocks and before their intrusion by scattered
the complex structure of the country rock which dikes of hypersthene metadiabase. Subsequently,
they replace. At very large and very small scales, younger granite magma was intruded into the meta-
the deposits are nevertheless discordant. In shape, sedimentary rocks and partly metamorphosed older
the deposits are tabular, fishhook, linear, mimetic igneous rocks. This ma'~ma, which consolidated
after multiple drag folds, and "complex." Deposits chiefly as hornblende-mkroperthite granite, differ-
of complex shape are controlled by sets of intersect- entiated to give a volatile-enriched phase that worked
ing fold axes of two or more distinct generations. upward and outward, crystallizing as alaskite, in
Most deposits of the district, though imperfectly part as "roof rock," in part as satellitic sheets and
known, seem to have two long dimensions and one phacolithic bodies in the metasedimentary rocks.
short one; that is, they are sheetlike rather than Probably the same fundamental ma.gma also yielded
lath- or rod-shaped. Many deposits have a fishhook a high-potassium, volatile-enriched phase that in-
shape, the ore having replaced the nose and part of truded the metasedimentary rocks as thin sheets,
one limb of a syncline. re~cted with the country rock, and in places meta-
Though magnetite and hematite are the only ore somatized it extensively, yielding heterogeneous
minerals in the deposits, other metallic minerals are · microcline granite gneiss. Locally, the younger
associated with them. Arranged roughly according granitic rocks were deformed. An advance wave of
to decreasing frequency and quantity, these minor metasomatism by volatile emanations rich in F, OH,
associates are pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and Si, locally accompanied by B, Cl, and P, preceded
sphalerite, molybdenite, bornite, ilmenite, mar- the intrusion of some of the granite and formed
casite ( ?) , chalcocite, covellite, vonsenite, loellingite, skarn. Once the skarns had been developed and
graphite, unidentified minerals, and valleriite ( ?) . partly enriched in iron, and the heterogeneous micro-
Vonsenite (ferrous ferric borate) is an important cline granite gneiss had formed, both rocks were
mineral in one dep_osit. A little maghemite, very locally modified by introduction of quartz, untwinned
likely supergene, has been found in a single deposit. potassium feldspar, fluorite, barite, and scapolite or
The rarer metallic minerals are detectable only un- spessartite. Such modification, app-reciable on~y
der the microscope. There seems to be no systematic where skarn was enclosed in microcline granite
distribution of sulfides according to type of mag- gneiss, represents a continuation or renewal of the
netite deposit, though concentrations of pyrrhotite same process that developed all the microcline
are usually associated with skarn ores and con- granite gneisses of the district.
centrations of pyrite with granite gneiss ores. Most At sites favorable because of their structure and
of the metallic minerals associated with magnetite their proximity to the supply of metasomatizing
and hematite are related to the main mineralizing solutions, the skarns were subjected to the progres-
episode that yielded the iron oxides. However, some sive introduction of more iron. Initially, iron was
metallic minerals belong to a later stage, and a few substituted within the silicate lattice of diopside,
are referred to a stage of late hydrothermal minerali- producing salites and ferrosalites. Where the ap ..
zation that yielded minerals of the epidote group, propriate concentrations of volatiles existed, py-
zeolites, fluorite, quartz, calcite, clay minerals, and roxenes were locally replaced by amphiboles or by
others. micas. Local access of Fe+a, or perhaps merely local
The magnetite deposits and the hematite bodies oxidation of Fe+:!, permitted the development of an-
locally associated with them are closely related in dradite skarn. At some appropriate but unknown
space, time, and origin. They are thought· to be pressure, temperature, and degree of concentration,
high-temperature replacement deposits effected by the silicates could no longer accommodate all the Fe
emanations from younger granite magma, though within their lattices; at that stage, magnetite was
the ultimate source of the iron is still conjectural. precipitated, closely followed by a series of simple
The deposits represent one aspect of a process that, sulfides, minor in quantity. Very similar processes,
under slightly different and definitely cooler condi- locally affecting biotite- or sillimanite-microcline
tions, yielded pyritic sphalerite deposits, pyrite and granite gneiss, resulted in the formation of mag-
pyrrhotite deposits, and perhaps also tremolite-talc netite deposits in those rocks. Perhaps the local de-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-79
. velopment of hematite in the granite gneiss ores REFERENCES
(representing an increased oxidation state of the Balsley, J. R., and Buddington, A. F., 1958, Iron-titanium
Fe) is analogous to the local development of an- oxide minerals, rocks, and aeromagnetic anomalies of the
dradite in the skarns, where primary hematite is Adirondack area, New York: Econ. Geology, v. 53, p.
777-805.
lacking. Progressive decrease in the concentration
Balsley, J. R., Buddington, A. F., and others, 1954a, Aeromag-
of Fe, decreasing temperature, and a change in the netic survey and geologic map of the Cranberry Lake
character of the metasomatizing solutions toward a quadrangle, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv.
dilute water-rich fluid led to local alteration and Map GP-118.
partial leaching of ore and wall rocks, followed by - - - , 1954b, Total aeromagnetic intensity and geologi.c ID!ilP
deposition of hydrous silicates, calcite, and sporadic of Stark, Childwold, and part of Russell quadrangles,
base-metal sulfides. At some later date-possibly in New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv. Map GP-117.
late Precambrian time, possibly in Silurian or - - - , 1959a, Aeromagnetic and geologic map of the Os-
wegatchie qu.adrangle, St. Lawrence, Herkimer, and Lewis
younger time-a few of the deposits were faulted. Counties, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv.
Still later, faults, joints, and permeable rock units Map GP-192.
conveyed surface waters downward, yielding local - - - , 1959b, Aeromagnetic and geologic map of the Tupper
""'· masses of earthy hematite and chlorite. Lake quadrangle, St. Lawrence, Hamilton, and Franklin
The evidence of supergene alteration of the de- Counties, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv.
Map GP-193.
posits is generally slight, for the bedrock of the
Balsley, J. R., Hawkes, H. E., and others, 1946, Aeromagnetic
region was thoroughly scraped by Pleistocene gla- map showing total intensity 1,000 feet above the surface
ciers. "Rotting," leaching, limonitization, and clay- of part of the Oswegatchie quadrangle, St. Lawrence
mineral alteration are apparent at the suboutcrop of County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv.
some deposits deeply mantled by glacial debris. Prelim. Map 1.
Earthy hematite and chlorite form streaks and small Buddington, A. F., .1956, Correlation of rigid units, types of
masses along joints, faults, mica-rich zones, and folds, and lineation in a Grenville belt, p. 99-119 in
Thomson, J. E., ed., The Grenville problem: Royal Soc.
marble layers in a few deposits. This type of altera- Canada Spec. Pubs. 1, 119 p.
tion is comparable to that which affected the sulfide- Buddington, A. F., Fahey, Joseph, and Vlisidis, Angelina,
•' bearing schists of the nearby Grenville lowlands and 1955, Thermometric and petrogenetic significance of
resulted in the development of scattered bodies of titaniferous magnetite: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 253, p. 497-532.
supergene hematite in marble. Buddington, A. F., and Leonard, B. F., 1945, Geology and
magnetite deposits of the De·ad Creek area, Cranberry
The regional geology and ore deposits of the dis- Lake quadrangle, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Prelim.
trict are treated by Buddington and Leonard in Rept. 106053 [mimeographed].
reports now in preparation. Critical structural fea- Engel, A. E. J., and Engel, C. G., 1958, Progressive meta-
tures are discussed by Buddington (1956), whose morphism and granitization of the major paragneiss,
paper lists the major references on regional geology northwest Adirondack Mountains, New York. Part I.
Total rock: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, p. 1369-1413.
of the northwest Adirondacks. Representative mag-
Hawkes, H. E., and Balsley, J. R., 1946., Magnetic exploration
netite deposits are described by Buddington and for iron ore in northern New York: U.S. Geol. Survey
Leonard (1945) and by Leonard (1952, 1953). Min- Strategic Minerals Inv. Prelim. Rept. 3-194 [mimeo-
eralogic features of a borate-bearing skarn deposit graphed].
are presented by Leonard and Vlisidis (in press). Hawkes, H. E., Balsley, J. R., and others, 1946, Aeromagnetic
Preliminary exploration of several deposits is sum- survey at three levels over Benson Mines, St. Lawrence
County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Geophys. Inv.
marized by Balsley, Hawkes, and others (1946),
Prelim Map 2.
Hawkes and Balsley (1946), Millar (1947), and Reed
Leonard, B. F., 1952, M.agnetite deposits and magnetic
and Cohen· (1947). Regional aeromagnetic and geo- anomalies of the Brandy Brook and Silver Pond belts, St.
logic data are shown on maps by Balsley, Hawkes, Lawrence County, New York: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral
.. and others ( 1946), and by Balsley, Buddington, and Inv. Field Studies Map MF-6 .
others (1954a, 1954b, 1959a, 1959b). Magnetic ef- - - - , 1953, Magnetite deposits and magnetic anomalies of
fects due to Fe-Ti oxide minerals in the country rock the Spruce Mountain tract, St. Lawrence County, New
· York: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field Studies Map
are interpreted by Balsley and Buddington ( 1958),
MF-10.
and the usefulness of these minerals as geother- Leonard, B. F., and Vlisidis, A. C. (in press), Vonsenite at the
mometers is demonstrated by Buddington, Fahey, Jayville magnetite deposit, St. Lawrence County, New
and Vlisidis ( 1955). York: Am. Mineralogist.
B-80 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH. 1961
Millar, W. T., 1947, Investigation of magnetite deposits at I Reed, D. F., _and Cohen, C. J.,_ 1947, :Star Lake magnetite de-
Star Lake, St. Lawrence County, N. Y. (to November · posits, ·St. Lawrence County, N. .Y. (November 1945 to
· 1945): U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv ..4127. November 1946): U.S. Bur. Mines Rept. Inv. 4131.
..
I

36. CHARACTERISTICS OF SEICHES ON ONEIDA LAKE, NEW YORK

By JOHN SHEN, Washington, D. C.

Seiches are series of oscillating .standing waves where, Ao is the amplitude of oscillation at the initial
caused by strong winds or sudden changes .in baro- set-up; A is the amplitude at any one subsequent in-
metric pressure. Depending on the nature of such terval;, m is the order number :of the oscillations and
disturbing sources, seiches may be uninodal, binodal is equal to the time elapsed from Ao. divided by the
or multinodal; any number may.eoexist. Good ex- wave period; and, a is a constant,· known as the
amples of seiches have been observed frequently at a modulus of decay, depending on the physical charac-
Geological ·Survey recording gage at Brewerton, teristics of the basin.
Oneida Lake, N.Y. A recording o~: the water-surf~ce The period of oscillation of Oneida Lake wa~.
fluctuations during typical seiches is shown in figure computed by Du Boys' equation. A iongitudinal
36.1. . profile of the lake was obtained. by plotting the mean
In general, seiche waves possess the characteristics dept}:l along its navigation ·line, and this, profile,
of shallow-water waves and may thus be closely ap- ·shown on figure 36.2, was used to represent the
proximated by sine functions. For a simple · rec- ~ectionof greatest depth. Details of the computation
tangular basin, the period of oscillation may be com- for summation of dx/ y d are shown on table 1. As-
puted by suming the seiches on Oneida Lake are uninodal,
the period of oscillation would be:
T -. 2L ,
-kyg7J (1) 2 X 20,630 .
in which L is the length of the basin; D is the depth T== v~X60X60
of the basin; g is the gravity acceleration; and, k == 2 hours, 1 minute.
is the number of nodes. Comparing with the actual observed period of 1
Equation 1 is applicable only to a closed basin hour and. 57 minutes, the computed value is a close
of constant depth. For irregular basins, Du Boys approximation.
( 1891) proposed the equation:

21L
d X '
T-.k()·ygd
-- (2)
10.0r-----.-----,....------r---------,

in which d is the depth corresponding to a length

increment, dx, along the line of greatest depth ttlt=" 9 . 0 t - - - - - - - l i l l
through the basin. Du Boys' equation !s considered ~

applicable to parabolic and quartic basins which

approximate many natur~l lakes (Chrystal, 1906).
After the disturbing source of a seiche ceases to S.Ot-------
exist, the oscillations continue with diminishing
amplitudes. The effect of such damping may be de-
21 22 23 24
scribed by a decay-type function (Keulegan, 1959,
JUNE 1954
p. 34):
FIGURE 36.1.-Water-surface oscillations on Oneida Lake,
A= Aoe -am, ( 3) during seiches of June 21 to 22, 1954.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-81
TABLE I.-Computation of seiche period of Oneida Lake.
or------r------r------r------+------+---r~

f::::.x
I
t-----·- ·--r~---r~-~·.~~t/:.....__1·----i
Station, x
I (in feet) On foet) I

110,000
10,000 26 5.10 1,H60 O.O:H5
60 o'-----:2:':-o----~4o_ _ _ _ _G"""'o------:':ao,-------!1ol._o______._~12o
100,000
10,000 :{H 6.25 1,600 .0282
DISTANCE !THOUSANDS OF FEET) 90,000
10,000 41 l). 40, 1,560 .0275
FIGURE 36.2.-Longitudinal profile of Oneida Lake. 80,000
10,000 42 6.48 1,540 .0271
70,000
The damping characteristics of Oneida Lake were 10,000 39 6.25
,. 1,600 .0~82
also investigated. By rearranging equation 3, we 60,000
10,000 34 5.82 1,720 .Q:3o:3
have 50,000
10,000 27 5.19 1,930 .0:340
log ( :J == - 0.434am. (4)
40,000
:30,000
10,000
10,000
21
20
4.58 2,·180 .0:384
4.47 2,240 .0:3H5
The value of a may be readily determined by plotting 20,000
values of (A/ A,J against values of 0.434m on semi- ·10,000 18 4.24 2,:360 .0416
< 10,000
log graph paper. Figure 36.3 shows such a plot for 6,700 12 :3.46 1,·940 .050H
the seiches which occurred on Oneida Lake during :3,300
I

June 21 to 22, 1954. From this plot, the value of a ------ ------ ---
J..
was found to be 0.476. 106,700
-~ 20,6:30
The foregoing example illustrates the exponential
damping characteristics of a natural basin. Other
natural basins having greater moduli of decay are
1.;, known. For example, Lake Erie possesses a value of node or nodes may be approximately determined by
a == 0.86 (Hunt and Bajorunas, 1959). plotting the value of 1/yga against the. distance, x,
The nodes would not be symmetrically located for and measuring the area under the resulting curve.
an irregular basin ; however, the position ~of· the A uninode will occur at a value of x that divides the
area into 2 equal parts; binodes will occur at the
1.00., values of x that divide the area into 4 equal· parts.

0.60
.,
1-----~~~-----------l--------l--'------i
On this basis the position of the. uninode on Oneida
Lake was found to be at 48,300 feet (fig. 36.2).

0.40 ~ .......""~---.--1---------+--------i REFERENCES

~ ~q,
~ ~
Chrystal, G., 1906, On the hydrodynamical theory of seiches:
0.20 1-------l-----------+-· -- Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, v. 41, p. 599-649.
~ -~~ Du Boys, P., June 1891, Essai theorique sur les seiches:
Archives des Sciences Physiques et N aturelles, Geneve,
p. 628.
Hunt, I. A., and Bajorunas, L., June 1959, The effect of seiches
at Conneaut Harbor: Am. Soc. Civil ·Engineers, Proc. v.
0.05 0'----'----1~.....:-.-.-.- - - - - - - - 1 2 ' - - - - - - - - - - - - ' 3 - - - - - - ' 85, ww 2, p. 31-41.
VALUE OF 0.434 m
Keulegan, G. H., July 1959, Energy dissipation in standing
FIGURE 36.3.-Determination of a., the· modulus of decay, of waves in rectangul~r basins: Jour. Fluid Mechanics,
Oneida Lake. Cambridge, v. 6, p. 33-50.
B-82 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

37. VARIATIONS OF pH WITH DEPTH IN ANTHRACITE MINE-WATER POOLS IN PENNSYLVANIA

By WILBUR T. STUART and THOMAS A. SIMPSON, Arlington, Va.

When mining of anthracite coal was a flourishing tween 100 and 400 feet, and small sizes for near-
industry during the 1920's and during the years of surface samples.
World War II, the water pumped from the mines The pH of the samples was determined imme-
was strongly acid and created ·pollution problems diately at the shaft collars by a Beckman Model N
in the streams. When the coal was exhausted and pH meter. The pH was determined to the nearest
the mines abandoned, pools of water accumulated in 0.01 unit, but in reporting the results in table 1,
the underground workings. In some mines the pools the determination is rounded to the nearest 0.05
drained naturally, and in others water was pumped unit.
to prevent overflow into adjacent active mine work- Table 1 shows the range in· pH in eleven mine-
ings. These waters had considerable range in acid water pools in the four anthracite fields. The pools
content (Felegy, Johnson, and Westfield, 1948) and at the South Wilkes-Barre and Henry mines are
their action on the pumping machinery required acid- relatively new pools isolated from other mines and
resisting components. Knowledge of the areas or have not been pumped. The pH in these pools indi-
zoning of the acid waters might make control of cate more acid water at depth. The Greenwood mine
pollution easier and reduce the cost of handling the contains an isolated new pool and the level of the
water. pool is rising at present. The pH in this pool indi-
During the investigation, under Public Law 162, cates more acid water in the lower sections. The
84th Congress, of pump projects relating to anthra- pool in the Clearspring mine is about 15 years old
cite mine drainage, it was noted that the pH of the and has not been pumped. It reportedly receives re-
water in certain flooded mines varied with the depth charge from and discharges to the buried valley of
below the surface of the pool. In some pools less the Susquehanna River. The range in pH in this
acidic or fresh-water zones occurred near the sur- pool does not indicate any significant layering of
face above more acid waters at depth. acid water.
Vertical shafts penetrating flooded mines were The mine-water pools in the Exeter, Schooley, No.
randomly selected ·in each of the four anthracite 7, Reliance, and Packer mines are not appreciably
fields of Pennsylvania for determining the presence layered. The pools have been pumped at intervals
of layering of the acid water. Isolated unpumped. either to prevent overflow or to obtain water for
pools, pools pumped periodically, and pools having processing of prepared coal. Water enters pools at
continuous circulation by overflowing were included each of these mines at several levels corresponding
in the sampling. At each shaft the pool was sampled to the points where the mine shafts intersect water-
25 feet below the pool surface and 75 to 100 feet bearing coal beds. This tends to keep the pool water
above the bottom of the shaft. One or two samples mixed and helps prevent acid layering.
were taken at points uniformly spaced between the The mine-water pools in the Hazelton and Locust
uppe~ and lower sampling levels. Gap mines overflow to drainage tunnels. The amount
The sampling was done by lowering a stoppered of vertical flow in the shaft is unknown, but is prob-
thick-walled bottle on a measured line to the desired ably significant. Slight differences in pH at depths
depth. A long and a short open capillary tube within the pools of these mines were observed, but
through the stopper permitted the water to enter they are insufficient. to indicate layering of the acid
the bottle and the air to be released. The time that water.
the bottle was in position at the sampling site was
REFERENCE
long compared to the time required to lower and
Felegy, E. W., Johnson, L. H., and Westfield, J., 1948, Acid
raise it to the pool surface. Large bottles were used mine-water in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania:
at depths of more than 400 feet, medium sizes be- U.S. Bur. Mines Tech. Paper 710.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-83
TABLE 1.-pH of wate'l' at diffe'rent levels below su·rface. of mine-water pools in anthracite fields of Pennsylvania

Altitude of Altitude of
Altitude surface of sampling
Sampling point of collar mine-water point
of shaft pool Date of tiample (feet above pH Remarks
------~=---l---- Shaf~-- (feet above
sea lcvrl)
(feet above
sea level)
sampling number or below
sea level)

Northern anthracite field

Exeter ............ Heel Ash .... 580 485 Jan. 9, 1961. .. 1 -!60 6.80 Pool formed after 1H4H and
2 :3:.~0 6.85 was pumped to prevent over-
:3 200 6.85 flow until about. July 1959.
-! 60 G.G5

Clear-spring ....... Clear-spring . 578 528 Jan. 4, lUG 1 .. I 503 6.85 When mine was in operation,
2 47:3 6.75 the pH of pumped discharge
was 6. 5 on :\Ia.v 27, 19-:1-1.
Pool formed before 19-:1--~;
not pum1)ed sirwe.

Schoole_,........... Xo. 1. •...... 558 423 Jan. \:J, 1\)f..il .. 1 :~HS ti.-1-0 When mine was in operation,
2 278 6.20 the pH of pumped discharge
:~ 158 6.-1-0 was 6. 7 on :\Ia~· 2:~. 19-J.l.
4 :3:~ G.75 Pool formed after Jan. 1951.
Pumping ceased Ju)_,. 195~).

South \\'ilkes-Barn~. Xo. 5 ....... .58\:J 8H ... do .. ...... I ()4 7.10 \\'hen mine was in operation,
2 -61 :~
.65 the pH of pumped discha'rge
:3 -2:36 4.00 was 5.1 on :\lay 19, 19-!1.
4 --1-11 4.10 Pool formed after .June 1958.

Xo. 7 ............. Xo. 2 ....... 545 508 Jan. 10, Hl61 .. 1 4n 6.\:JO \\'hen mine was in operation,
2 :335 6.25 the pH of pumped dischar·ge
:~ 185 6.50 was 3. 2 on June 10, 1941.
1... 4 72 6.:35 Pool formed after :\Ia~· 1954.

Henry ............ H.ed :hh .... 561 HS Apl'il20, 1960. 1 -±:38 7.:35 \\'hen mine was in operation,
2 :3-:1-8 6.00 the pH of pumped discharge
;~ 148 5.10 was 3. 9 on :\Ia~, 15, 1958.
-1- -162 5.30 Pool formed after Jan. Hl59.
Shaft destroyed June 1960.
----·
Eastern middle anthracite field

Hazelton .......... Hazelton .... 1,580 l ,091 Xov. 1:3, Hl57. 1 1,070 3.20
2 900 :~.40 \\"ater rises in shaft and over-
:3 750 3.20 flows through drainage
Jan. 10, 1\161.. 1 1,066 :3.60 tunnel at altitude 1, Of)l feet.
2 955 3.80
:3 848 3.60

Western middle anthracite field

Lo<·u~t Gap ........ Loeust Gap .. 1 ,28-J. 7\)7 Jan. I 1, 1\161 .. 1 772 4.55 :\Iine-\\'ater pool overflows
2 6-:1-7 4.50 through drainage tunnel at
:~ 522 5.85 a.ltitude 7-17 feet.
4 28-1 5.50
lh•liarwc ........... lh•lianee ..... I ,058 !17\.1 .Jan. 12, Hl61 .. l 954 6.10 \\'hen mine \Vas in operation,
2 756 5.85 pH of pumped discharge "''as
:3 556 5.65 2. 7 on Sept. 18, 19-H, and
-:1- 356 .5. 95 -!.0 on Sept. 2:3, 19-16 .
\\"ater pumped sporadieally
from shaft.
Pa('kPr X o. 5 ...... Xo. 5 ....... 1 '108 \)():3 Jan. 1:3, 1!)61 .. 1 9:38 6.70 \\"hen mine \nlS in operation,
2 678 6.55 pH of pumped dischar·ge
:3 :318 6.70 was -!. 9 on Sept. 16, H)41.
4 58 6.55 Pool formed :1fter Sept.
1957.
-
·B-84 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-pH of water at different levels below surface of min_e-wate1· pools i11 anthracite fields of Pennsylvania-Continued

Altitude
Altitude of
surface of II I AJt;'""''
sa,rJ!llllg"' 1i

--------------,-----
Sampling point of collar mine-water JlOJnt j
of shaft pool Date of Sample 1 lfel't ahovl' I pH Hernarks
(feet above (feet above ~am piing nuruht•r , or helow
M~e Shah sea level) sea level l
I i s~!l L•::lr I
J

Southern anthracite field

Greenwood ........ Xo. 10 ..... ·. 1,002 452 Jan. 12, 1\Hil .. I 421 4.20 \\'hen mine was in operation,
2 :{/2 -1.00 pH of pumpetl dis<~harge
;{ J/2 ;~. 75 was :L 6 on July 2, 1\l-l-1,
-l- -l-2 2.80 and ;{. 1 on Oct. 15, 1\)46.
Pool formed aft.f'r :\Ia,· l\HiO.
Pumping at shaft ccaserl
Xov. 1!)60.

38. ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY SEPARATES CATSKILL AND POCONO FORMATIONS IN WESTERN PART OF
ANTHRACITE REGION, PENNSYLVANIA

By J. PETER TREXLER, GORDON H. WOOD, JR., and HAROLD H. ARNDT, Washington, D. C.

Geologists working in Pennsylvania generally ·recognized a "Pocono-Catskill transition group."

have thought that the Pocono formation rests con- This "transition group" is designated as the gray
formably on the Catskill formation, although Willard member of the Catskill formation in this report.
(1939, p. 19-21) believed a disconformity intervenes White further stated that a geologist would assign
in northern Pennsylvania. The present authors, the gray beds to the Pocono at one locality and to
mapping in the western part of the Anthracite region the Catskill at another, depending on the presence
in eastern Pennsylvania, found that the contact is a or absence of red beds. Although other geologists ·
regional, low- to high-angle unconformity in an area generally placed the contact between the Catskill 1-

of more than 600' 'square miles. and Pocono formations at the top of the uppermost
At most localities in the western part of the An- red bed, the present investigation confirmed that the
thracite region (fig. 38.1) the predominantly red, red beds in the gray member are of local extent and
main body of the Catskill formation is overlain by that the contact, where placed at the top of the up-
an upper gray member that consists chiefly of gray permost red bed, was at different stratigraphic po-
. and green sandstone, shale, and conglomerate, with sitions at different localities. Therefore, the writers
local interbeds of red sandstone and shale. This gray followed White ( 1883·, p. 46-49) in placing the con-
member, which ranges in thickness from 0 to 2,400 tact between the Catskill and Pocono formations at
feet, is absent at some localities north and northeast the base of the widespread pebble conglomerate,
of Pine Grove (fig. 38). ~hich locally rests on red beds or gray sandstone in
The overlying gray Pocono formation is composed the gray member or on the red: main body of the
mainly of sandstone and conglomerate, and ranges Catskill formation.
in thickness from 700 to 1,200 feet. The basal unit
is a widespread pebble conglomerate, perhaps the EVIDENCE FOR THE UNCONFORMITY
Griswold Gap conglomerate of White (1883, p. 47- Three miles southeast of Lykens, near the nose of
52), which ranges in thickness from 2 to 100 feet. the Joliet anticline, the gray member of the Catskill .
Because of the similarity between the gray beds formation attains its maximum thickness of about
in the upper part of the Catskill formation and beds 2,400 feet (fig. 38.2). To the west, on both limbs of
of the Pocono formation, White ( 1883, p. 49-52) the anticline, the upper 2,000 to 2,300 feet of the
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-85

76°45'

•(

De
N

De

1Wznbcthville 0
0
Pine Grove

0
1 5 MILES
5

EXPLANATION

.----
Conformable contact

Unconformable contact, no angularity

Post-Pocono rocks observed · i

Unconformable contact, angularity observed

between the basal conglomerate of the
Pocono formation and the gray member
Pocono formation of the Catskill formation

··········
~ Unconformable contact, basal conglomerate
Of the Pocono .formation rests on the red
Gray member of the Catskill formation main body of the Catskill formation

Fault, showing relative horizontal

Main hody of the Catskill formation
and older rocks
}I
0
movement

FIGURE 38.1.-Map showing angular unconformity bet'Yeen the Catskill and Pocono formations in the western part of the
Anthracite regiqn, Pennsylvania.
 td
EXPLANATION c:
~
~
~
c: w
z z co
c:
c:
<{ ::!: ()
c: ~--~ -~
. a: z 'iii
.>C.
QJ .... ~
c:
w_,
:::iu
c:
:J

}
!!:o~ ~ c:
EJ
:J 0
() :J 0 Of= l:
VIZ-'
~<{~ 00
0
l: l: •z<{
.!: -o
Post-Pocono rocks VI
~
::E
z
z
w
;::;
rti Q;
0::
~

ID
co
e
ID --------- .......

)~~
~l!
G
Main body of the Pocono formation
a. f?Mr/Mp£/ "D~··:s~s ~ ::: --~:-: $%' ···~~,.~Mp )g'M1SEA LEVEL

VI
~·~
~ a
Basal conglomerate of the Pocono formation
~
i IPMr

;::
8
Gray member of the Catskill formation z
Cl
t:z::l
~-::l Dashed lines indicate map units overlapped ::!: 0
z
~~ · by basal conglomerate of the Pocono t'"1

-
0 0
~ >
w Cl
G
Main body of the Catskill formation
0
0
>
t'"1
en
Cj
~
<
t:z::l
~
~
trj
en
trj
>
~
0
::r:
~
co
~
~

...~
I
~-,./
(}-o-i: 1 0 lMILE
De
De
..r IPMr

~,.... 1 ,"' t 7 ~~r /\~- 40°30'

FIGURE 38.2.-Geologic map and structure section showing angular relations between the gray member of the Catskill formation and the basal conglomerate of
the Pocono formation south of Lykens, Pa.

~
,._ , i. ,. ..,.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-87
member are gradually overlapped by the basal con- Early Mississippian age, it also is of Early Mis-
glomerate of the Pocono formation. Along the south- sissippian age.
ern flank of Broad Mountain, on the north limb of
the anticline, the gray member dips 10° to 30° more SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UNCONFORMITY
steeply northward than the overlying Pocono beds. The angular unconformity between the Catskill
On Peters Mountain, on the south limb of the anti- and Pocono formations is the result of folding, up-
cline, the Pocono dips as much as 25° more steeply lift, and erosion that occurred after deposition of
southeastward than the gray member. These strati- . the gray member of the Catskill formation and before
graphic and structural relations indicate that an deposition of the basal conglomerate of the Pocono
angular unconformity separates the gray member of formation. The authors believe that this deformation
the Catskill and the basal conglomerate of the was a late phase of the Acadian orogeny and that
Pocono, and that locally the gray member dipped the Acadian disturbance, which heretofore. was gen-
about 25° to the north when the Pocono formation erally believed to be of Middle and Late Devonian
accumulated. age, continued into Early Mississippian time in
About 1 mile south of Lykens in the canyon cut eastern Pennsylvania. Woodward (1957a, 1957b)
through Berry Mountain by Rattling Creek, two postulated that the Acadian orogeny affected the
sharp anticlines and a syncline in the gray member Valley and Ridge province of eastern Pennsylvania,
underlie a simple asymmetric anticline in the Pocono but did not describe specific localities where Acadian
formation (fig. 38.2). The discordance is as great as folds could be distinguished from later Appalachian
75°. Thus, the angular unconformity noticed on folds. The angular unconformity between the ·cat-
Broad and Peters Mountains is also present here. skill and Pocono formations provides definite struc-
Although the evidence is not obvious at other tural evidence of the Acadian orogeny in the Valley
localities, the regional unconformity between the and Ridge province of eastern Pennsylvania. The
Catskill and Pocono formations throughout the Acadian folds underlying the unconformity are ob-
western part of the Anthracite region (fig. 38.1) is scured by folds resulting from the Appalachian
indicated by local differences in dip and strike across orogeny, mainly because the trend of the folds
the contact. The unconformity is also indicated by formed during this later orogeny generally parallel
the truncation of red and gray beds in the gray those formed during the Acadian. Compression was
member of the Catskill formation, which explains the from the southeast during both orogenies. This
variations in the thickness of the gray member and probably explains why definite Acadian folds have
the local absence of the member north and northeast not been previously distinguished, and substantiates
of Pine Grove. Woodward's (1957b, p. 2320) hypothesis on the
occurrence of Acadian folds and the parallelism of
AGE OF THE UNCONFORMITY these folds to Appalachian folds in eastern Penn-
The Catskill formation is generally considered to sylvania.
be Late Devonian and the Pocono formation Early The unconformity provides the only widespread
Mississippian in age. However, a pi_nnule of a fossil recognizable contact between the gray member of
plant collected by the authors from a bed in the gray the Catskill formation and the Pocono formation in
member of the Catskill formation about 500 feet the western part of the Anthracite region, and may
.....
above the base of the member has been tentatively be the same as the disconformity postulated by Wil-
identified as Adia.ntities sp. (S. H. Mamay, oral com- lard ( 1939, p. 19-21) for northern Pennsylvania.
munication, 1960), indicating a probable Early Mis- Recognition of this unconformity, which is the upper
sissippian age for at least the upper part of this contact of the Catskill formation, should eliminate
member. Read ( 1955, p. 8) included the beds here some of the difficulties encountered in the past in
designated as the gray member in the lower part of mapping and correlating units in the upper part of
the Pocono formation and in his Early Mississippian the Catskill formation and in the lower part of the
Ad,ia,ntit·ies zone. This fossil evidence indicates that Pocono formation.
deposition of gray, green, and red beds of the Catskill
formation continued into Early Mississippian time. REFERENCES
The age of the Catskill formation in the Anthracite Read, C. B., 1955, Floras of the Pocono formation and Price
region, consequently, is now designated as Late sandstone in parts of Pennsylvania, Maryland, West Vir-
·,
\
Devonian and Early Mississippian. Because the un- ginia and Virginia: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 263,
conformity is underlain and overlain by rocks of 32 p., 20 pls.
B-88 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RE~EARCH 1961

White, I. C., 1883, The geology of the Susquehanna River Woodward, H. P., 1957a, Structural elements of northeastern
region in the six counties of Wyoming, Lackawanna, Appalachians: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v.
Luzerne, Columbia, Montour, and Northumberland: Penn- 41, no. 7, p. 1429-1440.
sylvaniaGeol. Survey, 2d ser., Bull. G-7, 464 p. - - , 1957b, Chronology of Appalachian folding: Am. As-
Willard, Bradford, 1939, The Devonian of Pennsylvania, Mid-
soc. Petroleum Geologist~ Bull., v. 41, no. 10, p. 2312-2327.
dle and Upper Devonian: Pennsylvania Geol. Survey, 4th
ser., Bull G-19, 481 p.

39. REEFS IN THE FORT PAYNE FORMATION OF MISSISSIPPIAN AGE, SOUTH-CENTRAL KENTUCKY

By ROBERT E. THADEN, RICHARD Q. LEWIS, J. MARK CATTERMOLE, and ALFRED R. TAYLOR, Columbia, Ky.

Wo1·k done in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey

Geologic mapping. and studies in the Amandavi1le, width that may trend in the same general direction
Breeding, Burkesville, Creelsboro, Cumberland City, as the individual reefs.
Jamestown, and Wolf Creek Dam quadrangles in The reefs range in size from thin isolated lenticu-
south-central ·Kentucky, being done' in cooperation lar bodies a few. tens of feet in lateral extent to
with the Kentucky Geological Survey, have partly blocky and thick-bedded bodies more than 100 feet
delineated several limesto~e reefs in the Fort Payne thick, more than 1 mile wide, and 15 or more miles
formation of Early Mississippian age. They are well long. Indeed, many of the 'large reefs locally ·make
exposed in the valleys of the Cumberland River and up most of the Fort Payne formation. ·
its large·r tributaries between B'urkesville and James- Small reefs are found throughout the Fort Payne,
town, Ky., and are ~less .well exposed in shallower vertically and laterally, but· apparently are most
valleys to the ·west and ·north. The area includes numerous in the vicinity of the large reefs. · The
parts of Adair, Russell, Clinton, and Cumberland small reefs generally a:re thicker and are convex
Counties. Butts. (1922, p. 78-83), Klepser (1937), upward. At their margins the reefs consist largely
and Stockdale (1939, p. 138) noted the presence. of of overlapping .sheets of reef-derived detritus which
limestone.in the Fo·rt Payne formation; and Klepser grade into the main reef body, are steeply cross-
(1937) pointed out ·that .limestone masses in this bedded away from the main reef, and tongue into
area are like bioherms. · the adjacent shale and siltstone.
The Fort · Payne· formation ~overlies the Chatta- Some reefs· are made up of limestone from top to
nooga shale of Devonian· ·and· Early Mississippian bottom; others are. multiple, superposed limestone
age and underlies the Warsaw limestone of Late bodies separated. by shale and siltstone beds ; still
Mississippian age (Stoc.kdale, 1939, p. 52-54). The others are discontinuous short segments of limestone
FortPayneis about 250 to 270 feet thick and; where separated -laterally by shale and siltstone. The mar-
reefs are not present, is ·composed almost entirely gins of the large~ reefs are not unlike the margins
of siltst~:me and shale. Within the. F0.rt P~yne. in- of the small ones. Tongues and fingers of limestone·
terval reefs may occupy any position,.' but pos$ibly a few feet to several tens of feet in thickness may
are more numerous near the base. SorqeAr:Iconclusive extend thousands of feet into the surrounding sh.ale
evidence suggests that the northernmost reefs tend and siltstone. These tongues may be either compact
to occur stratigraphkally .higher than those to the li'mestone or recemented reef-d.erived detritus. Bed-
south. Th.e larg,e reefs (~g. 39.1.). trend .g~nerally ding is absent in some parts of the -main body of
1\f. 65° to 80° W. This ~bservation, .together with individual reefs; elsewhere there may be undulating
information from oil wells in su.rrounding counties, · beddin·g or gentle crossbedding. Bedding in · the
indicates that the reefs occur in a belt of unknown tongues, although at some places like' that in the
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-89

.,
~' h
BREEDING AMANDA VILLE JAMESTOWN , ..
'\ .,. 36052 30

EXPLANATION

Outcrop of reef limestone

Da.~hed where projerl.ed beyond
limits ofob.~ervat'ion

Lateral limit of reef

Da.~hed where appt·m"inwtelylol'lll.ed

Information on reef locations is limited

0("f) by cover and by incomplete mapping
N
N
Lrl
co BURKESVILLE WOLF CREEK DAM CUMBERLAND CITY o ,
36 45

z
<{
~·
St. Louis limestone
z<{ Chattanooga shale }~w
a. 0
a.
lf)
Warsaw limestone lf)
lf) 'Z
}8~
lf)

~
D MAP AREA
l"ort Payne formation Pre-Chattanooga units cr ~
Reefs in black 0>

FIGURE 39.1.-0utcrop pattern and stratigraphic position of reefs in the Fort Payne formation in part of south-central
Kentucky .

..
B-90 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

main body of the reefs, characteristically is cross- in Wayne County southeast of the area of the
bedded at steep angles. Dips of crossbeds may ex- present study and in parts of Hart, Barren, and
ceed 20°, though dips of 8° to 10° are more com- Metcalf Counties to the northwest of the area. Local
mon. The inclination of crossbedding nearly every- names have been given to the producing horizon in
where is to the south. nearly every oil pool in these counties, but the pro-
Limestone in the reefs commonly is coarse grained, ducing horizons are also widely known as the "Beaver
.:...
arenaceous and argillaceous, and gray to bluish gray. sand" or "Beaver Creek sand." The present produc-
Fossils are common in coarse-grained limestone, tion of petroleum and natural gas from reef lime-
less abundant in fine-grained limestone. Large stone in the Fort Payne formation in Kentucky has
crinoid stem segments are particularly abundant; in
been small in comparison with production from
places the reefs are essentially a "crinoid hash."
rocks of Ordovician age. It is likely that additional
Brachiopods and bryozoans, though not as abundant
as crinoids, are common. Chert lenses and pods, knowledge of the size, trend, and physical properties
quartz geodes, and small irregular masses of pale- of the reefs will ~ssist in future exploration.
blue chalcedony less than an inch in diameter are
REFERENCES
abundant in parts of the limestone as well as in the
nearby siltstone and shale. Near the reefs, especially Butts, Charles, 1922, The Mississippian series of eastern Ken-
tucky; Kentucky Geol. Survey, Series 7, vol. 7, 188. p.
in laterally equivalent _peds, the siltstone and shale
Klepser, Harry J., 1937, The Lower Mississippian rocks of the
are much more calcareous and darker than elsewhere
Eastern Highland Rim; Ohio State Univ. Abstracts, Doc.
in the formation. 24, p. 181-187.
Petroleum and natural gas have been produced Stockdale, Paris B., 1939, Lower Mississippian rocks of the
from limestone reefs in the Fort .Payne formation East-Central Interior; Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 22.

40. THE TUSCALOOSA GRAVEL IN TENNESSEE AND ITS RELATION TO THE STHUCTURAL -DEVELOPMENT
OF THE MISSISSIPPI EMBAYMENT SYNCLINE

By MELVIN V. MARCHER, Nashville, Tenn.

,.
Work done in coope1·atim1. w·ith the Ten:nessee Div·ision of Geology

The Tuscaloosa gravel of Late Cretaceous age LITHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS

occurs as outliers capping many of the hills and Size analyses indicate that the western facies of
ridges on the Western Highland Rim of Tennessee. the Tuscaloosa gravel is a mixture of three distinct
In the southwestern part of the Rim a maximum sedimentary components. Frequency curves show
thickness of 150 feet has been preserved; elsewhere separate peaks for gravel, medium sand, and fine
the thickness is 30 feet or less. sand.
The gravel component (larger than 13 mm in
On the basis of its lithologic characteristics the
diameter) consists mainly of chert plus a small
Tuscaloosa can be subdivided into a western and
amount of sandstone. Much of the chert gravel was
eastern facies. Of the two, the western facies is derived from formations of Devonian (Camden
more widespread and is typical of the formation chert) and Mississippian (Fort Payne, Warsaw,
over most of the area. The eastern facies is re- and· St. Louis formations) ages.
stricted to a narrow northwa:r~-trending belt along Sandstone pebbles, although rare in the Tusca-
the eastern margin of the Western Highland Rim .. loosa gravel, are relatively widespread. These peb-

-.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-91
.,..
.
bles are not indigenous to the area and did not come Kaolinite and montmorillonite are both developed
from formations now exposed in western Tennessee. by weathering of the Camden and Fort Payne chert.
Most of the sand in the western facies consist of. Thus these components are of both local and distant
angular chert and quartz grains. These grains, par- origin. Some of the montmorillonite could have de-
ticularly the chert, resemble partly weathered Cam- veloped by alteration of volcanic glass which also
den and Fort Payne chert that has been mechanically occurs in the fine fraction of the Tuscaloosa.
~·
crushed. Because the quartz pebbles so abundant in the
All samples studied contain very minor amounts eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa·· are not mixed
of rounded and frosted quartz sand which, li~e the throughout the main mass of the gravel as they
sandstone and quartz pebbles, did not come , from should be if they had come from the west, it i~ in-
rocks now exposed in the area. ferred that they were derived from some other direc-
Kaolinite, montmorillonite, and mica are present tion. The most probable source was Pennsylvanian
in all samples analyzed. Kaolinite is dominant (20 bedrock in northwestern Mississippi and western
to 40 percent of total sample) in all samples except Kentucky. The beds of well-sorted sand and heavy
one, which contains 20 to 30 percent montmorillonite. minerals associated with the quartz gravel may also
In all other samples montmorillonite makes up 10 have come from the same areas.
percent or less of the total sample. PALEOGEOLOGY_ AND PALEOGEOGRAPHY DURING
The eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa gravel con- T'Q'SCALOOSA DEPOSITION
tains all the components of the western_ facies and The western facies of the Tuscaloosa gra ve'l is
,. in addition contains beds of well-sorted sand and probably a series of coalesced stream deposits be-
gravel, siliceous siltstone containing fragmentary cause the deposits lie at the base of a transgressive
plant fossils, heavy minerals, and an abundance of marine sequence; because of the apparent lack of
;~· quartz sand and quartz pebbles. The contrast in significant chemical difference between the source
sorting, lithologic diversity, and mineral content in- areas and the deposits; and because of the textural
dicates a marked difference both in source and de- similarity between the deposits and typical valley-
positional environment. fill deposits.
The eastern facies of the Tuscaloosa may represent
SOURCE shoreline deposits where waves and currents win-
The pebbles of Mississippian chert are clearly of nowed the stream-transported sediments from 'the
local origin. The Camden chert is present only in west and brought in additional components from the
the .Western Valley of the Tennessee River and in north .and south (fig. 40.1).
the subsurface farther west. Thus pebbles of the As demonstrated by the source of some of the
Camden chert in the Tuscaloosa have been trans- Tuscaloosa gravel components, the area west of the
ported 10 to 50 miles from the west. Western Highland. Rim was a highland during Late
Because pebbles of the Camden chert were trans- Cretaceous time. Paleogeologic maps of the northern
ported. from the west, the sandstone pebbles, which Mississipp~ Embayment (Freeman, 1953, pl. 3, Cap-
are thoroughly intermixed in the main mass of the lan, 1954, pl. 4, and Grohskopf, 1955, pl. 3) show
Tuscaloosa gravel, must have been transported from that this topographic highland was- also a structural
that direction also. The most probable source beds high and that beds as old as Cambrian were exposed
for the sandstone pebbles include the Lamotte and on its crest. This structural feature., first postulated
Roubidoux formations, which were exposed in west- by Wilson ·(1939), has been named the Pascola arch
ern Tennessee during Tuscaloosa time (Grohskopf, by Grohskopf (1955, p. 25).
1955, p. 14-16 and pl. 3). · Reconstruction of the Pascola arch based on ·stream
Angular chert and quartz grains seem to have gradients estimated from the maximum size pebbles
been developed by attrition of Camden and Fort in the Tuscaloosa gravel and eastward thickening
.,. Payne chert during transport. The rounded. and of post-Tuscaloosa sediments indicates that the arch
frosted quartz-sand grains in the main mass of the stood nearly 1,000 feet above sea level during Tus-
gravel probably were derived from the St. Peter calGosa deposition. More than 8,000 feet of strata
or Dutch Creek formations, which formerly cropped had been eroded from the crest of the arch by the
out in western Tennessee and western Kentucky. beginning of Tuscaloosa deposition.
B-92 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

ILLINOIS
'I

KENTUCKY
MISSOURI

q<P
-1---
<(
LIJ
en
<(
en
0
0
....J
<(
(.)
en .)
:::::>
1-

ALABAMA

MISSISSIPPI

0 50 100 MILES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 100 FEET

FIGURE 40.1.-Paleogeology and paleogeography of western Tennessee and adjoining areas during Tuscaloo$a deposition.
Contours show topography of ·Pascola arch.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-93
DEVELOPMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI EMBAYMENT REFERENCES
SYNCLINE Caplan, W. M., 1954, Subsurface geology and related oil and
gas possibilities of northeastern Arkansas: Arkansas Div.
During and shortly after deposition of the Tus- Geology Bull. 20, 124 p.
caloosa gravel the Pascola arch began to subside. Freeman, L. B., 1953, Regional subsurface stratigraphy of the
Most of the subsidence occurred near the synclinal Cambrian and. Ordovician in Kentucky and vicinity: Ken-
tucky Geol. Survey Bull. 12, 352 p.
axis that generally follows the present course of the Grohskopf, J. G., 1955, Subsurface geology of the Mississippi
Mississippi. Superposition of the synclinal bend Embayment of southeast Missouri: Missouri Geol. Survey
across the now-buried high resulted in faults that and Water Res., 2d ser., v. 37, 133 p.
Wilson, C. W., Jr., 1939, Probable connection of the Nashville
cut Paleozoic rocks and, in some areas, that extended and Ozark domes by a complimentary arch: Jour. Geol-
upward into the overlying younger strata. ogy, v. 47, no. 6, p. 583-597.
•

41. SYSTEMATIC PATTERN OF TRIASSIC DIKES IN THE APPALACHIAN REGION

By PHILIP B. KING, Menlo Park, Calif.

Nearly 30 years ago Bucher (1933, p. 351-353) by normal faults, along which the Newark has been
observed that a promising field for tectonic researchdropped against older rocks on one or both sides.
would be the Triassic dikes that traverse the rocks Present outcrop areas may have nearly the original
of the Appalachian region in the eastern United extent of the deposits, as the nature of deposits adja-
States. The present note reaffirms this observation, cent to the major bordering faults indicates that
and indicates new data that have become available these were in process of displacement during sedi-
since the time of Bucher~s writing. mentation. However, the major faults and the nu-
During preparation of a revised tectonic map of merous minor faults continued to be displaced after
the United States (Cohee and others, 1961 in press) the close of the depositional epoch. Trends of faults
it was decided that these dikes were an item of suffi-
and outcrop areas conform grossly to the northeast-
cient tectonic interest to be plotted on this editionward strike of the older rocks, which had been pro-
of the map. Their map pattern was therefore com- duced· by deformation of the Appalachian region
piled from all published sources; in addition, unpub-prior to Late Triassic time. Also, the larger strips of
lished data for North and South Carolina were con- outcrop of the Newark"group are paired on each side
tributed by W. R. Griffitts and W. C.· Overstreet, of the central axis ·of the ·Appalachian deformed
and for New England by John Rodgers. belt, with the faults which border them dropped
antithetically toward the axis (McKee and others,
NEWARK GROUP AND AS~OCIATED FEATURES 1959, p. 24, pl. 9)_.
Sedimentary rocks of the Newark group of Late Newark sedimentation was accompanied by much
Triassic age form elongate strips of outcrop from igneous activity. Interbedded with the sedimentary
Nova Scotia: southwestward along the strike to South rocks in the northern outcrop areas are flows of .
Carolina. Probable subsurface extensions of the mafic lava. Both here and in outcrop areas farther
Newark group farther east and south are also known south the sedimentary rocks are intruded by exten-
from drilling and from geophysical surveys. The sive stocks and sills of igneous rock, mostly classed
nature and occurrence of the Newark group has been as diabase, but including other mafic varieties. Even
summarized recently (Reeside and others, 1957, p. more abundant are the dikes, discussed below, which
1459-1461; McKee and others, 1959, p. 12, 13, 18, extend far away from the Newark areas. At least
24, pis. 4, 5, 7, 9). some of the intrusives are related to· the lava flows
The extent and pattern of the present outcrop and faults, but the age of others can be determined
·areas of the Newark group are determined largely only. within wide limits. Possibly these intrusives
B-94 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

formed during a long time span, but they appear plutonic rocks of the Piedmont province, although a
to be so closely related, not only among themselves few extend northward into the Paleozoic rocks of
but to the other features associated with the Newark the Valley and Ridge province near Harrisburg, Pa.
group, that they all must be broadly of Late Triassic Southeastward, many dikes extend to the edge of
age. the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where they pass un-
conformably beneath Cretaceous and younger strata.
DIKES The dikes have been observed and located mostly
Narrow steeply dipping mafic dikes intrude the as an incident to other. geological investigations, and
Newark group in all its outcrop are'as and in places have seldom been a specific field of study, so that
branch from the larger intrusives. They also extend many more. data regarding them could still be ob:-
into the surrounding older rocks and are common tained. The accompanying map (fig. 4l.il.) reflects
even far distant from the Newark outcrops. Most this present state of information. The abundant
of the outlying dikes intrude the metamorphic and~ dikes shown in Pennsylvania and Maryland were

EXPLANATION

Diabase. dikes of Triassic age

Ma.inly ,:,, Piedr1wnt proviru:e of Appa.lach-

•
inn ·region; u:nrnapped in ·mnny areas

Outcrops of Newark group of

Late Triassic age
Ma.in/.y sedimenl.a.ry rocks but including
intrus1:ve stock.~ a.nd sills in ·most areas,
a.nd interbedded la.va in some northern

Normal faults
At border.• of nreas of outcrop of Newark
group

··-.. ······-··:~?.-·····?......
Boundaries of major geologic
provinces

_,..
_...,
....·· \
. I
.4 ...
,• I

... /. \
.••. · I

...:
·: .. \
··~-----._:': .. .....
_
0 100 200 300 MILES

+
FIGURE 41.1.-Sketch map of the Appalachian region of the eastern United States, showing known occurrences of dikes of
Triassic age, and areas of outcrop of the Newark group.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ~ClENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-95
mapped in detail many years ago, and those in or of least compressive stress, was to the northeast,
Georgia more recently by Lester and Allen (1950). but in the northeastern segment this axis curves in
Very few dikes, by contrast, are shown in North an arc to the east, and finally to the southeast.
Carolina. Here, in a 30-mile segment of the Deep A different pattern is shown by the normal faults
Hiver basin, Reinemund (1955, p. 54-61, pis. 1, 4) and sedimentary basins of the Newark group. These
mapped hundreds of transverse dikes, yet the follow closely the strike of the older rocks amidst
geologic map of North Carolina (Stuckey, 1958) which they lie, and may have been conditioned by
shows no dikes in the segments of the basin on fracture and displacement along existing lines of
either side. Probably some dikes, perhaps many, weakness. Pairing of the major basins and asso-
occur in these other segments, but are so far un- ciated faults on opposite sides of the central axis
mapped. of the Appalachians suggests that this axis was again
The dikes are sufficiently known, however, to per- raised into a broad arch during Triassic time.
mit significant generalizations regarding their pat- Differences between the stress pattern suggested
tern. Although dikes of different trends cross or by the dikes and that by the faults and sedimentary
intersect, most dikes locally have a common trend. basins are seemingly incompatible. Possibly the two
However, these local common trends vary systemati- patterns existed at slightly different times, but more
cally from one part of the Appalachian region to likely the faults and basins are an expression of
another. In the southwestern 400-mile segment of superficial stresses which were contemporaneous
.,
.
the Appalachians, from Alabama to North Carolina, with the deep-seated stresses that produced the dikes.
the dikes trend consistently northwestward (fig. Be that as it may, the stress patterns of Late
41.1). In southern Virginia the trend changes to Triassic time in the Appalachian region appear to
north-northwestward and i_n northern Virginia to have been more systematic, and the tectonic history
northward. Across Maryland and Pennsylvania the more complex than has generally been assumed. An
northward trend changes to northeastward, and this eventful tectonic history of the region during
same trend continues into New England. Triassic time has also been suggested recently by
·The trends of the dikes are everywhere discordant Woodward (1957, p. 1437-1439), on the basis of
to the trends of the structures of the enclosing rocks, other evidence and with a different interpretation.
and they are everywhere straighter than these struc- It would appear that further study of the Triassic
tures. In the southwestern 400..:mile segment of the phase of the tectonic evolution of the Appalachian
Appalachian region the dikes extend nearly at right region is warranted. The nature, history, and pat-
angles to the trends of the outcrop areas of the tern of the Late Triassic dikes will be a useful tool
Newark group and the associated faults, as well as in such studies.
to the strike of the older rocks. Farther northeast-
ward they cross the structures in the Triassic and REFERENCES
older rocks diagonally. Moreover, in Pennsylvania Anderson, E. M., 1951, The dynamics of faulting and dyke
and adjacent States, the dikes are not deflected by formation, with applications to Britain, 2d ed.: Edin-
the marked sinuosities in the trend of the Newark burgh, Oliver & Boyd, 206 p.
Bucher, W. H., 1933, The deformation of the earth's crust:
rocks and their associated faults. Princeton, N. J., Princeton Univ. Press, 518 p.
Cohee, G. V., and others, 1961, Tectonic map of United States:
INTERPRETATION U.S. Geol. Survey (in press).
Dikes, stocks and sills, normal faults, and sedi- Lester, J. G., and Allen, A. T., 1950, Diabase of' the Georgia
Piedmont: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 61, p. 1217-1224.
mentary basins all formed in the Appalachian region McKee, E. D., and others, 1959, Paleotectonic map of the
during Late Triassic or closely related times, and Triassic system: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map
are manifestations ·of a stress pattern, or succession I-300, 33 p., 9 pis.
of stress patterns, which existed in the region during Reeside, J. B., Jr., and others, 1957, Correlation of the Triassic
those times. formations of North America, exclusive of Canada: Geol.
Soc. Ameri~a Bull., v. 68, no. 11, p. 1451-1513.
Dikes are products of regional tension directed Reinemund, J. A., 1955, Geology of the Deep River coal field,
horizontally in the· crust (Anderson, 1951, p. 30). North Carolina: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.. Paper 246,
Those in the Appalachian region, which cut cleanly 159 p.
through all other structures, probably reflect the Stucke~, J. L., 1958, Geologic map of North Carolina: North
... deep-seated tensile stresses that existed during Late Carolina Dept. Conserv. Dev., Div. Mineral Resources.
Woodward, H. P., 1957, Structural elements of northeastern
Triassic time. In the southwestern segment they in- Appalachians: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v.
dicate that the trend of the axis of greatest tension, 41, p. 1429-1440.
B-96 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
.....I

42. RAINFALL AND MINIMUM FLOWS ALONG THE T ALLA~OOSA RIVER, ALABAMA

By H. C. RIGGS, Washington, D. C.

A major problem in hydrology is the estimat.ion

of the frequency distribution of an event such as a 0 Rome
flood or drought. Ordinarily this is obtained by
some analysis. of the recorded events. Fr.equently
one or more of the recorded events appear unusual
with respect to the others and the proper interpreta- 0 Gadsden
tion is not apparent. This is the problem posed by
the annual minimum flows for the Tallapoosa River
at Wadley, Ala., for 1924-1955 as shown on figure
42.1.
The three lowest points (fig. 42.1) appear "out of
line" with the others, particularly if a typical fre-
quency curve that flattens at the low end is postu-
lated. Several explanations are possible: the actual
recurrence intervals of these three minimum flows
are much greater than indicated by the period of oTalladega
record; the three lowest minimum flows are lower
than natural flows because of emergency withdrawals
upstream; or the frequency curve should be concave
downward instead of concave upward.
To choose the correct explanation, additional in- \ N
formation is needed. The minimums occurred in
1925, 1931, and 1954. It is unlikely that the first two
·, t
were affected by emergency withdrawals of water
because water requirements were not great in the
earlier years. Much additional information would
be required to define the shape of the frequency
\ .

curve. This leaves only the possibility of making

Auburn
0
I.JJ
<!)
1000
ct:
a::
I.JJ
> ..... I
ct:cn
>-La..
ct:u ····· ········.... I 0 10 20. 30 40MILES
qz
,.;. -.
I.JJ
:::!:<!J
... ..I . . FIGURE 42.2.-Map of Tallapoosa River basin above Wadley,
:::>0:: Ala., showing location of long-record rainfall stations.
:::!:ct:
_I
zu
100
. .-
-en
:::!:-
...J
ct:
:::l
0
I . better estimates of the recurrence intervals of the
z
z
three lowest discharges.
ct:
If it cou@.'-' be shown that extremely low annual
minimum flows coincide with extremely low precipi-
10
1.1 2 5 10 20 50 tation, then the rainfall record could be used to indi-
RECURRENCE INTERVAL.IN YEARS
cate whether lower minimum flows had occurred in
FIGURE 42.1.-Drought frequency plot, Tallapoosa River at the longer period covered by the rainfall record. Four
Wadley, Ala. rainfall records near the Tallapoosa River basin are
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-97

9
~+--------+-----------------0~oo ~
0

500 1 - 1 - - - - - - f - - - - - - - - g- /-
0.
<Yo ~
<fgo OJO
oo
Gl
0 ·
0 0 0 0 0/ 0
...
~
0
C/)
1.1..
0 00
(.)

z 0
w 0
(.!)
0:::
·o <o
<(
::r:
(.)
C/)
"+
i5
....J
~ 100
1-
(.)
<(
0
/ Arithmetic model 0 Semi log ·model

..,
50 ~0------r---------------------r-~
~0

.50 100 500 50 100 500

COMPUTED DISCHARGE,IN CFS

FIGURE 42.3.-Comparison of discharges computed by two equations with actual discharg~.

available for the period 1888-1955. These records The regression equations are
are used in the following analysis.
The principal factors affecting the magnitu.de of Q == 356 12(JJ) +
43 (AS) +
and
· an annual minimum flow are the amount and dis-
tribution of precipitation during the year or part
log Q == 2.49 0.023 (JJ) +
0.079(AS) +
of the year. For this study the winter, spring, and where Q is the annual minimum 7-day average dis-
early summer precipitation is considered an index charge, (JJ) is the January-through-July precipita-
of the relative amount of ground water available to tion index, and (AS) is the August-September pre-
the stream on July 31, and the August-September cipitation index.
precipitation an index of the opportunity for deple- Plots of computed values of Q against actual values
tion of this ground-water supply. for both equations are shown on figure 42.3. The
Locations of long-rainfall-record stations in the results appear similar except that the arithmetic
vicinity of the Tallapoosa basin are shown on figure model fits the· three low points better .
...
42.2. Comparison of these rainfall records showed Both equations were solved for Q using rainfall
that no two agreed very well in the summer months indexes from 1888 to 1955, and the results are
because of the irregularity of thunderstorm activity. plotted on figure 42.4. These plots indicate that the
Therefore, all four records were used. The two in- three lowest minimum flows in the period of stream-
dexes selected are January-through-July precipita- flow record 1924-1955 probably were also the lowest
tion in percent of normal and August-September pre- in the period 1888-1955. Therefore, the recurrence
cipitation in percent of normal. These percentages intervals assigned to these flows are recomputed on
were computed for each rainfall record and then the basis of a 68-year period (1888-1955) rather
averaged over the four records to obtain the index than a 32-year period (1924-1955). The points as
values. originally plotted and the three adjusted points are
. Annual minimum flows were related to the two shown on figure 42.5. A straight line is a reasonable
precipitation indexes by standard regression methods interpretation of the frequency relation if the ad-
using two models, one arithmetic and one semilog. _j us ted points are used.

.._.
 B-98 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

the July, August, and September precipitation in a

year in which the minimum occurred in September,
500 and that would ignore the August and September
(/)
precipitation· for the year in which the minimum
LL..
(.) occurred in July. However, the results are suffi-
200
~ ciently reliable to demonstrate· "the usefulness of
w
(!J precipitation records for improving estimates of the
a::
c( 100 r-ecurrence intervals of very low annual minimum
I
(.)
(/) discharges. The method should be applicable to
Ci 500
0 other streams having suitable basin characteristics,
LiJ
1-
:::>
and having precipitation records for much longer
a..
::E 200 periods than streamflow records.
0
(.)
Semilog model
100

IJ.J
50
~ 1000r---+----+--+-----~----+----+-----+--~
1880 1900 1920
YEAR
1940 1960
a::
IJ.J
>
~ ..
'='t•••••••
..
c((j)

FIGURE 42.4.-Annual minimum 7-day average discharges for

~~ -....:;
0 z ••
l - •••

ir
Tallapoosa River at Wadley computed by two equations.

The equations indicate that greater than normal Z (.)

100 t----+----+-___,....._____ .+-,·~----+----i
I • Q..,_
January-through-July precipitation virtually pre- ~5 . ?~
cludes a very low annual minimum. Both precipita- ~ • From streamflow record
tion indexes must be low in order to obtain an ex- z·
z 0 Based on precipitation
c(
tremely low annual minimum flow. records
The method outlined here is restricted to streams 10 ~~1~.1~----~2------~5~~1~0~--2~0-----5~0--~
having their minimums in the late summer. The RECURRENCE INTERVAL, IN YEARS
indexes used are rather rough and undoubtedly the
FIGURE 42.5.-Drought frequency curve based on both stream-
regression could be improved by use of more ap- flow and precipitation records, Tallapoosa River at Wad-
propriate ones. A model is needed to account for ley, Ala. ..
.

43. STRESS MODEL FOR THE BIRMINGHAM RED IRON-ORE DISTRICT, ALABAMA ....

By THOMAS A. SIMPSON, Arlington, Va.

Open fracture systems associated with tight folds faults· suggests a second stress field that acted as
and major faults were observed to be the controlling compression from the south.
factors that influenced the direction of ground-water The area is underlain by sedimentary rocks about
movement in the red iron-ore mines of the Birming- 15,000 feet thick ranging in age from Cambrian to
ham district. The parallelism of the northeasterly Pennsylvanian. These rocks have been folded into ~.-

trending folds and faults in the Birmingham red parallel and subparallel northeasterly trending anti-
iron-ore district suggests a common origin as the clines and synclines. The composite structure, the
result of compression from the southeast. The orien- Birmingham anticline, is overturned to the north- .'r
tation of the joints in relation to the folds and west and cut by a low-angle thrust along its north-
 SHORT PAPERS iN: ·:THE ·GE~G·~: ·.AND HY.D;ROLOGIC SCIENCES,. ARTICLES 1-146 B-99

North
F2

....

·)
West

... ·.
••••• 0 ••
EXPLANATION
... Fl
Initial stress system

D
i
Strike of joints· resulting
from initial stress system
F2
F2 Second stress system

South
ESTI
Strike of joints resulting
from second stress system

FIGURE 43.1.-Diagram showing strike of joints, folds, and faults in the Birmingham red iron-ore district.
B-100 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

west margin. The Ishkooda-Potter fault system in The orientations of the fplds, faults, and joints
the northern part of the district strikes N. 40°-50° can be explained as the result of two separate stress
E. and consists of high-angle reverse and normal fields acting in the area. The initial stress field
faults. The Shannon fault system in the central · (F1) originated as compression from the southeast.
part of the district strikes generally N. 50° E. and This stress field produced the northeasterly trending
consists of a large normal fault and several sub- folds and thrusts, and the conjugate joint systems
sidiary faults. The Dickey Springs-P~tton fault sys-
indicated on figure 43.1.
tem strikes N. 44°-53° E. and consists of several
high-angle normal faults and a major high-angle The second stress field (F 2 ) originated as com-
reverse fault. Some of the faults in the district pression from the south and produced strike-slip
show evidence of strike:slip movement at under- movement along preexisting northeasterly trending
ground and surface exposures. fractures. Joint systems formed in this field are
The strikes of the joints and major structural fea- rotated counterclockwise relative to the first joint
tures commonly observed in the district are shown systems. The concentration of joints shown on fig-
on figure 43.1. Most of the joints trend from N. 2° ure 43.1 can be explained as the overlapping of the
E. to N. 68° W. or from N. 18°-90° E. The greatest joint systems formed in the two stress fields.
concentration of joint sets lie within relatively nar-·
row limits from N. 20°-40° W. and from N. 30°- The stress model just described accounts for the
700 E., which is parallel and subparallel to the major structural features and for the jointing ob-
strikes of the major folds and faults, served in the Birmingham district.

44. WATER-TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION IN A TIDAL STREAM

By FREDERICK W. WAGENER, Columbia, S. C.

Work done in cooperation with South Carolina Public Service Authority

Water-temperature and velocity observations were . The temperature, velocity, and depth observations
made in a tidal reach of Waccamaw River at Con- discussed in this paper were made during a tidal
way, S. C. to determine and explain variations in cycle from 7 a.m. to 7:18 p.m. on September 23,
water temperature during a tidal cycle. These ob- 1958. The temperature observations were made by
servations provided data for studying the vertical lowering the small probe of an electric thermometer
distribution of temperature, and for comparing the into the water to the desired depth. The stage, dis-
results with similar studies on nontidal streams. charge, air temperature, and water temperature dur-
Other studies of temperature distribution in non- ing the tidal cycle are shown on figure 44.1.
tidal South Carolina streams having velocities ex-. Water temperatures were obtained periodically
ceeding 1.5 fps (feet per second) indicate little ver- at the 0.2 and 0.8 depths at 16 stations across the
tical variation in temperature. Temperature obser- stream, which provided a total of 113 pairs of ob-
vations were made at both 0.2 and 0.8 of the total servations. For 72 of these pairs, temperatures were
depths at more than 300 vertical-profile stations and the same at 0.2 and 0.8 depths; for 21 pairs the tem-
at each foot of depth at several dozen others, but perature difference was 0.1° F; for 9 pairs the dif- ·
at only a few of the stations was the temperature ference was 0.2° F; and for the remaining 11 pairs
....
variation more than 0.1 oF. The depth of the streams the difference was greater than 0.2° F. Sixteen ad-
at these stations was as much as 19 feet and water ditional sets of water temperatures were obtained
temperature ranged from 54° to 92° F. periodically at selected stations, observations being

·14.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-101
~

3.5
....
LLJ
LLJ
Ll..

~ 3.0
....:
J:
(.!)
w
J: 2.5
LLJ
(.!)
c(
(.!)
2.0

-T·

C/)
Ll..
u +1000
~
L.J'
(.!)
a:: 0
c(
J:
u
C/)
i5
-1000

85
....
w
Z:t
-z
"LLJ
LL.Ia:: 80
a::J:
:Jc(
~LI..
a:: en
LLILLJ
a.w
75
~a::
LLI(.!)
t-LLJ
.,.. 0
70

8A.M. 10 A.M. 12 M. 2 P.M. 4 P.M. 6 P.M.

FIGURE 44.1.-Physical conditions during tidal cycle.

made at each foot of depth. For 13 of these sets, A second period during which relatively high
... the maximum variation in the vertical was 0.1 o F; temperature differentials occurred was 45 to 60 min-
for the three remaining sets the variation was 0.2° utes after high tide. Velocities at that time increased
F or more. Temperature differences that exceeded to 0.5 fps or more, which is usually sufficient to
0.2° F can be arranged in two groups. The first cause turbulent mixing. During this period, how-
group comprises temperature differences observed
ever, it seems that a slug of warmer water released
at times of velocity less th~n about 0.25 fps., high
from stor~ge passed by the measuring section. This
solar radiation, and little or no wind. At these times,
a minimum amount of turbulent mixing occurs and warmer water probably originated either in an ex-
heating of the water near the surface by solar radia- tensive shallow borrow pit connected with the river
tion is at a maximum. Such conditions favor a tem- 0.3 mile upstream or in Kingston Lake which is con-
perature differential. The greatest observed tem- nected with the river 0.6 mile upstream. The tem-
perature difference resulting from the combination perature and velocity hydrographs, figure 44.3, show
of these conditions is shown by the temperature the effects of this warmer water. The difference in
profile for station 150 at 11:18 a.m. (fig. 44.2) . temperature between the 0.2 and 0.8 depths at 12:10
..
B-102 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

p.m. was 0.8 o F shortly after· the direction of flow more than 0.2° F from top to bottom except when
had changed from upstream to downstream, but water at a higher temperature enters the stream a
within two hours the difference was again negligible. short distance above the measuring section; when
The results of the investigation indicate that when velocities are less than about 0.25 fps, however, tem-
velocities exceed about 0.25 fps, turbulent mixing perature differences up to 1.3c F can be caused by
'is sufficient to preclude temperature differences of solar radiation.
....

E
IJJ
:I: 81
zw
0:::
I
<(
u.
2 (f)
IJJ
L&.J
0:::
(.!)
IJJ 80
0
.._,
w ~
0::
:::>
1-
<(
4 0::
L&.J
a.. ~

~ EXPLANATION
w 79
1-
IJJ
(.)
0
<( 0.2 depth
LL.
0::
:::> X
(f)
6 0.8 depth
0::
IJJ
1-
<(
~ +2.0
~
0
_J
IJJ
Ill +1.5
I 8 0
1-
a.. z
w 0
(.)
0
~+1.0
0:::
IJJ
a..
~ +.5
L&.J ',.,
10 LL.

>-
!::
(.) 0
0
.....1
IJJ
>
-.5
12

8 10 12 2 4 6 8
79 80 81 A.M. A.M. M. P.M. P.M. P.M. P.M.
TEMPERATURE (DEGREES FAHRENHEIT)
FIGURE 44.3.-Temperature and velocity observations at
FIGURE 44.2.-Temperature profiles at station 150. station 100.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-103

45. UECENT LEAD-ALPHA AGE DETERMINATIONS ON ZIRCON FROM THE CAROLINA PIEDMONT

By WILLIAM C. OVERSTREET, HENRY BELL, Ill, HARRY J. ROSE, JR., and THOMAS W. STERN, Beltsville, Md.,
and Washington, D. C.

Lead-alpha ages have recently been determined of the analyses and the calculated ages of the zircon
for 21 zircon concentrates separated from granite, crystals are given in table 2.
granodiorite, and syenite exposed in the Piedmont Radioactivity determinations on igneous or pyro-
of North and South Carolina. The location of the clastic rocks in the Piedmont offer the only means
--1· samples is shown on figure 45.1, and descriptions of of determining the ages of these rocks, as the in-
the sources of the zircon are listed in table 1. Results truded sedimentary rocks contain no fossils. The

TABLE 1.-Sowrces of the zi'rcon TABLE 1.-Sou:rces of the zi'rcon-Continued

No. on No. on
fig. 45.1 fig. 45.1 Sourc·e and sample no.
1. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of medium-
stated to have come from a locality 4 miles east of grained biotite granite in the southern dike in quarry.
Tigerville, Greenville County, S.C. Zircon-rich vermicu- Sample IPE.
lite deposits thought to be source of the specimen. Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of biotite gran-
Sample USNM 105674. ite formi:Qg the northern dike in the quarry. Sample
2. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals IPF.
from the Jones Mine, Henderson County, N. C. Ver- Zircon panned from 100 pounds of saprolite at the main
miculite-bearing syenite pegmatite. Sample USNM body of biotite granite. Sample lPG.
80114.
Zircon panned from 100 pounds of saprolite at the main
3. Zircon panned from 200 pounds of saprolite of fine- body of biotite granite. Sample IPH.
grained massive granite exposed in deep road cuts 0.9
Zircon panned from 260 pounds of syenite in a dike cut-
mile southwest of Blackjack, Fairfield County, S. C.
ting granite and gneissic granodiorite. Sample HB-
Rock is marginal phase of pluton represented by sam-
ple 59-0T-102. Sample was free of inclusions, but 39-59.
exposure shows blocky inclusions of amphibolite, biotite- Zircon panned from 60 pounds of saprolite of gneissic
hornblende schist, and feldspathic kyanite-muscovite granodiorite; both the granite and the syenite intrude
schist. Sample 59-0T-107. the gneissic granodiorite. Sample IP A.
4. Zircon panned from 290 pounds of saprolite of massive Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic
biotite-granite exposed at the intersection of S. C. Rte. · grandiorite. Sample IPB.
20-19 and the Rockton-Rion Railroad 5.5 miles S. 20° Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic
W. of Winnsboro, Fairfield County, S. C. Sample 59- granodiorite. Sample IPC.
0T-102. .
Zircon panned from 40 pounds of saprolite of gneissic
5. Zircon panned from 260 pounds of saprolite of coarse- granodiorite. Sample IPD.
grained massive porphyritic biotite granite having
9. Zircon panned from 340 pounds of saprolite of coarse-
phenocrysts of pink microcline up to %, inch in length,
exposed on S. C. Rte. 97 at a point 1.1 miles north of grained, massive augite syenite exposed iri a quarry on
White Oak Creek, Kershaw County, S. C. Sample 59- the north side of N. C. Rte. 49 just west of the inter-
0T-110. section with U.S. Rte. 601 about 2.5 miles south of
6. Zircon panned from 180 pounds of saprolite of very coarse Concord, Cabarrus County, N. C. Sample 56-0T-11
grained massive porphyritic biotite granite exposed on and 56-0T-lla.
the east side of Lowrys-Baton Rouge road at a point 10. Zircon panned from 200 pounds of saprolite of porphyritic
0.5 mile west of the junction with U.S. Rte. 321 near granite exposed on county road between Watts and
Lowrys, Chester County, S. C. Sample 59-0T-101. S. C. Rte 71 at a point 2 miles south of route 71 in
7. Zircon panned from 220 pounds of saprolite of fine- Abbeville County, S. C. Nonmagnetic fraction at 1.5
grained massive biotite granite exposed in deep road
amperes in Frantz Separator; sample 59-0T-111
cuts on both sides of the Leeds-Wilksburg road at a
(N.M. 1.5). Magnetic fraction at 1.5 amperes; sample
point opposite the Leeds Lookout Tower, Chester
County, S. C. Sample 59-0T-100. 59-0T-111 (M 1.5).
8. Samples from Isenhour Quarry on N. C. Rte. 73 about 0.5 11. U.S. National Museum collection. Large zircon crystals
mile east of Concord, Cabarrus County, N. C. Samples from gneiss exposed 4.5 miles east of Iva on the line
are composites of 20-pound samples taken from differ- between Anderson and Abbeville Counties or in Abbe-
ent parts of the body of rock. ville County, S. C. Sample USNM 97589.
B-104 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

82" 80'

EXPLANATION

is
br
0
Coastal plain rocks of Cretaceous
).:(2
_,_,-..,------:---
NORTH CAROLINA and younger age

......../- Xl
0
Sedimentary and igneous rocks
0Granite
35'

of Triassic age

is

"' CJ
Syenite Kings
G~ountain belt

0Gabbro
B
Charlotte belt

8
Bre,·ard belt
D
Inner piedmont belt

·G
Carolina slate belt
0
Blue Ridge belt

25 25 50 MILES
~~~~----~--~ Sample locality

82' ' 80'

FIGURE 45.1.-Major rock units and location of zircon samples in the Piedmont of North and South Carolina.

rocks studied are now saprolite, so that only resistant Recent geologic observations in the Carolina Pied-
minerals can be used for age determinations. De- mont support King's view (Kesler, 1944, p. 755-
spite a lack of positive knowledge concerning the 782; Griffitts and Overstreet, 1952, p. 777-789;
absolute ages of these rocks, many tentative ideas Kesler, 1955, p. 37 4-387; Overstreet and Griffitts,
have been presented regarding their relative ages. 1955, p. 549-577; Stuckey and Conrad, 1958, p. 3-51;
Major syntheses of the regional geology of the Stro_mquist and Conley, 1959, p. 1-36; Bell and Over-
Southeastern States evolved by Arthur Keith (1923, street, 1959, p. 1-5; Long, Kulp, and Eckelmann,
p. 309-380") and Anna I. Jonas (Mrs. G. W. Stose) 1959, p. 585-603; Bell, 1960, p. B189-B191; and
(1932, p. 228-243), though profqundly different in Overstreet and Bell, 1960, p. B197....:.B199). They show
tectonic and stratigraphic interpretation, generally 3 sequences or episodes of sedimentation, volcanism,
attributed a Precambrian age to the bulk of the igneous intrusion, folding, and metamorphism. Ero-
metasedimentary rocks and to some of the plutonic sional unconformities bracket the 3 episodes. The
igneous rocks. The massive igneous rocks were con- Paleozoic geologic events shown schematically in
sidered to be late Paleozoic in age. Both Keith and table 3 were deduced by Overstreet and Bell as a
Jon as recognized the polymetamorphic character of result of reconnaissance mapping during which it
some of the schist and gneiss, and, despite differences was recognized that the metasedimentary rocks of
in opinion as to the mechanics of the metamorphism, the South Carolina Piedmont consist of slate-belt
they attributed it to processes operating in Precam- rocks· of various ages raised to different grades of
brian and in late Paleozoic time. Recently another regional metamorphism, and that unconformities in
major synthesis of Appalachian geology has been the slate belt correlate with unconformities in the
presented by P. B. King ( 1951, p. 119-144; ~955, p. Kings Mountain belt.
332-373) who proposes that the metamorphosed The unconformities correlated between the slate
sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the Carolina and the Kings Mountain belts are those below epi-
Piedmont and the igneous rocks, intruded during sodes B and C, table 3. A postulated unconformity
several orogenic episodes, are Paleozoic in age. beneath episode A has not been observed in the
.4:
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-105
TABLE 2.-Lead-alpha ages of zi·rcon f"rom •rocks in the which correspond to the position of their host rocks
Piedmont of No·rth and South Ca1·olina
in the three geologic episodes shown on table 3. The
[Alpha activity measurements by T. W. Stern: spectrographic analyses of
lend by H. J. Rose, Jr., T. W. Stern, and H. W. Worthing.] analyses are most consistent and seem to show the
best agreement with presently available field data
Alpha
Average lead
content from
in the younges~ group of samples, and increasingly
Nu. un l:inmJllc Nu.
counts per
milligram
duplicate
determinations Calculated age 1 less consistent in the older groups.
Iii(. 45.1 per hour (parts per (millions of years) The results from four samples do not fit with the
million)
----- recognized field relations. One sample of zircon
l USNM l05(i74 ...... 26!} 28 255 ±:30 (59-0T-100) with an age of 460 ± 50 m.y. (million
2 USNM 801.14 ....... 4:39 51 280±:30 years) was collected from fine-grained granite
:3 50-0T-107 ......... :346 :37 260 ±:30
4 5H-OT-l02 ......... 477 53 270±30 thought to be a marginal phase of the oval pluton
5 5!)-0T-UO ......... 1.70 1.7 245 ±30 represented by sample 59-0T-101 having an age of
-.J. 6 5H-OT-10l. ....... ·. 30() 32 255 ±30
7 59-0T-100 .......... 145 28 460±50 255 ± 30 m. y. The older sample may be contami-
8 IPB ................ 377 68 445 ±50 nated by nonradiogenic lead or by an older genera-
IPF ................ 4.58 68 :360±40
IPG ................ 4:33 78 430±50 tion of zircon. The samples of zircon from Cabarrus
IPH ............... 398 49 :300 ±:35 County, N. C., 56-0T-11 and 56-0T-11a ( 425 ±
HB-3!l-5!L ......... 262 49 450±50
IPA ............... .132 28 505 ±55 110 m.y.), HB-39-59 (450 ±50 m. y.), are thought
IPJ~ ............ ·.... 12:3 2.5.5 495 ±55
TPC ................ 117 H) :380 ± 1.00
to come from. rocks occupying structural positions
IP.D ............... 132 26 470±55 similar to the episode-C syenite. Low lead and alpha
!) 5ti-OT-:I.I .......... 24 3.0 305l activity of the zircon from samples 56-0T-11 and
425±110
.5G-OT-1 I a ......... 22 5.0 540) 56-0T-11a make satisfactory analysis very difficult,
10 5!l-OT-1ll (NM 1.5) 344 82 5()5±6.5
50-0T-.111 (M 1.5) .. 481 102 505±55 but sample HB-39-59 was satisfactory for analysis,
u USNM !17589 ....... 172 40 550±60 and it also gave an. unexpectedly old age. Possibly
some syenite was emplaced during episode B, but the
1 Lend-alpha n~es (rounded to nearest 6 million years) were calculated
field evidence presently restricts syenite to episode
from the equations:
( 1) t = C Pb where t is the calculated age in millions of years, C is a
c.
a . The probable ages of the unconformities between
constant based upon the U/Th ratio and has the value 2485, Pb is the
lend content in parts per million and a is the alpha counts per milli- the three episodes can be interpreted from the three
gram per hour; and
(2) T = t - 1/2 kt2 where Tis the age in millions of years corrected for groups. of ages shown on table 4. The unconformity
decay of uranium ·and thorium, and k is a decay constant based upon
the U/Th ratio and has a value of 1.56 X I0- 4 • between episodes C and B apparently formed between
U/Th ratio from X-ray fluorescence analyses by F. J. Flanagan is 1.0 for
samples 59-0T-100, 59-0T-101, 69-0T-102, 59-0T-110, and 59-0T-111 (M · 400 and 260 m.y. ago. In order to allow for the
1.5) ; assumed 1.0 for other samples. ·
deposition of the sediments in which episode-C
syenite and granite is emplaced, the unconformity is
Piedmont of southern North Carolina or in South probably closer to 400 than to 260 m.y. old. It appar-
41-.
Carolina. Some measure of the probable age of the ently was formed between Ordovician and Devonian
unconformities and of the sediment_ary and pyro- ·
time.
clastic rocks they bracket have been sought by the
authors through the lead-alpha ages of zircons from The ages of the zircon crystals from rocks in epi-
plutonic igneous rocks emplaced during one or an- sode A doubtless are modified by loss of lead during
other of the three episodes listed in table 3. Many the profound metamorphism of episode B. We do
'"· pounds of saprolite were panned to obtain each not yet know when these rocks were emplaced, but
~ircon concentrate. In addition, three samples of it is likely that they were intruded into sediments
coarse-grained zircon were kindly given to the of late Precambrian and Cambrian age. The un-
writers by G. S. Switzer of the U.S. National conformity between episodes Band A may have been
Museum. formed between Cambrian and Ordovician time.
Direct measurements of the ages of the sediments
in the three episodes is being attempted by A. A. REFERENCES
Stromquist, A. M. White, and T. W. Stern by Bell, Henry, III, 1960, A synthesis of geologic work in the
analyzing zircon from felsic lavas interbedded. with Concord area, North Carolina, in Short papers in the
the sediments. This work, however, is not yet geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B,
p. B189-B191.
completed.
Bell, Henry, III~ and Overstreet, W. C., 1959, Relations among
~.,he results of ·lead-alpha age determinations on
some dikes in Cabarrus County, North Carolina: South
17 of the 21 samples fall into three groups (table 4) Carolina Div. Geology, Geol. Notes, v. 3, no. 2, p. 1-5.
B-106 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 3.-Summary of Paleozo-ic geologic events in the Ca1·olina Piedmont

Episode of
folding, meta- Rock Metamorphism
morphism,
Era and igneous
activity Sedimentary Igneous Regional Contact

Unconformity
-----·-------------------~---------------------~---------------------------~----------------·--·--·---·--·-

Syenite, gabbro, PY"7 Syenite, gabbro, pyroxe- ~one attributable to

roxenite, norite; nite, norite and granites syenite; feeble local
granitic rocks, typi- unaffected by progres- contact effect from
cally form circular sive regional metamor- gabbro, pyroxenite,
plutons and elongate phism, but show some and norite; feeble in-
cross-cutting bodies; retrogressive features crease in metamor-
felsic and mafic flows chiefly resulting from phism at granite con-
c and dikes associated cataclasis; felsic and tacts; no metamor-
with the pyroclastic mafic dikes and flows phism attributable to
and sedimentarv show effects of low- felsic and mafic
rocks. ·· grade regional meta- feeder dikes.
morphism.
1-------·---·---·--- --------·-------·---- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Argillite, graywacke, Progressive, seldom ex-
pyroclastic rocks. ceeding greenschist
facies; slight retro-
gressive.
--------~--------·-·---·~-------------------------~-----------------------~-----------------------

Unconformity
Paleozoic --·---------~-------------------~----------·--·-·--·-·-·-·-·~---------------~------------

Granitic rocks, typically \Videspread migmatiza- Granites of episode B

concordant plutons; tion; retrogressive effects react retrooTessively
gabbro, pyroxenite, such as recrystallization on inclusio7ts of gail-
andesite dikes· mafic of biotite attributable bro and pyroxenite
flows, and felsic dikes to episode C. of episode B; may
and flows associated have large contact
with pyroclastic and aureoles in green-
sedimentary rocks. schist and albite-
B epidote amphibolite
Argillite, graywacke, Progressive, ranging from zones; litt.le or no
pyroclastic· rocks, greenschist facies to aureoles in higher
local sandstone and sillimanite-garnet sub- grade zones; no evi-
limestone; now seen facies; retrogressive dence of metamor-
as schists, gneisses, features attributable to phism induced by
migmatites, quart- episode C locally com- feeder dikes for mafie
zites and marble. mon; highest-grade and felsic flows;
rocks show some re- retrogressive effects
{~rystallization of biotite associated with the
a.nd retrogression of granites of episode C.
sillimanite to sericite.

Unconformity

Granitic rocks. Apparently strongly meta- Relations essentially

morphosed in episode B. unknown.
---?-- ------------------------------------1---------·-----------
Gmywacke, pyro- Progressive, ranging from
Late elastic rocks, local greenschist facies to
Precambrian A limestone; now seen sillim:Ulite-garnet sub- ·...t.
as schists, gneisses, facies; locally retro-
calc-silicate rocks; gressive.
migmatites common.

Unconformity, widespread erosion

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------·--·--·~·--·--·-------------·--·--·--------------

Precambrian Basement unobserved in the Carolina Piedmont

 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-107
TABLE 4.-Con·elation of selected lead-alpha ages of zi?"con Jonas, A. 1., 1932, Structure of the metamorphic belt of the
C'rystals southern Appalachians: Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., v. 24,
p. 228-243~
Episode of
folding, meta-
Keith, Arthur, 1923, Outlines of Appalachian structure: Geol.
morphism, Lead-alpha Soc. America Bull., v. 34, no. 2, p. 309-380.
and i~n.eous Hock Sample No. age
IICtiVlty (millions Kesler, T. L., 1944, Correlation of some metamorphic rocks in
(tnble 3) of years) the central Carolina Piedmont: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
v. 55, p. 755-782.
Unconformity below sedimentary rocks of Late Triassic age - - - , 1955, The Kings Mountain area, in Russell, R. J., ed.,
1955, Guides to southeastern geology: Geol. Soc. America
Syenite. : . ......... U.S.N.M. 105674 ..... 255 ±30 Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., p. 374-387.
Syenite ............. U.S.N.M. 80114 ...... 280 ±30
C drn.nite ............ 59-0T-107 .......... 260 ±30 King, P. B., 1951, The tectonics of middle North America:
Gmnite ............ 59-0T-102 .......... 270 ±30 Princeton, N. J., Princeton Univ. Press, p. 3-203.
Gt·n.nite ............ 59-0T-UO .......... 245 ±30 - - - , 1955, A geologic section across the southern Appala-
Grn.nite ............ 59-0T-lOl .......... 255 ±30 chians: an outline of the geology in the segment in
Tennessee, North Carolina, and 'south Carolina, in Rus-
Unconformity sell, R. J., ed., 1955, Guides to southeastern geology: Geol.
Soc. America Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg., p. 332-373.
Grn.nite ............ IPE ................ 445 ±50 Long, L. E., Kulp, J. L., and Eckelmann, F. D., 1959, Chronol-
.13 Granite ............ IPF ................ 360 ±40
Granite ............ lPG ................ 430 ±50 ogy of major metamorphic events in the southeastern
Granite ............. IPH .................... 300±35 United States: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 257, no. 8, p. 585-603.
Overstreet, W. C., and Bell, Henry, III, 1960, Geologic rela-
tions inferred from the provisional geologic map of the
Uneonfoi·mity crystalline rocks of South Carolina, in Short papers in the
geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B,
Gneissic: gm.nodiorite IPA ................ 505±55 p; B197-B199.
Gneissi'c grn.nodiorite IPB·................ 495 ±55 Overstreet, W. C., and Griffitts, W. R., 1955, Inner Piedmont
Gneissic gm.nocliorite IPC ................ 380 ± 100
A Gneissic gntnodiorite IP.D ................ 470 ±55 belt, in Russell, R. J., ed., 1955, Guides to southeastern
Gmnite ............ 59-0T-Ul (N.M. 1.5) 565±65 geology: Geol. Soc. America Guidebook, 1955 Ann. Mtg.,
Gmnite ............ 59-0T-111 (M 1. 5) 505 ±55 p. 549-577.
Gneiss ............. USNM 97589 ........ 550 ± 60 Stromquist, A. A., and Conley, J. F., 1959, Geology of the
Albemarle and Denton quadrangles, North Carolina:
Carolina Geol. Soc., Field .Trip Guidebook, p. 1-36.
Griffitts, W. R., and Overstreet, W. C., 1952, Granite rocks of Stuckey, J. L., and Conrad, S. G., 1958, Explanatory text for
the western Carolina Piedmont: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 250, geologic map of North Carolina: North Carolina Dept.
p. 777-789. Conserv. Devel., Div. Mineral Resources, Bull. 71, p. 3-51.

... ·~

46. TIDAL };'LUCTUATIONS OF WATER LEVELS IN WELLS IN CRYSTALLINE ROCKS IN NORTH GEORGIA

By J. W. STEWART, Atlanta, Ga.

Wm·k done in coope1·ation with the U. S. Atom.ic Energy Commission and the
U. S. Air Force

The semidiurnal water-level fluctuations of a tidal 84°8'W., about 240 miles west of the Atlantic Ocean
period were observed in wells in metamorphic and 300 miles north of the Gulf of Mexico. This is
crystalline rocks during a geologic and hydrologic believed to be the first reported occurrence of tidal
study at the Georgia Nuclear Laboratory in Dawson fluctuations in wells drilled in metamorphic rocks.
County, Ga. The laboratory is about 45 miles north- The Georgia Nuclear Laboratory site is underlain
northeast of Atlanta, at lat 34°25'N. and long by metamorphic crystalline rocks and by a mantle of
 ~
0 t:d
z
cno
I
L&Jo
~ ::.:.!: First quarter Full moon Last quarter New moon First quarter 0""""""
00
t;; 51.8 " ' ' ' ' ' ' 51.8

::.:.!:
:::> 52.0
f-
(5
L&J
(.)
<(
~
0::
:::>
en
0 52.2
z
<(
...J Wale' le•~ In well TW-6 \
~
0
...J
L&J
CD
52.4 I ~
f- t.%j
L&J
L&J
~ 0
t"'l

-
z 0
_j ~
L&J
>
L&J 52.61 0
>
...J
0::
L&J
f-
""I
Lower transit of moon
shown by vertical lines
t"'l
r:n
<(
~ e
::0
52.8 I <
t.%j
~

33.81 ::0
t.%j
L&J'
r:n
t.%j
0::
:::>0::
cnL&J
/ Inverted barometric pressure
~~ ~'\] I ::0>
cnf-
L&J<C
0
g:~
34.0 I
::r:
(.)0
~
,_.
ii:f- co
f-L&J
l.&JL&J ,_.
()')

::.:.!:~
Oz
~-
CD
34.2
I
2.0
~
~~
<(:X:
~(.)
1.0
zz
~-
0::
0
I 9 I 10 I 11 I 12 I 13 I 14 I 15 I
APRIL 1959 MAY

FIGURE 46.1.- Water-level fluctuations in well TW -6, inverted barometric pressure, and rainfall.

-f ,, T }- l + .., A; ... t ~ #· ...... . /.."':

 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-109
saprolite derived from weathering of these rocks. drilled in quartz-mica-amphibole schist showed no
The saprolite consists of a soil cover, a zone of highly fluctuations.
weathered saprolite, and a zone of slightly to mod- The transmissibility of the quartz-mica schist
.erately weathered saprolite. Bedding and foliation was 210 gpd/ft (gallons per day per foot), whereas
at the site dip about 50° to 70° SE. Ground water is the transmissibility of the biotite schist was 60
found both in the saprolite and in the ·unweathered gpd/ft, and that of the quartz-mica-amphibole schist
rock, but on high hills and ridges ground water was 7 gpd/ft.
generally occurs only in hard rock. For two wells the average daily retardation of the
'Of twenty-six 6-inch wells in the area, four bottom moon's transit for the periods of records computed
at a depth of 400 feet and 22 at depths ranging from was 49.1 and 48.8 minutes (U. S. Naval Observatory,
50 to 137 feet. Water levels in the wells ranged 1957), and the average daily retardation of the
from about 4 feet below land surface in valleys to peaks and troughs in the wells for the same periods
as much as 60 feet below land surface on hills and was 48.1 and 49.8 minutes, respectively. The tidal
ridges. Tidal fluctuations were observed in 3 of the fluctuations in a third well were partly masked by
4 wells 400 feet deep. None of the other wells showed recharge from precipitation, and the average daily
tidal fluctuations, but the water levels in most of retardation of the peaks and trough could not be
the wells were affected by changes in barometric determined with acceptable accuracy. '
pressure. The water-level fluctuations were more regular
Figure 46.1 shows the water-level fluctuations ob- and the amplitude of the fluctuations was greater
served in well TW-6 during a lunar cycle and the during periods of new and full moon, when the tide-
corresponding barometric pressure changes and rain- producing forces were greatest, than they were dur-
fall during the cycle. The water level in the well did ing periods of the first and last qua·rters when the
not appear to be affected to any great extent by tide-producing forces were smallest. The amplitude
changes in barometric pressure. of the maximum fl~ctuations was about 0.25 foot
In general, ground water at the laboratory site and the amplitude of the minimum fluctuations was
occurs under confined and unconfined conditions in about 0.01 foot. The lowest water levels in the wells
the saprolite and under confined conditions in the generally coincided with the time of the moon's tran-
hard unweathered rock. Ground water occurs in the sit at upper and lower culmination, as shown by
pore spaces and in fractured quartz veins in the the short vertical lines in figure 46.1.
saprolite, and the degree of confineme:nt of the water The following evidence indicates that the semi-
depends upon the composition, thickness, and extent diurnal fluctuations of water levels are the result of
of the saprolite, and differences in the permeability earth tides produced by the attraction of the moon
of the beds. The porosity of th~ saprolite averages and sun: (a) two daily cycles of water-level fluctua-
about 46 percent. On the other hand, the unweat.h- tions occur in the wells, about 50 minutes later each
ered rocks are dense and massive, and ground water day; (b) the close agreement of the average daily
occurs chiefly in joints and other openings in the retardation of the peaks and troughs in the wells
rock. The porosity of the unweathered rock averages with that of the average daily retardation of the
about 4 percent. Where the rock is close to the moon's transit; (c) the occurrence of regular fl uctua-
surface many of the joints and cracks are filled with tions of maximum amplitudes during periods of
clay and silt to depths slightly above or below the new and full moon and irregular fluctuations of mini-
water table. Thus, the overlying clay and silt zones, mum amplitudes during periods of the first and last
the dense nonpermeable rock, and the sealed joints quarters of the moon; and (d) the coincidence of
and cracks above the zone of saturation probably the lowest water levels in wells with that of the
cause local confinement of the water in the ·hard moon's transit at upper and lower culmination.
rock.
A well drilled in quartz-mica schist and another REFERENCE
in biotite schist showed very distinct tidal fluctua- U.S. Naval Observatory, 1957, The American Ephemeris and
tions; another well drilled in the quartz-mica schist Nautical Almanac for the year 1959: Nautical Almanac
showed less pronounced fluctuations; and one well Office.
 B-110 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF WESTERN CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES

47. A NEW MAP OF WESTERN CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES SHOWING THE MAXIMUM KNOWN OR
INFERRED EXTENT OF PLEISTOCENE LAKES

By J. H. FETH, Menlo Park, Calif.

Maps showing Pleistocene lakes of the Basin and TABLE 1.-References fo·r mar showing extent of Pleistocene
lakes- (Continued)
Range Province were published by Meinzer (1922)
and Hubbs and Miller (1948). The one compiled by
Map no.,
Hubbs and Miller is accompanied by a lengthy bib- (fig. 47.1) Reference
liography and provides essentially complete coverage
of the Great Basin. A new map, figure 47.1, includes 4 ....... .. Moulder, E. A., and Kohout, F. A., 1958, U.S.
new information gathered as a result of the large Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1424, 198 p.
5 ....... .. Schwennesen, A. T., and Meinzer, 0. E., 1918,
amount of geologic mapping done during the last U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 425-E,
15 years. This recent mapping has refined some of p. 131-158.
Newcomb, R. C., 1958, Am. Jour. Sci., v. 256,
the earlier data, and has also disclosed many addi- no. 5, p. :328-340.
tional areas, some of large size, that were occupied 6 ........ .. Pardee, J. T., 1910, Jour, Geology, v. 18, no. 4,
p. 376-386.
by Pleistocene lakes both within and outside the Langton, C. M., 19~35, Jour. Geology, v. 4:3,
areas covered by the earlier maps. The large num- no. 1, p. 27-60.
Fox, P. P., 1955, Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
ber of lakes outside the Basin and Range Province v. 66; no. 12, p. 1713.
have not been shown previously on a single com- 7 ....... .. Allison, I. S., 1953, Oregon Dept. Geol. and
Min. Industries Bull. 37, 18 p.
pilation. 8 ........ . Wheeler, H. E., and Cook, E. F., 1954, Jour.
Names are not shown for the Pleistocene lakes on Geology, v. 62, p. 525-536. . .
9 ........ . Orr, P. C., Hl59, oral commumeatwn.
figure 47.1 because many of them are either un- 10 ........ . Howard, A. D., 1937, Geol. Soc. America Spec.
named or are named only informally and because Paper 6, xii, 159 p.
11 ........ . Trauger, F. D., 1950, U. S. Geol. Survey open-
many others have been given more than one, name. file rept., 287 p.
12 ........ . Piper, A. M., and others, 19:39, U. S. Geol.
A list of references, table 1, is keyed by number to Survey Water-Supply Paper 841, 189 p.
individual lake basins or to groups of basins shown Wallace, R. E., and Calkins, .J. A., 1956, U.S.
Geol. Survey Min. Inv. Field Studies Map MF·82.
on the map (fig. 47.1). The list merely supports the 1:3 ........ . Meinzer, 0. E., 1922, Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
map and does not constitute a complete bibliography v. 3:3, no. 3, p. 541-552.
14 ........ . Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, California Div. Mines
on the subject. In general, the reference given for Econ. Minerals Map 2 (revised 1951).
each lake basin is the earliest one found that is 15 ........ . Hubbs, C. L., and Miller, R. R., 1948, Utah
Univ. Bull., v. 38, no. 20, p. 18--166.
accompanied by a map sqowing the outline of the 16 ........ . Russell, I. C., 1885, U. S. Geol. Survey Mon.
Pleistocene lake. 11, 288 p. . t-
17 ........ . Gilbert, G. K., 1890, U.S. Geol. Survey Mon.
1, 438 p. 1
TABLE 1.-Reje·rences for map showing· extent of Pleistocene 18 ........ . Love, J. D., ·weit.z, J. L., and Hose, R. K., Hl55,
, • lakes Geologic map of Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey.
lH ....... .. W. P. Irwin, 1959, oral communication.
20 ....... .. Frink, J. W., and Kues, H. A., 1954, Am. Assoc.
Map no., Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 38, no. 11,
(fig. 47.1) H.eferenee p. 2357-2371.
Davis, G. H., and Poland, J. F., 1957, U. S.
Geol. Survey ·water-Supply Paper 1360-G,
1......... Hobbs, W. H., 194.5, Geol. Soc. Amel'iea Bull., p. 409-588.
v. 56, no. 12, p. Jlui. 21 ........ . Matthes, F. E., Hl30, U. S. Geol. Survey Prof.
Bretz, J. H., Smith, H. T. U., and Neff, G. K, Paper 160, 137 p.
1956, Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 67, no. 8, 22 ........ . Russell, I. C., 1889, U. S. Geol. Survey 8th
p. 957-l04n. Ann. Rept., p. 261-394.
2. . . . . . . . . Alden, \V. C., 1932, Physiography and gbcinl 2:3 ........ . Mayo, E. B., 1934, Science n. s., v. 80, no.
geology of eastem Montana and adjacent areas: 2065, p. 95-96.
U. S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 174, 133 p. 24 ........ . Miller, W: J., 1928, Jour. Geology, v. 3(), no.
Bretz, .J. H., Smith, H. T. U., and Neff, G. E., 6, p .•510-525.
1956, Geol. Soc. Amez·ica Bull., v. 67, no. 8,
p. 957-1049.
0. . . . . . . . . Alden, W. C., HJ:32, Ph~·siography and glacial
geolog.v of eastern Montana and adjacent areas: 1 In light of recent studies ( M. D. Crittenden, oral communication, 1961),
U. S. Geol. Surve_,. Prof. Paper 174: 133 p. the Escalante arm of Lake Bonneville has been deleted.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146
B-111

EXPLANATION
,34
Maximum area of Pleistocene lake reported
in the literature or by personal communi-
cation

,43
Number refers w reference in adfacent list

Area inferred by present writer from de-

scriptions unaccompanied by any available
map of lake basin
Number refers to reference in ad)"acent list · 0 lOOMILES

FIGURE 47.1.-Map of western conterminous United States showing maximum known or inferred extent of Pleistocene lakes
reported in the literature.

~·.
B-112 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE l.-Refe1·ences for map showing extent of Pleistocene TABLE !.-References fo1' map showing extent of Pleistocene
lakes- (Continued) lakes- (Continued)

Map no., Map no.,

(fig. 47.1) Reference (fig. 47.1) Reference

25 ........ . Miller, R. R., 1946, .Jour, Geology, v. 54, no. 1, 39. . . . . . . . . Schwennesen, A. T., 1.917, U. S. Geol. Survey
p. 43-53 .. Water-Supply Paper 425-A, p. 1-36.
Blackwelder, Eliot, 1933, Geog. Review, v. 23, 40. . . . . . . . . Meinzer, 0. E., and Kelton, F. C., 1913, U. S.
no. 3, p. 464-471. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 320, 231 p.
26 ........ . Gale, H. S., 1914, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 41. . . . . . . . . Schwennesen, A. T., 1918, U. S. Geol. Survey
580-L, p. 251-323. 'Vater-Supply Paper 422, 152 p.
27 ........ . Dibblee, T. "\V., Jr., 1952, California Div. Mines 42.. . . . . . . . Kottlowski, F. E., 1958, Geol. Soc. America
Bull. 160, p. 7-43. Bull., v. 69, no. 12, p. 1733-1734.
28 ........ . Thompson, D. G., 1929, U. S. Geol. Survey 43. . . . . . . . . Metzger, D. G., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and
Water-Supply Paper 578, 759 p. others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept.,
Hewett, D. F., 1956, U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. p. 171-176.
Paper 275, 172 p. 44. . . . . . . . . Coates, D. R., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and
Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, California Div. Mines others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept.,
Econ. Minerals Map 2 (revised 1951). p. 159-164.
29 ........ . Buwalda, J. P., 1914, California Univ., Dept. 45. . . . . . . . . Wolcott, H. N., 1952, in Halpenny, L. C., and
Geol. Sci. Bull., v. 7, p. 443-464. others, U. S. Geol. Survey open-file rept.,
30 ........ . Bassett, A. M., Kupfer, D. H., and Barstow, p. 171-176.
F. C., 1959, U. S. Geol. Survey Bull 1045-D,
p. 97-138. .
31 ........ . Longwell, C. R., 1936, Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
v. 47, no. 9, p. 1393-1476 REFERENCES
C. R. Longwell, 1959, oral communication.
32 ........ . Feth, J. H., previous work.
33 ........ . Merrill, G. P., 1908, Smithsonian Inst. Washington Hubbs, C. L., and Miller, R. R., 1948, The zoological evidence;
Misc. Collections No. 50, p. 461-498. Correlation between fish distribution and hydrographic
34 ........ . Jenkins, 0. P., 1923, Am. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., history in the desert basins of western United States, in
v. 5, no. 25, p. 65-81.
35 ........ . Meinzer, 0. E., 1911, U.S. Geol. Survey Water- The Great Basin: Utah Univ. Bull., v. 38, no. 20, p. 18-
Supply Paper 275, 89 p. 166.
36 ........ . R. H. ·weber, 1959, written communication. Meinzer, 0. E., 1922, Map of the Pleistocene lakes of the
37 ........ . Powers, W. E., 1933, Science n. s., v. 77, p. 51-52. Basin-and-Range Province and its significance: Geol. Soc.
)
38 ........ . Brown, J. S., 1923, U. S. Geol. Survey Water-
Supply Paper 497, 292 p. America Bull., v. 33, no. 3, p. 541-552.

·<

48. RECENT FLOOD-PLAIN FORMATION ALONG THE CIMARRON RIVER IN KANSAS

By S. A. SCHUMM and R. W. LICHTY, Denver, Colo. t·

Areas of particular interest to the geomorpho- sluggish nature is everywhere manifest during times
logist are· ones in which processes of erosion or of low water." Figure 48.1 illustrates the general
deposition are occurring at a rapid rate. A striking appearance of the channel prior to 1914. Although
example is the valley of Cimarron River ·in south- the river bed both to the southeast and to the south-
western .Kansas, where within the past 46 years west in Oklahoma has always been relatively wide
substantial changes have occurred in the widths of and sandy during historic times, the Cimarron Val-
the channel and of the flood-plain. ley in Kansas prior to a destructive flood in 1914
The river in Kansas was described by Haworth was quite different, as shown by comparison of fig-
,..
(1897) in the latter part of the 19th century as fol- ures 48.1 and 48.2.
lows: "The Cimarron seems to have reached base- McLaughlin (1947) described the channel widen-
level and to have begun meandering across its flood ing and flood plain destruction which followed the
plain. Beautiful oxbow curves are frequent, and a flood of 1914. He reported that in 1874 the channel
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-113
TABLE l.-Ave1·age width of Cima1'1'0n Rive1· channel in
Kansas by counties

Years measured and average

Number of channel width (feet)
County cross sections
measured
1874 I 1939 I 1954 1960
------ - --
).[orton ...... . 31 56 2,050 800 910
Stevens. . . .. .. . .... ... . 11 43 1,500 630
Grant ........... . .. .. . . 19 54 630 190 190
Haskell .... . 5 32 480 250 260
Seward .............. . 40 28 900 440 535
Meade .... .. ... . . ..... . 14 92 1,050 850 800
---------
Weig hted average ..... . 48 1,200 560

1 From McLaughlin, 1947; measurements at 34 l'>Calities not used in the

tabulation.

FIGURE 48.1.-Valley of Cimarron River in southeastern

Meade County, Kans., prior to the flood of 1914. Photo-
graph taken by Willard Drake Johnson, U.S. Geological
During a period of 29 years (1914 to 1942), the
Survey, during the 1890's. Cimarron River in Kansas was altered from a nar-
row meandering stream (fig. 48.1) to one which
of Cimarron River had an average width of 51 feet had destroyed most of its former flood plain (fig.
in 6 counties of southwestern Kansas as measured 48.2).
along section lines. Channel width increased to an A major flood in 1942 was followed by a period
average of 1,160 feet measured at the same sections of above-average rainfall; however, floods were of
in 1939. Discharge records at Liberal, Kans., and low to moderate intensity until 1950. Examination
dates of highway bridge destruction indicate that of aerial photographs reveals that during the 15-
channel width may have been at a maximum in 1942. year period between 1939 and 1954 the channel of
Cimarron River narrowed an average of 640 feet,
from 1,200 feet to 560 feet (table 1). The narrowing
apparently occurred because the above-average pre-
cipitation in the first half of this period promoted a
vigorous growth of vegetation which anchored the
sediments in parts of the channel and prevented
erosion during flooding.
Average channel widths for five counties were
measured on aerial photographs in 1960 and are
listed on table 1. A slight widening is suggested by
the measurements. This may be the result of a
moderately large flood in 1958 preceded by a period
of low rainfall. It is doubtful, however, that the
channel will become as wide as it was in 1939. In
that earlier period, vegetation on the flood plain
was mostly grass, whereas cottonwood, willow, and
saltcedar trees are growing abundantly on the
present flood plain. The deeper tree roots will un-
doubtedly tend to stabilize the new flood plain. They
will tend to resist bank erosion by binding together
the alluvium and, where exposed, by increasing
channel roughness, which has the effect of decreasing
FIGURE48.2. -Present channel of Cimarron River near Way- the velocity of flow at the banks.
noka, Okla. The channel in Kansas had much the same
appearance during the period of channel widening, 1914 To summarize, the destruction of the flood plain
to 1942. in 1914 occurred during a period of large floods
B-114 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

and deficient precipitation. Flood-plain construction REFERENCES

occurred during a 9-year period when no large floods Haworth, Erasmus, 1897, Underground waters of southwest-
occurred and precipitation was above normal. Ap- ern Kansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 6,
parently flood-plain growth depended on the estab- 65 p.
McLaughlin, T. G., 1947, Accelerated channel erosion in the
lishment and survival of vegetation in the stream Cimarron valley in southwestern Kansas: Jour. Geology,
channel. v. 55, p. 76-93.

49. ABNORMAL BEDDING IN THE SAVANNA SANDSTONE AND BOGGY SHALE IN SOUTHEASTERN
OKLAHOMA

By THOMAS A. HENDRICKS, Denver, Colo.

Some sandstone units within the Savanna sand- of the abnormally dipping beds is relatively straight
stone and Boggy shale of Pennsylvanian age in the and the bedding planes are subparallel. The sharp
McAlester district of southeastern Oklahoma have. bend at the west end of each bed is due to topography.
an unusual type of bedding in areas as large as a Beds of this type have been described by Dane, Roth-
half mile across. Where abnormally bedded the in- rock, and Williams (1938, p. 163-164). Where they
dividual sandstone units are coarser grained and have been observed they dip to the south, and may be
thicker than elsewhere. Consequently, they are more traced for as inuch as half a mile. Other steeply
resistant to erosion, so that the areas are topographi- dipping beds have a roughly concentric·outcrop pat-
cally high and the outcrops of the sandstone beds tern. Remnants of a sandstone unit with steeply
form promontories extending updip from the normal and concentrically dipping beds are shown in the
trace of the cuesta front. A good example of the lower part of figure 49.1, but the abnormally bedded
abnormally dipping .sandstone beds about 6 miles sandstone has been removed by erosion in most of
east of McAlester was mapped partly by planetable the west half of original area of occurrence. At other
and partly by sketching and is shown on figure 49.1. places and on relatively level surfaces, the outcrop
Subaqueous land-slip deposits have been observed of such beds is continuous in a crude circle.
in the Savanna sandstone and Boggy shale by Dane, The beds with abnormal dips terminate sharply
Rothrock, and Williams ( 1938), Hendricks ( 193 9), and without curvature against the underlying shale
and others. They differ from the abnormally bedded beds at most places, but locally the dip of some beds
deposits here discussed in several ways, particularly decreases at the lower contact (fig. 49.2).
t-
in that the bedding and lithologic types are dis- The shale underlying the sandstone unit in the
ordered. area of figure 49.1 contains thin beds of fine-grained
In the area of abnormal bedding (fig. 49.1) the sandstone having on their bottom surfaces miniature
sandstone beds are as much as 10 feet thick, are flute casts, groove casts, prod marks; and other fea-
laminated but have no shale partings or beds, and tures considered characteristic of turbidity-current
consist of medium- to coarse-grained sands. The deposition. The orientation of these features indi-
cementation varies by beds so that some are mark-
cates a current direction from west to east, which
edly more resistant to erosion than others and crop
is nearly parallel to the axis of the basin of deposition
out prominently. The angle between the abnormal
bedding and the regional dip of true bedding is com- of the Savanna sandstone (Hendricks, 1939, p. 273).
monly about 30°, or close to the angle of repose of Invertebrate marine fossils are common in this
sand. Local increases of dip of abnormal bedding shale unit 50 feet or more below the sandstone unit
to higher angles are believed to be due to movement shown in figure 49.1, and 25 to 45 species have been
after initial deposition. In many places, such as identified from each of several collections from this
along section A-A' (figs. 49.1 and 49.2), the strike shale from other places in the McAlester district
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-115
.~

.J
l'

EXPLANATION

D
Resistant sandstone bed

D
Less resistant E'l.ndstone bed

--------
Outline of dip slope

-------
Contact of sandstone and shale

~
~
Shale containing thin sandstone beds

'y
Dip of abnonnal beds

"<8 ---=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=--=-=-::-:-:-.:-.:-=-=-=
--=================================:=:=:======
--=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=~-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=
·-:::-:::-=-=-=-:-:-::::-:-:-::-::-:-:-::-:-.,?4-::-=-=----:_- --=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=

·-=:~~~~~r~:~illllllllifllllllllllilllllll
Regional dip

A A'
Line of section

-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-;__-_-_-_-_---_-_-_-_-________ _:----

.~-==-------------
::-:-=-=~~ -_-_-:_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_-_;-
-_=-=-=~-=-=-=-.:-.:-=-= ~-=--

0 100 200 300 400 FEET

.,·

J:4.,IGURE 49.1.-Sketch map of an area of Savanna sandstone with abnormal bedding, El/2 sec. 32, T. 6 N., R. 16 E., Pittsburg
County, Okla. See sections, figure 49.2. 1
B-116 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

A A'

---
- --
----- ---- ---
- ---
-----·-------:____-
---- ------- ---------:.
SECTION ACROSS FORESET BEDS WITH RELATIVELY UNIFORM DIP

B
\.

SECTION ACROSS BEDS WITH CONCENTRIC DIP

0 100 200 FEET

FIGURE 49.2.-Cross sections in area (fig.· 49.1) of Savanna sandstone with abnormal bedding. Resistant beds in the sandstone
unit are shaded.

(Hendricks, 1937). The brachiopods and pelecypods 2. Sheetlike currents from the north carried sand
characteristically still have the two ·valves joined. across the submerged mud flats. The sub-
Some of the sandstone units with abnormal bed- parallel straight beds with abnormal dip (sec-
ding, such as the one in the area of figure 49.1, are tion A-A', fig. 49.2) are believed to have been
overlain within a few feet by a coal zone; others formed nearshore as foreset beds by deposition
are overlain by shale that contains a few marine from these strong currents flowing over a broad
fossils. area.
These features suggest the following interpreta- The centripetally. or concentrically dipping
tion of the conditions of deposition for a sequence beds (section B-B', fig. 49.2) are believed to
of beds <;ontaining in its middle part a sandstone have formed by scour and fill by somewhat
with abnormal bedding: stronger currents. The current is believed to
1. Clay and silt were deposited in water shallow have developed locally strong eddies that
enough to be hospitable for a varied fauna but scoured, in the unconsolidated sediments, deep
· so deep that waves and currents did not un- elliptical holes similar to those formed when a
cover and disjoin fragile bivalves. Such deposi- river breaks through a levee (Hendricks and
tion could occur a short distance below wave Parks, 1950, p. 91-92). Subsequent currents
base. A heavy rain of clay and silt probably passing above the scour hole carried sediment
buried the organisms very quickly and was of mixed grain size with the coarser sizes at
periodically interrupted by weak turbidity cur-
the bottom. These coarser sizes dropped into
rents that moved generally parallel to the axis
the still water of the scour hole from all sides
of the basin of deposition and deposited· thin
beds of sand. and formed foreset beds with crudely concen-
This type of deposition continued until the tric attitudes. Successive flood currents pro-
basin was filled nearly to sea level, and· pro- duced other concentric foreset beds inside those
duced a mud flat which at times may have been previously deposited.
exposed at low tide, ·as is suggested by discon- 3. At times, mud and sand were subsequently de-
tinuous red beds in this zone. posited to form broad coastal swamps in which
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 ·B-117
coal-forming materials were deposited. At homa coal field, pt. 3. The Quinton-Scipio district,
other times, subsidence deepened the water and Pittsburg, Haskell, and Latimer Counties: U.S. Geol.
Survey Bull. 874-C, p. 151-253.
initiated another major cycle of deposition. Hendricks, T. A., 1937, Geology and fuel resources of the
Conditions that resulted in the deposition southern part of the Oklahoma coal field, pt. 1, McAlester
of the abpormally dipping beds were repeated district, Pitts.burg, Atoka, and Latimer Counties: U.S.
locally during the accumulation of many sand- Geol. Survey Bull. 874-A, p. 1-90. ·
stone units throughout about 3,000 feet of beds - - , 1939, Geology and fuel resources of the southern part
in the Savanna and Boggy formations. of the Oklahoma coal field, pt. 4, The Howe-Wilburton
district, Latimer and LeFlore Counties: U.S. Geol. Survey
Bull. 874-D, p. 255-300.
REFERENCES Hendricks, T. A., and Parks, Bryan, 1950, Geology of the Fort
Dune, C. H., Rothrock, H. E., and Williams, J. S., 1938, Geol- Smith district, Arkansas: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
ogy and fuel resources of the southern part of the Okla- 221-E, p. 67-93.

50. RESERVOIR EVAPORATION AND SEEP AGE, HONEY CREEK, TEXAS

By F. W. KENNON, Oklahoma City, Okla.

'rhis report describes an investigation of evapora- stage recession adjusted for precipitation. Thirty-
tion and seepage losses from 12 flood-retarding reser- three months of evaporation records were so com-
voirs in the upper 36 square miles of Honey Creek puted. Monthly evaporation figures obtained by this
basin (fig. 50.1), a tributary of the Trinity River. method agree well with those obtained by the mass-
Records are available for the period October 1952 transfer method.
through September 1959. Honey Creek watershed is Secondly, estimates of evaporation were made
in north-central Texas about 35 miles north of from observations at a 24-inch screened sunken pan
Dallas. It lies in the Black Prairie physiographic located about 30 miles directly west of Honey Creek.
province and is underlain by the Austin chalk of A correlation between the pan and reservoir 12 was
Late Cretaceous age, which is composed primarily obtained by ·comparing evaporation from the pan
of chalk, marl, and claystone. with evaporation from the reservoirs as determined
The surface areas of the reservoirs range from by mass transfer and the method described above.
12 to 44 acres and capacities range from 81 to 421 Estimate of evaporation during periods of inflow
acre-feet at the elevations of the outlets. Water- or outflow could then be made by measuring evapo-
stage recorders were installed at reservoirs 11 and ration from the pan .
. 12 (fig. 50.1) and staff gages were install~d at the The annual (water-year) evaporation, in feet, de-
other 10 reservoirs. Precipitation was measured at termined for reservoir 12 by the mass-transfer and
14 places in the basin during the investigation. other methods is given below:
Evaporation from reservoirs 11, 12, and 13 was 1959 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959
measured by the mass-transfer method for the period 5.01 5.16 5.04 . 6.31 4.76 4.25 5.41
October 1957 through September 1959. Evaporation
from the remaining reservoirs during this period The. average of the annual evaporation rates is 5.13
was assumed to be the average of evaporation feet. The average annual precipitation on reservoir
amounts measured at reservoirs 11, 12, and 13. 12 for 1953-1959 was 2.93 feet. Hence, the average
As a check, evaporation was estimated by two net annual evaporation loss was 2.20 feet.
other methods at reservoir 12 for the previous 5- During periods of no surface inflow or outflow,
year period, October 1952 to September 1957. First, reservoir seepage equals stage recession plus precipi-
for periods of no inflow or outflow, previously esti- tation on the pool minus evaporation. There was
mated seepage was subtracted from reservoir water- little monthly variation in the reservoir depths so

•
B-118. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

EXPLANATION
BE
Reservoir number

<f-

..:

0 2 MILES

'v Stream gage

FIGURE 50.1.-Honey Creek basin, Texas, showing location of reservoirs and average annual seepage rates.
•
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B_;_l19
t-•
Uj ranged from .0.8 foot to 4~5 feet and ayeraged 2.6
J:
z feet per year.
UJ
a:
J:
<
Aug/ pJuly The seepage rate varied with temperature as
u.. shown in figure 50.2. If the seepage flow is laminar,
en Aug.
UJ
UJ
the rate of flow should vary inversely with the vis-
a: 80
cosity of the water, which in turn is dependentupon
.,. r:;>
Sept.

/0Sept
UJ I>
Cl
the temperature.
~ )
Undoubtedly some water passes under or around
x
UJ
1- each of the earth dams. The flow in the channels
>-' immediately below the dams was not measured when
z 70
UJ

/~1.
z water in the reservoirs was p.ot spilling over, but
~
(.)
'
during rainless periods, the flow frequently. is re-
~
1- ported to be zero at the stream gage about one mile
<
UJ
below reservoir 14. This suggests that no significant
a:
:::>
1-
60 amount of seepage water is passing from the reser-
<
a: Nov.o voirs into the drainage systems below them. Fur-
UJ
a. ,.
thermore, during the month of December 1955, the
~
UJ
1-
a:
< 50
1/ estimated seepage from the lower six reservoirs,
Nos. 9 to 14, was 12.1 acre-feet. The area of the
z stream channels below this group of reservoirs is
<
UJ
~ Feb:) about 11 acres. Evaporation from the r~servoirs for
>-
...J
J: Jan.o oDie . the month was estimated to be 0.21 foot. Evapora-
1-
z
0
tion from a wetted channel bottom probably would
~
J

- 0.05 0.10 0.15 be considerably less than that from a reservoir, be-
SEEPAGE AT RESERVOIR 12, IN FEET PER MONTH cause the channels are deeply incised and bordered
by a dense protecting fringe of trees. In addition,
FIGURE 50.2.-Relation of seepage at reservoir 12 to monthly transpiration by riparian vegetation is negligible
mean air temperature at McKinney, Tex.
during December. However, if the lake evaporation
the effect of head on seepage was essentially con- figure of 0.21 foot is used, channel evaporation would
stant. No water spilled over during the two periods be only 2.3 acre-feet, and 9.8 acre-feet of seepage
July 1958 to February 1959 and August to September water is unaccounted for. As no surface flow passed
1959, and inflow was reported on only 9 days during the stream gage that month, it seems that the major
this time. Thus an observational period of almost portion of the reservoir seepage must leave the basin
a year is available for determining monthly seepage by underflow through cracks and fissures in the
at all reservoirs. The variation in seepage rates for underlying Austin chalk and enter the regional
the 12 reservoirs is shown in figure 50. The rates body of ground water.

·-

51. PRE-PENNSYLVANIAN PALEOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY, MOCKINGBIRD GAP QUADRANGLE, NEW MEXICO

By GEORGE 0. BACHMAN, Denver, Colo.

Wedge-edges of Paleozoic rocks of pre-Pennsyl- by Kelley and Silver ( 1952). The other area is in
vanian age are exposed in two general areas in and near the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, and in-
·" south-central New Mexico. One area is the Caballo cludes parts of the San Andres and Oscura Moun-
and Fra Cristobal Mountains and has been discu~sed tains. Darton (1928, p. 194) described briefly the

•
 B-120 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

lar to subrounded quartz grains. It also includes

some medium-grained carbonate pellets; and locally
a quartz granule conglomerate is at the base of the
formation.
·36°-tt-----f---
. 36' The Bliss sandstone is about 250 feet thick (Cloud
and Barnes, 1948, p. 369) in the type area, which is
0 Gallup in the Franklin Mountains near El Paso, Tex. The
thickness of the Bliss in the Mockingbird Gap quad-
rangle ranges from 19 feet to a wedge-edge (fig.
51.2). Local irregularities in thickness are due to
relief of the underlying Precambrian surface. The
El Paso formation overlies the Bliss gradationally
except in the northern part of the Mockingbird Gap
Hills (fig. 51.2, section C) where Lower Pennsyl-
vanian strata overlie the Bliss unconformably.
El Paso formation.- The El Paso consists chiefly
of light- to medium-gray finely crystalline dolomite
and calcareous dolomite that weathers light olive
to yellowish gray. Individual beds are 2 inches to
2 feet thick. Microscopically the rocks consist of a
.12°
fine mosaic of anhedral to subhedral carbonate crys-
tals, scattered grains of quartz, and a few grains of
glauconite. Fine- to medium-grained quartz sand
locally constitutes 15 to 20 percent by weight of the
FIGURE 51.1.-Index map of New Mexico showing location of basal part of the formation in the quadrangle; this
Mockingbird Gap quadrangle and some nearby mountain proportion decreases upward.
ranges.
The El Paso is 125 feet thick in the southern part
of the Oscura Mountains (fig. 51.2, section D). It
stratigraphic relations in the second area; they
thins rather uniformly northward and wedges out
have received renewed attention during recent geo-
about the middle of the Oscura Mountains (fig. 51.2,
logic mapping.
section G). Locally near its northern termination,
The Mockingbird Gap quadrangle (fig. 51.1) and
the thickness is variable because of channeling by
nearby areas are in the White Sands Missile Range
overlying Pennsylvanian strata. The El Paso is 17
to which access is prohibited to the general public.
feet thick in the southern part of the Mockingbird
I express my appreciation to the Commanding Gen-
Gap Hills, and is absent in the northern part of the
eral, White Sands Missile Range, and his staff, whose
Hills (fig. 51.2, sections B and C).
cooperation made this study possible.
The part of the El Paso formation present in the
STRATIGRAPHY Mockingbird Gap quadrangle is believed to be equiva-
Bedrock exposed in and near the Mockingbird Gap lent to the basal part of the El Paso at its type lo-
quadrangle ranges in age from Precambrian to Per- cality in the Franklin Mountains where the total •'

mian. The Fusselman dolomite of Middle Silurian formation is 1,590 feet thick (Cloud and Barnes,
age wedges out about 28 miles south of the quad- 1948, p. 74). TheEl Paso in the quadrangle is very
rangle (Kottlowski and others, 1956, p. 27) and is similar lithologically to the Sierrite limestone at
not discussed here. the base of the El Paso group as defined by Kelley
Bliss sandstone.-The Bliss sandstone of Late and Silver (1952, p. 42-45).
Cambrian and Early Ordovician age forms a promi- Montoya dolomite.-In the Oscura Mountains the
nent ledge and rests on an undulatory surface on Montoya dolomite of Middle and Late Ordovician
Precambrian crystalline rocks in the Mockingbird age ( Kottlowski and others, 1956, p. 24-25) rests
Gap Hills. and in the southern part of the Oscura with a sharply defined irregular contact on the El
Mountains. The Bliss consists chiefly. of medium- Paso formation. In parts of southern New Mexico
gray to dark-brown sandstone and quartzite. The the Cable Canyon sandstone of Kelley and Silver
dominant constituents are medium-grained, subangu- (1952, p. 58-59) is present at the base of the Mon-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-121

NORTHERN SAN ANDRES MOUNTAINS MOCKINGBIRD GAP HILLS

A-------------------------- 6•12 MILES -------------- s -- 1 MILE --c
P/2 sec. 31 NP/4 sec. 33 NW 1/4 sec. 27
T. 9 S., R. 5 E. T. 8 S., R. 5 E. T. 8 S., R. 5 E.
Rocks of Early Pennsylvanian age

Devonian

late and
Middle 1
Ordovician

·.
100 FEET

Early
Ordovician
Precambrian rocks
... 50

a;~r~~t~rg~~~i~~n :~<)':~:::·:·::·~:\· . 0
..--~ -,... , ' :
1
Precambrian

OSCURA MOUNTAINS

0- 1 MILE - - E 3 MILES F 3112 MILES --------G

Sec. 16 SWlf4 sec. 9 NWV4 sec. 32 SP/4 sec. 12
T. 9 S., R. 6 E. T. 9 S., R. 6 E. T. 8 S., R. 6 E. T. 8 S., R. 5 E.
Rocks of Pennsylvanian age

106°30' R. 5 E. R. 6 E. 106°15'
33°45'
Precambrian rocks
Early T.
Ordovician
and 7
late Cambrian ~-......-........,......t' S.

EXPLANATION
(lithology highly generalized) T.
8

~ ~ S.

• Cherty limestone Sandstone

~ Dolomite Crystalline rocks

T.
9
S.
(chiefly granite)

~~~:~
Calcareous shale and sandstone
A
INDEX MAP OF MOCKINGBIRD GAP QUADRANGLE SHOWING LOCATIONS
OF MEASURED STRATIGRAPHIC SECTIONS
1
Age ol Montoya dolomite as given by Kottlowski and others. 1956, p. 24-25.

FIGURE 51.2.-Columnar sections showing wedge-edges of pre-Pennsylvanian Paleozoic strata in the Mockingbird Gap area,
New Mexico.
B-122 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

toya dolomite, but this sandstone is absent in the ments at the base of the Pennsylvanian probably
Mockingbird Gap quadrangle. were derived from preexisting formations. These
The Montoya in the Oscura Mountains consists of lenticular sandstone beds are believed to represent
medium dark-gray to olive-gray evenly bedded dolo- channel deposits, although locally they may be lag
mite that weathers with a deeply pitted· surface. deposits or a regolith on the pre~Pennsylvanian
The beds range in thickness from 1 to 6 feet. In- erosional surface.
soluble residues consisting mainly of clay constitute
3 to 5 percent by weight of the rock. INTERPRETATION
The Montoya is 429 feet thick in the Franklin Kelley and Silver (1952, p. 132-134) postulated
Mountains (Pray, 1958, p. 35). It thins northward an east-west hinge-line north of the Caballo Moun-
to 43 feet thick in the southern part of the Oscura tains along which the region to the south was tilted
Mountains (fig. 51.2, section D), and it wedges out
within 2 miles farther north in sec. 9, T., 9 S., R. 6 E.
downward periodically during Paleozoic time. Ob-
servations in the Oscura and northern San Andres
.·
It is absent in the Mockingbird Gap Hills. The Mon- Mountains strongly support this hypothesis, but it
toya thins northward at a fairly uniform rate in is suggested that the hinge line may have had a
the Oscura Mountains, except for local channels
filled with deposits of Pennsylvanian age.
slight northeastward trend and that it extended at.
least as far as the Oscura Mountains. Data from
..
Lithologic comparisons with other areas indicate the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle, along with obser-
that only the basal part of the Montoya-the Up- vations by Kelley and Silver (1952) and Kottlowski
ham dolomite of Kelley and Silver ( 1952, p. 59-60) and others (1956), suggest that the pre-Pennsylvan-
-is represented in the Oscura Mountains. ian tilting and beveling occurred during Early or
Devonian and Mississippian rocks.-Rocks of De- Middle Ordovician, Early Silurian, and Late Silurian
vonian or Mississippian age were not observed in or Early Devonian time.
the Mockingbird Gap quadrangle; however, they are The Bliss in the Mockingbird Gap area is prob-
well exposed ~n the San Andres Mountains to the ably a basal deposit of a transgressing Late Cam-
south and they were traced to a wedge-edge about brian and Early Ordovician sea. The 'overlying pre-
a mile south of the quadrangle. The Devonian rocks Pennsylvanian Paleozoic limestones and dolomites
consist of fine-grained calcareous sandstone and cal- are marine deposits where they wedge out, and the
careous shale, and they are 30 feet thick about 200 rock facies .do not .indicate that the shorelines of
yards south of the wedge-edge (fig. 51.2, section A). the ancient seas were very near the present Oscura
At the same locality Mississippian rocks are repre- Mountains during deposition of these rocks.
sented by cherty medium-gray limestone 10 feet
thick. This limestone is believed to be equivalent REFERENCES
to the Alamogordo member of the Lake VaJley lime- Cloud, P. E., Jr., and Barnes, V. E., 1948, The Ellenburger
stone of Laudon and Bowsher (1949, p. 57) in the group of central Texas: Texas Univ. Bur. Econ. Geology
Sacramento and San Andres Mountains. Pub. 4621.
Pennsylvanian rocks.-Strata of Pennsylvanian Darton, N. H., 1928, "Red Beds" and associated formations in
New Mexico: U.S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 794.
age truncate older strata in a general northward Kelley, V. C., and Silver, Caswell, 1952, Geology of the Caballo
direction, and in the northern part of the quadrangle Mountains: New Mexico Univ. Pub. in Geology 4.
the Pennsylvanian rocks rest directly on the Pre- Kottlowski, F. E., Flower, R. H., Thompson, M. L., and Foster, ,•
cambrian rocks. At the base of the Pennsylvanian R. W., 1956, Stratigraphic studies of the San Andres
rocks are sandstone and granule conglomerate in Mountains, New Mexico: New Mexico Inst. Mining and
Tech., Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources, Mem. 1.
lenses that locally are more than 40 feet thick. One Laudon, L. R., and Bowsher, A. L., 1949, Mississippian forma-
of these beds was traced in. the Oscura Mountains tions of southwestern New Mexico: Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull.,
for more than a mile across the wedge-edge of the vol. 60, p. 1-88.
Montoya. Fragments of underlying Paleozoic for- Pray, L. C., 1958, Stratigraphic section, Montoya group and
Fusselman formation, Franklin Mountains, Texas: West
mations were not definitely recognized as constitu- Texas Geol. Soc., Guidebook, Franklin and Hueco Moun-
ents of the beds, but some local lenses of chert frag- tains, p. 30-42.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-123

52. PRELIMINARY RESULTS OF TEST DRILLING IN DEPRESSIONS ON THE HIGH PLAINS, LEA COUNTY,
NEW MEXICO

By JOHNS. HAVENS, Lovington, N.Mex.

W01·k clone in cooperation with the New Mexico State Engineer

The Ogallala formation of Tertiary age, which r 32 33 1 34 35 36 37 38E

391

iI
0
covers the High Plains in Lea County,· N. Mex., con- 0 Depression 8 Lovington
0 -Depression 9 16 \
sists mostly of very fine grained sandstone 0 to 250
feet thick overlain by as much as 20 feet of caliche I I

caprock. The caprock surface is dotted with nu-

0
Maljamar I 0
Knowles,
17
I

I
merous closed depressions ranging in diameter from : Humble City
0 ~
a few yards to more than half a mile and ranging I ~$
>$'('
L E A 18
II
in depth from a few inches to more than 30 feet.
Previous investigators have suggested that the de- I
I 0
~/.
$ ....
HOBB,R l
·------
I
pressions may have been caused by deep-seated col- I ~"?~
Ci)(,. I ~·
lI

lapse of soluble underlying formations (Judson, I

C'.yo
()'~$ Monument
0
19
.I
I
I

1950, p. 254, 272).

The depressions seem to be alined in swales that I I ..()
0
Kornegay !
l/-v~ i
20S

are remnants of an old drainage system. Groups of L_

depressions show a general alinement down the
FIGURE 52.1.-Central part of Lea County·, N. Mex., showing
slope of the land surface, which is 10 to 15 feet ·per locations of depressions 8 and 9.
mile to the southeast or south-southeast.
The main drainage into the depressions generally
is on the northwestern side. With some exceptions 1. The caliche caprock was dissolved away in local
there are no connections between depressions. areas along old stream channels.
Test drilling has been done in and near several 2. Poorly· consolidated sandstone of the Ogallala
of the depressions, using both core ·and auger drills. formation was exposed to the wind and the
Two typical depressions that were drilled are desig- initial shallow depressions· in the caliche were
nated depressions 8 and 9, and are approximately deepened by deflation.
-.
1 mile from the western edge of the High Plains, 3. The d~pressions were partly filled. by sandy silty
and about 3 miles north of the town of Maljamar, clay and silty clay carried into the depressions
. N. Mex. (see figure 52.1). . by inflowing streams following heavy rains.
Information from drilling indicates ..that the de- Traces of caliche in depre.ssion 8 (fig. 52.2)
pressions are surficial features not related to solu- may be caliche rubble washed into the depres-
tion of deeply buried gypsum or salt. The Ogallala sions from the sides.
formation shows no signs of collapse beneath the
• depressions. A sequence of events leading to the REFERENCE
stratigraphic relations shown on the cross sections . Judson, S. S., Jr., 1950, Depressions of the northern portion of
of depressions 8 and 9 (figs. 52.2 and 52.3 on p. the southern High Plains of eastern New Mexico: Geol.
B-124 and B-125) might be described as follows: Soc. America Bull., v. 61, no. 3, p. 254, 274.
B-124 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

·-

·•
EXPLANATION

400 800 FEET B I

Residual soil Alluvium Alluvium A'

Silty clay Sandy silty clay A

I~
Caliche cap rock Ogallala formation
Sands toM

Traces of caliche

CROSS SECTION A-A' THROUGH DRILL HOLES

~-

CROSS SECTION B-B' THROUGH DRILL HOLES

400
00~----~----~----~--~
800 FEET ..
FIGURE 52.2,-Sections and map of depression 8, SW';4 sec. 20, T. 16 S., R. 32 E., Leo County, N. Mex. ·-

-~

t-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-125

....

0 800 FEET

A
A'
D
Residual soil
~
E-3
Alluvium

•
Silty clay
CROSS SECTION A-A' THROUGH DRILL HOLES

B B'
.
.

~~i~~~~
+· Alluvium
Sandy silty clay

CROSS SECTION B-B' THROUGH DRILL HOLES

Caliche cap rock

60 FEET

Ogallala formation
Sandstone
30

,.
400 800 FEET

FIGURE 52.3.-Sections and map of depression 9, Nlh sec. 29,

T. 16 S., R. 32 E., Lea County, N. Mex.
,,.

..,

53. LOWER MEMBER OF MURAL LIMESTONE OF EARLY CRETACEOUS AGE, BISBEE QUADRANGLE,
ARIZONA

By PHILIP T. HAYES and EDWIN R. ~ANDIS, Denver, Colo.

The Mural limestone and the underlying Morita are present in the upper part of the underlying
formation, both of Early Cretaceous age, were estab- Morita formation but chose his contact at the top
lished by Ransome ( 1904, p. 56) on the basis of of a prominent bed of hard buff sandstone. The
their exposures on and below the south-facing cliffs contact is arbitrary but is a readily recognizable
of Mural Hill in the Bisbee quadrangle (fig. 53.1). mapping horizon over a wide area.
Although he mapped the Mural as a single unit, he As a result of detailed paleontologic work in the
recognized two distinct members, a lower member Ninety One Hills area, 8 miles south of Mural Hill,
about 300 feet thick containing thin-bedded impure Stoyanow (1949, p. 6) restricted the name Mural
limestone, and an upper member about 250 feet ·to the upper member of Ransome's original unit, and
thick of thick-bedded pure limestone. Ransome noted named the Lowell formation (Stoyanow, 1949, .p.. 8.)
that widely separated thin beds of impure limestone to include the lower member of Ransome's Mural
B-126 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH '1961

43; Fergusson, 1959, p. 43) have assumed that the

term "Lowell" was just a new name for the lower
member of the Mural limestone. This led Gilluly
ARIZONA (1956, p. 74) to conclude that the lower member of
the Mural thickens from about 400 feet near Mural
Hill to 1,104 feet in the Ninety One Hills. Actually,
the lower member of the Mural is only about 360
feet thick in the Ninety One Hills .. The general

Mural Hill Ninety One Hills

EXPLANATION

~ Dolomite

gm
limestone

Sandy limestone

0 5
Argillaceous limestone

FIGURE 53.1.-Index maps showing location of Bisbee quad- l\;'<': .: ·: -: =;:~_:;: :,:1
rangle, Cochise County, Ariz., and location of measured Sandstone

sections shown on figure 53.2.

r:::::;QJ::;:z;J
Calcareous sandstone
and the upper beds of the Morita formation down
to the base of the lowest fossiliferous limestone bed. J;·.~s:·tB
Sandy shale and siltstone
In the course of current mapping in the Bisbee
quadrangle, we investigated the feasibility of map- [:.i¢gu§;]
Shaly sandstone
ping and the stratigraphic value of both the base
of Ransome's Mural limestone and the base of
Stoyanow's Lowell formation. We found that the FEET
'\I
0
base of the lower member of the Mural limestone as
defined by Ransome can be mapped readily within
narrow stratigraphic limits in the quadrangle,
whereas the base of the Lowell formation is not a
100
readily traceable horizon. Mapping during the pres-
ent investigation has shown that, in addition to the
lower member of the Mural limestone, Stoyanow in-
cluded 580 feet of the upper part of the original 200

Morita formation in his Lowell formation. Further-

more, in remapping the area in the vicinity of the
type section of the Lowell formation (Stoyanow,
1949, p. 8-12), we discovered that about 160 feet 300

of rock in the upper part of the Lowell formation

evidently is duplicated across a normal fault. 1 For-
tunately, this duplication does not alter Stoyanow's 400
faunal zonation.
Because Stoyanow ( 1949, p. 8) did not specifically
state that he was 'including hundreds of feet of the
Morita formation in his Lowell formation, several
FIGURE 53.2.-Stratigraphic sections showing relations be-
write·rs (Gilluly, 1956, p. 74; Gillerman, 1958, p. tween lower member of Mural limestone and Lowell
. formation of Stoyano~ (1949). Ninety One Hjlls _section
1 As nearly as \ve c·arf · determin·e, units 2c and 3b of the type· Lowell
formation (Stoyanow, 1949, p. 9) are the same and the fault lies near the modified from Stoyanow (1949, p. 6--10); unit numbers
mfddle of unit 2d. beside column are his.
.,.. SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLO(;IC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-127
similarity in thickness and lithology of the sequence Gillerman, Elliot, 1958, Geology of the central Peloncillo
at the two localities is shown in figure 53.2. Mountains, Hidalgo County, New Mexico, and Cochise
These findings, along with other observations made County, Arizona: New Mexico Bur. Mines and Mineral
Resources Bull. 57, 152 p.
during recent fieldwork, indicate that facies changes
Gilluly, James, 1956, General geology of central Cochise
within and variations in thickness of Lower Cre-
County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 281,
taceous rock units in southeastern Arizona are not 169 p.
as extreme as heretofore commonly believed. Ransome, F. L., 1904, The geology and ore deposits of the
bisbee quadrangle, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
REFERENCES
Paper 21, 168 p.
Fergusson, W. B., 1959, The Cretaceous system of south- Stoyanow, Alexander, 1949, Lower Cretaceous stratigraphy in
eastern Arizona, in Arizona Geol. Soc., Southern Arizona
southeastern Arizona: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 38, 169 p.
·Guidebook II, April, 1959: p. 43-47. l
~

54. ORIGIN OF CROSS-STRATA IN FLUVIAL SANDSTONE LAYERS IN THE CHINLE FORMATION (UPPER
TRIASSIC) ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU

By JOHN H. STEWART, Menlo Park, Calif.

Cross-strata are a distinctive feature of the sand- by Sundborg (1956, p. 207, 270-272) in the river
stone layers of the Chinle formation (Upper Tri- Kladilven in Sweden. These bars are 0.05 to 0.5
assic) on the Colorado Plateau. Channel-filling meter high and 2 to 20 meters apart. The upstream
sediments, conglomerate lenses, carbonized ·and side of the bars is flat and dips upstream at an angle
silicified plant material, and ·locally remains of· dry- of about 1 o. The downward side is steep and roughly
land and fresh-water animals are associated with at the angle of repose. Sediment is carried up the
the cross-stratified layers (Stewart and others, backside of the bar and deposited on the frontside,
1959); the combination of these features clearly in the manner of the foreset beds of a delta building
indicates that the cross-stratified layers are of flu- out into a body of water. As the front of the bar
vial origin. The descriptions given apply mainly to is built forward by continued deposition, a tabular
the cross-strata in the Shinarump and Moss Back layer of cross-strata is left. McDowell (1960) has
members of the Chinle formation. described the formation of cross-strata by "sand
Tabular planar sets of cross-strata (fig. 54.1)- waves"-the same features that Sundborg calls
units of cross-strata with flat surfaces of erosion transverse bars-in recent deposits of the Missis-
as upper and lower boundaries (McKee and Weir, sippi River.
1953)-are common in the Chinle formation, and Trough sets of cross-strata are also common in
locally, at least, are the dominant type -of cross- the Chinle formatiort, although il). the Shinarump
strata in the Shinarump and Moss Back members. and Moss Back members they may b~ less abundant
The sets generally range in thickness from one-half than tabular planar sets. These cross-strata occur
foot to 2 feet. Some sets can be traced laterally along in sets that have curved surfaces of erosion as upper
exposures for at least .200 feet. In plan view, the and lower boundarie.s (fig. 54.1). I~ plan view, the
cross-strata appear as laminae dipping and striking sets are narrow elongate features commonly 5 to 20
uniformly. In cross section, the cross-laminae are feet long and 2 to 5 feet wide, with blunt termina-
concave upward and become tangential downwards tions upstream. The cross-strata, in plan view,· are
with the bounding surface of the set. The maximum curved and conv~x upstream. In a cross section cut
dip of cross-strata is generally about 25 o. along the length of the trough, the sets are lens
Tabular planar cross-strata probably formed in shaped and average about 2 feet thick. In a section
transverse bars (fig. 54.1) similar to those described cut across tbe trough, the lower boundary of the set
B-128 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

f-

TABULAR PLANAR CROSS-STRATA TROUGH CROSS-STRATA ,...

...

TRANSVERSE BARS AND TABULAR PLANAR CROSS-STRATA ARCUATE BARS AND TROUGH CROSS-STRATA

-FIGURE 54.1.-Tabular planar and trough cross-strata and bar types.

is gently U-shaped. The maximum dip of the cross- another process, or a modification of the above proc-
strata is generally about 25 o. ess, is suggested here to explain the formation of
Trough cross-strata are generally thought to form many, perhaps most, of the trough cross-strata in
by scouring of a trough and later filling of the the Chinle formation. They may have formed by
trough (McKee and others, 1953; McKee, 1957; the downstream migration of arcuate bars that are
Stokes, 1953). Stokes (1953) ascribes the formation
similar to barchan dunes in shape (fig. 54.1). Ero-
of troughs to water vortices that scour the stream
sion would take place, perhaps in part by vortex
bottom in rp.uch the same way that a tornado picks
up debris on land. Such turbulent vortices, accord- action, in the area between the two arms of the
ing to Matthes (1947, p. 259), are the most powerful crescent. In such a manner, the trough is extended
agents of stream scour and produce troughs on downstream as the arcuate bar migrates down-
stream bottoms. stream. Formation ·of trough cross-strata in this
Some trough sets of cross-strata may have formed way is similar to the formation of tabular planar
by filling of troughs produced by such vortices, but cross-strata in tr.ansverse bars, except for the dif-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-129
a civil engineer who descended in a diving bell to the bottom
of the Mississippi at a point where the depth was 65 feet and
the bottom of sand. Stepping to the bed, he sank into it about
3 feet, and then thrusting his arm into the yielding mass,
could feel its flowing motion to a depth of 2 feet, the velocity
diminishing downward
(Gilbert, 1914, p. 156). A similar motion .down to
3 meters was observed on the gravel beds of the
upper part of the Rhine and one of its small tribu -
tary streams (Bucher, 1919, p. 169-170). This
motion presumably would cause the laminae to de-
form. The diminishing downward velocity could
account for the observed diminishing "bending" of
the strata downward.

REFERENCES
Bucher, W. H., 1919, On ripples and related sedimentary
surface forms and their paleogeographic interpretations:
Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., v. 47, p. 149-210, 241-269.
FIGURE 54.2.-0verturned cross-strata in Moss Back member Gilbert, G. K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running
of Chinle formation in southeastern Utah. water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 86, 263 p.
Matthes, G. H., 1947, Macroturbulence in natural stream
ferent shape of the bars · and the formation of flow: Am. Geophys. Union Trans., v. 28, p. 255-262.
McDowell, J. P., 1960, Cross-bedding formed by sand waves in
troughs ahead of the bars by erosion.
Mississippi River point-bar deposits [abs.]: Geol. Soc.
The suggested mode of formation adequately ex- America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1925.
plains the shape of the trough sets and the curvature, McKee, E. D., 1957, Flume experiments on the production of
in plan view, of the cross-strata. In addition, tabu- stratification and cross-stratification : Jour. Sed. Petrol-
lar planar and trough cross-strata commonly are ogy, v. 27, p. 129-134.
associated with one another and with intermediate McKee, E. D., Evensen, C. G., and Grundy, W. D., 1953,
types, suggesting that both may be formed by con- Studies in sedimentology of the Shinarump conglomerate
of northeastern Arizona: U.S. Atomic Energy Comm.
structional deposition in bars. Finally, observations
Tech. Rept. RME-3089, 48 p., issued by U.S. Atomic
in modern streams indicate that transverse bars Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn.
("sand waves") · have a tendency to break up along McKee, E. D., and Weir, G. W., 1953, Terminology for strati-
strike into crescentic-shaped parts (Bucher, 1919, fication and cross-stratification in sedimentary rocks:
p. 172). Trough cross-strata, following the hypothe- Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 64, p. 381-390.
sis, would form in these crescentic, or arcuate bars. Potter, E. P., and Glass, H. D., 1958, Petrology and sedi-
Many of the cross-strata in the Chinle formation mentation of the Pennsylvanian sediments in southern
Illinois-A vertical profile: Illinois State Geol. Survey
are peculiarly deformed so that the upper part of Rept. Inv. 204, 60 p.
the cross-strata are drawn downstream; thus the Stewart, J. H., Williams, G. A., Albee, H. F., and Raup, 0. B.,
individual laminae in cross section have the shape 1959, Stratigraphy of Triassic and associated formations
of a U laid on its side (fig. 54.2). in part of the Colorado Plateau region, with a section on
This type of cross-strata is termed "overturned" Sedimentary petrology by R. A. Cadigan: U.S. Geol.
cross-strata by Potter and Glass (1958). This de- Survey Bull. 1046-Q, p. 487-576.
formation probably is caused by a flowage of sand Stokes, W. L., 1953, Primary sedimentary trend indicators as
shortly after deposition of the cross-strata. Obser- applied to ore finding in the Carrizo Mountains, Arizona
and New Mexico, Part 1: Tech. Rept. for April 1, 1952
vations in modern streams show that the top few
to March 31, 1953: U.S. Atomic Energy Comm. Tech.
feet of the sand bed often have the consistency of Rept. RME-3043 (pt. 1), 48 p., issued by U.S. Atomic
"quicksand" and that they commonly move down- Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak Ridge, Tenn.
stream as a "fluid" mass. This motion of the top Sundborg, Ake, 1956, The river Klaralven-a study of fluvial
few feet of the sand bed has been observed by processes: Geografiska Annalar, v. 38, no. 2-3, p. 127-316.
B-130 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 ~I

55. FOSSIL WOODS ASSOCIATED WITH· URANIUM ON THE COLORADO PLATEAU

By RICHARD A. SCOTT, Denver, Colo.

Work done ·in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Comrni.<Jsion

Fossil woods and other organic debris commonly Colorado Plateau probably were derived from
occur with uranium in deposits of Triassic and various plants.
Jurassic age on the Colorado Plateau. The possi-
bility that woods. of differing systematic affinities LACK OF RELATION BETWEEN WOOD TYPE AND
URANIUM
might have different capacities for localizing uran-
ium has been suggested as an explanation for the Absence of marked systematic d~versity among
highly variable uranium content of organic matter Plateau woods collected impedes direct evaluation of
from a single mineralized zone. Woods associated the possible effect of. wood type upon uranium fixa- +·
with uraniferous minerals from various deposits on tion. Nevertheless, several observations· indicate
the Colorado Plateau were collected and studied to that systematic differences were not important fac-
evaluate this possibility.. tors affecting uranium content of fossil woods.
Nature of the plant remains.-Variations in effec-
AFFINITIES OF THE WOODS tiveness in uranium fixation· for woods of different
All structurally preserved woods collected from species would derive from chemical differences
the Colorado Plateau belong to Araucarioxyl~n among them. The organic components of wood com-
Kraus, a form genus for fossil woods like those of prise two major groups: cell-wall· components con-
the modern coniferous family Araucariaceae. All sisting of holocellulose and lignin make up 80 to 90
Upper Triassic woods examined belong to one percent of the wood substance; and so-called extran-
species, A. arizonicum Knowlton (fig. 55.1 A to C). eous components consisting of resins, oils, tannins,
Two undescribed species of Araucarioxylon are and pigments make up the rest. Degradation of
present in Jurassic strata (Morrison formation). wood in nature results first in the loss of cellulosic
Lack of diversity among Plateau woods is puzz- and at least part of the extraneous components
ling, for floras of the times are kriown to have been (Varossieau and Breger, 1951; Barglioorn, 1952).
varied. The Chinle flora contained members of all Later, the lignin may be altered and ultimately
major groups of vascular plants except dicotyledons transformed to hurrtic compounds. Uranium min- ..
(Daugherty, 1941); cycadeoids and other vascular eralization in the sandstone-type deposits of the
Plateau followed deposition of the sediments by a
plants except dicotyledons were common in Morrison
geologically significant time interval (Stieff, Stern,
time. Spore. and pollen assemblages bear out the and Milkey, 1953), and unsilicified plant remains
diversity (Scott, 1960). A possible explanation for present during mineralization were composed chiefly
this anomaly is that uranium deposits commonly
are found in channel fills and floodplain deposits,
depositional environments favoring degradation. FIGURE 55.1-Triassic wood associated with uranium. A,
Remains of small plants became too degraded to Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; ~ransverse section;
identify. Some entire logs were affected to an ex- X60. B, Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; tangential
tent that eliminated cell-wall details necessary for section; X 45. C, Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton;
radial section; X90. D, Wood structure in asphaltite de-
identification. Coalified exteriors are present on rived from Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; note
many logs with silicified cores, indicating that de- crushing and distortion at upper margin; ·the parallel
gradation proceeded centripetally. Relatively intact lines are rays; transverse section; X45. E, Wood struc-
wood could persist in the interiors of large logs even ture in asphaltite derived from Araucarioxylon arizon-
when smaller remains were d~graded; consequently, icum Knowlton; note intrusion into silicified wood; the
large size of the araucarians-logs 5 feet in diameter larger cells at lower right and scattered; X45. F, Uran-
inite in Araucarioxylon arizonicum Knowlton; the white
are known-may have been a selective factor favor- material is the uraninite seen by reflected light; it is
ing their structural preservation. Organic trash associated with the cell wa~l C()mponents, probably uniting
zones commonly associated with ·ore bodies on the with but not replacing them; X 90. . .
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, AR~ICLES 1-146 B-131
B-132 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

of lignin residues and their derivatives. Any origi- was derived from petroliferous (Kelley and Kerr,
nal compositional differences would have been mini- 1958) or plant (Breger and Deul, 1959) sources.
mized by degradational and diagenetic changes. prior Some sections of silicified wood include regions of
to mineralization. black, apparently amorphous, asphaltite. When
Variation in uranium content anwng samples of ground sufficiently thin, remnants of original wood
a single species.-Eight samples of coalified wood. structure are visible in these asphaltites (fig. 55.1,
from Temple Mountain, Utah, all determined as D and E). Cellular structure is present even in
Ar-aucarioxylon ar-izonicum, contained the following some asphaltite that had been forced by pressure
percentages of uranium (Roosevelt Moore, analyst): in a plastic state into fractures in silicified wood
0.0005, 0.007, 0.007, 0.16, 0.33, 0.69, 1.3, and 5.8. (fig. 55.1, E). This evidence indicates that at least
Ash from each of two samples of the same species some of the Temple Mountain asphaltites were de-
from the Adams mine on the west side of the San rived from wood.
Rafael Swell, Utah, have uranium contents of 0.09
percent and 8.5 percent; This large range within REFERENCES
the single species demonstrates that factors in the Barghoorn, E. S., 1952, Degradation of plant tissues in organic
depositional environment at the time of mineraliza- sediments: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 22, p. 34-41.
tion, other than the affinities of the plant material, Beck, C. B., 1960, The identity of Archeopteris and Callixylon:
effected marked variation in uranium concentra- Brittonia, v. 12, p. 351-368.
tion. Breger, I. A., and Deul, Maurice, 1959, Association of uranium
with carbonaceous materials, with special reference to the
Association of ur-anium with organic matter- from Temple Mountain region in Garrels, R. M. and Larsen,
diverse plant sources.-Uranium has been found E. S. 3d, Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Colorado
associated with organic material from a variety of Plateau uranium ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
plants. For example, a sample of ash from wood of 320, p. 139-149.
Callixylon, which has pteridophytic relationships Breger, I. A., Deul, Maurice, and Rubenstein, Samuel, 1955, ·-
1

(Beck, 1960), has been found to contain 2.58 per- Geochemistry and miner'alogy of a uraniferous lignite:
Econ. Geology, v. 50, p. 206-226.
cent uranium (Breger and Schopf, 1955), and ash
Breger, I. A., and Schopf, J. M., 1955, Germanium and uran-
from a lignite of Tertiary age contained 0.3 percent i urn in coalified wood from Upper Devonian black shale:
uranium, chiefly associated with the organic matter Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, v. 7, p. 287-293.
(Breger, Deul, and Rubenstein, 1955). Araucarian Daugherty, L. H., 1941, The Upper Triassic flora of Arizona:
conifers are not yet known from North American Carnegie Inst. Washington Pub. 526, 108 p.
Tertiary rocks ; presumably the Tertiary lignite is Garrells, R. M., and Pommer, A. M., 1959, Some quantitative
of nonaraucarian origin. Garrels and Pommer aspects of the oxidation and reduction of the ores in Gar-.
. (1959) reported that fresh spruce wood and Ter- rels, R. M. and Larsen, E. S., 3d, Geochemistry and
mineralogy of the Colorado Plateau uranium ores: U.S.
tiary lignite were equally effective in reducing Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 320, p. 157-164.
uranium to uraninite, a mineral commonly found Kelley, D. R., and Kerr, P. F., 1958, Urano-organic ore at
(along with coffinite) in ores associated wi_th coali- '):'emple Mountain, Utah: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69,
fied wood and other carbonaceous material (Weeks, p. 701-756.
Coleman, and Thompson, 1959). Concentration of Scott, R. A. 1960, Pollen of Ephedra from the Chinle forma-
uranyl ions by silicified dicotyledonous woods has tion (Upper Triassic) and the genus Equisetosporites:
been described by Barghoorn (written communica- Micropaleontology, v. 6, p~ 271-276.
tion, 1956). Stieff, L. R., Stern, T. W., and Milkey, R. G., 1953, A prelim-
inary determination of the age of some uranium ores of
Thus, various organic materials have the ability the Colorado Plateaus by the lead-uranium method: U.S.
to effect fixation, and the available evidence does Geol. Survey Circ. 271.
not suggest that systematic differences among plants Varossieau, W. W., and Breger, I. A., 1952, Chemical studies
that contributed organic remains were significant on ancient buried wood and the origin of humus: Estrait
factors in producing ore. du Compte Rendu: 3ieme Cong. Stratig. et de Geol. du
Carbonifere-Heerlen.
TEMPLE MOUNTAIN ASPHALTITE WITH WOOD Weeks, A. D., Coleman, R. G., and Thompson, M. E., 1959,
STRUCTURE Summary of the ore mineralogy in Garrels, R. M. and
Larsen, E. S., 3d, Geochemistry and mineralogy of the
There is disagreement as to whether the so-called Colorado Plateau uranium ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
uraniferous "asphaltite" !lt Temple Mountain, Utah, Paper 320, p. 65-79.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIE~CES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-133

56. LATE CENOZOIC EVENTS OF THE LEADVILLE DISTRICT AND UPPER A.RKANSAS VALLEY, COLORADO

By OGDEN TWETO, Denver, Colo.

:. r·-------------1
In the upper Arkansas Valley, Colo., unconsoli-
dated deposits of Pliocene and younger age form a
: OD~HR. i
thick cover over the bedrock (fig. 56.1). In the Lead- I ~ :
ville mining district, the nature and extent of these :leo ~ LORADO:
I
deposits and, especially, the topography of the
buried bedrock surface, are of direct concern to the L____________ .J
mining industry. Studies there have shown that ...>.
0~-------------------.
the bedrock surface is very irregular, as it is fur-
rowed by deep canyons and displaced by faults
younger than some of the covering materials. This
rough bedrock topography markedly affects the dis-
.-
.
tribution of geologic formations and ore deposits,
and also affected the pattern of oxidation of the ores.·
Erosional, depositional, and tectonic events that led
to formation of this rough surface and its cover
i are illustrated in figure. 56.2, and the two principal
unconsolidated deposits are described briefly below.
Subsurface data indicate that the bedrock floor
of the Arkansas Valley has a relief of more than
1,000 feet. Although older materials may fill the
deeper depressions, insofar as known · the floor is
overlain by massive brown sandy silt and inter-
bedded gravel, sand, and minor volcanic ash of Plio-
cene age. These deposits, the "lake beds" of earlier
reports (Emmons, 1886, p. 72; Emmons, Irving, and
Loughlin, 1927, p. 17), are here given the name Dry
Union formation, for Dry Union· Gulch, 5 miles
south of Leadville. A landslide scarp near the mouth
of this gulch (sec. 23, T. 10 S., R. 80 W.) exposes
about 260 feet of strata in the upper part of ~he
formation. Thickness of· the formation in the
Arkansas Valley ranges widely, as the top is irregu-
larly eroded and the surface beneath the base has
high relief. Maximum thickness of about 800 feet
is known from surface distribution and exploratory
openings in the Leadville area, but geophysical data
suggest that locally the formation may be as much
as 2,000 feet thick. The formation probably under ...
lies most of the Arkansas Valley from Leadville to
Salida and also occurs farther downstream near
Howard (fig. 56.1), as noted by Powers ( 1935, p.
.., 189). The formation is covered by younger deposits
106°
in many ·places but is widespread at the surface in
t the Salida area, where about 500 feet of it is
exposed (Van Alstine and Lewis, 1960). ·
0 10 20 MILES
The detrital sediments that compose the Dry
Union formation in the Leadville area are chieflv FwuRB 5fi.l.-Distribution of unconsolidated deposits, upper
silt, sand, and gravel deposited in alluvial fan~. Arkansas Valley. Major deposits indicated by pattern.
3-134 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

EXPLANATION

A ~
~
~
Malta gravel
>-
0::
<(
z '""·
.~
0::
w
1-

E:]
~
<(
~ . ::::>
. 0

Deposits of glacial episode 1

EXPLANATION
~
~
<:.:>
·~
~
{ I=···~-.§
Dry Union formation
"Y<XX><xxx
Bedrock surface
u
D .
.
Deposits of glacial episode 4
Fault

· Deposits of glacial episode 3

---111------:-
valley floor during episode 3
---11---
Valley floor during epi~ode 2
llllllllJrlilillli
Surface of prepediment materials

i'JGURE 56.2.-Sketches showing effects of Late Cenozoic events. Not drawn to scale. A, diagrammatic cross section showing
relations at pediment stage. B, diagrammatic cross section showing relations of deposits and valley floors of glacial epi-
sodes 2, 3, and 4. C, map showing distribution of terminal moraines of glacial episodes 4 through 9 in a typical valley.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-135
They are characteristically ill-sorted and occur in it, but traces .of humus occur locally. The gravel
either in lenses or in thick beds (5 to 30 feet thick) fills old valleys so its thickness varies widely; shafts
that show little or no internal stratification. Chan- and drill holes have revealed as much as 300 feet of
nel structures are numerous. Pebbles and cobbles- gravel.
some of them wind polished and many of them Deposition of Malta gravel transformed dissected,
angular-are scattered throughout the formation hilly areas to rolling surfaces of much lower relief.
but are most abundant near the mountain slopes. During the waning. stages of gravel deposition,
The sediments consist chiefly of angular grains of streams planed off the "highs" on these surfaces,
relatively fresh rock derived from adjoining moun- producing pediments. These pediments, the "high
tain slopes. Leached zones and caliche-cemented terraces" of earlier reports· (Capps, 1909; Behre,
zones probably formed during episodes of subaerial 1933; Powers, 1935), were once widespread along
weathering while the sediments accumulated. the upper Arkansas Valley but now exist as ero-
The Dry Union formation appears to have been sional remnants partly covered by glacial deposits.
derived from mountains somewhat lower than those Since the pediments were formed, glaciation,
of today, in an arid and possibly cold climate. No stream erosion, and faulting have further modified
plant or animal fossils have been found in the for- the Arkansas Valley. Glacial episodes 2 and 3 oc-
mation in the Leadville area, except for a few poorly curred after dissection of the pediments had begun,
dated vertebrate remains in one mine (Emmons, but before the Arkansas River and its tributaries
Irving, and Loughlin, 1927, p. 19). Vertebrate re- had reached their present levels (fig. 56.2 B). By
mains found in the Salida area indicate an early the time of glacial episode 4, these valleys were at
Pliocene age (Van Alstine and Lewis, 1960). essentially their present levels. Episodes 4, 5, 6, and
During the later Pliocene, the Dry Union forma- 7, which probably constitute the Wiscons~n glacial
tion was stripped from some areas and dissected to stage, occurred in relatively rapid succession, and
depths of at least a few hundred feet in others. Ice- their glaciers were successively less extensive (fig.
cap glaciation, the first of nine glacial episodes recog- 56.2 C). They were followed by two minor glacial
nized in the region, then occurred, probably in the episodes, numbers 8 and 9.
early Pleistocene. Following this glaciation the Faults that displace the unconsolidated deposits
glacial deposits were deeply weathered, and tribu- trend about parallel to the Arkansas Valley and are
tary valleys of the Arkansas were enlarged and downthrown on the side nearer the valley axis. They
deepened in the glacial drift, Dry Union formation, are believed to be reactivated Laramide faults. As
and bedrock. These valleys had reached depths of a shown by the unconsolidated deposits and related
few hundred feet and widths of as much as a mile land forms, movement occurred on the faults: (a)
when a climatic change or tectonic movement caused after deposition of the Dry Union formation; (b)
the streams to deposit coarse gravel, which eventu- after glacial episode 1 ; (c) late in the stage of pedi-
ally filled the valleys completely. mentation; and, possibly (d) after the Arkansas
This gravel, the "high terrace gravel" of earlier River had reached approximately its present level.
reports (Emmons, Irving, and Loughlin, 1927, p. REFERENCES
15) is here named the Malta gravel for the railroad Behre, C. H., Jr., 1933, Physiographic history of the upper
station of Malta, 3 miles southwest of Leadville. As Arkansas and Eagle Rivers, Colorado: Jour. Geology, v.
seen in a cut 60 feet high at this station and also 41, p. 785-814.
Capps, S. R., 1909, Pleistocene geology of the Leadville quad-
in many other places along the upper Arkansas Val- rangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 386.
ley, the Malta gravel is buff, massive, coarse, and Emmons, S. F., 1886, Geology and mining industry of Lead-
dirty. It shows little stratification except that im- ville, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Mon. 12.
parted by the shingled arrangement of cobbles and Emmons, S. F., Irving, J: D., and Loughlin, G. F., 1927,
by a few small lenses of sand or silt. The gravel is a Geology and ore deposits of the Leadville mining district,
Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 148.
mixture of materials of all sizes from silt to Powers, W. E., 1935, Physiographic history of the upper
small boulders, but rounded cobbles 4 to 10 inches Arkansas Valley and the Royal Gorge, Colorado: Jour.
in diameter predominate. Near the mountain slopes, Geology, v. 43, p. 184-199.
the gravel is composed entirely of rock of local Van Alstine, R. E., and Lewis, G. E., 1960, Pliocene sediments
near Salida, Chaffee County, Colorado, in Short papers
origin, but near the valley axis it is a blend of rock
in the geological sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper
from various sources. No fossils have been found 400-B, p. B245.
B-136 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

57. MOVEMENT OF THE SLUMGULLION EARTHFLOW NEAR LAKE CITY, COLORADO

By DWIGHT R. CRANDELL and D. J. VARNES, Denver, Colo.

General relations of the Slumgullion earthflow, movErd 194 feet in the 13-year period 1939-52, an
about 2 miles south of Lake City, Colo., have long average velocity of 15 feet per year. Trees at a
been known (Endlich, 1876; Cross, 1909; Howe, point about 3,000 feet from the head moved at an
1909, p. 40-41; Atwood and Mather, 1932, p. 163- average rate of 5.8 feet per year in this same
164). A brief examination of the earthflow in June period.
1958 revealed a stable flow about 700 years old that Near locality D, the displacement of trees that
is being overridden by a younger flow (Crandell and could be located on aerial photographs taken in
Varnes, 1960). This paper presents some data on 1951 was measured directly on the ground in 1959;
the amount and rate of movement of the younger these measurements indicate an average velocity of
flow during the past 20 years,· and discusses the 16 feet :Per year. Control stakes installed in 1958
type of deformation that is occurring. moved at a rate of about 20.0 feet per year at lo-
Both. parts of the Slumgullion earthflow head in cality D, about 15.5 feet per year at locality C, 8.5
a large cirquelike basin (fig. 57.1) about 4,500 feet feet per year at locality B, and 2.5 feet per year at
in diameter, on the northeastern margin of the locality A. During the period 1940-52 the toe ad-
Lake City caldera (Burbank, 1947). The source vanced an estimated distance of 30 feet, also an
rocks consist of hydrothermally altered latite flows average rate of 2.5 feet per year. ·
and breccias of Tertiary age; abundant montmoril- The time-lapse motion picture camera study of
lonite in the earthflows is derived from these altered the active earthflow at locality D during the sum-
rocks. mer of 1960 recorded a constant velocity of 0.04
The older ·flow is about 4 miles long and extends feet per day.
from the source area to a position across the valley We think that the virtually constant velocity from
of Lake Fork of the Gunnison River. It descends year to .year and from season to season at a given
from an altitude of about 11,400 feet to 8,800 feet point indicates that neither long-term nor seasonal
at an average gradient of 650 feet per mile. fluctuations of temperature and precipitation have
The active earthflow is about 2.4 miles long and much effect on movement. Maximum lubrication
from 500 to 1,000 feet wide. It descends from an and pore-water pressure probably exist in the flow
altitude of 11,400 feet to 9,700 feet at an overall at all times, .and the entire flow probably would be
gradient of about 700 feet per mile. The toe of accelerated only by the addition of a large amount
the earthflow is steep and unstable, and both it and of material at the head by a landslide, or an earth-
the body of the flow are dotted with leaning trees. quake.
The active earthflow is separated from the older Control stakes were installed across the entire
earthflow by lateral cracks, along which movement width of the active earthflow at lo.cality D (fig. 57.2).
occurs. The active flow also is broken by open Stakes in the center move at a slightly greater
transverse cracks in many areas, into which some velocity than those along the sides. This, and the
of the surface drainage disappears. evidence of decreased velocity downslope, suggest
Velocity of the active earthflow has been studied viscous flowage, contrary to an earlier opinion ( Cran-
in three ways: the displacements of trees were de- dell and Varnes, 1960) that the earth flow is moving
termined from air photographs made in 1939 and without internal deformation. The velocity decrease
in succeeding years, and from measurements made below locality D suggests thickening between local-
on the ground; control stakes installed in 1958 were ity C and the toe, but this possibility has not yet
checked periodically; and an automatic time-lapse been verified by field observation.
m()tion picture camera (Miller, Parshall, and Cran- The overall rather slow rate of movement poses
dell, Art. 135) was installed at the flow margin to the question of how the toe of the active flow got to
record movement between June and October 1960. its present position of some 12,000 feet beyond its
Comparison of aerial photographs shows that ·cer- source. ·The oldest tree found near the toe is a
tain recognizable trees near locality C (fig. 57.1) leaning dead spruce with 330 growth rings; no ap-
 .. '/_ ./ • " :- -L ,_ _l
...

rn
::r::
0
~
>-3
'"d
>
'"d
t<J
~
rn
z
>-3
::r::
t<J
C)
t<J
0
t:-<
0
C)
......
0

z>t:;l
::r::
....:
t:;l
~
0
t:-<
0
C)
......
0
rn
0
......
t<J
z
0
t<J
sn
>
~
>-3
......
0
t:-<
t<J
rn
';"'
.........
a>

FIGURE 57.1.-Aerial view of Slumgullion earthflow. Note that the younger, active earthflow occupies only a small part of the source area of the older earth- td
flow. Deepest part of Lake San Cristobal determined by sounding is 90 feet at point X, near bottom of photograph. (Enlargement of Department of I
f-lo
Agriculture photograph DOM-lA-8, taken September 9, 1951.) C<:J
-::)
B-138 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

FEET

40-
I I
I ~I
I 0
~I
35- E
I
I
30-·
I :J

25-
~n
~ I '-~~
~L----1 I~
20- ~I I September, 1959 I ~_
~~ L --------------------~.1~
,~
15-
I I
r- __J June, 1959
I 1---
.I
10-
t -l I
I I I
5-
It I~ 11
1 I I
o- October, 1958
PLAN
· SE
FEET NW
60

50

40

30

20

10
Younger, active earthflow
0
PROFILE

0 100 200 300 FEET

VERTICAL SCALE X 2

FIGURE 57.2.-Plan and profile of younger, active earthflow at locality D, showing differential movement of control stakes
between October 1958 and October 1960.
-~

preciably larger trees were seen, either alive or and 1952 suggests such a wavelike motion. Finally,
dead, although trees as old as 700 years grow on the toe may possibly advance in quick surges follow-
the older earthflow. Probably, therefore, the younger ing a long period of very slow movement. A surge '·
flow originated not much more than 350 years ago. would be encouraged by a gradually accumulated
But at its present velocity, the toe would have pro- bulge in the lower part of the flow. Although the
gressed only 875 feet from the source area in that active part of the Slumgullion earthflow might be a
length of time. reactivated part of the older, stable flow, age of
Several possible reasons may account for this vegetation growing on the two parts suggests other-
apparent anomaly. The flow may have come nearly wise. Much of the older flow, however, probably has
to its present position in a relatively short time by been incorporated in the active flow, especially near
rapid flowage, and then may have continued to creep the source area.
slowly. The earthflow also may periodically lengthen
rapidly by a wave that progresses from the head to REFERENCES
the toe, possibly propagated by sliding of new ma- Atwood, W. W., and Mather, K. F., 1932, Physiography and
terial onto the head. Slower velocity near the head Quaternary geology of the San Juan Mountains, Colo-
of the earthflow than at the middle between 1939 rado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 166, 176 p.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-139
+ Burbank, W. S., 1947, Lake City area, Hinsdale County, in Cross, C. W., 1909, The Slumgullion mudftow [abs.]: Science,
Mineral Resources of Colorado: Colorado Min. Res. Board, new ser., v. 30, p. 126-127.
p. 439-443. Endlich, F. M., 1876, Report of F. M. Endlich, in U.S. Geol.
Crandell, D. R., and Varnes, D. J., 1960, Slumgullion earth- Geog. Survey of the Territories Ann. Rept. 1874.
flow and earthslide near Lake City, Colorado [abs.]: Howe, Ernest, 1909, Landslides in the San Juan Mountains,
Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 67, 58 p.
•• Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1846 .

; -~

.....
58. RELATIONS OF METALS IN LITHOSOLS TO ALTERATION AND SHEARING AT RED MOUNTAIN, CLEAR
CREEK COUNTY, COLORADO

By P. K. THEOBALD, JR., and C. E. THOMPSON, Denver, Colo.

Tungsten, molybdenum, lead, arsenic, zinc, and background is less than 4 ppm, and anomalous values
copper have been determined by geochemical field range from 6 to 7,000 ppm. Maximum values for
methods in 268 samples of lithosol (poorly developed both elements are in the zone of silicification. A
soil) from the Red Mountain area, Clear· Creek northeast-trending fault marks one edge of the area
County, Colo. (fig. 58.1). These data establish dis- containing anomalous amounts of molybdenum and
tinct anomalies for each of the elements and suggest of the area containing more than 30 ppm of tungsten.
two stages of mineralization. Anomalously high concentrations of lead and ar-
The· crest of Red Mountain is underlain by a plug senic occur in nearly coextensive generally north-
of argillized quartz monzonite porphyry of Tertiary trending areas. The lead background is probably 25
age (fig. 58.2 A). Surrounding the plug is silicified, ppm or less, but this value has been obtained in only
argillized, or chloritized quartz monzonite of Pre- 6 samples from the northern edge of the area
cambrian age. Two principal sets of shear zones sampled. Anomalous values range from 50 to 6,000
trend N. 5° E. and N. 70° E. and dip 85° SE. and ppm. The lead anomaly (fig. 58.2 C) is exceptionally
75° NW.~ respectively. Both are characterized by a large; in nearly a square mile the lead content ex-
large number of small discontinuous gouge zones; ceeds 200 ppm and in nearly a quarter of a square
only a few faults are continuous enough to be shown
on the map.
The Urad mine, on the southeast slope of Red
Mountain, has produced molybdenum (Vanderwilt,
1947, p. 225), and previous work (Theobald and
Thompson, 1959) demonstrated the presence of tung-
sten in the same area. To establish the distribution L_----~----~~-4------+----r---------.40"
I
of these metals and to search for other potential ore I
metals in this intensely altered area, the lithosols on
> the slopes of Red Mountain and the opposing slope \
I
to the north were systematically sampled and an- I
alyzed. Landslide and morainal debris are abundant
on the steep ( 30 o or more>. slopes, but most of these \
materials are easily identifi·ed and were avoided in
sampling. There is no evidence for distortion of
the geochemical patterns by down-slope creep.
Areas of anomalously high values for tungsten
and molybdenum roughly coincide and trend north- ----------. -----~
0 50 100 MILES
easterly (fig. 58.2 B). The tungsten background is
less than 20 parts per million (ppm) and anomalous FIGURE 58.1.-Index map of Colorado showing location of this
values range from 40 to 3,000 ppm. The molybdenum study.
B-140 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

EX PLANA II ON EXPLANATION

m!:J~\~;;~!~~J ~ ~
W 40 parts per
million or more
....
ESZJ
••
z Mo 6 parts per
Silicified ~
0:: million or more
[II
~
<i
u [!]
~::s Argillized
w
0::
w and MolOOO parts
0'
D
Chloritized
a. per million or more

~
Contact
-......__----..
Contact ~---
A. AREAS OF ALTERED ROCKS __...------ B. TUNGSTEN AND MOLYBDENUM Dashed where inferred
Fault
Dashed where inferred

0 1 MILE

I,

EXPLANATION EXPLANATION

~
Pb more than 200
Ifill~
Zn 200 parts per
parts per million million or more

Ill D

-
Pb 4000 parts per Zn 100 to 175 parts
million or more per million

-----------
-------
Contact
Zn 75 parts per million or less
Fault .......__---...
Dashed where inferred Contact
~--­
Fault
Dashed where inferred

C. LEAD D. ZINC

FIGURE 58.2-Maps showing the distribution of major rock types and faults, az:eas of altered rocks, and the distribution of
tungsten, molybdenum, lead, and zinc in lithosols at Red Mountain, Clear Creek County, Colo.

mile it exceeds 1,000 ppm. The arsenic background The zinc background is 100 to 150 ppm; anomalies
(not illustrated) is 10 ppm, and anomalous values in the area sampled (fig. 58.2 D) are both positive
range from 20 to 120 ppm. ,Lead and arsenic are (200 to 2,000 ppm) and negative (75 to less than
most abundant on the south margin of the porphyry 25 ppm). The negative anomaly approximately co-
plug and generally east of both the zone of silicifica- incides with areas of argillized or silicified rock and
tion and the area containing maximum tungsten and with the area of maximum values for tungsten and
molybdenum values. molybdenum. The positive anomaly forms an arc
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-141
immediately outside of the negative anomaly, gen- areas of high molybdenum are locally elongate
erally in the area of chloritization. High values are parallel to north-trending shears. Areas of highest
found in some samples from the south margin of lead and arsenic values are parallel to north-trend-
the porphyry plug at approximately the same places ing shears, but they apparently have no relation to
as the maximum values for lead and arsenic. The either the northeast-trending shears or the zones
pattern is unrelated to structural features. It could of alteration. These patterns suggest that tungsten
have been produced in large part by hypogene redis- was introduced and copper and zinc were redis-
tribution of metals inherent to the rocks, although tributed during or shortly following alteration and
some zinc may have been introduced ~ith lead and that the northeast-trending shears were open at this
arsenic. time. The three elements were dispersed from con-
The copper pattern (not illustrated) is complex. duits in the area of silicification. Introd1.1ction of
Background is 20 to 30 ppm. A negative anomaly, molybdenum probably occurred at this time but
10 ppm or less, has the general configuration of the continued into a later stage of mineralization when
negative zinc anomaly. The negative anomaly is the principal open fractures were the north-trending
bisected by a north-trending group of positive shears. The northeast-trending shears and the con-
anomalies, 40 to 150 ppm, that coincides with the duit for metals introduced in the early period of
area of highest lead values. mineralization were effectively closed before lead,
All these anomalies have maxima lying along arsenic, and some zinc and copper were distributed
the south boundary of the porphyry plug. The along the north-trending shears from conduits on
maxima for tungsten and molybdenum,· coincide with the southeast margin of the porphyry plug.
the zone· of silicification, in the area of zinc and
copper lows. The maxima for lead and arsenic, and REFERENCES
the minor zinc and copper high, lie along the edge Theobald, P. K., Jr., and Thompson, C. E., 1959, Geochemical
of the porphyry east of the zone of silicification. prospecting with heavy mineral concentrates used to
locate a tungsten deposit: U.S. Geol. Survey Circ. 411.
Areas of high tungsten and molybdenum are elon- Vanderwilt, J. W., 1947, Mineral resources of Colorado: State
gate parallel to the northeast-trending shears and of Colorado Mineral Resources Board.

59. HYDROLOGY OF SMALL GRAZED AND UNGRAZED DRAINAGE BASINS, BADGER WASH AREA, WESTERN
COLORADO

By GREGG C. LUSBY, Denver, Colo.

Work doite in cooperation with Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Burt3au of Land Management, and Bureau of Reclamation.

r Erosion and runoff on much rangeland in the in place by only a sparse vegetation cover. In 1953
Western States have greatly damaged manmade a project was begun at Badger Wash to compare
structures, and also caused the loss of great ·quan- and evaluate changes in runoff and sediment yield
tities of soil and hence decreased the productivity from paired grazed and ungrazed drainage basins
of the land. and to determine sources of sediment in the drain-
A need for quantitative data on the effectiveness age basins.
of treatment-practices on rangelands has long been The Badger Wash basin is in western Colorado
recognized, particularly for the Colorado Plateau in an area of intricately dissected terrain along the
in western Colorado and eastern Utah where the base of the Book Cliffs a few miles east of the Utah-
soils on thousands of square miles of land are held· Colorado boundary and about 25 miles west of
B-142 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-Precipitation and runoff at Badge?· Wash, 1954-1959

[A, grazed basin; B, ungrazed basin]

Precipitation and runoff (inches)

Drainage Drainage
------------------------------------- --------------------,----------
basin area 195~ 1955 1956 195i 1958 1959
(square ------------;-------------- -------- ----1----:--------- --------,---- ------- -----
nules)
Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff Precipitation Runoff
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ·--r-------· - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
lA ....... 0.066 4.07 1.08 :3.24 1.06 2.12 0 8.03 1.15 2.95 0 4.~H 0.44
lB ....... .084 4.68 .05 :3.10 .82 1. 94 0 7.58 1.29 2.95 0 4.46 .20
2A ....... .167 5.04 1. 11 :3.82 1.21 1.90 .02 8.17 1.35 2.74 .01 4.31 .57
2B ....... . 158 4.80 1.07 3.64 .96 2.09 0 7.81 .68 ~.69 0 4.38 . :39
:3A ....... .OMl 4.76 .90 :3.71 1.06 1. 90 .02 7.02 2.34 . ~. 69 0 4.:31. .72
:3B ....... .048' 4.43 .:30 .....
4.. 79 .84 3.48 1.06 1.82 .02 7.18 1. 81 2.71 0
4A ....... .022 4.61 .01 3.49 1.29 2.28 .03 7.48 1.29 -2.41 .03 3.90 .60
4B ....... .OHl 4.60 .79 3.50 .fll 2.29 0 7.88 .98 2.54 0 3.94 .29

Grand Junction. Badger Wash is a tributary of 51 percent less for ungrazed areas than for the
West Salt Wash, which in turn is a tributary of the grazed areas in 1959.
Colorado River. The Badger Wash basin is under- Table 2 shows sediment yield at the four pairs of
lain entirely by the Mancos shale of Late Cretaceous watersheds during the period 1954-59. A reduction
age, but the lithology .of the bedrock differs some- in sediment yield from ungrazed areas is indicated
what in various parts of the basin. Shale in the by these data. Channel cross-sections were meas-
west and north parts of the basin contains several ured at 49 places and line transects were measured
thin flat-lying sandstone layers. The sandstone re- at 8 places· to determine the main areas of erosion.
sists erosion and locally forms areas of low· relief No change in ground level could be detected along
with sandy soils. On the southeast side of the basin the 8 transects, but channels at 75 percent of the
sandstone is absent. Throughout the basin relatively cross-sections measured had increased in cross-sec-
steep slopes merge at their bases with gentle collu- tional area during the period 1954-58, including
vial slopes. Stream channels are everywhere incised channels in both grazed and ungrazed basins. The
into the bedrock. increase in size of channel consisted in most cases
Eight small drainage basins, ranging in size from of an increase in both width and depth. Cross sec-
tions at two places are shown in figure 59.1.
12 to 107 acres, were studied. The basins were Weather Bureau precipitation records for Fruita,
matched in four pairs so that the basins in each Colo., about 16 miles southeast of Badger Wash,
pair were nearly similar in drainage area, topo- show that rainfall in the area was below normal in
graphic characteristic, soil type, and vegetation. 5 of the 6 years between 1954 and 1959. The largest
One basin of each pair wa~ fenced to prevent grazing, storm during the period occurred in July 1955.
and the other received normal grazing for the area. About 1.25 inches of rain fell in 30 minutes and
Runoff and sediment yield from each drainage basin produced runoffs of 0. 74 to 1.02 inches at rates ap-
was measured in a reservoir at the lower end of proaching 1,900 cubic feet per second per square
the basin. Nine recording rain gages were installed mile. Storms of about this intensity occur at about
so that at least two gages were located in each pair 10-year intervals.
of basins. Point rainfall, measured at the gages,
TABLE 2.-Sediment yield at Badger Wash, 1954-1959
was adjusted to areal rainfall on the watersheds by [A, grazed basin; B, ungrazed basin]
the Thiessen polygon method.
Sediment yield (acre-feet per square mile)
Precipitation and runoff at each of the eight
Drainage
drainage basins for the period 1954-59 are shown basin April1954- July 1955- Nov. 1956- Oct. 1957- Nov. 1958-
July 1955 Nov. 1956 Oct. 1957 Nov. 1958 Oct. 1959
in table 1. The precipitation and runoff were meas- ----
ured from about April 1 to October 31 each year. 1A ............. 10.8 0 3.80 0 4. 48
1B ............. 7.41 0 0 0 .06
Precipitation during the winter months occurs 2A ............. 14.1 0 2.46 0 1.98
28 ............. 15.3 0 . 70 0 2.13
mostly as snow and does not produce appreciable 3A ............. 12.5 0 1. 70 0 3. 71
38 ... : ......... 8.37 0 .82 0 2.8R
runoff. Table 1 . shows a decrease in runoff from 4A ............. 20.4 0 9.55
4.21
0
0
2.82
2.68
48 .... 14.7 0
ungrazed areas as compared to grazed areas. The (I)
(2)
13.5
12.0
0
0
3.09
.74
0
0
2.89
1. 72
average runoff was 6 percent less for the ungrazed
Average, all grazed areas.
areas than for the grazed areas in 1954, and it was 1
2 Average, all ungrazed areas.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-143

...

..........
rmrrrrmm
~ o,;.:: ••• liliilililiilil

-
z 1958 /"'-::::. 1954 Erosion
0
i= '<~1::.
<
> r===
LJ.J ~::.
~ 76 Deposition
~~t:

DISTANCE FROM INITIAL POINT, IN FEET

DISTANCE FROM INITIAL POINT, IN FEET

FIGURE 59.1.-Cross sections of gullies showing changes in channels between 1954 and 1958 at Badger Wash, Mesa County, Colo.
B-144 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

60. ABANDONMENT OF UNAWEEP CANYON, MESA COUNTY, COLORADO, BY CAPTURE OF THE COLORADO
AND GUNNISON RIVERS

By S. W. LOHMAN, Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with the Colorado Water Conservation Board

Unaweep Canyon is a spectacular gorge cut to a of the Cretaceous but mainly by more vigorous de-
depth of 1,500 to 3,300 feet across the Uncompahgre formation· in post-Green River time. Figure 60.1 A
Plateau between the towns of Whitewater and Gate- shows my concept of what the major drainage and
way, Colo. (fig. 60.1 D). The nearly vertical-walled topographic features may· have been in Pliocene
inner gorge, 500 to 1,200 feet deep, was cut in hard time just prior to capture of the ancestral Colorado
Precambrian crystalline rocks. The more gently River. The soft Mancos shale (Upper Cr~taceous)
sloping upper walls of the canyon were cut in softer had been partly stripped from the hard core of the
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The canyon is occu- Uncompahgre arch into which the ancestral Colorado
pied by two small streams, one of which flows north- River had cut, and the ancestral Book Cliffs capped
eastward (East Creek) and the other southwestward by the resistant Mesaverde group (Upper Creta-
(West Creek) from a gentle divide in the bottom ceous) were much closer to the arch than they are
of the gorge about 11 miles east of the crest of now.· The ancestral Colorado and Gunnison Rivers
the plateau (fig. 60.1 D). The divide now stands were baseleveled on the hard Precambrian rocks in
about 2,500 feet above Grand Junction and Gateway. Unaweep Canyon, which retarded downcutting in
That such an immense canyon could not have been and upstream from the canyon for a long period of
cut by such small streams flowing in opposite direc- time. The subsequent tributary shown at the left
tions was recognized as ~arly as 1875 by members (fig. 60.1 A), however, though carrying much less
of the Hayden Survey, who attributed the cutting water than the master stream, had only the soft
to the Gunnison River (Peale, 1877, p. 58, 59) or the Mancos shale to cut, so was able to erode headward
Grand [Colorado] River (Gannett, 1882, p. 785). rapidly around the plunging arch. Hunt (1956, p.
They believed that the canyon was abandoned solely 68) suggested that this tributary was established by
because of renewed uplift of the Uncompahgre superposition on deposits at least as old as the
Plateau [arch], however, and did not recognize the Browns Park formation. If such deposits once were
more obvious possibility-stream capture. Stokes present, however, they have since been removed by
(1948, p. 39) correctly attributed the abandonment erosion. Normal head ward erosion in soft rock
to stream capture, but did not tell the complete w bile the master stream was baseleveled on hard
story which, I believe, involved two successive major rock seems a more likely mode of origin of the
stream captures, later renewed uplift of the Un- tributary.
compahgre arch, and one later minor stream cap-·
ture. Only the highlights of these events can be CAPTURE OF ANCESTRAL COLORADO RIVER
given in this brief account-the details are given The subsequent tributary continued to cut head-
in a report now in preparation. ward until only a low divide of shale separated it
The courses of the ancestral Colorado and Gunni- from the ancestral Colorado River (fig .. 60.1 A).
son Rivers probably were established by superpo-
Then, probably during some large flood in Pliocene
sition on widespread lava flows of post-Green
time, the ancestral Colorado breached its banks and
River age (Hunt, 1956, p. 67 and 68) remnants of
spilled over into the headwaters of the tributary.
which still cap several high plateaus, including
Grand Mesa. During subsequent epeirogenic uplifts With the aid of this greatly increased supply of
and some renewed differential uplift of the Uncom- water, the tributary cut down rapidly into the soft
pahgre arch probably as late as Pliocene time, the Mancos shale, captured the ancestral Colorado, and
streams cut downward without regard to underlying isolated the ancestral Gunnison River (fig. 60.1 B).
structures such as the Uncompahgre arch-a north- Soon af~er this capture, another tributary was cut-
westward plunging faulted anticline that had been ting southward in the soft shale and was about to
formed in part by gentle warping at about the close capture the ancestral Gunnison.
 ~HORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-145

...,l

~.
,,,, .::'
.......
~'/)

4
~

D 0<==:;..5=:::::;10 MILES

FIGURE 60.1.-Sketch maps of ·a part of western Colorado and eastern Utah, showing probable drainage pattern and topographic
features at four successive stages of development. Solid drainage lines taken from Moab and Grand Junction, Utah-Colo-
rado topographic maps by the Army Map Service; dashed drainage lines are hypothetical. A, just prior to capture of
ancestral Colorado River; B, after capture of ancestral Colorado River and just prior to capture 'of ancestral Gunnison
River; C, after capture of ancestral Gunnison River; and D, present drainage pattern, after renewed uplift of the Un-
compahgre arch and capture of East Creek.
B-146 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

CAPTURE OF ANCESTRAL GUNNISON RIVER the Gunnison River. Near the northwest end of
Figure 60.1 C depicts my concept of what the Cactus Park about 200 feet above the new channel
drainage pattern and topographic features may of East Creek just 0.6 mile to the west, is a small
have been sometime after capture of the ancestral patch of terrace deposits containing cobbles and
Gunnison River. The divide between ancestral East pebbles of basalt, quartzite, and crystalline. rocks.
and West Creeks had migrated from a point near These deposits are about 800 feet below the divide
the ancestral Gunnison River to the northeastern in Unaweep Canyon, so probably were not deposited
end of Unaweep Canyon, and was still migrating by the ancestral Colorado or Gunnison Rivers. At
slowly southwestward. Meanwhile, a short tributary least the basalt and probably also some of the other
of ancestral North East Creek was cutting south- rock types were brought into Unaweep Canyon by
ward toward ancestral East Creek. these rivers, and then probably were carried back
Evidence that Unaweep Canyon was occupied by to the northeast by ancestral East Creek.
the ancestral rivers was provided when basalt peb-
bles were found in high terrace gravels along West POSSIBLE FUTURE STREAM CAPTURES

Creek about 41j2 miles above Gateway (F. W. Cater, The Colorado River has cut about 15 feet into
U.S. Geological Survey, written communication, hard Precambrian rocks at two places in Ruby
Dec. 1960). Basalt pebbles have not been found in Canyon just east of the Utah State line, and the
gravels of the Dolores River (fig. 60.1 D), but Gunnison River has reached Precambrian rocks at
-~
are abundant along· both the Colorado and Gunnison the mouth of Dominguez Creek (fig. 60.1 D). Thus
Rivers east of the arch. Cater believed it likely that once again downcutting by the two rivers is being
the basalt pebbles found near Gateway were re- retarded by hard rock. When Ruby and Westwater
worked by ancestral West Creek from deposits laid Canyons have developed deep inner gorges in hard
down earlier in Unaweep Canyon by the ancestral crystalline rocks, and the Book Cliffs and adjacent +-
Colorado River. belt of Mancos shale have retreated farther to the
north, these canyons may be abandoned through
RENEWED UPLIFT OF THE UNCOMPAHGRE ARCH capture of the Colorado River by a subsequent tribu-
There is evidence that the renewed uplift of the tary cutting in the Mancos shale around the Un-
Uncompahgre arch that may have begun in Plio- compa~hgre arch. Similarly, when a deep gorge in
cene time before abandonment of Unaweep Canyon Prec~mbrian rocks has been cut by the Gunnison,
probably continued in latest Pliocene or earliest tributaries of Indian Creek or Kannah Creek could ·"-'
Pleistocene time after abandonment, when uplift cut headward around the gorge and capture this
and crustal warping were renewed in the nearby reach of the Gunnison River. However, other pos-
San Juan Mountains (Atwood and Mather, 1932, p. sible future events, such as renewed uplift or pro-
25-27). This renewed uplift, which is discussed in nounced climatic· changes, could alter or prevent
more detail in a report now in preparation, had a such changes.
profound effect upon the subsequent erosional de-
velopment in and above the Grand Junction area REFERENCES
(fig. 60.1 D), but seemingly was not the cause of Atwood, W. W., and Mather, K. F., 1932, Physiography and
any of the stream captures. Quaternary geology of the San Juan Mountains, Colorado:
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 166, 34 pl., 25 figs., 176 p.
CAPTURE OF EAST CREEK Gannett, Henry, 1882, The Unaweep Canyon [Colo.]: Pop.
Sci. Monthly, v. 20, p. 781-786.
There is evidence that ancestral .East Creek for- Hunt, C. B., 1956, Cenozoic geology of the Colorado Plateau:
merly joined the ancestral Gunnison River along U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 279, 86 figs., 99 p.
the course shown in figure 60.1 C, through what is Peale, A. C., 1877, Geological report on the Grand River
now known as Cactus Park (fig. 60.1 D), but that district: U.S. Geol. Geog. Survey Terr. (Hayden), Ann.
later, in the Pleistocene, East Creek was captured by Rept. 9, p. 31-102, maps.
Stokes, W. L., 1948, Geology of the Utah-Colorado salt dome
a tributary of North East Creek to form the present
region, with emphasis on Gypsum Valley, Colorado, in
drainage pattern. A. gentle divide in .Cactus Park Utah Geol. Soc. Guidebook to the geology of Utah, no. 3:
now separates small tributaries of East Creek and 11 figs., 50 p.
... SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES,. ARTICLES 1-146 B-147

61. TRIPARTITION OF THE WASATCH FORMATION NEAR DE BEQUE IN NORTHWESTERN COLORADO

By JOHN R. DONNELL, Denver, Colo.

The Wasatch formation thins from 5,500 feet near easy to discern on electrical logs of wells along
the eastern margin of the Piceance Creek basin in Plateau Creek for a distance of 8 miles east of the
northwestern Colorado to a featheredge along the area shown on figure 61.1. Farther east some sand-
western margin of the basin. Through most of the stone beds are indicated on electrical logs at about
Piceance Creek basin the Wasatch is a monotonous the interval of the middle member, but these beds
sequence of brightly colored claystone beds, a few are thin and widely separated by thick claystone
massive lenticular arkosic sandstone beds, and a few beds.
thin limestone beds; and no attempt has been made The source of detritus in the middle member of
heretofore to map separate units. the Wasatch probably was southeast of the area
Within an area of several hundred square miles mapped. The sandstone beds thicken and become
in Garfield and Mesa Counties the Wasatch forma- more numerous and coarse grained to the southeast.
tion can be subdivided into three mappable members In T. 9 S., R. 96 W. (fig. 61.2), the middle member
(fig. 61.1). The upper and lower members are mainly includes several conglomerate beds that contain
claystone similar to the undif{erentiated Wasatch pebbles as much as 3 inches in diameter of quartz,
elsewhere. The middle member is mainly sandstone quartzite, and black, red, and brown chert. The
that forms steep ledges, in marked contrast to bad- sandstone in the middle member is mostly poorly
·~ lands· topography formed by the upper and lower sorted and feldspathic; locally the sandstone is an
members. arkose, which suggests a nearby source.
The upper contact of the middle member rises in
The upper member of the Wasatch in a measured section to the northwest; the lower contact is the
section north of Plateau Creek, shown on figure 61.2, base of the lowest persistent sandstone, and (unlike
is 930 feet thick. It thins to the northwest, west, the upper contact) it is at about the same strati-
and southwest, as does the entire Wasatch forma- graphic horizon everywhere in the area.
tion,. and thickens to the northeast, east, and south- The lower member of the Wasatch formation is
east. The southeastward thickening is accompanied· about 650 feet thick in the measured section, figure
by a partly compensating thinning of the overlying R. 99 W. R. 95 W.

Douglas Creek member of the Green River for-

mation.
The upper member weathers to many colors, but
red predominates in the upper part. The top of the
highest persistent thick band of red claystone is used
to identify the contact between the Wasatch and
overlying Green River formations. A single such
band, greater than 10 feet thick, was traced 20 miles
along ~he Colorado River. South and east of
De Beque, red claystones appear in progressively EXPLANATION
younger beds, and along Plateau Creek just east of
the area shown on figure 1, red claystones inter- Middle member of the Wasatch formation
tongue with and overlie rocks about 400 feet thick
belonging to the Douglas Creek member of the Green
River formation.
The middle member of the Wasatch attains its
maximum thickness of 530 feet along Plateau Creek
I
Measured section

in T. 10 S., R. 96 W. It thins to the northeast, north,

northwest, and southwest and disappears in T. 8 S.,
R. 99 W., and Tps. 10 and 11 S., R. 97 W. East and 10 15 MILES
south of the exposures on Plateau Creek the middle
member of the Wasatch is known only from bore 61.1.-Areal distribution of the middle member of the
FIGURE
holes. SB:ndstorie beds of the middle member are Wasatch formation. See figure 61.2 for measured section.
B-148 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

61.2. This member has a fairly constant thickness

EXPLANATION in the western part of the area, but increases in
thickness eastward. The lower member is lithologi-
.cally similar to the upper member except that the
Claystone lower member contains more and thicker carbona-
ceous claystone beds. One thick carbonaceous unit is
,_
Q)
.D
E
300
D. .
. Sandstone
near the top of the member just east of De Beque;
and another is 75 feet above the base of the member
Q)
at the east end of De Beque Canyon, about 4 miles
E ~ southwest of De Beque. The lower unit contains a
~
a.
a.
~
::> Conglomerate low-grade coal bed.
600
Several lenticular sandstone units are interbedded

c
0
D
Covered
with brightly colored claystone in the lower 100 feet
of the member, and this sandy sequence probably
:;:::;
E
ro correlates with drab shale and sandstone beds that
.E 900
contain late Paleocene plants in the lower part of
the Wasatch formation north and east of Rifle. Beds
...
Q)
of undescribed thickness in the lower part of the
.D
E
Q)
Wasatch formation near De Beque were called the
E Plateau Valley beds by Patterson (1939), who re-
Q)

.c
::0
"0 1200 ports that they contain Paleocene vertebrate fossils.
~ ~ The fossils were found in or just above the lenti-
ro
VI
ro
3: cular sandstone beds in the lower part of the ·lower
member at two places; one is south of De Beque in
T. 9 S., R. 97 W., and the other west of De Beque
1500 in T. 8 S., R. 97 W. The vertebrate-bearing Plateau
~
.D
Valley beds of Patterson are not sufficiently dis-
E
Q)
tinctive to be distinguished easily from the main
E body of the lower member of the Wasatch formation,
~
·0
~ and they are not differentiated on the map.
...J
1800 In the De Beque area the Wasatch formation is
everywhere underlain by conglomeratic sandstone,
the Ohio Creek conglomerate, which is the oldest
Tertiary unit.
Ohio Creek
conglomerat~ ....L..;......;.....;..;;..;.....;.__;.....;__;_;_;_:.....----
100 REFERENCE
Patterson, Bryan, 1939, New Pantodonta and Dinocerata from
FIGURE 61.2.-Generalized stratigraphic section of the
the upper Paleocene of Western Colorado: Field Mus.
' Wasatch formation.
Nat. History Pub. 1441, Geol. ser., v. 6; no. 24, p. 351-384.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-149

62. DIAMICTITE FACIES OF THE WASATCH FORMATION IN THE FOSSIL BASIN, SOUTHWESTERN WYOMING

By J. I. TRACEY, JR., S. S. ORIEL, and W. W. RuBEY, Washington, D .C., Denver, Colo., and
Los.Angeles, Calif.

Unsorted mudstone breccia forms an extensive Basin along the east side of Dempsey Ridge, as in
facies of the Wasatch formation around the north- the NWlJ.t. sec. 15, T. 24 N., R. 118 W. These fan-
ern periphery of the Fossil basin ("Fossil syncline") like ma~ses are large aprons of material, in part
north and west of Kemmerer, Wyo. The breccia deltas, dumped into the borders of the Green River
consists of mixed angular fragments of rock of lake, as shown in several places where as many as
Mesozoic and Paleozoic age, some of them more than three .tongues of limestone of the Green River for-
20 feet across, in a pebbly red mudstone matrix. mation pinch out westward within the diamictite;
The mudstone breccia fits the definition of the an example is in the Slj2 sec. 3, T. 23 N., R. 118 W.
term diamictite recently proposed by Flint, Sanders, Thicknesses of the diamictite facies cannot be
and Rodgers ( 1960a, b) for "terriginous sedimen- measured accurately at most localities. Maximu~
tary rocks that contain a wide range of particle' thicknesses probably do not exceed 500 feet. De-
sizes." Similar or related deposits of about the spite moderate ranges in thickness, the facies is re-
same age have been noted in other parts of Wyoming markably continuous along strike, but thins basin-
by Knight (1937), Love (1939, p. 60-62), Tourtelot ward to an edge within one to several miles.
(1957, p. 5, 21), Keefer (1958), and Soister (1960). Rock of the diamictite facies, more than 100 feet
The rocks resemble fanglomerate described by Sharp thick, fills remnants of channels cut i.n older rock
(1948) from the Bighorn Mountains, the Ridgway across the crest of Rock Creek Ridge, 2 miles west
and Gunnison "tillites" from Colorado (Van Houten, of Dempsey Ridge. It is also found in Rock Creek
1957), and many mudflows and "lahar" (volcanic valley, between exposures on Rock Creek Ridge
mudflow) deposits, although little or no volcanic and on Dempsey Ridge; rocks on the west are 500
material is present. to 1,000 feet lower than on Dempsey Ridge, whose
Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks of the south- western flank coincides with a normal fault.
ern part of the Wyoming overthrust belt form the Most common boulders and blocks are from the
structural framework of the Fossil basin, which Mesozoic Ankareh formation, Nugget sandstone,
contains variegated mudstone, sandstone, and con- Twin Creek limestone, Preuss sandstone, and
glomerate of the Wasatch formation, and laminated Ephraim conglomerate, and from the upper Paleo-
limestone, marlstone, claystone, and oil shale of the zoic Wells and Amsden formations. Blocks of quart-
Green River formation, both of Eocene age. As in zitic conglomerate from the Ephraim are especially
other regions (Sears and Bradley, 1924; Bradley, common locally and are the coarsest; some are up to
1926), sequences of the laminated beds of the Green 20 feet in length.
River are separated by tongues of the Wasatch for- The extraordinary range .in particle sizes of the
mation, showing periodic encroachment of fluvial deposits is striking. A complete gradation of shapes
sediments into lakes in which the Green River for- and angularity, as well as concentrations, of coarse
mation was deposited. The diamictite facies of the fragments is also evident. Orientation of blocks is
).. Wasatch apparently formed during most of this not evident; the deposits seem chaotic or jumbled.
period of deposition, for it grades in some places Gravitational sliding and solifluction seem to
into normal variegated beds of the main body of us the most probable explanations of origin. De-
the Wasatch formation, below basal Green River posits filling channels cut into older rocks likely
strata, and in other places it spreads out over upper-
originated as mudflows. Slopes forming the mar-
most Green River strata.
Diamictite overlies older rocks of the thrust belt gins of the basin in Eocene time were steep and
on Dempsey Ridge 1 in the Tunp Range, along the deeply w~athered, and the hillsides and drainage-
Great Basin-Colorado River Divide, and it forms ways in times of abnormal rainfall were probably
large fanlike masses projecting into the Dempsey choked with debris that was being moved basinward.
Normal faulting since Wasatch time has greatly
1 r~ocnllties cited here nrc shown on U.S. Geological Survey topographic
sheets for the Sage, Kemmerer, and Cokeville quadrangles, unless otherwise
altered topographic relations. The nearest present
noted. outcrop of Ephraim conglomerate that might have
B-150 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

served as a source for the material along Dempsey formation, consisting of pebbly red mudstone and
Ridge is 6 miles west and more than 2,000 feet some large blocks, extends almost continuously for
lower. 40 miles or more northward along the east sides of
Other exposures of the diamictite- facies are found Deadline and Meridian Ridges, to Horse Creek in
along the northeast periphery of the Fossil basin, the Big Piney quadrangle and beyond. Throughout
on the western slopes of Commissary Ridge. Large the region the diamictite facies may have accumu-
blocks of upper Paleozoic to Upper Cretaceous rocks lated soon after the major overthrust plates had
were derived from formations that underlie the moved into their present positions. In a few places,
Ridge. In places they are in a pebbly red mudstone however, as in the northern part of Deadline Ridge,
matrix, in others they lie free on a gently sloping in the S1f2 sec. 32, T. 29 N., R. 114 W., the diamictite
surface and probably are relict blocks of the diamic- is involved in the thrusting. Distribution of the facies
tite facies. ·was evidently controlled by proximity to steep slopes
Large accumulations of rubble on Boulder Ridge, and mountainous relief, the growth of which need
north and south of Sage station in the Sage quad- not have coincided more than generally in time and
rangle, may be part of the diamictite facies. The place with final movements of the thrust plates.
boulders and blocks come mostly from Paleozoic lime-
stones exposed now in the Crawford Range some REFERENCES .
miles to the southwest. One very large block of
Ordovician dolomite 2 miles north of Sage is more Bradley, W. H., 1926, Shore phases of the Green River
formation in northern Sweetwater County, Wyoming:
than 600 feet long. Others are 40 to 60 feet long. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140-D, p. 121-131.
About 4 miles south-southwest of Sage, in parts of Flint, R. F., Sanders, J. E., and Rodgers, John, 1960a, Sym-
sees. 25, 35, and 26, T. 21 N., R. 120 W., a large mictite: a name for nonsorted terrigenous sedimentary
mass of steeply dipping Cambrian, Ordovician, and rocks that contain a wide range of particle sizes: Geol.
+-
Devonian limestone and dolomite, 3,800 feet long, - - Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 507-510.
- 1960b, Diamictite, a substitute term for symmictite:
1,400 feet wide, and 200 feet high, seems to be Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 1809.
surrounded and underlain by Lower Cretaceous Keefer, W. R., 1958, Cenozoic landslides versus klippen [abs.]:
mudstone and sandstone. Rocks composing this mass Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1732.
strike nearly normal to similar Paleozoic strata ex- Knight, S. H., 1937, Origin of the giant conglomerates of
Green Mountain and Crook's Mountain, central Wyoming
posed 1j2 to 3 miles northwest and southwest in .the [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Proc. 1936, p. 84.
northern part of the Crawford Mountains. The mass Love, J. D., 1939, Geology along the southern margin of the
may be a klippe of the nearby Crawford thrust plate; Absaroka Range, Wyoming: Geol. Soc. America Spec.
possibly it is merely a slid block similar in ori- Paper 20, 134 p.
gin to, though differing greatly in scale from, the Schultz, A. R., 1914, Geology and geography of a portion of
Lincoln County, Wyo.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 543, 141 p.
rubble that makes up the bulk of the diamictite Sears, J. D., and Bradley, W. H., 1924, Relations of the
facies. Wasatch and Green River formations in northwestern
A diamictite facies of the Wasatch formation has Colorado and southern Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
also been recognized along th~ ·western margin of Paper 132-F, p. 93-107.
the Green River basin south of LaBarge Creek in Sharp, R. P., 1948, Early Tertiary fanglomerate, Big Horn
Mountains, Wyoming: Jour. Geology, v. 56, no. 1, p. 1-15.
the Fort Hill quadrangle, wher,e it was previously Soister, P. E., 1960, Landslide debris from Cretaceous rocks in
mapped by Schultz (1914, pl. 1).as the conglomeratic the Wind River formation of early Eocene age, Wind
Almy formation of the Was~tch group. The facies River basin, Wyoming [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
v. 71, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1982-1983. .
intertongues here, also, with .the Green River for- .(
Tourtelot, H. A., 1957, The geology and vertebrate paleontol-
mation and is not, at lea~f ·~n· this area, older than ogy of upper Eocene strata in the northeastern part of
the main body of the Wasatch formation, as gen- the Wind River basin, Wyoming, pt. 1, Geology: Smith-
erally supposed. sonian Misc. Coli., v. 134, no. 4, 27 p.
VanHouten, F. B., 1957, Appraisal of Ridgway and Gunnison
Farther north· along the western margin of the "tillites," southeastern Colorado: Geol. Soc. America
Green River Basin, a lower member of th.e Wasatch Bull., v. 68, p. 383-388.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-151

63. TONGUES OF THEWASATCH AND GREEN RIVER FORMATIONS, FORT HILL AREA, WYOMING

By S. S. ORIEL, Denver, Colo.

Three tongues of the Green River formation and tic shades of red and purple. These beds grade
two tongues (as well as the main body) of the laterally westward into mudstone and sandstone
Wasatch formation, all of early Eocene age, have beds in which red is the dominant color, as in the
been recognized during mapping of the Fort Hill SW1/4SW1/4 sec. 15 and NW1/4 sec. 26, T. 26 N.,
.J.. quadrangle. R. 114 W .
The Fort Hill 15-minute quadrangle lies on the The New Fork tongue of the Wasatch formation
western margin of the Green River basin in western is overlain by an unnamed middle tongue of the
Wyoming, about 15 miles north of the town of Kem- Green River formation. The middle tongue is divis-
merer. The Green River and Wasatch formations ible into two readily distinguishable and mappable
crop out in eastward-dipping cuestas that extend units; a lower white unit composed mainly of white-
northward through the quadrangle. These cuestas weathering low-grade oil shale and white to gray
have . been cut by eastward-flowing tributaries of limestone, and an upper buff to brown, locally pink,
Green River. The facies relations (fig. 63.1) be- gray, or white limestone, marlstone, mudstone, silt-
tween the two formations are well exposed in steep ·stone, and sandstone unit. Bo~h ·units are very
bluffs along these tributaries. thinly laminated and both grade westward into
The lower tongues were recognized and described thicker bedded organic limestone of nearshore facies
by Donavan 1 (1950). (Bradley, 1926) as do the other tongues of the
The main body of the Wasatch formation consists formation.
chiefly of variegated red, yellow, buff, purple, green, Another wedge of detrital rocks composed mainly
and gray mudstone with interbedded marlstone, of green and gray mudstone and yellow to brown
sandstone, and lentils of conglomerate. The unit sandstone overlies the middle tongue of the Green
becomes increasingly conglomeratic westward. River formation. This wedge, here informally desig-
The Fontenelie tongue of the Green River for- nated the upper tongue of the Wasatch formation,
mation (Donavan, 1950, p. 63-64; Bradley, 1959, p. is 200 feet thick in the central part of the Fort
1072) conformably overlies the main body of the Hill quadrangle but only 100 feet thick along its
Wasatch formation. Only the basal 50 to 60 feet of eastern margin. This eastward thinning is due to
strata assigned to the Fontenelle by Donavan at his eastward tonguing with algal and ostracoda! lime-
type section~ and in adjoining areas is here included stone and laminated marlstone assigned to the
in the unit. As thus restricted, the tongue consists Green River formation.
of very thinly laminated light-gray to white muddy The uppermost unit of the sequence, directly be-
limestone, marlstone, calcareous very fine grained neath the ·Bridger formation, is here termed the
sandstone, and calcareous mudstone. upper tongue of the Green· ~iver formation. Rocks
A wedge of detrital rocks; about 250 feet thick included are thinly and evenly bedded to laminated,
in the Fort Hill quadrangle, overlies the Fontenelle
tongue and is here assigned to the New Fork tongue tan, yellow to brown, and gray limestone, marlstone,
of the Wasatch formation. The New Fork tongue mudstone, siltstone, and sandstone, particularly os-
consists dominantly of green and gray mudstone tracoda], gastropodal, and aJgal limestone.
with numerous lenses of yellow, buff, and brown, Recognition of the relations between the Green
very fine- to medium-grained sandstone. The basal River and Wasatch formations in the Fort Hill area
20 to 45 feet is locally thinly laminated; most of has been hampered by the presence of the two
the sequence is like the Wasatch formation in coarse- wedges of detrital rocks that do not fit original
ness of the mudstone bands but lacks the characteris- descriptions and definitions of either of the for-
mations.
1 Donavan, Jack H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and Wasatch The name Wasatch was originally applied by
formations In part of Sublette and Lincoln Counties, Wyoming: M.S. Thesis,
Univ. Utah. Hayden (1869, p. 91) to variegated sandstone and
2 Donavan, Jack H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and Wasatch claystone in which some shade of red predominated;
formations in part of Sublette and Lincoln Counties, Wyoming: M.S. thesis,
Univ. Utah. Donavan's type section, no. 7 (p. 40-41), is located erroneously
the empha.sis on red hues was again stressed in a
in his description but is shown properly on his geologic map in the NW% later description (1870, p. 106, 113-114). The name
sec. 13, T. 24 N., R. 115 W. Green River, on the other hand, was applied by
B-152 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

W,;.......----=--------------------1E the Wasatch formation yet do not contain the lami-

nae diagnostic of the Green River formation. The
absence of red is not unusual because green mud-
stone and yellow to brown sandstone form narrow,
c
0
:;::;
intermediate facies between more typical exposures
§ of the two formations at many places elsewhere in
c .E
0
:;::;
~
the Green River and Fossil basins. Moreover, an
§ ii:
.E absence of red may be expected close to the ancient
~ ~
!::!
:l!
(5 lake in which the Green River formation was de-
~ posited, because of poor drainage and reducing con-
ditions in contrast to the well-drained alluvial soils
of higher elevations.
The two wedges of detrital rock are assigned here
Main body
to the New Fork and unnamed upper tongues respec-
tively of the Wasatch formation because:
FIGURE 63.1.--'-Idealized section of Wasatch and Green River 1. Although dissimilar in color, the rocks are simi-
units in the Fort Hill area, Wyoming. lar in every other respect (including composi-
tion, primary structures, and faunal content)
Hayden (1869, p. 90-91) to "thinly laminated chalky to those commonly and originally assigned to
shales" which locally include "combustible or petro- the Wasatch.
leum shales"; the peculiarly banded appearance of 2. The rocks are similar in every respect, including
the rocks wa~ stressed, although the abundance of color, to some that are included in the for-
limestone in the great range of compositions of mation at many other localities. t
the laminae was recognized. Emphasis in original 3. Assignment to the Wasatch formation facili-
descriptions, therefore, was on color for one unit tates recognition, through stratigraphic nomen-
and on primary structure for the other. clature, of two significant geologic events
Some subsequent usage of the terms, however, along the western margin of the Eocene
has stressed genesis. Rocks considered to be of Gosiute Lake, both marked by extensive deposi-
fluvial origin were assigned to the Wasatch for- tion of detrital material advancing from the
mation; those of lacustrine origin to the Green River west and possibly by eastward regressions of
formation. Lack of assurance regarding the origin the lake.
of the green mudstone:._brown sandstone facies,
however, makes adoption of this criterion im- REFERENCES
practical. Bradley, W. H., 1926, Shore phases of the Green River forma-
Rocks assigned here to the New Fork tongue of tion in northern Sweetwater County, Wyoming: U.S.
the Wasatch formation were included by Donavan Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 140-D, p. 121-131.
(1950) in the Fontenelletongue of the Green River - - 1959, Revision of stratigraphic nomenclature of Green
formation in the Fort Hill area where they consist River formation of Wyoming: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists Buil., v. 43, no. 5, p. 1072-1075.
of green, not red, mudstone and brown sandstone.
Donavan, J. H., 1950, Intertonguing of Green River and
Beds similar to these, on the other hand, make up Wasatch formations in part of Sublette and Lincoln
the bulk of the sequence assigned to the New Fork Counties, Wyoming, in Guidebook to southwest Wyoming:
tongue (Donavan, 1950) farther north in its type Wyoming Geol. Assoc. 5th Ann. Fieid Conf., p. 59-67.
area where, however, basal strata include red, Hayden, F. V., 1869, Preliminary field report (3d ann.) of the
brown, and purple mudstone. Color seems to have U.S. Geol. Survey of Colorado and New Mexico, 155 p.
- - 1870, Sun pictures of Rocky Mountain scenery, with a
influenced the stratigraphic assignment.
description of the geographical and geological features
Rocks in the two wedges of green mudstone arid and some account of the resources of the Great West:
brown sandstone lack the dominant reds typical of New York, 150 p.
.... SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-153

64. AGE OF THE EVANSTON FORMATION, WESTERN WYOMING

By W. W. RUBEY, S. S. ORIEL, and J. I. TRACEY, JR., Los Angeles, Calif., Denver, Colo.,
.., and Washington, D. C.

Renewed interest has arisen concerning the age similar in gross aspect and in some details, although
of the Evanston formation because it provides a not identical because of facies differences typical of
means for dating precisely some tectonic events in continental strata.
., the thrust belt ·of western Wyoming. The formation Fossils in the Evanston formation in the Kem-
was long of interest because of its bearing on the merer,· Sage, and Cokeville quadrangles include ver-
Laramie problem and therefore on the boundary be- tebrates, fresh-water invertebrates, leaves, and
tween the Cretaceous and Tertiary systems (Veatch, pollen. Ages inferred from these varied fossil forms
1907, p. 86-87; Schultz, 1914, p. 70-71). are in agreement.
The Evanston formation was formally named Vertebrates from near the base of the formation
by Veatch (1906, p. 332) and defined (1907, p. 76) include the jaw of T1·iceratops cf. · T. fiabellatus
to include strata that were earlier referred to in- Marsh, indicating probable Lance (==Hell Creek),
formally as the "Evanston beds" and "Evanston latest Cretaceous age (G. E. Lewis, written com-
coal series." No type section was designated. Veatch's munication, 1958), and numerous unidEmtifiable dino-
criteria (1907, p. 77) for distinguishing the forma- saurian bone fragments indicative only of Mesozoic
tion from the underlying Adaville formation and age. Mollusca from strata near but above the verte-
+ from overlying strata, which he assigned to the brate horizon are different from those of Paleocene
Wasatch group, are still valid. Veatch failed to age and are regarded of ·probable Cretaceous or
recognize the Evanston over much of its extent, early Paleocene age (D. W. Taylor, written commu-
however, and distinguished it (see his pl. 3) in only nication, 1960).
a few small areas near the town of Evanston. Leaves found about 50 feet _above the base of the
Disagreements amon·g paleontologists regarding Evanston formation, about 20 miles north of the
the age of fossils found within the Evanston for- vertebrate localities, were identified by J. A. Wolfe
mation led Veatch (1907, p. 84-87) to discuss the (written communication, 1959) as D1·yophyllum sub-
problem at length. The age, he concluded tenta- falcatium Lesquereux, Cinnamomum linijoliu1n
tively, was early Tertiary, but he used the symbol Knowlton, and Dombeyopsis obtusa Lesquereux and
. KTe to designate the unit on maps and cross assigned a Lance (latest Cretaceous) age. A collec-
sections. tion froma nearby locality yielded Protophyllocladus
Geologists other than Schultz (1914, p. 68) have subintegrifolius (Lesquereux) Berry, Ficus plani-
not made use of the Evanston formation as a map- costata Lesquereux, and Cinnamomum affine Les-
pable lithologic unit. Beds north of the type area quereux, also of Late Cretaceous age (R. W. Brown,
formerly assigned to the Evanston by Schultz were written communication, 1958).
defined as the Hoback formation by Eardley and Fourteen species of pollen were identified from
others (1944). mudstone samples collected at one of the leaf locali-
Extensive exposures of the Evanston formation ties. The presence of Proteacidites annularis Cook-
have been mapped by us in the Cokeville, Kemmerer, son, as well as other forms, indicates the samples
and Sage quadrangles, Lincoln County, and Big are no younger than Late Cretaceous (E. B. Leopold,
Piney quadrangle, Sublette County, Wyo. The belt written communication, 1959).
of the. rocks assigned by Veatch ( 1907, pl. 3) to his Pollen species identified in samples from mudstone
Almy formation in the eastern part of the FossiJ close to the Triceratops locality are even more va-
basin belongs in the Evanston formation as well ried ; 32 species were recognized. The species Schi-
as scattered exposures well within the basin which zaeoisporites pseudodorogensis Potonie, Osmundaci-
he assigned to his Knight formation. Our assign- dites wellmannii Couper, Proteacidites annularis
tl
ment of these rocks to the Evanston is supported Cookson, and associated forms confirm the Late Cre-
,
.. both by Veatch's published description and by com-
parison of certain distinctive rock types in the quad-
taceous age of these rocks (E. B. Leopold, written
communication, 1959).
rangles mentioned with those in exposures at the Fossils found near the middle of the Evanston
type area. Exposures of the unit in both areas are formation include Paleocene, possibly middle Paleo-
 B-154 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

cene, leaves (R. W. Brown, written communication, lected directly above and below the horizon of the
1958) and pollen (E. B. Leopold, written communi- lowest conglomerate layer mentioned by Veatch
cation, 1959). , (1907, p. 80), however, contain an assemblage of
A varied vertebrate fauna has been reported 250 pollen of latest Cretaceous age (E. B. Leopold, writ-
, to 300 feet below the top of the unit by Gazin (1956, ten communication, 1961). Among the more criti- #(':.
p. 708) who interprets the presence of Plesiadapis cal species are Aquilapollenites quadrilobus Rouse,
cf P. fodinatus Jepsen, Pheocodus sp., and other Appendicisporites tricornitatus Weyland and Grei-
genera to indicate an early late Paleocene (Tiffany) feld, and Proteacidities annularis Cookson. The pos- 4
age. No fossils have been found in uppermost strata sibility that these forms are re.worked from older
assigned to the formation. rocks is considered unlikely.
Additional collections of leaves and pollen from Collections from the type area, tperefore, seem
exposures in other parts of the Sage, Kemmerer, and to confirm the Cretaceous and Paleocene age of the
Cokeville quadrangles confirm the Cretaceous and Evanston formation, to verify the age assignments
Paleocene. age of the Evanston formation in this made by Knowlton and Stanton som~. 60. years ago
area. (Veatch, 1907, p. 86-87), and to support Veatch's
Cretaceous age assignments for parts of the use of the map symbol KTe.
Evanston formation in the quadrangles under study ,.
r
are not in accord with the Paleocene age inferred REFERENCES
for the unit in its type area some 30 miles to the Brown, R. W., 1949, Paleocene deposits of the Rocky Moun-
south in earlier reports (for example, Brown, 1949; tains and Plains: U.S. Geol. Survey prelim. map, scale
.Eaton, 1955, p. 116). 1:1,000,000, with descriptive notes . ••
The apparent discrepancy. in age led us to re- Eardley, A. J., and others, 1944, Hoback-Gros Ventre-Teton
[Range, Wyo.], field conference: Michigan Univ. geol.
examine exposures of the formation in it~ type area. map, tectonic map, with sections, 2 sheets. +
The thickest section reported by Veatch (1907, p. Eaton, E. C., 1955, Catalog of formations for Green River
80) lies along the boundary between the western Basin and Adjacent areas, in Guidebook to the Green
parts of sees. 18 and 19, T. 16 N., R. 120 W., north River Basin: Wyoming Geol. Assoc. lOth Ann. Field
of the old settlement at Almy and is regarded by us Conf., p. 114-121.
Gazin,· C. L., 1956, The occurrence of Paleocene mammalian
as the informal reference section. remains in the Fossil basin of southwestern Wyoming:
Fossils w~re collected by us directly below and Jour. Paleontology, v. 30, no. 3, p. 707-711.
above a main coal bed north of the old No. 7 mine Schultz, A. R., 1914, Geology and geography of a portion of
(Veatch, 1907, pl. 3). Leaves_ were examined by Lincoln County, Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 543,
R. W. Brown (1958), mollusks by D. W. Taylor 141.p.
(1960), and pollen by E. B. Leopold (1959, 1960), Veatch, A. C., 1906, Coal and oil in southern Uinta County,
Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 285-F, p. 331-353.
who conclude they indicate a Paleocene age.
- - 1907, Geography and geology of a portion of south-
No · megascopic fossils were found considerably western Wyoming: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 56, 178
below the· ·main coal bed. Samples of mudstone col- p., 26 pl.

65.. PERMAFROST AND THAW DEPRESSIONS IN A PEAT DEPOSIT IN THE BEARTOOTH MOUNTAINS,
NORTHWESTERN WYOMING

By WILLIAM G. PIERCE, Menlo Park, Calif.

The discovery of permanently frozen ground in renee this far south in the Rocky Mountains. Asso-
a peat deposit in the southeastern part of the Bear- ciated with it are numerous thaw ponds, which in-
tooth Mountains, northwestern Wyoming, is of in- dicate the presence of permafrost.
terest because permafrost is of infrequent. occur- The Sawtooth peat deposit, named from Sawtooth
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146. B-155
Mountain half a mile to the north, is in the western
. . part of the Deep Lake quadrangle, at latitude
44 °53'N. It is at an altitude of 9,700 feet, a few
hundred feet below timberline in this area. The peat
extends over an area 1,500 feet wide and 2,000 feet
' long and has an estimated thickness of 10 to 15
feet. Peat is not forming here now, but rather is
.. being removed by erosion. The deposit lies in a
broad northwest-trending valley that appears to be
downfaulted on its southwest side. The shape and
appearance of the valley suggest that it may be a
. pre-Wisconsin ice-scoured valley. The broad valley
in which the peat was deposited is part of the Bear-
tooth Mountains subsummit surface (peneplain of
Bevan, 1925), a deeply weathered pre-Wisconsin FIGURE 65.1.-Patterned ground in the Sawtooth peat deposit.
surface developed on Precambrian granitic and Hammer in center for scale.
gneissic rocks. During the most recent glaciation,
presumably Wisconsin, deep valleys on three sides The origin of the depression was discussed with
of the deposit were filled with ice that came up to D. M. Hopkins, who suggested that they are thaw
about the level of the subsummit surface, but the depressions, formed by melting of the ice beneath.
peat deposit was not glaciated. The irregular land surface produced by this process
Two shallow holes were dug in the peat on Au- has been called thermokarst by Russian scientists
+ gust 24, 1956. At a depth of 15 inches a sharp con- and cave-in lakes are one of its surface features
tact between moist peat above and a solid frozen mass (Muller, 1945). Hopkins (1949) proposed the name
of ice and peat below was found in both holes. Al- "thaw lakes" as synonymous with cave-in lakes, and
though excavation into the solidly frozen peat was defined thaw depressions as depressions that- result
continued for only a few inches, it seems probable from subsidence following the thawing of peren-
that the ice extends downward some distance in nially frozen ground. The depressions in the Saw-
the peat. The deposit was visited again on July 30, tooth peat seem to be clearly thaw depressions,
1957, and several additional holes were dug. Near formed by melting of ice within the peat. The de-
the previous holes, solidly frozen peat occurred at pressions probably started forming where slight
a depth of 18 inches. A hole in the previously un- irregularities in the ground surface permitted a
tested southern part of the deposit, which is marshy
and grass-covered, also reached ice at a depth of 18
inches.
Patterned ground, in the form of polygons 5 to
10 feet across, is conspicuous in places (fig. 65.1).
The polygons are in the peat and consist of shallow
; trenches separating slightly convex areas. They
may have been formed by ice-wedges in the peat.
Even more striking, however, are circular undrained
depressions in the central part of the peat deposit.
Superficially they resemble sink holes, about 6 feet
deep and from a few feet to 40 feet in diameter.
.. Their nearly flat bottoms are covered by 2 to 3 feet
of water. The peat at the margins of the depressions
is slowly caving downward, as shown by marginal
cracks (fig. 65.2), and by circular cracks beyond
the margin. The depressions are not due to solu-
tion, for neither the peat nor the underlying Pre- FIGURE 65.2.-Two thaw depressions in the Sawtooth peat
deposit. The cracks in the walls of the depressions indi-
cambrian rocks are readily soluble. There is no cate lateral growth by downward caving of the peat.
evidence to indicate that they resulted from water These two depressions have grown until they now
or wind erosion. coalesce. Hammer on bank in foreground for scale.
B-156 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

little water to accumulate. The water in the de- frost provided there is a few feet of exceptionally
pressions kept the underlying peat wet and per- good insulating cover. The permafrost in the Saw-
mitted downward thawing to continue in the de- tooth peat has an antiquity greater than just the
pressions during the summer months, while beyond last few years, for the thaw depressions have been
the depressions the dry peat insulated the ice be~ in the process of developing for some time. If the
neath it. As the ice thawed the volume of the peat rate of retreat measured by Wallace (1948) on the
•'
and ice lessened and the depression deepened. margins of some cave-in lakes in eastern Alaska is
The peat is not older than Pleistocene. A sample applicable, then the time required to form the larger •
of the peat, obtained from about a foot below the depressions may have been less than a hundred to
eroded top of the deposit was submitted for exami- a few hundred years. However, their growth may
nation for pollen and diatoms and for a carbon 14 have been intermittent, and, if so, a longer time
age determination. K. E. Lohman found an assem- may be represented.
blage of diatoms (USGS diatom loc. 4209) that is
no older than late Pleistocene, and he reports that REFERENCES
the same diatom assemblage is living today in cool Bevan, Arthur, 1925, Rocky Mountain peneplains northeast of
to cold ponds. The radiocarbon age of the sample Yellowstone Park: Jour. Geology, v. 33, p. 563-587.
Hopkins, D. M., 1949, Thaw lakes and thaw sinks in the
(laboratory number w...:..459) is reported by M.eyer
Imuruk Lake area, Seward Peninsula, Alaska: Jour.
Rubin as 7,570 years, ± 400 years. The C14 age Geology, v. 57, p. 119-131. ;
thus indicates that the upper part of_ the peat bed
is post-Wisconsin in age, but the lower part of the
Muller, S. W., 1945, Permafrost or perennially frozen ground
and related engineering problems: Office, Chief of Engi- ...
bed may be of late Wisconsin age. neers, U.S. Army Spec. Rept. Strategic Eng. Study 62,
p. 83-84.
The presence of perennial ice indicates that the Wallace, R. E., 1948, Cave-in lakes in the Nebesna, Chisana,
present climate is cold enough at the altitude and and Tanana River valleys, eastern Alaska: Jour. Geology,
latitude of the Sawtooth peat to maintain perma- v. 56, p. 171-181.

66. EVIDENCE FOR EARLY CRETACEOUS FOLDING IN THE BLACK HILLS, WYOMING

By GLEN A. IZETT, CHARLES L. PILLMORE, and WILLIAM J. MAPEL,

Denver, Colo.

The Lakota formation of Early Cretaceous age by· unconformably overlying rocks in the adjacent
and its lithogenetic equivalents the Kootenai forma- Powder River basin would have interest for their oil
tion in central Montana and the lower part of the and gas possibilities.
Cloverly formation in Montana and Wyoming are ·Early Cretaceous folding is indicated by local
fluviatile and lacustrine deposits that extend in a angular unconformities within and bounding the
relatively thin sheet over several hundred. thousand Lakota formation at a small dome in Barlow Canyon.
square miles in the Western Interior region. Re- in T. 54 N., Rs. 65 and 66 W., Crook County, Wyo.,
gional stratigraphic relations indicate that over about 5 miles north of Devils Tower, and at a small
broad areas the surface on. which these rocks were dome bisected by Oil Creek in T. 47 N., R. 62 W.,
deposited was essentially undisturbed by folding· or Weston County, Wyo., about 8 miles north of New-
faulting. However, mapping of the Lakota and castle (fig. 66.1). The sequence of beds and the
adjacent formations along the west side of the Black stratigraphic relations at the two localities are
Hills has shown that in two areas, folds having shown by figure 66.2. ~-·
amplitudes of more than 100 feet in horizontal dis- At Barlow Canyon, the Morrison formation and
tances of 2 to 3 miles were formed in Early Cre- part of the Redwater shale member of the underlying
taceous time. Similar folds that might be concealed Sundance formation of Late Jurassic age are trun-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-157
____ME!:!_~~----------,. Cretaceous fold at this locality is estimated to be
------ WYOMING I about 125 feet, and the areal extent of the fold is
1 I I
about 4 square miles.
~ I I Two periods of folding can be recognized along
Oil Creek (fig. 66.2 B). The lower part of the Lakota
o Hulett formation is truncated beneath an angular uncon-
...
'! II
i X Barlow Canyon area
formity within the formation (locality 2), and the
upper part is truncated beneath an angular uncon-
CROOK
l I 0 SundanceI formity at the base of the overlying Fall River
~ formation (locality 3). At locality 2, the basal part
... I
I
o Gillette
I
1
~I~
>< 1 ll:
of the Fall River formation contains granules and
pebbles of quartzite and chert probably derived from
I ------~1'=' erosion of the Lakota at the crest of the fold. The
!
I
C A M ·P B E L L ~- - 0 U.pton ~ ~ ~ amplitude of the Early Cretaceous fold at Oil Creek
is estimated to be about 200 feet, and the areal extent
I Oil Creek area x of the fold is about 2 square miles.
The limited extent of the folds in both areas sug-
I I 0 :
gests that folding was caused by local rather than
I Newcastle
I WESTO~ regional forces. Redistribution of evaporites in the
1
.... I I 1 Spearfish (Triassic and Permian) or Minnelusa
I I I (Permian and Pennsylvanian) formations, which un-
l_ _______ _l _________l derlie the Lakota formation at shallow depths, seems
0 10 20 MILES a possible explanation for the folding. Repeated
episodes of folding such as occurred .at Oil Creek
FIGURE 66.1..-Map showing location of Barlow Canyon and
might indicate repeated episodes of flowage.
Oil Creek areas, northeastern Wyoming. In both the Barlow Canyon and Oil Creek areas,
the normally clayey Morrison formation grades
laterally to massive fine-grained well-sorted grayish-
cated beneath an angular unconformity that dies
white sandstone that in lithology and stratigraphic
out laterally in the basal part of the Lakota for-
position resembles the Unkpapa sandstone-a thick
mation (fig. 66.2 A). Polished pebbles and cobbles
sandstone that replaces the Morrison in the southern
of quartzite and chert in the basal part of the Lakota
and eastern parts of the Black Hills (Darton and
formation mark the position of the unconformity.
Paige, 1925, p. 11). Thick sandstone lenses are un-
At locality 3 (fig. 66.2 A), a basal conglomerate in
usual in the Morrison on the west side of the Black
the Lakota contains belemnite· fragments derived
Hills, and their occurrence at both folds suggests
from the underlying Redwater shale member of the
that the sandstone and the folds are related. No
Sundance. The Lakota thickens abruptly northward
evidence was found of appreciable folding during
between localities 2 and 3 (fig. 66.2 A) in a manner
deposition of the Morrison, however, and the rela-
that suggests the Lakota occupies a channel where
tion, if any, is unknown.
the formation is thickest; however, folding and sub-
sequent truncation of the upraised rocks probably REFERENCE
accounts for the absence of most of the missing
Darton, N. H., and Paige, Sidney, 1925, Description of the
rocks in the Morrison and Sundance formations on central Black Hills [with contributions by J. D. Irving]:
the crest of the fold. The amplitude of the Early U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 219, 34 p.

·~
B-158 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

5 7
.E
.,
>
=
~
R. 65 W.
-r-

R. 66 W. 7
c
~ 4X 6
e
.§ 5
X

~ T.
2x 54
N.

} X
T.
53
N.
.E BARLOW CANYON AREA
c
.~ EXPLANATION

~~-+~
~ EJ
Sandstone
r:-:-:::o::l
~
Conglomerate
~
~
Siltstone

Shale
A.· BARLOW CANYON AREA
_,.,
.:0:
Calcareous claystone --+
r=..:=::==t
c..=:::J
Claystone

5
Limestone

D
Covered

Chert
G
Glauconite
* material
Carbonaceous
~

Unconformity

--..s---
Correlation uncertain

R. 62 W .
.--,.---- -6r
T.
47
5x N.
4
3
FEET 2
0
T.
46
..
1
N.
xl
50

f
OIL CREEK AREA

'--100

B. OIL CREEK AREA

FIGURE 66.2.-Sections showing truncated sedimentary rocks, Sundance, Morrison, and Lakota formations, west side of Black •··
Hills, Wyo.

,....
..4., SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-159

67. STH.UCTURE OF THE CLAH.K FORK AH.EA, IDAHO-M9NTANA

By J. E. HARRISON, D. A. JOBIN, and ELIZABETH KING, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C.

Rocks ot the Belt series of Precambrian age have biotite. Samples indicated by 2's contain a little
been intruded north of the Hope fault by quartz secondary biotite but still retain most of their origi-
diorite of Precambrian age (the Purcell sills), and nal clastic texture. Samples indicated by 3's contain
both north and south of the fault by granodiorite of abundant secondary biotite and retain little or no
probable Cretaceous age (fig. 67.1). The Belt series original clastic ~exture.
here consists of about 40,000 feet of argillites, silt- Correlation between magnetic intensities, expo-
ites, very fine grained quartzites, limestone, and dolo- sures of intrusive rocks, and metamorphic grade is
mite. The granodiorite, which occurs as small plu- excellent (fig. 67.2). Each area of exposed intrusive
tons and sills scattered throughout most of the rocks shows up as a positive magnetic anomaly, and
mapped area, is virtually identical chemically and the Belt rocks of higher metamorphic grade are ad-
petrographically with granodiorite in stocks exposed jacent to intrusive masses or to positive anomalies.
in the southwestern part of the Packsaddle Mountain Study, of Belt rocks near exposures of intrusive
q_uadrangle and with granodiorite in the Selkirk rocks suggests that only Belt rocks within about
batholith (Gillson, 1927) which borders the Pack- 2,000 feet of an intrusive body reached grade 3, so
saddle Mountain quadrangle on the north. the positive magnetic anomalies where no intrusive
The regional structural setting is relatively simple. rocks are exposed most likely represent buried but
The Hope fault, trending north-nprthwest across the shallow plutons. The positive anomaly southeast of
area, separates a homocline in the Belt rocks to the Clark Fork is the only one that does not have grade
north from a syncline to the south. The Hope fault 3 rocks around it, and perhaps represents a slightly
also separates an intricate mosaic of steep-sided fault deeper intrusive body. Because Precambrian quartz
blocks to the south from a simpler mosaic to the diorite is known here only in sills in the Prichard
north. formation and only north of the Hope fault (Ander-
South of the Hope fault most of the blocks in the son, 1930, pl. 14), all positive anomalies except the
+ eastern part of the area are only slightly tilted and two at the north-central edge of the area probably
show folds only as drags near each fault. The dip represent bodies of Cretaceous ( ?) granodiorite.
of the beds increases westward in the west limb of Four· of five joint sets common in the· Belt rocks
the major syncline, and this regional dip has been of the area are subparallel to four principal sets of
increased further .by tilting of some blocks in· the block faults. It seems unlikely that the joints, which
western part of the ar~a. In addition, many of the are products of tension, were formed at the time of
western blocks show internal folding throughout the the faults, which are products of shear.
block, though blocks that show extensive folding An interpretation of the data available to date
commonly are adjacent to blocks that show only drag is shown in figure 67.3. The position of these sec-
folding near the faults. The bounding faults are . tions is shown on figures 67.1 and 67.2. The struc-
steep to vertical, as is .shown by the nearly straight tural rise from right to left in the sections is ac-
traces of the faults across a topographic relief of companied by a general stepping down of the blocks
about 4,000 feet. Some of the faults that are sub- in the same direction. Some of the structural rise
parallel in strike appear to converge downward, and is toward an anticlinal crest, but part of it may
a few converge upward. Axes of drag folds are also be due to upward pressure from a rising magma.
nearly horizontal a·nd thus indicate dip-slip move- If all the pressure had been upward, then sets of
ment on the faults. shear planes dipping about 45° should have formed,
North of the Hope fault the blocks are at most as they commonly do over salt domes. Because the
slightly tilted. The principal interruption of the faults are steep, they probably reflect a fracture
regional homocline is a zone, about 1,500 feet wide, pattern, perhaps originally expressed only by joints,
of small folds that wrap around the exposed pluton established during regional folding. Local folding
of granodiorite. within certain of the keystone blocks, however, must
Metamorphic grade of pelitic rocks is shown by have been in response to an upward punch, for some
numbers on figure 67.2. Samples indicated by 1's of the keystones are upside down (bounding faults
contain sericite and/ or chlorite, but no secondary known to converge upward); only an upward push

..,
 to
I
~
"""""'
116° 15' 116°00' 0
. .,. , _. .,., ,. . _.....
""'"-~.~-.~.~.- ,.-.......... 48 ° 15'

v IDAHO

-
LAKE PEND OREILLE
0
trl
~ 0::>-
LLJO:: 0
~J f-<(
} ~z t"'4
Surficial deposits

~ }
0

'
<( Vl "'
~·~
R evett quartzite

~
z
<(
0:
CD
::;:
-
0
C1
0
>

-
f- :::::> "'
LLJO..., <(
a:::w~ t"'4
Granodiorite uuCI:i Burke formation ~
0::
0.. r.n
EJ cj
~

-
Quartz diorite Prichard formation <!
trl
~

Contact ~
trl
Libby formation u:
z
<( ······ trl
§ 0:
CD Fault
~ Dotted where inferred. Bar and ball on
>
~
·~ Striped Peak formation ~ downthrown side 0
~ ~ 30
::r::
y 1-'
~ c.o
Strike and dip of beds 0')
1-'
Wallace formation
EB
Horizontal beds 8
Iiiii
St. Regis formation
A
Line of section
A'
Packsaddle
Mountain

48°00'
Geology by J. E. Harrison and D. A. Jobin, 1957-60

0
. 5MILES

FIGURE 67.1.-Generalized geologic map of the Clark Fork quadrangle and part of the Packsaddle Mountain quadrangle, Idaho-Montana.

-r .
,
..,. 7 .t ...t .,. 1--
~ ~ ·T
-1- ;t
"' " ...,;.__ ; .. ~- I~-,
.. ...,..
-~ ~ .,i.·
.. -~ ~- Jr- ,i ~ ·" +- .L
•• + ·. -~ ~
, ~
....

116"30' 116"15' 116"00'

- - 48"15'
EXPLANATION

~ (/}
::r:
t;_L__J 0
~
Cretaceous(?) granodiorite t-3
3
'"0

[I]
Precambrian quartz diorite
3
>
'"0
M
~
U1

z
~
Fault
t-3
::r:
M
Bar and ball on C)
downthrown side M
0
1, 2, 3 ~
Metamorphic grade of Belt
rocks
See text for explanation -
0
C)
0
>
~200~-. z
1:::1
Total intensity aeromagnetic ::r:
contour ~
Dashed where inferred. In- 1:::1
terval 50 gammas; contours ~
between 50-gamma interval 0
~
shown only where needed
to identify anomalies. Con-
tours based on 32 aerial
traverses south of the Hope -
0
C)
0

-
fault and 3 tie lines north U1
of it 0
M
z
0
M
!;fl
>
-
~
t-3
0
~
M
U1
I )x x\ I I I I \ \ ll I ' "'W :::::, I I -=:::::oo, I I I 48"00'
';""'
Geology in southwestern part of Aeromagnetic survey by J. L. Meuschke ~
11'>-
map after Sampson, 1928, pl. 2 and Elizabeth- King, 1959 m
0 5 MILES

FIGURE 67.2.-Total intensity aeromagnetic map of the Clark Fork and Packsaddle Mountain quadrangles, showing intrusive rocks, faults, and metamorphic
grade of Belt rocks. '
to
I
~
~
~
B-162 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

20,000' 'l"f,-

10,000'

SEA LEVEL

B
20,000'

j....
10,000'

SEA LEVEL

0 5 MILES

EXPLANATION

~
rxxxl
-----
-
Granodiorite Contact

I
Libby and Striped Peak formations Fault
....... ---·..
D

-
Wallace, St. Regis, Revett and Burke formations Present topographic surface

Prichard formation

FIGURE 67.3.-Diagrammatic sections showing relation of blocks to intrusive rocks.

of these inverted keystones could cause the local sisted of collapse in the flanks and crestal part of
lateral pressure required for the folding. The pat- the syncline and of a combination of upraising and
tern of stepping down towards the main intrusive collapse in the ant.iclinal crest. Sampson (1928) has
-mass suggests collapse. suggested a somewhat similar origin for a series of
We infer the following sequence of events: Re- "intrusion faults" in the nearby Pend Oreille mining
gional folding and fracturing; an upward push from district. We suggest that the large intrusive mass
a magma, particularly in the crest of the regional in the Packsaddle Mountain quadrangle and the
anticline; and block mosaic faulting and adjustment smaller masses northeast of it are cupolas on a
of the blocks over the magma. The adjustment con- batholith that extends under the whole area and
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-163
perhaps connects with the Selkirk batholith. The REFERENCES
lack of block tilting, relatively small displacement of Anderson, A. L., 1930, Geology and ore deposits of the Clark
Fork district, Idaho: Idaho Bur. Mines and Geology Bull.
blocks, a~d the obvious shouldering aside of rocks 12, 132 p. .
adjacent to one of these cupolas .lead us to infer Gillson, J: L., 1927, Granodiorites in the Pend Oreille district
.• that collapse over this large underlying mass was of northern Idaho: Jour. Geology, v. 35, p. 1-31.
Sampson, Edward, 1928, Geology and ore deposits of the
accompanied by intrusion of magma into the blocks
Pend Oreille district, Idaho: Idaho Bur. Mines and
by a process that included some shouldering asid.e. Geology Pamph. 31, 25 p.

68. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF THE · .;ENTRAL PART OF THE LEMHI RANGE, IDAHO

By EDWARD T. RUPPEL and MORTIMER H. HAlT, JR., Denver, Colo., and Pennsylvania State University,
University Park, Pa .
...
Pleistocene deposits in the central part of the was removed, and canyons. were carved to depths of
Lemhi Range, in east-central Idaho, reflect the re- several hundred feet below the earlier surface. When
peated occurrence of glacial or near-glacial climatic ·this erosional period was interrupted by a second
conditions during Pleistocene time (Dort, 1960). period of glaciation (probably in early Wisconsin
The earliest glaciation, probably in early Pleisto- time) the topography appears to have been much
cene time, left deposits that are now preserved at like today's except that it lacked the extreme fea-
altitudes as low as 6,400 feet, well out in front of tures of alpine erosion, because the relations of the
the moraines of later glaciations, west of the village deposits of this stage to present topography suggest
of Leadore, and on a few interstream divides in the little deepening of valleys since the beginning of the
mountains. These deposits consist' of unsorted second stage. The deposits of the second stage lie
pebbles, cobbles, and boulders of quartzite, and, inside the deposits of the early stage in the Swan
_rarely, small fragments of dense volcanic rock, which Basin, and are made up of quartzite, a small per-
retain no distinctive glacial form; they have been centage of volcanic rock-appreciably more than in
so extensively eroded that they remain only as gravel the early till-and rare fragments of dolomite, in
veneers. The remains of a preglacial surface be- a sand and silt matrix. The moraines of this stage
neath the gravel veneers, and the probably related are smoothed and rounded, drainage is well inte-
relatively broad, gently sloping interstream divides grated in and across the. moraine, and areas under-
characteristic of the lower parts of the central lain by the moraine are characterized by irregularly
Lemhi Range suggest that much of this surface was distributed low rounded hills and shallow inter-
a pediment above which the higher part of the vening basins. Trains of outwash extend out from
range seems to have been subdued and rounded. the moraine in a few places.
Glacial deposits considered to be early Pleisto- The third, probably late Wisconsin, glacial stage is
cene in age have been recognized at only a few places represented by deposits still more restricted than
in central Idaho; conspicuous among these places those of the second stage. The deposits contain
are the Whitecloud Peaks (Ross, 1929, p. 123-128; · abundant quartzite and abundant unweathered dolo-
1937, p. 93-95) and Stanley Basin 1 in south-central mite and volcanic rocks in a sand and silt matrix.
Idaho, and the Salmon River and Beaverhead Moun- Related outwash fans and small valley trains con-
tains near Salmon, Idaho (Anderson, 1956, p. 31-32). taining the same types of rock extend beyond the
The early glaciation was followed by a period of moraine in some places, and conceal older moraine
erosion during which much of the glacial debris and bedrock. The deposits are characterize.d also by
1 Williams, Paul L., 1967, Glacial geology of the Stanley Basin, Idaho:
slight modification of their original form, and by un~
WBBhinfltOn l.Tnlv., Master of Science thesis . integrated drainage; soil development has been

..;
B-164 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

slight to moderate on the deposits, and vegetation are widespread below the lower limit of glacial de-
covers them in many places. posits on Leadore Hill, south of Leadore. These de-
. A fourth glacial stage is represented by moraines posits lie in canyons below remnants of the pre-
deposited when ice reoccupied small sheltered cirques glacial surface and several are near remnants of
above an altitude of 9,000 feet. The topographic set- the early glacial· till but at altitudes well below the
ting of these cirques seems to have offered maximum till and in canyons that clearly have been deepened
protection against ablation and to have favored snow many hundreds of feet since the early glacial stage.
accumulation, perhaps especially through retention The deposits on the west flank of Leadore Hill are
of snow blown over the cirque walls into the cirque. principally talus, most of which is now apparently
The larger cirques do not contain moraines; their stable or nearly so, as it is covered by a thin soil
openness makes them more accessible than the and by vegetation. The deposits on the east flank ·of
sheltered cirques to the winds that almost constantly
Leadore Hill are diverse in form and origin, and
blow at the higher altitudes in the Lemhi Range,
include deposits on creep slopes, and deposits in
and probably snow could not accumulate as readily
under such conditions. The larger cirques contain mudflows, landslides, talus, protalus ramparts, and
deposits of waste rock in talus, protalus ramparts, nivation moraine.· The deposits on creep slopes are
and small rock streams, that are probably contem- most widespread, and although many of them are
poraneous with the mqraines in the small cirques, now covered with vegetation, tilted trees and tears
for both have thin soils and very sparse vegetation. in the sod cover suggest that soil creep is still active.
The stage of cirque glaciation and related mass The deposits are clearly younger than the early
wasting was followed by a later stage of mass wast- glacial deposits, and probably began to form under
ing in which waste rock accumulated in talus, pro- the rigorous climatic conditions that prevailed at
talus ramparts, and rock streams in many cirques these lower altitudes during the later alpine and
and canyons; these deposits conceal older glacial and cirque glaciations in the higher parts of the Lemhi
mass-wasting deposits and clearly are the youngest Range.
surficial deposits, other than stream deposits, in the
central Lemhi Range. They are characterized by an REFERENCES
absence of any soil or of drainage development, and Anderson; A. L., 1956, Geology and mineral resources of the
by frontal slopes as steep as 40°; the growth of Salmon quadrangle, Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Bur.
lichens on the rock fragments suggests that the de~· Mines and Geology, Pamph. 106, 102 p.
posits are not now receiving much rock waste or Dort, Wakefield, Jr., 1960, Multiple glaciation, east side of
moving-but their fresh appearance strongly sug- Lemhi Range, Idaho [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v.
gests that they represent a very recent period of 71, no. 12, p. 1852. .
Ross, C. P., 1929, Early Pleistocene glaciation in Idaho: U.S.
more rigorous climate than that prevailing today. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 158-G, p. 123-128.
Other mass-wasting deposits not clearly related - - 1937, Geology and ore deposits of the Bayhorse region,
to any one period of glacial or near-glacial climate Custer County, Idaho: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 877, 161 p.

69. THE MICHAUD DELTA AND BONNEVILLE RIVER NEAR POCATELLO, IDAHO

By DONALD E. TRIMBLE and WILFRED J. CARR, Denver, Colo.

Late Pleistocene gravel at and near Pocatello, Gilbert ( 1890, p. 176), which drained glacial Lake
Idaho has been named the Michaud gravel (Trimble Bonneville.
and Carr, in press). The Michaud gravel was de- The Michaud gravel extends from the mouth of
posited as a delta in the Pleistocene American Falls the Portneuf River canyon at Pocatello southwest-
lake by an ancient stream, the Bonneville r!ver of ward for about 18 miles almost to American Falls
.L.
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-165

......

EXPLANATION

··~
LJ§~f,::~:):J ~
0::
<t
z
Loess and alluvium Q:
UJ
....
~
Cedar Butte basalt
<t
:::>
0

~
~
Qs Sterling terrace deposits Snoke River basalt

~
Oo Aberdeen terrace deposits
09 Grandview terrace deposits
1!1
Raft format ion
0
c
z
....
M ichoud grovel ~
0::
<t
D
Unmapped oreos and rocks mostly
(oaffij z
a:· old'er than the Raft formation

American Falls lake beds, ....UJ

<t
includinQ some Roft formation :::> Contact, approximately located
southwest of American Falls 0

Terrace ~oundary
5 0 5 MILES

CONTOUR INTERVAL 200 FEET

~------------------~~~~~------------------------------------------------------------------~42°30'
Geology by 0. E. Trimble ond w. J. Carr

FIGURE 69.1.-Sketch map of the American Falls-Pocatello area showing generalized distribution of upper Quaternary rocks.

(fig. 69.1). It rests conformably on the unweath- The surface of the Michaud gravel was terraced,
ered surface of the American Falls lake beds, and scoured, and channeled, and the prominent Aber-
it is limited areally at most places by two scarps, deen terrace, which is partly lacustrine and partly
an upper one against which the gravel was de- fluviatile, was cut on the gravel on the east side
posited, and a lower one which is a lake-cut scarp of the American Falls reservoir. The scours and
at the back of the younger Aberdeen terrace (fig. channels are· higher and older than the Aberdeen
69.1). terrace, or are graded to it.
B-166 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

square of the velocity, an 8-foot boulder probably ,

indicates a current velocity of between 16 and 48 ~J
miles per hour. These are very broad and approxi-
mate fimits, but when this general order of magni-
tude is compared with a median velocity of 3.54 miles -~
1
per hour for the Mississippi River during one of
its greatest floods (Rubey, 1938, p. 137), and with
a maximum recorded velocity of about 16 miles per
hour for any natural stream (Howard F. Matthai,
oral communication, 1960), it is evident that the
stream responsiple for the Michaud gravel attained
abnormal size and velocity, at least temporarily. ~,

Such a great stream in the Pocatello area could only

have been the river flowing from Lake Bonneville.
Other evidence of flooding along the Bonneville
river has been discussed by Malde (1960, p. B295-
B297).
The Michaud gravel has been dated late Pleisto-
cene on the basis of mollusks (D. W. Taylor, written
0 2 3 4 5 6 MILES communication, 1960) and vertebrates, including
Bison alleni (Hopkins, 1951, p. 195), found in the
FIGURE 69.2.-Distribution of maximum boulder size· in the
Michaud gravel. Contours (in feet) of size larger than gravel. Now, however, the age of the Michaud gravel
cobble. Dashed where no control available. (and the time of overflow of Lake Bonneville) can
be more nearly fixed. A radiocarbon date (W-929)
The Michaud gravel is 50 to 80 feet thick. The for a peat layer 13 feet below the top of the American
basal contact of the Michaud gravel with the Ameri- Falls lake beds is > 42,000 years B.P. (before
can Falls lake beds is uniformly about 4,400 feet in present) according to Meyer Rubin (written com-
altitude, and its upper surface ranges from about munication, 1961), and shells (W-731) from the
4,450 to 4,480 feet in altitude. Aberdeen terrace deposit are dated at 29,700 ±
The distribution of maximum boulder size in the 1,000 years B.P. (Trimble and Carr, in press). The
Michaud gravel was mapped during the summer of Mi~haud gravel probably was deposited, therefore,
1960 (fig. 69.2). The contours show the rapid de- about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago.
crease in size away from the mouth of the Portneuf
River canyon. At Pocatello, the gravel consi"sts REFERENCES
mainly of large boulders derived almost entirely Gilbert, G. K., 1890, Lake Bonneville: U.S. Geol. Survey Mon.
from the Portneuf valley. East of Bannock Creek, 1, 438 p.
near Michaud, the deposit is a cobbly gravel, but Hopkins, M. L., 1951, Bison (Gigantobison) latifrons and
Bison (Simobison) alleni in southeastern ·Idaho: Jour.
west of Bannock Creek it is a pebbly sand: Correla- Mammalogy, v. 32, p. 192-197.
tive deposits consisting mainly of fine sand and silt Malde, H. E., 1960, Evidence in the Snake River Plain, Idaho
cover··the Grandview terrace west of the American of a catastrophic flood from Pleistocene Lake Bonneville,
Falls reservoir (fig. 69.1). in Short papers in the geological sciences: U.S. Geol.
The maximum diameter of boulders (about 8 feet) Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B295-B297..
Rubey, W. W., 1938, The force required to move particles on a
in the Michaud gravel at Pocatello suggests that the stream bed: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 189-E, p.
transporting stream had an unusually high velocity. 121-141.
Observations of Barrell, cited by Rubey (1952, p. 71), - - 1952, Geology and mineral resources of the Harden
imply t4at stream velocities of between 4 and 12 and Brussels quadrangles (in Illinois): U.S. Geol. Survey
miles per hour are necessary to move a cobble about Prof. Paper 218, 179 p.
Trimble, D. E., and Carr, W. J., (in press), Late Quaternary
6 inches in diameter. Inasmuch as the radius of the history Of the Snake River in the American Falls region,
largest object moved. by a stream varies with the Idaho: Geol. Soc. America Bull.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-167

70. VOLCANIC ASH BEDS AS STRATIGRAPHIC MARKERS IN BASIN DEPOSITS NEAR HAGERMAN AND
\ GLENNS FERRY, IDAHO

By HOWARD A. POWERS and HAROLD E. MALDE, Denver, Colo.

The upper Cenozoic detrital deposits exposed along beds in this region shows that the Peters Gulch ash
the Snake River downstream from Hagerman, Idaho, layer is highest in Cl, La, and Sn, and lowest in Ba
contain numerous thin beds of siliceous volcanic and Sr. In brief, no other ash samples have the
as~ that are indisti~guishable in the field but that same combination of physical properties and chemi-
differ significantly in physical and chemical proper- cal constituents.
ties. By study of these properties several distinc- Confident correlation of the Peters Gulch ash
tive ash beds have been identified in discontinuous, layer between localities as widely spaced .as 24 miles
widely separated outcrops. These ash beds can be (fig. 70.1) helps to reconstruct the terrain on which
used to demonstrate the stratigraphic relations of it was deposited. Where the ash is recognizable, it
deposits otherwise devoid of marker beds, and they occurs as a bed a few inches thick, either in car-
are indispensable, therefore, for recognizing facies bonaceous shale or in thin-bedded silt and clay.
changes and basin deformation. This paper de- These fine-grained materials probably accumulated
scribes two such beds of volcanic ash in a formation on a flood plain, as is suggested by paleoecological
of late Pliocene and early Pleistocene age near evidence and by sedimentary features (Malde and
Hagerman and Glenns Ferry. Powers, 1958). At the time of the ash fall this area
Significant chemical comparisons of volcanic ash may have been the floor of a broad, flat valley dotted
beds require laboratory separation of clean unal- with sloughs, shallow lakes, and a few channels
tered glass. The analyses given here are of glass along which the water moved sluggishly. Where
..,.:
shards scrubl)ed by ultrasonic agitation, separated the ash fell in slack water or on boggy ground, it
from phenocrysts and other contaminants by flota- had some chance for preservation as a recognizable
tion in diluted bromoform, and further· cleaned by bed, but where the ash fell in a channel, it was
feeding through a Frantz magnetic separator. The carried by currents and mixed with other debris.
cleaned shards in such samples are colorless and The sedimentary equilibrium of a broad, flat valley
completely isotropic. implied by the fine-grained materials associated with
the Peters Gulch ash layer is seemingly contradicted
PETERS GULCH ASH LAYER by the lithologic dissimilarities of the sediments
The Peters Gulch ash layer is named informally that occur considerably above and below the beds in
for Peters Gulch, 4 miles southwest of Hagerman, which the ash is found. At Peters Gulch the section
where sample E1810 was collected (fig. 70.1). The consists dominantly of thin-bedded silt and clay
distinctive physical and chemical properties that with some fine sand and carbonaceous shale. In con-
identify this bed were determined from nine samples. trast, the section at King Hill consists of a massive
Physically, the ash consists of about equal parts of sequence of coarse sand and fine gravel. At Clover
extremely vesicular pumice grains and of complexly Creek units of these different lithologies alternate.
shaped glass shards, both of which are very weakly Such contrasting facies can be accounted for by the
magnetic in the strong field of a Frantz separator. local geography. The deposits at Peters Gulch ac-
The particular combination of phenocrysts embedded cumulated several miles from the margins of the
in the glass shards ( chevkinite, zircon, ilmenite, and basin, whereas those at King Hill were brought to
magnetite) is different from the phenocryst assem- the northern margin of the basin by steeply graded
blage in 60 samples from all other· ash beds exposed streams that drained granitic outcrops a few miles
in this region. (For descriptions of chevkinite in farther north. The mixed deposits at Clover Creek
other ash beds, see Young and Powers, 1960.) Chemi-
are in an intermediate position. The presence of
cal analyses of glass shards separated from the ash
the ash shows that sedimentation at these places was
are listed in table 1. Seven of the samples collected
concurrent.
at various places along 3 miles of continuous out-
crop from Peters Gulch northward indicate the Differences in altitude of the Peters Gulch ash
variation found in amounts of constituents. Com- layer, as shown in figure 70.1, are mostly accounted
parison with the 60 samples of other analyzed ash for by displacements on high-angle faults that sep-
B-168 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Altitude,
® in feet
King Hill 3600
@)
Clover Creek
o o o a
0 0 0
Altitude,
in feet
® 0000000

0 0 0 0
3200 Morrow Reservoir o oo 3500
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
000 ®
0 0 0 0
0 0 0
Peters Gulch
ooooooo
0 0 0
3100
0
0 0 0 G3052 r-lr:I..Wnl--. 3400
I
I
I
I
I
I

3000 ~/ 3300
;;I~
I ~I
I
CD I
I fit
'S I
(Covered)
+·
The Narrows I (!]I
2900 I /.?I 3200
I .&I
I tJ..<IJ/ ...
I
... I I
!:,1 I
..!!!1 I
(Covered) I
.c:::l 3100
2800 I
/3' I
p/ I
,,e' El919
~I .....
I
I 3000
2700 I EISIO
I
I
I
I ~-
I
I
2600 I 2900
I
G3043 _.ai:JI:Jl-_J

(Covered)

2500 2800
(Covered) (Covered)

115"30' 115•oo· 114.45'

•
EXPLANATION 43"05'

Basalt

D
Massive silt

JuMJ
Volcanic ash

~
~
Thin-bedded silt and clav

~
Carbonaceous shale

EJ
Fine sand
42"45'
~
0
0

Coarse sand and gravel

G3052
Volcanic ash sample
0 10 20 MILES

FIGURE 70.1.-Generalized columnar sections and outline geologic map of ash-bearing. deposits of late Pliocene and early
Pleistocene age near Hagerman and Glenns Ferry, Idaho. Sections 1, 2, and 3 are each overlain by about 30 feet of basalt
of middle Pleistocene age. Section 5 is overlain by 55 feet of alluvium of early Pleistocene age. The beds lie nearly hori-
zontal at places where the sections were measured.

'r
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-169
TABLE 1.-Analyses of p'repa'red samples of glass shards from the Pete1·s Gulch ash laym·
. ..,.. [Chlorine annlyses by V. C. Smith. Other chemical analyses as follows: sample E1810 by P.M. Montalta; samples E2308, B441, B443, E2309, B442, and B414 by
L. N. Tarrant; sample El919 by M. R. Kittrell; and sample G3052 by V. C. Smith. Quantitative spectrographic analyses by P. R. Barnett. . . . indicates not
determined.]

Chemical analyses
Sample
No. Location of sample 1----~----~-----~·--·---~--~~--.--~----~-----------------------------

____,___________,___ ---------- --- AbOa FeO MnO

---- - - - ------------- ------- -------
F

E18l0 Sec. 5 u.t Peter·s Gulch. . . . . 69. 82 12. 49 0.12

0. 77 1..10 0.05 0.13 0.59 2.32 6. 72 ..... 0.104 0.01 ..... 5.19
E2308 1. 9 mi. N. of Peter·s Gulch. .... . 2 . 46 6 . 63 0 . 243 . 103 . . . . . 5 . 10
B441 2.2 ])o ............... . 2.48 6.34 .252 .098..... 5.29
B44:3 2.3 Do ............... . 2.42 6.57..... .098 .......... 5.07
E2309 2.6 Do ............... . 2.64 6.57 .252 .103 ......... .
B442 2.8 Do ............... . 2.43 6.33 . . . . . .098 .......... 5.05
B4l4 2. 9 Do ............... . 69.56 12.35 .12 . 77 1..10 .03 .08 .52 2.49 6.48..... .106 .00 ..... 6.11
El919 Sr.c. 3 nem· King Hill ..... . 70.03 12.62 .13 .67 1.21 .04 .02 .56 2.26 6.16 .243 .103 .02 0.00 5.70
03052 Sec. 4 u.t Clover· Creek ... . ...... ...... ...... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... . . . . . .246 . 106 ................ .

Quantitative spectrographic analyses

Sample
No. Location of Sl\mplc ---------- --
B Ba Be Cu Ga La Mo Nb Pb Sn Sr v y Yb Zr
-- - - - - - ---- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- --- -
. ...., 1!:1810 See. 5 n.t Peter·s Gulch ..... 0.006 0.005 0.0011 0.0008 0.0033 0.014 0.0006 0.007 0.002 0.0011 0.0010 <0.0002 0.009 0.0008 0.04:3
1!:2308 I.. f) mi. N. of Peters Gulch. .007 .004 .0011 .0008 .003~ .008 .0004 .006 .002 .0009 .0008 < .0002 .006 .0007 .04'3
B44l 2.2 Do ................ .006 .006 .0008 .0010 .0040 .014 .0006 .008 .002 .0012 .0009 < .0002 .009 .0008 .04 8
B443 2.:~ ])o ................ .005 .006 .0013 .0009 .0036 .016 .0005 .009 .002 .0012 .0008 < .0002 .011 .0008 .05 6
E2309 2.6 ])o ................ .008 .005 .0010 .0009 .0038 .008 .0004 .006 .002 .0008 .0020 < .0002 .006 .0006 .040
,.. B442 2.8 J)o ................ .006 .007 .0011 .0010 .0038 .01:~ .0005 .007 .002 .0012 .0012 < .0002 .009 .0008 .046
B41.4 2.9 ])o ................ .007 .00:3 .0012 .0009 .00:36 .013 .0006 .007 .002 .0011 .0005 < .0002 .009 .0008 .03.9
K1919 Sec. 3 nenr King Hill ...... .008 .008 .0010 .0008 .0034 .012 .0004 .008 .001 .0012 .0007 .0002 .008 .0007 .04 8
G:W52 Sec. 4 n.t Clover Creek .... .007 .005 .0009 .0008 .0040 .009 .0004 .006 .002 .0009 .0005 .0002 .007 .0006 .03 0
·,.:

arate the section at Clover Creek from King Hill tinctive combination of physical and chemical prop-
and Peters Gulch. erties that identify this bed were determined from
three samples. Physically, the ash is made up of
THE NARROWS ASH LAYER complexly shaped shards, some shards that are
The Narrows ash layer is named informally for simply curved, and a few grains of pumice, all of
the Narrows, 5 miles west of Glenns Ferry, where which are nonmagnetic. The phenocrysts are brown
sample G3123 was collected (fig. 70.1). The dis- hornblende, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and mag-

~:

TABLE 2.-Analyses of p1·epa1·ed samples of glass shards f1·om the Nan·ows ash layer
[Chlorine nnd fluorine analyses by V. C. Smith. Chemical analysis of sample G3123 by D. F. Powers. Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses by R. G.
Havens . . . . indicates not determined.]
-4·
Chemical analyses
Sample
No. ],ocation Of Rl\mp)C ----.-------.-----;--·-·-;----;----·-.---.---...,..------------------------
F
1 ---------------------------------------------------
0312:3 Sec. l n.t the Nnrrows ..... 72.18 12.40 0.22 0.47 0.64 0.04 0.26 1.14 2.92 4.340.1150.020 0.04 0.01 4.79
03053 See. 2 n.t Morrow Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Iml .016 .... .
,. 03046 1 mi. S. of Monow Res ............................................................ 115 . 018 ................ .

Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses

Sample
No. I.ocntion of sample
B Ba Be Cu Ga La Mo Nb Pb Sn Sr v y Yb Zr

~~!
--- - - - ----- - - - - - - - - - - -
03123 Sec. l nt the Narrows ..... 0.002 0.07 <0.0001 0.0007 0.0007 <0.003 <0.0005 <0.001 <0.001 <0.005 0.007 0.001 0.001 0.0001 O.Oo
03053 Sec. 2 n.t Morrow Reservoir .003 .07 < .0001 .0007 .0007 <.00:3 < .0005 < .001 < .001 <.005 .007 .001 .001 .0001 .oo·
G3046 1 mi. S. of Mon·ow Res .... .003 .07 < .0001 .0007 .0007 < .003 < .0005 < .001 < .001 < .005 .007 .001 .001 .0001 .oo·
B-170 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

netite. Chemical comparison with the 60 samples posited on the floor of a broad, flat valley. If so, the
of other ash beds in this region shows that the ash present difference in altitude demonstrates moderate ·~·

is very low in F, Ga, Y, Yb, and Zr (table 2). basin deformation. Because no faults were found
The isolated outcrops where the Narrows ash during mapping, this difference in altitude is at-
layer is identified are not much alike and could not tributed to an average southwestward tilt of about
be correlated otherwise. The section at the Narrows 50 feet per mile.
is sandy . with many beds of carbonaceous shale, The stratigraphic relation of the Peters Gulch ash
whereas the section at Morrow Reservoir has fewer layer to the Narrows ash layer has not been deter-
beds of carbonaceous shale and more layers of thin- mined, but as more ash beds are identified a com-
bedded silt and clay. Apparently the ash fell on plete local sequence. probably will be established.
boggy ground or on a mud flat at the Narrows and ...
in a body of slowly moving water at Morrow REFERENCES
Reservoir. Malde, H. E., and Powers, H. A., 1958, Flood-plain origin of
The ash bed is now 400 feet lower in altitude at the Hagerman lake beds, Snake River Plain, Idaho [abs.]:
GeoL Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1608.
the Narrows than at Morrow Reservoir, but like Young, E. J., and Powers, H. A., 1960, Chevkinite in volcanic
the Peters Gulch ash layer it was probably de- ash: Am. Mineralogist, v. 45, nos. 7-8, p. 875-881.
·~

71. PATTERNED GROUND OF :pOSSIBLE SOLIFLUCTION ORIGIN AT LOW ALTITUDE IN THE WESTERN
SNAKE RIVER PLAIN, IDAHO

By HAROLD E. MALDE, Denver, Colo.

A distinctive geometric pattern formed by soil angular fragments from the underlying rocks. These
mounds and stone pavements, which resembles the fragments usually are the size of pebbles, but a few
patterned ground of polar regions (Washburn, 1956), are as larg~ as cobbles and boulders. Below a depth
occurs on the dissected plateaus and marginal collu- of 18 inches the mound material is compact, loamy,
vial deposits north of the Snake River near Glenns and darker-seemingly a consequence of soil de-
Ferry, Idaho (figs. 71.1 and 71.2). The mounds and velopment-and rock fragments are more numerous.
stone· pavements are typically developed on gravel At a depth of 3 to 4 feet below the center of a mound,
fans and on basaltic lava flows, but they are found the mixture of silt and rock fragments grades down-
also on such· diverse materials as lake beds and ward rather abruptly into tightly packed· gravel (or +
welded tuff-all of middle Pleistocene or older age. broken basalt), which emerges at the periphery of a
Because the patterned ground is not developed on mound to join the surrounding stone pavement.
lithologically similar younger deposits in the same The stone pavements that surround the mounds
region, it is regarded as a relict landform. This ordinarily consist of well sorted angular stones,
paper concerns only the patterned ground in areas which range from cobbles to boulders. A few of the
4.
of basalt and gravel. stones are fractured. Depending on the spacing of
The soil mounds are monotonously uniform, par- the mounds, the pavement areas pinch and swell,
ticularly in relatively flat areas. A typical mound in places being as much as 20 feet wide. At a few
is circular, from 50 to 60 feet in diameter, and 3 localities, where the mounds are far apart, the pave-
feet high at the center. Generally the mounds are ment areas form rubbly fields more than 100 feet
regularly spaced from 60 to 85· feet apart, measured across. The stones of the pavement that are tabular
from their centers. They are surrounded by a pave- shaped commonly are oriented on edge and are
ment of stones. Lithologically, the mounds consist turned parallel to the margins of the pavement so
mostly of friable light-colored silt that contains some as to occupy the least space side-to-side (fig. 71.3).
 .
SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-171

.,.

FIGURE 71.1.-Vertical aerial photograph of patterned ground on part of a basalt plateau and on marginal blocky colluvium
9 miles northeast of Glenns Ferry, Idaho. The light colored spots on the plateau are mounds of silt covered with grass and
sagebrush. The barren darker ground, which forms a network surrounding the mounds, consists of blocks dislodged from
the underlying basalt. The light colored bands that trend downslope on the colluvium are also grass-covered silt. These
strips of soil separate darker bands of sorted basalt fragments. The plateau slopes 1 o southwestward, and the colluvium
slopes 15 ° southeastward. The area shown is about 3,600 feet above sea level. [Enlarged from U.S. Department of Agri-
culture aerial photograph DLG--7G--98 taken Oct. 22, 1950.]

These upturned stones are so tightly wedged that The regular pattern expressed in fiat areas by the
several must be dislodged in order to remove one. soil mounds and stone pavements changes progres-
They make the pavement comparatively rough, and sively to parallel bands of soil and stones as the
large surface areas of the stones that comprise the angle of slope increases. Where the angle of slope is
pavement consequently are exposed to weathering. less than 1 °, the mounds are fairly equally spaced
These stone surfaces are encrusted with lichens. Be- and the stone pavements form rectangular or polygo-
low the pavement layer the stones are smaller, less nal networks (area A of fig. 71.1). In areas of some-
well sorted, and randomly arranged. In some basalt what greater slope, where drainage channels are
areas, stone fragments that are recognizably articu- defined, the mounds are arranged in parallel rows
lated with the underlying lava occur at a depth of separated by continuous gutterlike shallow troughs
1 or 2 feet, and it is possible to walk at other places paved with stones (area B of fig. 71.1). On slopes of
from a stone pavement onto a bare lava surface. In about 6 o , the mounds are elliptical and the downhill
gravel areas, also, apparently undisturbed gravel sides of some encircling nets of stone pavement are
occurs at a shallow depth. broken so that adjacent mounds are connected down-
B-172 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

0 5000 FEET

CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET

FIGURE 71.2.-Topographic map of the area 9 miles northeast

of Glenns ;Ferry, Idaho, shown in the vertical aerial
photograph reproduced as figure 71.1.

slope by a strip of soil (not well illustrated in

71.1). At slope angles between 6 ° and 15 °, most
of the mounds are connected by such narrow strips
of soil, much like beads on a string, and the pave-
ment areas form continuous rocky bands. These al-
ternate parallel bands of soil and stones trend di- ..
rectly downslope (area C of fig. 71.1). On slopes of
15 ° to 30 °, the mounds along the bands of soil are
indistinct, whereas lines of stone pavement are
prominent (area D of fig. 71.1). On slopes steeper
than 30 o , a sorted pattern of soil and stones gen-
erally cannot be recognized.
Even though the patterned ground in flat areas FIGURE 71.3.-A narrow stone pavement between soil mounds
differs from that on the slopes, the gradational in an area of gravel at 3,900 feet altitude 12 miles north
change in pattern from one place to the other sug- of Glenns Ferry, Idaho. Tabular stones are steeply or
vertically oriented and are alined parallel to the margins
gests that a similar process accounts for both. These
of the pavement. The ruler is 7 inches long.
gradational changes in pattern resemble the pro-
gressive modification of polygonal ground by soli-
fluction on increasingly steeper slopes, as observed analogous patterned ground occurs on plateau basalt
by Holmes and Colton (1960) near Thule, Green- in eastern Washington and Oregon (Freeman, 1926;
land. 1932; Waters and Flagler, 1929; and Kaatz, 1959)
The soil mounds and stone pavements near Glenns and on gravel fans and lava flows near Mount Shasta,
Ferry apparently are now stable, as indicated by soil California (Masson, 1949). A study of t he distri-
development and lichen growth, so the mechanism bution of such patterned ground, and a better un-
by which they formed can only be inferred. How- derstanding of its origins, could determine the
ever, their great similarity to the patterned ground former southward extent of cold and wet climatic
of polar regions implies development by frost sorting
conditions in this region and would help to establish
and by solifluction. If so, the patterned ground
ages for the land surfaces on which the pattern is
near Glenns Ferry may have developed during a
found.
former period of cooler and wetter climate.
Patterned ground that resembles the soil mounds REFERENCES
and stone pavements near Glenns Ferry is reported Freeman, 0. W., 1926, Scabland mounds of eastern Washing-
elsewhere in the northwestern States. For example, ton: Scien ce new se r., v. 64, no. 1662, p. 450-451.
~.. SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-173
Freeman, 0. W., 1932, Origin and economic value of the scab- Masson, P. H., 1949, Circular soil structures in northeastern
land mounds of eastern Washington: Northwest Sci., v. 6, California: California Div. Mines Bull. 151, p. 61-71.
no. 2, p. 37-40. Washburn, A. L., 1956, Classification of patterned ground and
Holmes, C. D., and Colton, R..B., 1960, Patterned ground near review of suggested origins: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v.
Dundas (Thule Air Force Base), Greenland: Medd. om
Gr~nland, v. 158. no. 6, 15 p.
67' p. 825-866.
Kaatz, M. R., 1959, Patterned ground in central Washington; Waters, A. C. 1 and Flagler, C. W., 1929, Origin of thl ~nall
a preliminary report: Northwest Sci., v. 33, no. 4, p. 145- mounds on the Columbia River Plateau: Am. Jour. Sci.,
166. 5th ser., v. 18, p. 209-224.

72. COLLAPSE STRUCTURES OF SOUTHERN SPANISH VALLEY, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH

By G. W. WEIR, W. P. PUFFETT, and C. L. DODSON, Menlo Park, Calif., Corbin, Ky., and Decatur, Ala.

Wo-rk done in coope'ration with the U.S. Atonl.ic Ene-rgy Cornmission

''I
Southern Spanish Valley, a few miles southeast or swales. The sharp boundaries of these structures
of Moab, Utah, lies in a syncline of Mesozoic rocks are fault contacts that, in plan, consist of many
that is superimposed on the subsurface salt-cored short straight segments enclosing the core of broken
Moab anticline in late Paleozoic rocks (Baker, 1933; rock (fig. 72.3). The bounding faults commonly dip
Shoemaker and others, 1958). On the east flank of steeply inward, but several outcrops of wavy fault
the syncline are many small collapse structures (figs. planes suggest that they average about vertical. Dis-
72.1 and 72.2). Most of the· collapse structures are placements along these faults range from a few
roughly oval in plan, a few hundred feet in diameter, hundred feet to about 1,500 feet and may differ
and contain a mass of broken rock that has been greatly in adjacent collapse structures.
dropped several hundreds of feet. They are found The breccia within the bounding faults is made
in all exposed formations from the Navajo sand- up of the country rock and younger sedimentary for-
stone (Triassic? and Jurassic) of the Glen Canyon mations. In several collapse structures the breccia
group through a sandstone member of the Mancos is roughly segregated into small mappable units
shale (Upper Cretaceous)-a stratigraphic range of (fig. 72.3), but more commonly the breccia is a
more than 3,000 feet. Although the vertical exposure jumbled mixture of fragments from many forma-
of any of these collapse structures is only about 200 tions. The. fragments within the breccia, which
feet, they are inferred to be breccia pipes that extend range from grains to huge blocks 50 feet across,
several thousand feet below the surface. are not slickensided, and the sand grains are not
Forty-five collapse structures were identified in crushed and sheared. In general, the· breccia is little
and near southern Spanish Valley (fig. 72.1) ; an altered except for the effects of removal of carbo-
additional 33 collapse structures were noted in a nate cement from sandstone units. For example, the
reconnaissance north of this area to Moab. Most of breccia fragments are generally more friable than
the collapse structures lie on the east side of Spanish their parent rocks, and sandstone dikes and veinlets
Valley within a northwest-trending belt that is about are common both in the breccia core and in the sur-
three-quarters of a mile wide and 10 miles long. rounding country rock. The edge of the core of the
The three collapse structures south of Pack Creek collapse structure south of the M4 Ranch locally
may be in another more westerly trending belt. shows a well-developed foliation that parallels the
Most of the collapse structures are partly obscured boundary fault; this foliation apparently resulted
by surficial deposits and form inconspicuous mounds from flowage of the decemented sand and stretching
B-174 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
109" 15'
EXPLANATION
.......
WUs.·:~i;:::;~
• Alluvium

Igneous rocks
Chiefly diorite porphyry

·t·

Mane lS shale, Dakota sandstone,

ar d Burro Canyon formation
••
~
Morrison formation

0
San Rafael group

~
Glen Canyon group u
iii

m
lll
~
a:
1-
Chinle formation
;-----:---:
I !_ __ I

!Salt L~ke City :

0 2 3 4 5 MILES Geology by G. W. Weir,
L----'-----'----.L..----'------' W. P. Puffett, C. L. Dodson,
and V. C. Kennedy, 1956-59 m
Hermosa form.ation
.Jz
~~
} zz Z<
W>
ll.
UTAH I ~--- .......... .,.........-o---- •••
i
I

Moab 0 Contact High-angle fault Collapse structure

Spanish Vall/y 1 Dashed where approximately located Dashed where approximately located; ....
I
L_ ________ jI dotted where concealed. D, downthrown side

FIGURE 72.1.-Generalized geologic map of southern Spanish Valley and environs, Utah, showing location of section A-A'
(fig. 72.2) and location of geologic map of collapse structure (fig. 72.3).

of clay particles in the sandstone. Some breccias are likely all the collapse structures bottom in inclined
locally stained by iron and manganese oxides, but Paleozoic limestone beds that flank the salt core of
they do not resemble the hydrothermally altered the Moab anticline beneath Spanish Valley, because
breccias in the somewhat similar collapse structures displacements of many of the breccia cores exceed
of the San Rafael Swell (Kerr and others, 1957). the thickness of the underlying Mesozoic rocks. \..

The collapse structures are Tertiary in age, for The origin of these collapse structures is uncertai~
they are overlain by early Pleistocene deposits and but may be hypothesized as follows: Connate water,
they cut rocks as young as Late Cretaceous. Most. perhaps admixed with hydrothermal solutions, ·\>-·

La Sal
Mountains
A A'
10,000' 10,000'

0 2 3 4 5 MILES

Ti, Tertiary intrusive rocks, chiefly in laccoliths and stocks; Mlc, Mesozoic clastic rocks; Pzc, Paleozoic clastic
rocks; F\1, Paleozoic limestone; F\e, Paleozoic evaporites, chiefly salt (Quaternary deposits not shown)

FIGURE 72.2.-Generalized section A-A' across southern Spanish Valley and environs, Utah.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-175
moved downslope from igneous domes of the La Sal
Mountains during the Tertiary and dissolved lime-
stone in the upturned Paleozoic beds in the sub-
surface near Spanish Valley and thus created space
for collapse breccia from the overlying formations.
Moving upward along fracture channelways in the
younger formations, the solutions removed carbonate
cement so that these younger rocks caved into the
open spaces. If these inferences and hypothesis are
I approximately correct, the collapse structures are
., I
I
I the outcrops of breccia pipes that are as much as
I .. 5,000 feet high.
1/
The collapse structures of Spanish Valley are not
) . : : Jltu
............. known to be mineralized, but they resemble in part
other pipelike bodies of brecciated sedimentary rock
J"fin that contain uranium ore such as the Temple Moun-
tain collapse structure, Utah (Kerr and others,
1957; Keys and White, .1956), the Woodrow pipe,
New Mexico (Hilpert and Moench, 1960), and the
Orphan pipe, Arizona (Gabelman and Boyer, 1958).
b 200 300 FEET
100 REFERENCES
CONTOUR INTERVAL 40 FEET
DATUM IS APPROXIMATE MEAN SEA LEVEL Baker, A. A., 1933, Geology and oil possibilities of the Moab
Geology and topography by G. W. Weir district, Grand and San Juan Counties, Utah: U.S. Geol.
and W. P. ~uffett, 1956
Survey Bull. 841, 95 p.
EXPLANATION
Gabelman, J. W., and Boyer, W. H., 1958, Relation of uranium
BRECCIA UNITS
/
,.......-----. __ _..,./
deposits to feeder structures, associated alteration, and
Approximate contact mineral zones: Proc. Second United Nations Internat.
~---/ Conf. on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva,
Dakota sandstone (Upper Cretaceous)
Switzerland, v. 2, p. 338-350, 7 figs.
Fault, showing dip
Dashed where approximately looated Hilpert, L. S., and Moench, R. H., 1960, Uranium deposits of
~0
the southern part of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico:
Burro Canyon formation (Lower Cretaceous)
Strike and dip of beds Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 429-464.
~ Kerr, P. F., Bodine, M. W., Jr., Kelley, D. R., and Keys, W. W.,
~ Vertical joint
1957, Collapse features, Temple Mountain Uranium area,
Utah: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 68, p. 933-982.
Morrison formation (Upper Jurassic)
Jmb, BruBhy Basin member. Ao Keys, W. W., and White, R. L., 1956, Investigations of the
Jms, Salt Wash member Strike and dip of joints
Temple Mountain collapse and associated features, San
Rafael Swell, Emery County, Utah in Page, L. R.,
Entrada sandstone (Upper Jurassic), Carmel N Stocking, H. E., and Smith, H. B., Contributions to the
formation (Upper and Middle Jurassic), geology of uranium and thorium by the United States
and Navajo sandstone (Jurassic and
Triassic(?) undivided Geological Survey and Atomic Energy Commission for the
COUNTRY ROCK
United. Nations International Conference on Peaceful
·if Uses of Atomic Energy, Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 300, p. 285-298.
Nav~o sandstone (Jurassic and Triassic?) Shoemaker, E. M., Case, J. E., and Elston, D. P., 1958, Salt
· anticlines of the Paradox basin, in Geology of the Paradox
FIGURE 72.3.-Simplified geologic map of collapse st~ucture: I Basin: Intermountain Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Guide-
northeast rim of Spanish Valley, Utah. book; 9th Ann. Field Conf., 1958, p. 39-59.
I
B-176 GEOLOGICAL. SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
J

73. AGE RELATIONS OF THE CLIMAX COMPOSITE STOCK, NEVADA TEST SITE, NYE COUNTY, NEVADA

By F. N. HOUSER and F. G. POOLE, Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

t

The Climax composite stock consists of two sep- in t~e texture or composition of the granodiorite in
arate, contiguous intrusive masses, a granodiorite relation to this contact.
and a quartz monzonite that do not necessarily differ The quartz monzonite intrusive is concluded to be
greatly in age (Houser and Poole, 1960a). On the younger than the granodiorite because of a transi-
basis of crosscutting relations and of chemical and tional variation in texture and composition of the
mineralogic characteristics observed in hundreds of quartz monzonite inward from its contact with the
feet of drill core and an 800-level tunnel, as well as granodiorite, and because similar transitions are
in surface outcrops, it is concluded that the quartz found in the quartz monzonite where it intrudes the
monzonite is the younger. Numerous aplite and peg- Pogonip group.
matite dikes cut both masses. Field relations and a The quartz monzonite intrusive can be divided on
....
lead-alpha age determination (T. W. Stern, written the basis of grain size into a fine-grained variety,
communication, 1960) suggest an age for the Climax in which the average subhedral grains are from
composite stock of Permian ( ?) to early Mesozoic. 1,4 to 1 mm across, and a medium-grained variety
The Climax stock intruded complexly folded and in which they are from 1 to 11/2 mm across. Fine-
faulted carbonate rocks of the Pogonip group of grained quartz monzonite occurs in a zone that
Ordovician age. In fault contact with the Pogonip parallels the border of the intrusive; the medium-
group are sedimentary rocks of Cambrian to pos- grained variety makes up the remainder of the in-
sible Pennsylvanian age. The carbonate rocks have trusive. The peripheral zone of fine-grained rock
been thermally and metasomatically altered to mar- is from 50 to 800 feet wide; it averages 500 feet
ble and tactite for as much as 1,500 feet from the wide where the intrusive adjoins the granodiorite,
contact with the ~tock, although minor discontinuous and less than 100 feet wide wherJ~ it adjoins the
metasomatic effects are noted in all rocks out to marble. In most places the fine-grained rock grades
3,000 feet. Pyroclastic rocks of the Oak Spring to the medium-grained variety within distances
formation (Miocene(?) or younger) unconformably ranging from a few feet to 100 feet. In some places
overlie parts of the stock and Paleozoic formations ·the two varieties ate intimately intermixed; this is
(Houser and Poole, 1960a, 1960b). thought to be the result of autointrusion of older
The granodiorite intrusive is light gray to green- fine-grained material by younger medium-grained
ish medium gray, equigranular, and predominantly material.·
medium grained (Houser and Poole, 1959). Its aver- Where in contact with the granodiorite intrusive,
age composition, based on 19 modal analyses, is 28 the quartz monzonite intrusive varies in composi-
·percent quartz, 16 percent potassium feldspar, 45 tion from quartz diorite in the first 15 feet to grano-
percent plagioclase, and 9 percent biotite. The aver- diorite throughout the next 45 feet, and to quartz
age grain size is about 2 mm, but the common range monzonite in the rematnder of the mass. However,
is Y2 to 4 mm. The texture is granitic and very the zones vary considerably in width from place to
slightly porphyritic. No distinct inclusions of coun- place, and the boundaries are indefinite. Table 1
try rock are known .. .shows the mineralogic variations.
The contact between granodiorite and adjoining The fine-grained border zone of the quartz mon-
quartz monzonite masses is generally vertical or zonite next to the marble is texturally similar to
very steep. In detail it is highly irregular and shows · corresponding zones in the quartz monzonite next
mutually penetrating fingers of each rock. These to the granodiorite although it is more highly va-
fingers are measurable in inches or feet in width riable mineralogically and chemically. Autointru-
and length. No glassy chilled zone has been noted sion similar to that observed in the vicinity of the
in either rock. No systematic variation like that contact with the granodiorite is also common near
described for the quartz monzonite has been noted the contact with the marble.
,.i. SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-177
\_ TABLE !.-Changes in the essential mine1·al compositions, in volmne penent, of the qua1·tz 1nonzonite intrusive at selected
· inteTvals j?·o1n the contact with the g1·anodiorite intTusives
[tr, trace]
'
____________________________ _______________
Vol u mc pcrcen t
.....:..

Distaucc from Estiu111tcd vuluruc Potassium Rock

lutervnl ~~:rnuudioritc percent of qunrtz Number of Total feldspar type
iutrusivc mOIIZOUitc modal (lunrtz Potassium Plagioclase Biotite Hornblende Total feldspar of total
(feet) intrusive r analyses feldspar 2 fcldspa~

---- ·--- --- ---- - - - --- ---- - - --- ---- --------

.1. . . . . . . . 15 and less .. 0.8 !) 22 8 54 15 tr 99 62 13 Quartz diorite
2 ....... 1.5-GO ...... 2.2 5 27 17 46 8 tr 98 6:3 27 Granodiorite
3 ....... 60-200 ..... 7 -1 2G 25 42 7 0 100 67 :37.4 Quartz monzonite
4 ....... >200 ...... 90 7 28 25 40 6 tr 99 65 38.5 Do.
\Veightecl average ........ 28 25 40 6 tr ...... 65 38.5
eom position 3
1 Based on the total exposed quartz monzonite stock.
:! Includes proportioned amounts of potassium feldspar phenocrysts.
3 Weighted for the various proportions of the intrusive represented in intervals 1 through 4.

The relative ages of the quartz monzonite and tiary age, possibly Miocene or Pliocene (Johnson
granodiorite are important in interpreting the lead- and Hibbard, 1957, p. 369).
alpha age determination for the Climax stock. It Two lead-alpha age determinations made by T. W.
has been concluded that the quartz monzonite is the Stern (written communication, 1960) for zircon
younger intrusion, and because the lead-alpha age from the medium-grained quartz monzonite give
was determined for this intrusiv~, it applies as the estimates of 330 ± 35 and 230 ± 25 million years.
youngest age limit for the intrusion of the preceding The younger of these two estimates is thought to be
granodiorite. more nearly correct because it was substantiated by
Field relations indicate that the Climax stock was replicate determinations and it falls within the age
intruded no earlier than Permian ( ?) time. Strata limits established by field relations. Therefore, both
of the Tippipah limestone of Permian ( ?) and Penn- intrusions of the Climax stock are dated tentatively
sylvanian age 10 miles to the southwest are without as Permian ( ?) to early Mesozoic.
noticeable breaks in sedimentation and are without
REFERENCES
coarse clastics that would suggest nearby contem-
Houser, F. N., and Poole, F. G., 1959, "Granite" exploration
poraneous or previous structural deformation (P. hole, Area 15, Nevada Test Site, Nye County, Nev.-
P. Orkild, oral communication, 1960) such as the interim report, Pt. A, Structural, petrographic, and
tight folding and high-angle faulting which next to chemical data: U.S. Geol. Survey TEM-836, open-file
report.
the Climax stock (Houser and Poole, 1960a) pre-
- - - 1960a, Preliminary geologic map of the Climax stock
ceded intrusion. Many of the metamorphic ·effects and vicinity, Nye County, Nev.: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc.
equivalent to those observed next to the stock are Geol. Inv. Map I-328.
found throughout the formations of Ordovician - - - 1960b, Structural features of pyroclastic rocks of the
Oak Spring formation at the Nevada Test Site, Nye
through Mississippian age that had been involved County, Nev., as related to the topography of the under-
in this deformation. lying surface, in Short papers in the geological sciences:
The field relations also indicate that the stock U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B266-B268.
Johnson, M. S., and Hibbard, D. E., 1957, Geology of the
was intruded, exposed, and dissected before deposi- Atomic Energy Commission Nevada Proving Grounds
tion of the Oak Spring formation, which is of Ter- area, Nev.: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1021-K, p. 333-384 .

.,

•
B-178 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 J.

74. RHYOLITES IN THE EGAN RANGE SOUTH OF ELY,.NEVADA

By DANIEL R. SHAWE, Denver, Colo.

Rhyolite of Tertiary age in the Egan range south (fig. 74.3). Plagioclase forms subhedral to euhedral
of Ely, White Pine County, Nev., occurs as (a) in- crystals, with slight oscillatory zoning and few al-
trusive bodies, including a volcanic neck a mile bite and pericline twins. Biotite is dark brown to
across and a small sill; and (b) extensive dissected light yellowish brown and in places is charged with
layers of welded tuff (fig. 74.1). Whether the ip.- tiny specks of an iron oxide. Except for sparse iron
trusive rhyolite bodies are comagmatic with and ores, no accessory minerals were recognized.
The welded rhyolite tuff is similar in gross ap- -'
mark the vents for the welded tuff ash flows is the
subject of this paper. This possibility is in part pearance to the intrusive rhyolite, except that al-
suggested by the crude tendency for the welded most everywhere it shows layering due to flattened
tuff layers to dip outward from the neck (fig. 74.1), pumice lapilli, and there is no obvious flow structure.
and in part by the superficial similarity of the Phenocrysts are mostly 1 to 2 mm across and are em-
rhyolites. bedded in a glassy matrix constituting about 50
to 65 percent of the rock. In hand specimen, the
PETROLOGIC CHARACTER OF THE RHYOLITES tuffs appear no darker than the intrusive rhyolites,
The intrusive rhyolite is generally a light- to dark- although crystals, especially mafic species, are more
gray porphyritic rock composed of. phenocrysts abundant in the welded tuffs. Inclusions of chert or
mostly about 1 to 2 mm across set in an aphanitic silicified limestone in the welded rhyolite tuff appear
or glassy matrix that makes up about 75 to 80 per- to be more abundant than in the intrusive rhyolite,
cent of the rock. Glassy rhyolite forms a chilled and they are not concentrated locally-as they are in
border 100 to 200 feet wide around the volcanic the intrusive rock.
neck. Flow structure is locally evident, generally Phenocrysts in welded tuff comprise plagioclase
as vertical banding in the volcanic neck and linea- (albite to andesine?), making up about 15 percent .
tion in the sill. Much of the rhyolite in the neck is of the rock, lesser and subequal amounts of quartz,
brecciated, and, as seen in thin section, flow line·s are sanidine, and biotite, about 1 percent of pyroxene,
marked by strings of crushed crystals embedded in iron ores, and pale hornblende, and traces of sphene,
groundmass (fig. 74.2). Apparently deuteric or hy- apatite, and zircon. The size range of all pheno-
drothermal alteration affected large parts of the crysts is about 0.1 to 4 mm. Plagioclase occurs as
volcanic neck, as these parts are bleached light yel- subhedral to euhedral crystals with slight to rather
lowish gray to almost white, and the rhyolite has strong progressive zoning; a few crystals show
become "porcelaneous." Another result of deuteric ragged cores that are probably albite, rimmed with
or hydrothermal action in the volcanic neck was the andesine ( ?) which is zoned outward progressively
development of numerous small and imperfect to albite. Albite and pericline twins are sharper and
"thunder-eggs"-cavities within dense, siliceous el- more abundant than in plagioclase of the intrusive
lipsoidal shells lined with chalcedony and minor rhyolite. Quartz is euhedral to strongly corroded
amot:nts of fluorite and manganese oxide. Oxidation and em bayed (fig. 74.4) ; hand specimens show some
occurred locally in the neck, as parts of the rhyolite smoky quartz like those of the intrusive rhyolite.
are pinkish from "dusty" hematite. Small inclu- Sanidine forms subhedral to euhedral crystals ; a few
sions of chert or silicified limestone 1 mm to 1 em in of these have glass inclusions, in part zoned, but
diameter are abundant. none contain graphic and myrmeckitic intergrowths
Phenocrysts in intrusive rhyolite comprise sub- of quartz. Biotite is strongly pleochroic, almost black
equal amounts of quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase to yellowish brown with a greenish cast, and com-
(albite to oligoclase?), and about 1 percent of bio- monly includes minute apatite crystals, and opaque
tite; the size range is about 0.1 to 4 mm. Quartz iron minerals along cleavage traces. Accessory min-
occurs as euhedral to strongly corroded and embayed erals aggregate less than 1 percent of the rock; they
crystals; some is smoky. Sanidine forms subhedral comprise iron ores, sphene ·(some diamond-shaped
to euhedral crystals; a few crystals contain inter- gr~ins as much as 0.5 mm long), apatite, and
grown quartz in graphic and myrmeckitic forms zircon.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-179

EXPLANATION
0\)

~
I \
.... J
Outline of area of rhyolite
Crosshatched area is volcanic neck. (Not all
rhyolite areas a,re shown)

Strike and dip of layering in rhyolite

Estimated strike and dip of layering in rhyolite

.-4
Sample locality
7 is about 50ft stratigraphically below 5; 9 is a few ft
from the wall of the volcanic neck, 4 is about 100ft,
and 2 is about 200ft; 1 is in the sill

..

NEVADA
I
N

·-k 0 5 MILES
I I

FIGURE 74.1.-Map showing areas of rhyolite and sample localities in the Egan range south of Ely, Nev.
.B-180 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE !.-Chemical analyses and semiquantitative spectrograpMc analyses of eight rhyolites f'rom the Egan range south of
Ely, Nevada
[Chemical analyses by Margaret Lemon; semiquantitative spectrographic analyses by Paul R. Barnett; d, detected; 0, looked for but not found
(below limit of detectability) ] ·

Intrusive rhyolite Extrusive rhyolite

Sill I Volcanic neck Arithmetic Arithmetic Welded tuff

------- ----------------------- average of "Compari- average of
four intrusive son four extrusive
Sample rhyolites factor" rhyolites Sample

---~----~--~----~---~----~ --~--- -~---·-~-~-----~--~---~--~--- t

(DRS-45-58) (DRS-22-58) (DRS-21-58) (DRS-52-58) (AB-23-51) (DRS-5-59) (AB-22-58) (DRS-28-58)

Chemical analyses

Si02 ....... . 75.36 73.09 72.92 72.49 73.47 > 69.71 70.50 70.28 69.46 68.58
Al20a ...... . 13.55 13.59 13.63 13.45 13.56 < 14.11 14.31 13.97 14.62 13.55
Fe20a ...... . .31 .44 .51 .55 .45 <2X 1.12 1.07 1.09 1.11 1. 21
FeO ....... . .43 .34 .27 .25 .32 <4X 1.41 1.41 1.63 1.44 1.16
MgO ....... . .07 .07 .14 .08 .09 <9X .81 .74 .76 .84 .88
CaO ....... . .84 .90 .97 .88 .90 <3X 2.85 2.89 3.21 2.98 2.30
Na20 ...... . 3.80 3.42 3.48 3.30 3.50 > 2.51 3.02 2.48 2.97 1.56
K20 ....... . 4.61 5.11 4.83 5.00 4.89 > 3.84 3.48 3.70 3.54 4.64
H20+ ...... . .35 2.46 2.66 3.33 2.20 > 1.81 1.43 1.38 1.53 2.88
H20- ..... . .19 .12 .29 .23 .21 <5X 1.00 .36 .50 .61 2.52
Ti02 ...... . .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 <9X .45 .46 .45 .47 .43 ...
P20s ....... . .09 .01 .01 .00 .03 <3X .10. .10 .09 .10 .09
MnO ...... . .07 .08 .07 .08 .08 > .05 .05 .04 .05 .04
C02 ....... . .01 .01 .01 .01 .01 <2X .02 .01 .03 .03 .00
Cl ......... . .01 .03 .03 .02 .02 .02 .04 .01 .04 .00
F ......... .. .11 .14 .11 .13 .12 >2X .07 .08 .03 .09 .07
Sub-total .. 99.85 99.86 99.98 99.85 99.95. 99.65 99.88 99.91
Less 0 .... .05 .07 .06 .05 .04 .01 .05 .03
Total. .... 99.80 99.79 99.92 99.80 99.91 99.64 99.83 99.88

Semiquantitative spectrographic analyses 1

B ........... 0 . 0015 .0015 .0015 . .0011 > 0 0 0 0 0

Ba .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 <60X .19 .15 .3 .15 .15
Be .......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 >2X .00015 .00015 .00015 .00015 .00015
Ce .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .023 .015 .03 .03 .015
Co .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .000:3
Cr ........... d. d .0003 d < .0003 < .0003 .00015 .0007 .0003 .00015
Cu ......... .0003 d d d < .0003 < .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003
Ga ......... .003 .003 .0015 .0015 .0023 >3X .0009 .0007 .0007 .0015 .0007
La .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .011 .007 .015 .015 .007
Nb ......... .003 .003 .Q03 .003 .003 > .0019 .003 .0015 .0015 .0015
Nd ......... 0 0 0 0 0 < .009 .007 .015 .007 .007
Ni .......... 0 0 0 0 0 < < .0003 .0003 .0003 0 0
Pb .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 >3X .0009 .0007 .0007 .0015 .0007
Sc .......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 <2X .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007
Sn .......... .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007 .0007 > 0 0 0 0 0
Sr .......... .003 .003 :003 .003 .003 <20X .06 .07 .07 .07 .03
v ........... 0 0 0 0 0 < .004 .003 .003 .007 .003
Y .......... .003 .003 .003 .003 .003 > .0023 .003 .0015 .003 .0015
Yb ......... .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 > .00023 .0003 .00015 .0003 .00015
Zr .......... .007 .007 .003 .003 .005 <4X .019 .015 .03 .015 .015

1 Figures are reported to the nearest number in the series 7, 3, 1.5, 0.7, 0.3, 0.15, etc., in percent. These numbers represent midpoints of group data on a·
geometric scale. Comparisons of this type of semiquantitative results with data obtained by quantitative methods, either chemical or spectrographic, show
that the assigned group includes the quantitative value about 60 percent of the time.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-181
CHEMICAL CHARACTER OF THE RHYOLITES tuff is summarized in table 1. As shown in table 1,
The chemical character of four samples of intru- the four intrusive rhyolites form a group closely
sive rhyolite and four samples of welded rhyolite similar in composition, as do the four welded tuffs;
the two groups are, however, chemically quite dis-
tinct. (See "Comparison factor" of the group aver-
ages, table 1.) For more valid comparison of the
groups the analyses should probably be recalculated
without H:!O, although this could not alter the basic
differences between the two.
ass A
CONCLUSIONS
Both the petrologic and chemical data suggest
that the intrusive and extrusive rhyolites were not
closely related genetically. For example, the dis-
artz
tinct differences between both plagioclase and sani-
dine phenocrysts in the two groups indicate that they
probably were not derived from the same magma
chamber, even at widely separated times. Further,
the obvious chemical disparity between the intrusive
0
rhyolite and the welded rhyolite tuff suggests that
one is not related to the other through crystal frac-
0 1 MILLIMETER tionation.

FIGURE 74.2.-Pen-and-ink drawing of rhyolite from volcanic

neck. Glass A is clear;· glass B is comminuted containing
numerous small fragments of broken crystals (sample 3).

Glass 8

Biotite

0 1 MILLIMETER 0 1 MILLIMETER

FIGURE 74.3.-Feldspar crystals with myrmeckitic and graphic FIGURE 74.4.-Pen-and-ink drawing of welded rhyolite tuff.
intergrowths of quartz. Feldspar crystal A is sanidine Glass A generally rims crystals, is vesiculated and frag-
from sill (sample 1). Feldspar crystal B is sanidine mented; glass B forms matrix enclosing whole and broken
rimmed with plagioclase from volcan\c neck (sample 4). crystals and particles of glass A (sample 8).
. B-182 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

75. TECTONIC SIGNIFICANCE OF RADIAL PROFILES OF ALLUVIAL FANS IN WESTERN FRESNO COUNTY,
CALIFORNIA

By WILLIAM B. BULL, Sacramento, California

Work done in cooperation with the Calij01·nia Department of Water Resources

The shape of an alluvial fan reflects part of i·t~ same as the upper fan segment. The continuous slope
depositional history, which is controlled primarily\ implies that the terrace deposits were laid down at
by erosional and tectonic changes in the drainage · the same time as the upper deposits of the fan
basin upstream. The radial profiles of fans along segment.
the western border of the San Joaquin Valley in \ Valleys also tend to be cut down to the same
western Fresno County, Calif.; are interesting fea- g~adient as the adjacent lower fan surface. This
tures because they are segmented, and because they ten\iency is illustrated by the stream of Tumey Gulch
can be used to help decipher part of the tectonic where it is entrenched into the upper fan segment.
history of the area. More than a mile of the stream has been cut down
The drainage basins of the fans head in two dis- .,to th~\ same gradient as the adjacent lower fan
tinct mountainous areas. The small fans have drain- , segme~t.\ .
age basins with ephemeral s.treams which head in Channel trenching helps preserve fan segmenta-
the foothill belt of the Diablo Range. The large fans tion by restricting deposition to certain fan seg-
have drainage basins wi.th intermittent streams ments. At the present time deposition is not oc-
which head in the main Diablo Range. curring on the upper fan segment of the fans whose
The overall radial profiles of the alluvial fans streams head in the foothill belt, or on the upper
are concave upward, but the slope does not decrease two segments of the fans whose streams head in the
main Diablo Range.
at a uniform rate away from the mountain front.
Climatic fluctuations, uplift of the mountains, and
Instead the radial profiles are segmented. Profiles
changes in base level should be considered as pos-
of fans whose streams head in the foothill belt have sible causes of fan segmentation. Neither the fans
three straight-line segments; profiles of fans whose nor drainage basins show any evidence of marked
streams:head in the main Diablo Range have four base-level changes. Moisture studies of deep cores
segments: three are straight lines but the uppermost from the dry alluvial-fan deposits do not indicate
segment may be concave upward. An example of major changes in rainfall or stream runoff. How-
each type of radial profile is shown in figure 75.1. ever, Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits on the sum-
The dots represent altitudes from topographic maps mits of the foothill belt show that parts of the
that have. a 5-foot contour interval. The lengths of mountains were uplifted more than 2,000 feet during
the segments and the angular relationships between Pleistocene time. The uplift occurred mainly as
them vary for different fans, but the profiles of monoclinal and anticlinal folding.
adjacent fans generally are similar. The drainage basins of western Fresno County
Near their apexes the fans accumulate deposits have paired terraces that are commonly 100 to 300
that have the same general slope as the valley up- feet above the present-day stream channels. These
stream from the fan. Slope measurements from terraces represent periods of lateral planation and
topographic maps of 10 streams show that the upper- I'ittle downcutting followed by periods of accele-
most .fan segments and the valleys upstream from rated downcutting, which made narrower valleys
the fans for a distance of lj2 to 1 mile have the same within the former wider valleys. The accelerated
general slope, although there have been periods of downcutting accompanies uplift in the mountain
arroyo cutting during the lastcentury. Five of these area, which steepens the stream gradient ; as a re-
valleys have slightly lower gradients than their up- sult, the fan deposits also should have a steeper
permost fan segments, and five have slightly higher gradient. Thus, the result of uplift would be a
gradients. For one stream, the slope of a terrace for "new fan" built out onto the older more gently
three-fourths of a mile upstream from the fan is the sloping fan.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-183

SCALE, IN MILES
9

CANTUA CREEK FAN

' (Main Diablo Range)

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 211

.....
LLJ
LLJ
LL.

TUMEY GULCH FAN

(Foothill belt)
.c.

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 53

300~--------~---------------------+---------------~-1-----------------------~r------------------

0 2 4
SCALE, IN MILES

FIGURE 75.1.-Radial profiles of two alluvial fans in western Fresno County, Calif.

Some stages of alluvial-fan development are out- tinctly different ages. For example, deposition may
lined by diagrams in figure 75.2. In figure 75.2a a have been occurring mainly on the upper segment a
fan and stream channel have developed a common century ago, but channel trenching then caused de-
gradient. Uplift steepens the stream gradient and position to occ·ur mainly on the middle segmen~ as
the new fan deposits also have a steeper gradient the end of the channel moved downslope (fig. 75.2e).
(fig. 75.2b). The stream-channel gradient may have
., been steeper after the uplift, but the slopes in figure
Thus, in the situation illustrated in· figure 75.2e,
deposition is restricted to the area downslope from
75.2b represent equilibrium conditions near the end the upper two fan segments, as it is for the streams
of the stage. Another period of uplift makes the that head in the main Diablo Range.
youngest segment (fig. 75.2c), completing a fan simi- The segmented fans of western Fresno County
lar to the Tumey Gulch fan (fig. 75.1). Deposition indicate three or four episodes of uplift of the Coast
continues on the fan and the stream channel main- Ranges rather than continuous uplift. Part of the
tains the same slope as the fan by aggrading slightly uplift may have occurred in the last 3,000 years.
(fig. 75.2d). An increase in the amount and intensity Charcoal that was 10.5 feet below the surface of
t of rainfall causes temporary channel trenching (fig. the upper (youngest) fan segment of the Arroyo
75.2e). The low terrace and the upper fan segment Hondo fan is 1,04Q ± 200 years old according to a
have the same slope, and the downstream end of radiocarbon age determination. 1 The total thickness
the entrenched channel has the same gradient as of deposits of the fan segment at this locality is
the adjacent lower segment. The surficial deposits
1 Radiocarbon age determination made by Meyer Rubin of the U.S. Geo-
of respective fan segments generally are not of dis- logical Survey; sample W-793. .
B-184 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

estimated to be 24 feet, which suggests that the

segment is 2,000 to 3,000 years old, if a similar
rate of deposition existed throughout its history.
Segmented fans apparently occur where the slope
of the valley upstream from the apex has been made
steeper than the slope of the fan. Large changes in
fan slope probably indicate greater uplift and steep-
ening of the valley upstream from the apex than do
small changes in fan slope. The different radial
profiles of fans whose streams head in the foothill
belt for 50 miles along the western border of the
San Joaquin Valley indicate different amounts or
times of uplift and rates of erosion in their drainage
basins.
The fans of streams that head in the foothill belt
and main Diablo Range have a distinctive segmen-
tation which reveals part of the tectonic history of
their respective mountain areas. Fan segmentation
should be helpful in deciphering part of the tectonic
history of the drainage basins of other mountain
ranges. ~·::. Youngest deposits

;;'.... ?
Stream channel - •• · · ·
e
c --..;;:

FIGURE 75.2.-Diagrammatic sketc.hes showing segmented

alluvial fan development in western Fresno County,
Calif.

76. SOIL-MOISTURE STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS AND INFILTRATION RATES AS INDICATED BY ANNUAL

GRASSLANDS NEAR PALO ALTO, CALIFORNIA

By F. A. BRANSON, R. F. MILLER, and I. S. McQUEEN, Denver, Colo.

One of the chief determinants of the kinds and soils of different textures, and in estimating quickly
amounts of vegetation found on unplowed land sur- the hydrologic characteristics of soils in some local
faces is quantity of water stored in the soil and avail- areas.
able for plant growth during the growing season. The vegetation and soils of three small basins
The annual-grasslands floral assemblage of Califor- (310, 245, and 170 acres) near Palo Alto were
nia, although composed largely of introduced species, mapped and sampled in 1959. A metal frame of the
shows some striking contrasts on soils having dif- type shown in figure 76.1 was used to measure the.
ferent water-storage capacities. Certain indicator amounts and kinds of vegetation. Sampling loca-
plants have been identified that may help in mapping tions were chosen at intervals along transects across
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-185
Greater amounts of vegetation and a greater va-
riety of plant species grow on the sandy soils. Spe-
cies present in most samples but more abundant on
sandy soils included shoft chess and red-stem filaree.
Species found only on the sandy soils were ripgut
brome, California oatgrass, foxtail fescue, mouse
barley, needlegrass, agoseris, bindweed, Spanish
clover, two species of lupine, California poppy, and
fiddle dock. Sandy soils were characterized by a
greater number of vegetation contacts per 100 pins,
more mulch, and less bare soil surface.
Trees and shrubs were widely but uniformly
spaced in the three basins except for the few dense
groves on north-facing slopes. The three important
tree species in order of their abundance were valley
oak (Que1·cus lobata), blue oak (Q. douglasii), and
coast live oak (Q. agr-ifolia). The trees and shrubs
did not appear to be affected by the different soil
textures.
Some of the physical characteristics of the sandy
and clayey soils of the basins studied are shown in
table 2. The percent moisture at saturation and at
field capacity were considerably greater in the clayey
than in the sandy soil. The estimated field capacity
FIGURE 76.1.-Metal frame and pins used to measure amounts in the clay soil was approximately double that of
and kinds of herbaceous vegetation. the sandy soil in the upper 2 feet of the two soils.
.,. Lineal shrinkage was nearly four times greater for
each basin. The annual precipitation on the basins the clayey than for the sandy soils.
is about 22 inches, most of it falling at moderate
intensities from November to March.
The abundance, and commonly the kinds, of plants
differed on the sandy and clayey soils in all three
basins as shown on table 1. Most of the soils of the
three basins were either sandy or clayey, generally
with sharp boundaries between soil types, leaving
only small areas of medium-textured soils. Because
the medium-textured soils were so limited, only the
vegetation and soil analyses of the sandy and clayey
soils were studied ·in detail. Most of the soils de-
veloped in place on bedrock consisting of alternate
shale and sandstone strata that Branner and others
(1909) mapped as the Purisima formation of Ter-
tiary age. Residual soils developed from these strata
can be seen in figure 76.2. ·
Species that were more abundant on clayey than
on sandy soils included wild oat, Italian ryegrass,
bellardia, tarweed, and bur clover. Purple star
.thistle was found only on clayey soils. Soil cracks
were present only in the clayey soils. Four or more
FIGURE 76.2.-Residual soils developed on alternating strata
hits (contacts) in soil cracks per 100 pins were re- of the Purisma formation. Sandstone is on the right and
corded for clay soils of the three basins. shale is on the left.
B-186 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-Herbaceous vegetation on basins A, B, and C near probably because of higher rates of infiltration of
Palo Alto, Cal·if.
[Numbers are average hits per 100 pins, using device shown on figure 76.]
water, and because. soil water is more readily avail-
able for plant use in the sandy soils. Infiltration
Basin and type of soil rates of 1.35 to 13.85 inches per hour with a mean
---~\----~---B---~----c---­ of 6.40 inches for 6 1-hour runs were measured for
the sandy soils. The infiltration rate on an un-
Sandy fc~~~ sand~r~:~ sa~~11-c~~~ cracked clay-loam soil was 0.18 inch per hour; how-
Grasses ever, the degree of soil cracking (shrinkage, table
2) and an almost complete absence of soil erosion,
Auena/alua L.
Wild oat .............. 4.7 10.2 4.2 4.5 31..5 38.7
even on slopes exceeding 40 percent, indicated that
Bromus mollis L.
Soft ehess ............. 53.0 16.2 49.4 8.5 47.2 26.0
moisture entered the clayey soils fairly readily. The
Bromus rioidus Roth.
Ripgut hrome .......... 1.3 1.2 9.2
cracks provide large areas for water entry until
/)fmlhonia californica
Boland California
they are closed by swelling of the moistened clays.
oatgrass ............. 1.0
Festuca meoalura Nutt.
Foxtail fescue .......... 17.9 3.8 TABLE 2.-Some characte1·istics of a sandy soil and a clayey
Hordeum oussonianum Pari.
soil in the basins studied
Meditermnion harley ...
Hordeum murinum L.
26.9 11.0 3.8 25.3
•·
Mouse barley .......... .4 .5
Lolium multijlorum La 111. Depth 1\-foisture Estimated
Italian ryegrass ........
Stipa cernua Stibbins and
Love
17.7 30.0 17.2 75.0 43.8 74.7 from soil
surface
(inches)
at
saturation 1
(percent)
field
capacity 2
(percent)
Sand 3
(percent)
SUt' I Cl•y,
(percent) j (percent)
Lineal
shrinkage •
(percent)
Needlegrass ........... 1.0
Sandy soil
Forbs
0- 4 ....... 24.0 12.0 5.j 30 16 4. 7
Aooseris orandijlora (Nutt.) 4- 9 ....... 25.2 12.6 55 31 14 5.6
Greene 9 - 14 ....... 23.6 11.8 55 30 15 5.0
Agoseris·............... 1.0 14 - 19 ....... 24.8 12.4 56 26 18 4.8
Bellardia trixaoo (L.) All. 19 - 24. ...... 31.0 15.5 49 32 19 8.0
Bellardia .............. 0.7 2.2 24 - 27 .. .... 26.8 13.4 44 4:3 13 4. 3
Centaurea calcitrapa L:
Purple star thistle ...... 11.5
Conuolvulu,q arvPnsis L.
Bindweed ............. .4
Clayey soil ...
Brodium cicutarium L 'Her. -
Red-stem filaree ........ 44.7 35.5 S3.6 24.5 3.8 1.3 0- 4 ...... 50.8 25.4 19 33 48 19.2
Bschscholtzia cali/ornica 4- 7....... 49.7 24.8 17 23 60 19.8
Cham. 7- 10 ....... 48.4 24.2 17 31 52 19.6
California poppy ....... 1.5 10- 13 ....... 48.6 24.3 16 34 50 19.0
Lotus americanus (Nutt.) 13 - 16 ....... 48.8 24.4 20 31 49 19.0
Bisch. 16 - 19 ....... 48.6 24.3 18 32 50 18.6
Spanish clover ......... .3 19 - 23 ....... 49.1 24.6 20 32 48 18. i
Lupinus bicolor Lindl. 23 - 26 ....... 46.6 23.3 21 31 48 18.4
Lupine ................ 7.1 .5 23.3 26 27 47 21.1
Lupinus formosus Greene 26 - 30 ....... 46.6
30 - 34 ....... 42.1 21.1 28 35 37 19.5
Lupine ................ .5
34 - 38 ....... 32.8 16.4 40 2!! 31 11.3
Madia sp. Mol. 11.7 56 27 17 8.0
Tarweed .............. 3.7 12.0 6.9 8.5 1.2 13.3 38 - 42 ....... 23.4
42 - 46 ....... 21.2 10.6 61 32 7 4. i
Medicaoo hispida Gaertn. 46 - 51. ...... 21.2 10.6 65 30 5 5.2
Bur clover .............
Rumex pulcher L.
5.3 3.5 9.0 11.5 2.2 6.0
I
Fiddle dock ............ .2
Unidentified forbs .......... .7 1.1 .5 .7 1 Method 27a (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954).
- - - - - - ---- - - - - - - ---- 2 One-half of percent moisture at saturation is shown as estimated field
Vegetation contacts capacity.
per 100 pinsl ........ 133.1 121.8 196.8 143.5 l.'iO.O 18fi.O 3 The sand fraction (greater than 74 microns) was determined by sieving,
the silt (2 to 74 microns) and clay (less than 2 microns) fractions by hy-
drometer analyses.
Other 1 00
4 Lineal shrinkage = 100 { 1 - \Y ---=--,-------=,...._
Volume change+ 100
_---:-....,..-o-:-}
REFERENCES
·Branner,. J. C., Newson, J. F., and Arnold, Ralph, 1909,
1 Total of grasses and forbs. Description of the Santa Cruz quadrangle [California]:
U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 163.
Although the soil moisture retention capabilities U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954, Diagnosis and improve-
of the clayey soils exceeded those of the sandy soils, ment of saline and alkali soils: U.S. Dept. Agriculture,
more herbaceous vegetation grew on the sandy soils, Agr. Handb. no. 60, 160 p.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-187

77. CAUSES AND MECHANICS OF NEAR-SURFACE SUBSIDENCE IN WESTERN FRESNO COUNTY,

CALIFORNIA
By WILLIAM B. BULL, Sacramento, Calif.

Work done in cooperation with the California Department of Water Resources

Near-surface subsidence on certain alluvial fans plication of irrigation water allows the compaction
in western Fresno County, Calif., has destroyed or to increase suddenly to the normal amount of com-
damaged ditches, canals, roads, pipelines, electric paction for a given overburden load, causing surface
transmission towers, and buildings, and has made subsidence.
the irrigation of crops difficult. About 72 square
miles have subsided and about 37 additional square EFFECT O F OVERBURDEN LOAD
miles probably would subside if irrigated. Three to The amount of compaction due to wetting in-
5 feet of subsidence is common, and more than 10 · creases with an increase in overburden load, but
feet has occurred within small areas. most subsidence has been caused by compaction in
The subsidence results chiefly from the compaction the upper 200 feet of deposits. The surface of three
of deposits by an overburden load as the clay bond irrigated test plots rose slightly immediately after
supporting the voids is weakened by water percolat- the water was applied because the surface deposits
ing through the deposits for the first time. The swelled. When the water reached a depth of a few
amount of subsidence that occurs when water is feet, the increased overburden load caused a net
applied is dependent mainly on the overburden load, reduction in the volume of the deposits as the clay
natural moisture conditions, and the amount and became wetter and lost part of its strength.
type of clay. The effect of the overburden load on subsidence
The materials are deposited during the winters as during the first 42 months of operation of Inter-
mud-flows, water-laid sediments, and deposits inter- Agency test plot B (Inter-Agency Committee, 1958,
mediate between these two types. Some of the voids p. 61-67) is shown in figure 77.2. Bench marks were
commonly found in these alluvial-fan deposits are set within cased holes drilled beneath this test plot
openings between grains held in place by a dry clay at depths of 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, and 300 feet. The
bond, bubble cavities formed by air entrapped at amount of compaction within each depth interval
the time of deposition, interlaminar openings in
above 150 feet was determined from periodic level-
thinly laminated sediments, buried (but unfilled)
polygonal cracks, and voids left by entrapped vege-
tation. An unusually large number of bubble cavi-
ties is shown in the clay in figure 77.1.
The average annual rainfall on the fans is only
6 to 8 inches. Plants and air remove much of the
soil moisture during the hot, dry summers, reducing
the moisture condition of the deposits to the wilting
coefficient. Water from succeeding winter rains and
floods does not percolate below the root zone ; t here-
fore the deposits continue to be moisture deficient
after burial below the root zone.
Near-surface subsidence illustrates the signifi-
cance of water in the natural compaction of sedi-
ments. Most alluvial sediments are compacted in
the presence of excess water as th.- 0verburden load
increases. However, on the fans su.,ceptible to near-
surface subsidence, the deposits are moisture defi-
cient and only part of the compaction occurs as the
overburden load is gradually increased. Later ap- FIGURE 77.1.-Bubble cavities in clay.
 B-188 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

the deposits below 125 feet, and therefore less com-

paction due to artificial wetting.
The effect of the amount of clay on compaction
due to wetting is shown in figure 77.3. The consoli-
f-
dation tests were made on surface samples, there-
LIJ
LIJ
u..
fore a 50-foot over.iJurden load was simulated. The
variable of post-depositional environment was elimi-
nated, because the air-dry samples were collected a
~-------------------.--~~ ' ', few months after they were deposited. The variable
'' of textural features of the samples remains, but
' 'a.. these features are controlled partly by clay content.
'' Montmorillonite is the predominant clay mineral
(R. H. Meade, written communication).
. FIGURE 77.2.-Effect of overburden load on compaction due to This leaves the amount of clay as the most im-
wetting, Inter-Agency test plot B after 42 months of portant variable. The curve in figure 77.3 shows
f
operation. the amount of compaction that occurs when air-dry
samples are wetted under load. The sample con-
ing of these bench marks. Each point in figure 77:2 taining no clay did not compact when wetted. Sam-
represents the percent compaction within a 25-foot ples containing more than about 30 percent clay not
depth interval except the point at 125 feet which only had enough strength to resist compaction when
represents the 50-foot interval between 100 and 150
wetted but they showed a net swell under the simu- f
feet. To a depth of 100 feet, there is a nearly linear
increase in the percent compaction ·with increasing lated overburden load. The maximum compaction
depth. The reason for the decrease in the percent
compaction of the 100- to 150-foot depth interval is
discussed below.

STRENGTH OF CLAY

..
12~----~------~----~
EXPLANATION
The strength due to clay in a deposit is dependent
on the moisture content and on the type and amount
•
Water-laid sediment
of clay. These variables control the amount of com- zf--10~----~--~--~----~
paction due to wetting under a give~ overburden (.) LIJ
•
cr Mudflow deposit
load. LIJ
a..
The strength of clay varies considerably for all ~ 8~--+-~------~----~
moisture gradations between wet and dry. The ci z
•
Deposit intermediate between
natural moisture condition of the deposits susceptible f-i= mudflow and water-laid types
LIJ
to subsidence is about equivalent to the wilting co- ~ 6~~--~------~~--~
efficient, and subsidence is chiefly the· result of com- 0f-
paction caused by increasing the moisture content LIJ :::>
0
of these deposits to a condition of field capacity.
A good example of the importance of moisture
conditions is provided by the compaction record
shown in figure 77.2. Although the lithology does not
appear to change with depth there is a marked
change in the percent compaction in the zone be-
tween 100 and 150 feet. The amount of compaction
in this zone is only 7 percent, but the circle on .the
dashed (projected) line· indicates that the amount .
of compaction for that overburden load should have
been about 12 percent. Tests of cores showed a
sharp increase in natural moisture content below CLAY CONTENT, IN PERCENT
40 48 .
about 125 feet. The higher moisture content would FIGURE 77.3.-Effect of clay content on compaction due to
indicate an increase in the natural compaction of wetting under a simulated load of 50 feet of overburden.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-189
for the samples tested occurred when the clay con- swell. Both factors reduce the compaction progres-
tent was about 12 percent. If less than this amount sively, and for the samples tested, the net compac-
is present, the dry overburden load already will have tion decreased to zero at about 30 percent clay.
accomplished much of the compaction because there
is not enough .clay to preserve the larger voids. REFERENCE
As the amount of clay increases above about 12 Inter-Agency Committee on Land Subsidence in the San
percent, the resistance of the sample to compaction Joaquin Valley, ·1958, Progress report on land-subsidence
when wetted increases progressively with clay con- investigations in the San Joaquin Valley, Calif., through
tent. In addition, the montmorillonite clay minerals 1957: Multilithed, 160 p., 45 pls.

78. SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SANDSTONES IN THE FRANCISCAN AND RELATED UPPER MESOZOIC
FORMATIONS OF CALIFORNIA

By WILLIAM P. IRWIN, Menlo Park, Calif.

Work done in coope'ration with the California Division of Mines

The specific gravity of sandstone was investigated blocks of strata of the Sacramento Valley sequence
as an adjunct in distinguishing between the Fran- within areas underlain chiefly by the Franciscan
ciscan and related upper Mesozoic formations in the formation is difficult in many places because com-
Coast Ranges and Sacramento Valley of California pletely satisfactory criteria for distinguishing be-
(fig. 78.1). In the Sacramento Valley the formations tween sandstones of the Sacramento Valley sequence
are of the shelf and slope facies, and constitute an and of the 'Franciscan formation have not been
essentially conformable sequence of strata that determined.
range in age from Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous. The specific gravity of 1,030 specimens of sand-
For the purpose of this discussion the rocks of the stone of both the Fr.anciscan formation and the Sac-
Sacramento Valley sequence will be divided accord- ramento Valley sequence was measu'red, including
ing to age into three units: the Knoxville formation most of the specimens used by Bailey and Irwin
of Late Jurassic age, the Lower Cretaceous, and the (1959) for determination of K-feldspar content, and
Upper Cretaceous. In the Coast Ranges most of the others collected throughout the Sacramento Valley
rocks of upper Mesozoic age are assigned to the and the northern and southern Coast Ranges. Spe-
~I Franciscan formation, a eugeosynclinal assemblage cific gravity was measured on a direct-reading bal-
composed mostly of sandstone, but which includes ance, with the specimen immersed in water. The
a·pproximately 10 percent greenstone and chert. The average weight of the specimens is approximately
Franciscan also ranges in age from Late Jurassic to 300 grams. Most of the specimens are essentially
Late Cretaceous, and is more highly folded arid ·unweathered and impermeable, and for these the
faulted than the strata of the Sacramento Valley. measurements represent bulk specific gravity. How-
The thickest section of the Sacramento Valley se- ever, many of the sandstone units of the Upper Cre-
quence is about 35,000 feet, whereas the Franciscan taceous of the Sacramento Valley sequence are per-
formation probably is considerably thicker. meable, and as the surfaces of the specimens were
Although the Franciscan is the dominant upper not treated to prevent penetration by water, values
.. Mesozoic formation in the Coast Ranges, rocks of somewhat higher than bulk specific gravity were
the Sacramento Valley sequence also are present, · obtained.
many as relatively small blocks folded and faulted Cumulative frequency distribution curves based
into the Franciscan. Recognition of small str!]ctural on the specific gravity measurements are shown in

~·
B-190 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
•
124° 2.68 2.70 3.01
42°· 122°

1,-·

r--+---t---- Upper Cretaceous

1- 62 samples
z
w
(.)
0::
w o.-1~-...,..--f----Lower Cretaceous
0...
71 samples
z
>--
(.)
z
~50
Median
!----+----Knoxville formation
40 samples •.
aw
. lfl' 0::
u.
. :y: 0
. ·0. w Franciscan formation I
r
•• "')!J'. 1-
<X: 857 samples
...J
·. -y·. ::l
. ·->. ::::E

..~· ::l
(.)
---+----Coastal belt
... -z. . 128 samples
,..), .
.o
:·-
.•.

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 ~7 2.8 2.9 3.0

38~r-----------~~~~~-#~~~~~~------~
0

.... SPECIFIC GRAVITY

124°

EXPLANATION

D ..
Quaternary and Tertiary rocks

·. D
. · · · Marine sedimentary rocks
~
Franciscan formation
D
Undivided rocks
. ' Shelf and slope fames Euqeosynclinal facies of Coastal belt
LATE JURASSIC TO LATE CRETACEOUS

{w.
Granitic and pre-Cretaceous meta-
morphic rocks of the Klamath
. 36°- Mountains, N acimiento·San An-
dreas fault block, and Transverse
Ranges -
122°

0 100 MILES

FIGURE 78.l.-Map showing distribution of the Franciscan and related upper Mesozoic formations, with graph showing
cumulative frequency distribution curves of specific gravity of sandstones.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-191
figure 78.1. The curve for sandstone in the Fran- from a greater abundan~e of mafic volcanic frag-
ciscan formation is well separated from and on the ments (high specific gravity), a general lack of K-
high specific gravity side of the curves for the three feldspar (low specific gravity), and a high degree·
units of the Sacramento Valley sequence. The of compaction. The progres~ive decrease in specific
median specific gravity of the sandstone in the gravity with decrease in age of the units of the
Franciscan is 2.65. The marked increase in specific Sacramento Valley sequence probably is related to
gravity at the upper end of the Franciscan curve the marked increase in K-feldspar content with de-
reflects metamorphism of the sandstone that gen- creasing age, and to a progressively smaller amount
erally is not recognized in hand specimen. E. H. of compaction resulting from shallower depth of
Bailey of the Geological Survey studied the speci- burial.
mens that plot along this part of the curve and Specific gravities of 128 specimens of sandstone
states (oral communication, J artuary 1961) that from the coastal belt of undivided sandstone, shale,
most of the Franciscan sandstone with a specific and conglomerate are shown by a separate curve. A
gravity of 2.70, and all with a specific gravity of general lack of volcanic rocks, sparse paleontologic
2.71 or higher are metamorphosed; the metamor- data, and results of study of K-feldspar content
phism is chiefly of the plagioclase feldspar to form (Bailey and Irwin, 1959), suggest an affinity with
jadeite and lawsonite. About 22 percent of the the Sacramento Valley sequence. The cumulative
specimens of sandstone in the Franciscan have a frequency distribution curve for sandstone of the
specific gravity higher than 2.68, the highest ob- coastal belt also suggests this affinity, as it is close
served in rocks of the Sacramento Valley sequence. and generally parallel to the curves for the units of
The curves representing sandstone of the three the Sacramento Valley sequence.· Although gener-
units of the Sacramento Valley sequence are con- ally somewhat to the right of the curves for the
spicuously lower than the curve for the Franciscan units of the Sacramento Valley sequence, it is far
formation and are displaced progressively toward to the left of the curve for the sandstone of the
the low specific gravity side of the· graph with de- Franciscan. The generally higher specific gravity
creasing age, although at some places the curves indicated by the curve for the coastal belt, compared
intermingle. As previously stated, many values for to the curves for units of the Sacramento Valley
sandstone units of the Upper Cretaceous do not truly sequence, may reflect the presence of areas of un-
represent bulk specific gravity, and thus the· curve recognized sandstone of the Franciscan formation
for the Upper Cretaceous should be further to the within the coastal belt. This interpretation is sup-
left side of the graph than shown. Median values ported by the presence of a few specimens with
for t?e curves are 2.59 for the Knoxville formation, specific gravities above 2.68, which is higher than
2.57 for the Lower Cretaceous, and 2.55 for the
the specific gravity of any specimen collected from
Upper Cretaceous.
Reasons for the general differences in specific the Sacramento Valley sequence.
gravity of the sandstone of the several units are REFERENCE
not surely known. However, one might speculate
Bailey, ·E. H., and Irwin, W. P., 1959, K-feldspar content of
that the generally higher specific gravity of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous graywackes of northe·rn Coast
sandstone in the Franciscan relative to the sand- Ranges and Sacramento Valley, California: Am. Assoc.
.~. stone of the Sacramento Valley sequence results Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 43, no. 12, p. 2797-2809 .

....
B-192 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

79. SOME EXTREMES OF CLIMATE IN DEATH VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

By T. W. ROBINSON and CHARLES B. HUNT, Menlo Park, Calif., and Denver, Colo.

The hydrologic basin of Death Valley, Calif., in- salt pan, 280 feet below sea level, has maximum te:r:n-
cludes about 8,700 square miles, of which about 500 peratures as much as 3°F higher; the average maxi-
square miles is below sea leyel. The bottom of the mum for July was 122.5°F in 1959 and 120.4° in
basin, the salt pan, covers about 200 square miles 1960, while at the ranch the average maximum was
and is more than 200 feet below sea level. Eleva- 119.3°F and 118.1 °F. In July 1959, the highest tem-
tions in Death Valley range from 282 feet below sea perature recorded at the ranch was 124°F, but at
level near Badwater, the lowest point in the United ~adwater this temperature was exceeded on 11
States, to 11,045 feet at Telescope Peak some 15 days. Similarly in July 1960, 124 oF was exceeded
miles to the west. on only 1 day at the ranch but on 5 days at Badwater.
The climatic measurements made at the National Ground surface temperatures in excess of 160°F
Park Service Headquarters, 3 miles north of Fur- have been recorded in several parts of the valley.
nace Creek Ranch, for the period May 1958 to May The maximum recorded was 190°F in August 1958,
1959, are shown in figure 79.1. The conditions of and was measured on the surface of massive gypsum
low humidity, high summer temperatures, high at Tule Spring some 5 miles west of Badwater.
evaporation, and low rainfall, shown graphically in The average relative humidity for 2 years of rec-
the figure, typify the climate of Death Valley. ord at the National Park Service Headquarters, May
In the 48-year period,. 1912 to 1960, the U.S. 1, 1958 to May 1, 1960 was 17.2 perc.ent. The aver-
Weather Bureau at Furnace Creek Ranch, formerly age maximum was 23.3 percent and th_e average
Greenland Ranch, reco~ded the lowest average rain- minimum 11.7 percent. The highest recorded during
fall, 1.66 inches, of any official weather station in this 2-year period was 74 percent and the lowest was
the United States. The average rp.onthly rainfall 3 percent. The driest day was April 8, 1959 (see ...
ranges from a high of 0.2.9 inch in February to a fig. 79.1), when the minimum was 4 percent and
low of 0.0.2 inch in June. There have been periods· the maximum was 6 percent.
of more than a year in which less than 1 inch of Pan evaporation in. the hydrologic basin of Death
rain has fallen and, during 1929, no measurable Valley is the highest in the nation, exceeding 120
rainfall was recorded at this station. The station, in.ches a year in most of the basin. It is greatest in
168 feet below sea level, is located on the edge of the Death Valley proper. In the two 12-month periods
salt·pan. A frequency analysis of the precipitation of record, May 1, 1958 to May 1, 1960, for the
records shows an annual precipitation of less than standard Weather Bureau pan at the National Park
1 inch during 40 percent of the time, and 3 inches Service Headquarters, the evaporation. was 155.05
or less for 96 percent of the time. Rainfall has an~ 144.66 inches. So far as can be ascertained,
exceeded 4 inches only twice in 48 years. · this is the highest evaporation from a standard pan
Temperatures greater than 120°F are common ever recorded. in the United States. Monthly pan
during the summer months. The highest air tem- evaporation ranged from a high of 22.71 inches in
perature ever measured in the shade at an official July 1960 to a low of 2.72 inches in January
Weather Bureau station in the United States, 134°F, 1960. During 1958 and 1959 daily evaporation
was recorded on July 10, 1913, at Greenland Ranch, exceeded 1 inch once each summer, and in 1960
now Furnace Creek Ranch. This recording is be- three t~mes during the summer. The daily evapora-
lieved to have been e·xceeded only by 136°F reading tion in June and July for the 3 years averages about
that was observed at Azizia, Tripolitania in north- 0. 70 inch. The ratio of annual pan evaporation to ..,,
ern Africa on September 13, 1922, and which is rainfall-90 to l-is a measure of the aridity of
generally accepted as the highest air temperature Death Valley. At no other locality in the United
recorded under standard conditions (Hansen, 1960, States is the ratio known to be this great.
p. 442). July is the hottest month with a long-time Rainfall during late Pleistocene time was undoubt-
average maximum of 116°F. However, Furnace edly many times greater and evaporation much less
Creek Ranch does not appear to be the hottest place than that of the past 50 years. Remnants of bars
in the valley. Temperature records indicate that and shorelines indicate that during this time the
Badwater, about 15 miles south of the ranch on the precipitation in the basin was sufficient to maintain
 ....
~_; 4.-
' ;'-
_
• ~ ~ ,I ~ 4.. y

>
1-
91-
~z
::::lW

~g(.l"' ~
J:U

f\
0:::
LL.ow r:n
>a.. :::c:
•'\:>.....'---:''· ::JV'v ~'\ .... h~:C~~~.-J
t=z
. .r~.
<{- 0
. f'J.
....J
w , l_/:1'..
I . .. \ ·-
~
0::: ~
zl- "'0
DAILY RELATIVE HUMIDITY RANGE
.=i~ 120 >
o:::z "'0
::::>W tz:l
!-0:::
<l::I ~
0:::<{
wu..
r:n
a..
~(/)
ww
1-w
0:::
z
0:::(.!) ~
-W
<tO
:::c:
200 tz:l

1-
z
w
- 160
1448 183111 675 700
[, 1333 1220
~
tz:l
0
t"'4
0
~
~~ 120 1-1
>....J (")
o-
~~
0~ 80
>
z
z t:l
~
40 :::c:
~
t:l
Q I >,...J I 1 I V ' '-/ \JV V 1 - ' • ~
0
WIND MOVEMENT (Numbers denote total for month) t"'4
1.0 0
~
1-1

0.8 C)
z
0 r:n
(")
~(/)
o:::•W 0.6
1-1
tz:l
oi
a_U z
<tZ (")
>- tz:l
. w ~ 0.4
z sn
<{
a..
0.2 >
~
~
or 17 OR
..,,___ J -. .. , . . . -.-..-T~ J ""-'·.&.- .... ,,_,..., 1 .._,.,...,_,. ...,,,..., 1 oJoV- ! U' Y"""T•V"- ....-.-V\1 J .J.V,J"- I 13.79___j
1-1
(")
t"'4
0.4
EVAPORATION (Numbers denote total for month) tz:l
r:n
'(/)
....Jw
....JJ: I 0·:16 , 0.00 7"
~~ 0.2
z_
1-"
~
~
:;;(z
0:::_
0
,May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

FIGURE 79.1.-Climatic observations during the period of May 1958 to May 1959 as recorded by the weather station at National Park Service Headquarters on
Cow Creek in Death Valley, Calif.
to
I
-~
~
00
B-194 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

a lake in Death Valley some 600 feet deep in places, the thousands of visitors who annually visit the
more th~n 100 miles long and from 5 to 10 miles valley during these months.
wide.
In spite of the extremes just described, the cli- REFERENCE
mate of Death Valley is delightful from about mid- Hansen, Harry, editor, 1960, The World Almanac: New York,
September to about mid-May. This·is attested to by New York World-Telegram and The Sun, 896 p.

..
.

80. STRATIGRAPHY OF DESERT VARNISH

\oo·
By CHARLES B. HUNT, Denver, Colo.

Desert varnish, a natural dark stain of iron and stained with desert varnish. In general they are not
manganese oxides on rock surfaces, is useful in. the stained, whereas stone artifacts of the earlier, pre-
study of the stratigraphy of Recent deposits in the pottery occupations commonly are stained, and the
semiarid and arid west, for, in general, it permits earliest ones darkly so. These generalizations are
separating deposits and surfaces that are no older based on observations at many hundreds of archeo-
than about 2,000 years from earlier ones. logical sites; the numerous and well-known prehis-
As the name implies, desert varnish is best de- toric structures at Mesa Verde National Park are
veloped, or at least is most conspicuous, in desert examples. of pottery-age structures that are younger
regions, but the stain is by no means restricted to than the desert varnish staining the cliffs there (fig.
such areas. Similar stain, also consisting chiefly of 80.1). Also, in the Rocky Mountains, desert varnish
iron and manganese oxides, covers rock surfaces in characteristically is lacking on the most recent, his-
humid regions too. toric and protohistoric glacial deposits in cirques,
The stain occurs ·on every type of rock, although but is present on older ones (Moss, 1951, p. 877).
it is least common on carbonate rocks. The surfaces Finally, on the gravel fans throughout the south-
stained may be the top or sides of stones lying about west, the elevated and older surfaces are stained
the surface; they may be vertical or overhanging with varnish, whereas the lowest surfaces, the
cliffs or surfaces splashed by rivers or wetted by youngest ones, are not. The archeological record and
seeps. The stained surfaces may be exposed to the supporting physical record are compelling that
direct sunlight or surfaces never reached by the little varnish has been deposited in the Western
sun, such as joint planes. States during the last 2,000 years.
Engle and Sharp (1958), in an important contri- The same appears to be true in arid regions in
bution to the chemistry of desert varnish, studied other parts of the world. Blackwelder (1948) cites
trace elements occurring with the iron and man- evidence from Egypt indicating practically no de-
ganese stain and concluded that (a) varnish on position of desert varnish in 2,000 years, slight de-
stones seated in soil or colluvium is derived largely position in 5,000 years, and dark stain on older
from that material, (b) varnish on large bedrock stonework.
surfaces comes from weathered parts of the rock, There are exceptional localities. Iron and man-
and (c) airborne materials are probably a minor ganese oxides are being deposited at many seeps at
contributor. the present time, but these clearly are isolated locali-
There is abundant archeological evidence through- ties where conditions, still not understood, have been
out the Western States indicating that very little var- unusual and optimum for its deposition. Engle and
nish has been deposited during the last 2,000 years. Sharp (1958, p. 515-516) overemphasize such a
Only locally are stone artifacts and structures of locality-one where they infer varnish has been de-
the pottery and bow-and-arrow occupations-the oc- posited in 25 years. But the total record indicates
cupations characteristic of the last. 2,000 years- clearly that such deposition is highly localized and
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-195
The origin of desert varnish still is uncertain.
Water obviously is needed to transport the metals
to the surfaces where they are deposited, and iron
and manganese are being deposited at the present
time at many wet places in the West and in. the more
humid parts or the country. Very little or no var-
nish is being deposited on surfaces that are not
frequently wet. This restricted occurrence of newly
deposited iron and manganese oxides suggests that
the moisture requirements may be considerable. De-
position may be chiefly by physical-chemical proc-
esses, but I suspect that micro-organisms play a
major role, as they are known to do in hastening
the oxidation of iron compounds in mine waters.
'#· (See bibliography in Temple and Koehler, 1954).
Whatever the process of origin, the evidence about
the ag.e of desert varnish and the evident need for
moisture to produce the deposits leads to the con-
clusion that the principal deposits are the product of
pluvial periods. The last such pluvial time in the
Western States was just prior to the Christian era.
The archeological evidence indicates substantial de-
position of desert varnish at that time and very little
·since then.

REFERENCES
FIGURE 80.1.-Pottery-age cliff house dwellings and other Blackwelder, Eliot, 1948, Historical significance of desert
structures (ca. 500 to 1300 A.D.) at Mesa Verde and else- lacquer [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 59, p. 1367.
where in the Southwest rarely are stained with desert Engle, C. G., and Sharp, R. P., 1958, Chemical data on desert
varnish but generally are built against cliffs that are varnish: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, p. 487-518.
stained, and the masonry overlaps the stained surfaces. Moss, J. H., 1951, Late glacial advances in the southern Wind
River Mountains, Wyoming: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 249, p.
865-883.
exceptional. Were it otherwise, buildings and ·other
Temple, K. L., and Koehler, W. A., 1954, Drainage from
surfaces, artificial and natural, that are as old as bituminous coal mines: West Virginia Univ. Bull. Eng.
25 years should generally be darkly stained. Exp. Sta., Research Bull. 25, 35 p .

.,

81. USE OF ARCHEOLOGY IN RECENT STRATIGRAPHY

By CHARLES B. HUNT and ALICE P. HUNT, Denver, Colo.

The changes· in the tools of the prehistoric occu- pationsin the United States were in late Pleistocep.e
pants of the United States provide a stratigraphic time, but these are not sufficiently numerous nor
~-
record that helps distinguish between older and well enough known to be helpful geologically. In
younger Recent deposits.· The earliest known occu- this country late Pleistocene deposits are best iden-
B-196 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

tified by their content of Pleistocene species of ele- Geologic

phants, cam~ls, horses, and other mammals (Hunt, age

1953).
Prehistoric occupations accompanied by a modern
vertebrate fauna, the basis for Lyell's original defi-
nition of the Recent (Lyell, 1873; Forbes, 1846),
can be divided into two major stages. The late stage
roughly coincides with the Christian era, that is,
the past 2,000 years, and it is characterized over
much of the United States by pottery and the bow
and arrow. Earlier peoples depended on basketry
and the atlatl or spear.
The changes in tools did not occur simultaneously
over the whole of the United States. In parts of
central United States, for example, pottery was
-
c:
Cll
u
Cll
(J)
Ill
0
.stiO
a:: UJ
a.
used before 1 A.D., whereas along much of the ~ ·E
Pacific Coast pottery never was made. Similarly, the 3: ~
0 «;
Indians of Florida continued to use the throwing Ill
...:,
llO
"C
stick (atlatl) almost to historic time. Nevertheless, a:: c:
a. ro
INCHES llO
the early stages of the Recent are prepottery and 2
0
z:;:;
c:
<( c:
prebow-and-arrow, and are characterized by the >-
:1
.c:
a:: .c:
heavy projectile points suitable for spears or the LLJ
1- 3:
~

1--c
atlatl. 0
a., -ro
Cll

Archeologists distinguish many stages within the ~ ·g

a. Ill
arrowpoint and atlatl stages, the two major ones, Ill
.e
0
but for geological purposes a two-fold division of
each is sufficient. Figure 81.1 illustrates a strati-
graphic sequence of projectile points from the Basin
and Range province, Colorado Plateau, and High
Plains. The diagram, of necessity oversimplified, is
Ill
adapted from other published chronologies, especially 0
(J)
UJ .s
one by Krieger (1950). Some projectile-point types Cll
a. tiO
c:
c: ~ ~
continued to be made from one stage into another, Cll
u

although in reduced numbers. Further, one must

consider the associated traits and not depend on a
.s
Ill
·a;
~
~
z
<(
:E
>-
"i
"C
:1
.c:
;; .
....J
ro a:: ~
single one. In paleontology it is the faunal assem- ....J <(
·u
ro

blage rather than the individual fossil that is im- 'f 0

Ill
Ill
~
portant; in archeology it is the collection of asso-
ciated traits rather than the individual artifact that
is important. For example, there is no difficulty in FIGURE 81.1.-Stratigraphy of some projectile point types of
the Basin and Range province, Colorado Plateau, and
distinguishing a modern kitchen from a colonial one · High Plains.
despite the fact that the modern kitchen may con-
tain some colonial antiques.
In the western States the pottery and bow-and- middle row of figure 81.1. These are larger and
heavier than the arrow points, which are later.
arrow occupations commonly are on top of alluvial
This Recent alluvium may overlap old sand dunes
flood plains, and they may occur' in dunes that have
that are weathered reddish and stabilized. The
formed on top of the alluvium. Such dunes clearly projectile points most common in these dunes are
are the product of the past 2,000 years, and the like some indicated in figure 81.1 as early Recent.
alluvium is earlier. The alluvial, colluvial, or other deposits overlapped
Where the underlying alluvium contains a modern· by the stabilized dunes generally are of Pleistocene
fauna and is therefore Rece1,1t, the projectile points age and can be so identified by their paleontological
in the alluvium are likely to ·be those shown in the remains.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-197
One of the limitations of the archeological record REFERENCES
is that sites with sufficient tools to be useful for Hunt, C. B., 1953, Pleistocene-Recent boundary in the Rocky
geologic stratigraphy and geologic mapping are Mountain region: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 996-A, p. 1-25.
mostly at the surface, and these provide only a Lyell, Charles, 1873, Geologic evidences of the antiquity of
man: 4th ed. London, p. 3-4.
limital date for the underlying deposit. Only rarely Forbes, Edward, 1846, On the connexion between the distribu-
are diagnostic artifacts contained within a deposit tion of the existing fauna and flora .of the British Isles
over sufficient extent or in sufficient numbers to be and the geologic changes which have affected their area,
exposed in a cross-section cut and thus useful in especially during the epoch of the northern drift: Geol.
geologic mapping. Nevertheless, the sites, especially Survey of England and Wales, Mem., v. 1, pt. III, P·. 402-
403.
the younger ones, are sufficiently numerous to be of Krieger, A. D., 1950, A suggested general sequence in North
great assistance in many areas for distinguishing American projectile points: Utah Univ. Anthropological
the different stages of Recent deposits. Papers, no. 11, p. 117-124.

82. EVIDENCE OF STRIKE-SLIP MOVEMENT ON NORTHWEST-TRENDING FAULTS IN MOJAVE DESERT,

CALIFORNIA

By T. W~ DIBBLEE, tTR., Menlo Park, Calif.

The western Mojave Desert region is transected parently displaced several miles northwestward.
by many prominent northwest-trending high-angle Vertical displacements on this fault are reversed at
faults, as shown on figure 82.1. These are nearly several places on its course and are small.
parallel to the San Andreas fault and terminate On the Lockhart fault (fig. 82.1 D) northeast of
south of the Garlock fault, and they cut Quaternary Boron, vertical displacements are small and alter-
sediments and basalt; many have inconsistent or nating. On the northeast block undrained depres-
even alternating vertical displacements. Movements sions formed in Quaternary alluvium along several
on these faults have been interpreted to be mainly north-trending branch faults (Dibblee, 1959) sug-
dip-slip (Hewett, 1954, p. 17). However, geologic gest that these br.anch faults may be 1n part tension
mapping of this region during the past few years fractures resulting from internal stresses set up by
reveals that structural and physiographic features right-lateral drag movement of the block.
adjacent to some of these faults indicate or suggest
movements that are predominantly right lateral, as
on the San Andreas fault, but on a smaller scale.
In the western part of this region, southwest of N
Mojave, two northwest-trending faults (fig. 82.1 A)
show conclusive evidence of :right-lateral disphice-
ment but no discernible vertical displacement. Ver-
tical east-trending pre-Tertiary rock units transected
r
by these two faults are offset as much as 1,500 feet,
and several southward-draining stream-channels
that dissect the overlying Quaternary fan gravel
are deflected westward as they cross the faults.
Farther east, in the central part of the region,
a northwest-trending fault (fig. 82. 1 B) transecting
an extensive exposure of Mesozoic granitic rock
south of Boron offsets several hundred feet right Gabriel
Victorville0
Mountains
laterally a network of vertical dikes of pegmatite
0 10 · 20 MILES
and aplite (Dibblee, 1961). 117°
Still farther east, meta volcanic rocks that are
FIGURE 82.1.-Faults in the western Mojave Desert region
exposed on the southwestern side of the Helendale (between San .A,ndreas and Garlock faults). Position of
fault (fig. 82.1 C), notheast of Vi.ctorville, are ap- faults referred to in text is indicated by letters.
 B-198 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Qa

4.·

~····
Fault. showing lateral displacement
Dotted U'here ronrealed

---t-----
Axis of Barstow syncline
.
Dotted ll'here <'oncealed
-,--
40
\ .. ·-. ·-·- ···-t-.... ·-. ·- ...,
0 2 MILES •
Strike and dip of beds

FIGURE 82.2.-Map of the Mud Hills near Barstow. Qa, alluvial sediments, Quaternary; Ts, sedimentary rocks, Miocene; Tp,
mainly pyroclastic rocks, Miocene(?); gr, granitic rocks, Mesozoic.

Southeast and east of Randsburg, structural fea- In the Mud Hills, 8 to 12 miles north of Barstow
tures in the Tertiary and Quaternary sedimentary and a few miles southeast of the Quaternary basalt
and volcanic rocks strongly suggest right-lateral flow under which the Blackwater fault disappears,
drag .movement and displacement along the Harper ·granitic rocks are overlain by some 6,000 feet. of
and Blackwater faults (Hewett, 1954, pl. 1). The stratified rocks of Miocene age that are compressed
Harper fault (fig. 82.1 E) is a zone of several minor into a symmetrical syncline with an axis trending
parallel faults along which Tertiary rocks are com- nearly east. This axis and some contacts between
. pressed into folds with axes trending east as com- rock units are offset right laterally by several north-
pared to the northwesternly trend of the faults, and west-trending faults (fig. 82.1 G) that diagonally
the axes of several folds are offset right laterally transect the folded seq;uence as shown on figure 82.2.
along several of the faults of this zone. The Black- Nearly horizontal grooves can be seen on several of
water fault (fig. 82.1 F), a few miles northeast, also the fault planes when~ well exposed. On the south-
offsets contacts of several rock units right laterally. west block of a fault north of the Mud Hills, aplite
Southeastward, both these faults pass into and ap- dikes are bent parallel to the fault where they ap-
parently die out under a thin but extensive cover proach it (fig. 82.2).
of Quarternary basalt; along the extensions of the A northeast-dipping fault (fig. 82.1 H) near Bar-
fault traces this otherwise undeformed flow is stow ( Dibblee, 1960) has generally been regarded
buckled into several arches whose axes trend south of as a thrust fault (Waterman thrust of Bowen, 1954,
east, indicating right-lateral drag movement. Ver- p. 104-105, pl. 1) with vertical uplift on the north-
tical displacements on these faults are small and eastern block. Recent mapping reveals that it dis-
inconsistent. places a small granitic intrusion right laterally a
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-199
few hundred feet. The northeast-trending foliation In marked contrast, most of the great normal faults
of the gneiss of this area bends northwesterly, of the region north of the Garlock fault trend north,
parallel to the fault along part of its course. sharply bound alluviated valleys and mountain
Another northwest-trending fault (fig. 82.1 /) ranges, have imposing fault-line scarps, commonly
southwest of Barstow (Dibblee, 1960), displaces curve abruptly or jog, and dip toward the sunken
right laterally the axis ·of at least one large east- valley blocks.
trending fold in Quaternary alluvial sediments and Presumably, the strike-slip movement of the north-
terminates several drag folds east of the fault. west-trending faults are related to movement along
Evidence of right-lateral displacement on several the San Andreas fault, but the movements are of
other northwest-trending faults in the western Mo- much smaller magnitude.
jave Desert region is lacking, but their straight
traces suggest all are high-angle or vertical faults. REFERENCES
None shows evidence of left-lateral movement. Bowen, 0. E., Jr., 1954, Geology and mineral deposits of the
At a few places where some of the northwest- Barstow quadrangle, San Bernardino County, Calif.:
trending faults are exposed, the fault planes are gen- California Div. Mines Bull. 164, p. 1-185.
erally vertical or dip steeply. Steep dips are sug- Dibblee, T. W., Jr., 1959, Geologic map of the Boron quad-
gested, also, by the generally straight traces of all rangle, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field
Studies Map MF-204.
the faults. They generally transect hilly terrain or
- - 1960, Geologic map of the Barstow quadrangle, San
alluviated valleys. Gravity data (Mabey, 1960) in- Bernardino County, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Min-
dicate that, with a few local exceptions, the faults eral Inv. Field Studies Map MF-233.
do not bound the deep alluvial basins. Some form - - 1961, Geology of the Rogers Lake and Kramer
only low scarps, and none lies at the foot of high quadrangles, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1089-B.
steep mountain fronts. Strike-slip displacements Hewett, D. F., 1954, A fault map of the Mojave Desert region,
[Pt.] 2, Chap. 4 of Jahns, R. H., ed., Geology of southern
probably exceed vertical displacements along some
Cailfornia: California Div. Mines Bull. 170, p. 15-18.
of the faults; some show little or no geologic or Mabey, D. R., 1960, Gravity survey of the western Mojave
physiographic evidence of vertical displacement, yet Desert, California: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 316-D,
make conspicuous lineations on aerial photographs. p. 51-72.

83. ZONING OF SALINE MINERALS AT DEEP SPRING LAKE, CALIFORNIA

By BLAIR F. JONES, Washington, D. C.

The Deep Spring Valley is a relatively small in- potash salts. The playa south and immediately west
termontane basin in northern Inyo County~ Calif. of the levee is covered by a thinner saline crust,
Drainage is wholly internal and the area possesses which overlies dense mois't gray-green or brown
many features in common with the larger lacustrine mud. The western one-third of the area consists of
closed basins of the region. At the southern end of clay, grading to silt and sand toward the playa mar-
the valley is a small playa known as Deep Spring gins; much of this area is marked by very shailow
.• Lake (fig. 83.1). The playa is nearly equidimensional alluvial channels and is covered by efflorescent salt
and covers an area of approximately 5 square miles; crust.
The northeastern third of this area has a porous The distribution of sali~e minerals in the Deep
multilayered saline crust up to 16 inches thick and Spring Lake deposits is largely dependent on the
is underlain for the most part by fluid organic black hydrography of tlle area. About two-thirds of the
mud. This area is outlined by a low levee built up area enclosed by the levee contains a perennial body
in connection with a commercial attempt to obtain of dense highly colored brine, which is exposed in a.
B-200 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

"Bog mound" springs

EXPLANATION
Cia Calcite-aragonite
D Dolomite
G Gaylussite
T Thenardite
8 Burkeite

0 1 MILE

FIGURE 83.1.-Sketch map of Deep Spring Lake, .lnyo County, Calif., showing mineral zoning.

few stagnant pools in the driest seasons. Normally, The saline minerals and the general type of de-
a standing body of saline water a few inches deep posit in which they occur are listed below in ap-
·occupies a substantial part of the leveed area. In proximate order of abundance:
wetter seasonal cycles, the lake water extends be- Mineral Occurrence
yond the levee. Most of the coherent saline crusts Dolomite, CaMg(COa):l ______________ Mud
have been;. precipitated"' by· evaporatiqn of lake Calcite, aragonite, CaCOa __________ Mud
waters. ' Thenardite, N a:lS04 ____________________ Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
The waters of Deep Spring Lake are derived from :f!'alite, NaCl ::_-_____________________________ Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
(a) a serie.s of "bog mound" springs on the north Gaylussite, Na:lCa(COak5H20 .. Mud
side of the lake, (b) the Buckhorn springs (which Burkeite, Na.. (S04):lCOa ___________._Mud, saline crust, efflorescence
rise along a prominent fault zone on the east side Aphthitalite, NaaK(SO,h _________ Saline crust, efflorescence
Trona, N a:1H ( C0ah·2H:l0 __________ Saline crust, efflorescence
of the lake), (c) direct precipitation Qn the lake
Pirssonite, N a2Ca (CO a) 2·2H20 .. Efflorescence
area, (d) seepage through the lake muds ·from below, Nahcol,ite, NaHCO ____________________ Mud
and (e) overland flow. The last two sources are Thermonatrit~, Na2COa•H:lO ____ Efflorescence
probably minor as compared to the others. Normally Glauberite, Na:lCa(S04h __________ Saline crust, efflorescence
the Bu-ckhorn springs contribute· by far the greatest Sylvite, KCl ___________________________·_____ Saline crust, efflorescence
amount of inflow to the lake at all times of the year. Bloedite, Na:lMg(S04):l ----"---------Saline crust
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-201
Detrital minerals, predominantly quartz and containing mostly dolomite from those containing
"illite" (as defined by Grim, 1953, p. 35) are also mostly calcium carbonate. This boundary probably
present in the muds. is closely dependent on the microrelief of the playa
Hunt (1960) has delineated mappable.zones in the surface, and lies near the highest shoreline achieved
salt pan at Death Valley based on dominant anion by the ephemeral lake during an average climatic
composition and related to the sequence of precipi- cycle. Precipitation of dolomite directly from solu-
tates formed on evaporation of an average brine. tion is suggested by the distribution. of dolomite:
To provide greater detail and correlation with water muds within areas of relatively frequent flooding
composition, the zoning of the deposits at Deep b~ lake waters contain the highest percentage of
Spring Lake has been worked out on the basis of dolomite; and near the playa, dolomite ooze coats the
saline mineralogy rather than chemical composition. bottoms of all surface inflow channels from springs.
This zoning is of three types: relatively regular Near the central part of the playa in an area of
lateral zoning of precipitate minerals in the lacus- broad flats gaylussite occurs as clear euhedral flat-
trine deposits over the entire playa area (fig. 83.1); tened wedge-shaped crystals disseminated in a car-
local vertical zoning within distinct layers of saline bonate-clay matrix that is mostly dolomite, but that
minerals; and highly irregular and often localized also contains calcite. and laminae of white aragonite.
zoning of saline mineral assemblages in efflorescent The gaylussite crystals are fairly uniform in size,
crusts. The first type is the only one that can be averaging 1 or 2 mm in maximum dimension, and
mapped. are present only in permanently wet mud. They are
With the ex.ception of calcite and dolomite, zonal oriented with long axes approximately. parallel to
boundaries are drawn along the outer limit of cer- traces of stratification and seem to interrupt such
tain key precipitate minerals on the playa. Calcite- traces. This suggests that the gaylussite formed by
aragonite and dolomite zones are based on the rela- reaction of calcite with sodium-rich interstitial solu-
tive amounts of these minerals. The sequence of tions. The distribution of the crystals within the
key minerals from playa margin to center is calcite zone is quite variable; in places they make up nearly
and (or) aragonite, dolomite, gaylussite, thenardite, 35 percent of the total, whereas a short distance away
burkeite. Except for aragonite and gaylussite, all the they may be totally absent.
key minerals persist from the outer limits of their The playa area immediately west and south of the
occurr~nce to the center of Deep Spring Lake. No levee consists of a nearly monomineralic crust of
aragonite could be positively identified in deposits thenardite overlying dolomitic mud. Enclosed in the
containing thenardite. Gaylussite crystals persist mud are crystals of thenardite. The proportion of
only into the outer reaches of the thenardite zone. crystals decreases rapidly with depth. Textures
No zone based on halite can be established, inas- suggest that the very fine grained dolomite-clay
much as halite crystallizes from evaporating waters aggregate has been forced aside by the growth of
over a wide area. Other saline minerals occur ir- the thenardite crystals.
regularly, or in response to conditions other than Thenardite also is the major constituent of the
fluctuating lake levels alone. saline crusts that cover nearly the whole eastern side
Calcite an·d (or) aragonite strongly dominate over of the playa .. The upper surface of these layers is
dolomite only on the playa's far western side. Typi- often covered with a network of skeletal powdery
cally the surficial sediments of these areas contain mirabilite (Na:!S0 4 ·10H:!O) crystals altered to then-
a high percentage of detrital material. Most of the ardite by dehydration, which indicates solution and
carbonate is present as an extremely fine grained reprecipitation of sulfate during fluctuation in lake
aggregate. . levels.
Dolomite is the dominant precipitat~,· mineral of Inside the area enclosed by the levee, crustal lay-
A.
the muds throughout most of the playa. Such muds ers of thenardite overlying brow~· and green dolo-
usually are extremely fine grained, smooth and even mitic muds grade abruptly· into layers of brilliant
textured, plastic, and normally gray-green except white crust. This, cru.st becomes thicker a·~d the
'

near the top where they are oxided and are light mud underneath ·becomes darker and more fluid in
brown. The dolomite-clay aggregate is commonly the area underlain by perennial .~rine. In the central
coa~ed with ~ydrous iron oxide. It is very difficult part of the leveed area, the average total thickness
to draw a precise zonal boundary separating areas of saline layers exceeds one foot. ·
B-202 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Where the saline crusts exceed 2 or 3 inches in REFERENCES

thickness, burkeite becomes a persistent component Grim, R. E., 1960, Clay mineralogy: New York, McGraw :am
of the upper crustal layers. Thus burkeite may be Book Co., 304 p.
Hunt, C. B., 1960, The Death Valley Salt Pan, a study of
considered the characteristic mineral of the central evaporite in Short papers in the geological sciences: U.S.
zone. . Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B; p. B456-B457.

84. EFFECTS OF RAINFALL AND GEOLOGY ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WATER IN COASTAL
STREAMS OF CALIFORNIA

By J. H. FETH, Menlo Park, Calif.

Water flowing into the Pacific Ocean from streams sist of both ground water and rain water and thus
originating along the California coast shows a va- show the lower concentration of dissolved solids.
riation between summer and winter in the concen- Because of the dilution, it is preferable to compare
tration of dissolved solids, and between north and samples on the basis of percentage reacting values
south in the composition of dissolved solids. The instead of concentration in parts per million. Com-
summer-winter variation has been examined on the parison of mean values calculated for 13 sampling
west slope of the San Francisco Peninsula, and the points indicated the following changes in percentage
north-south variation has been examined in streams reacting values:
north and south of the San. Francisco Peninsula. Change, in percent, from
summer (dry season) to
winter (rainy season)
SAN FRANCISCO PENINSULA Constituent (Mean of 19 pairs of samples)

During the summer of 1957 and again during the Calcium ---·---------------------------------------------------------- +1.0
Magnesium ____________________ ··--------------------------------- +1.8
following winter samples of water were taken from Sodium plus potassium ___________________________________ _ -2.8
13 sites along 10 small streams originating on the Bicarbonate ------------------------------------------------------ -6.0
west slope of the San Francisco Peninsula. These Chloride ---------------·---------------------------------------------- -1.5
streams head at distances ranging from 5 to 15 miles Sulfate ---------------------------------------------------------------- +7.5.
from the coast in an area about 35 miles long. A Nitrate, a minor constituent of stream water not
few of the drainage basins remain in virtually a included in the table above, shows both a relative
wild state; in most of the others human use, other and an absolute increase in concentration in the
than farming, is slight. In areas where farming is winter samples. This increase may be attributed to
pract.iced irrigation is minimal, characteristically by the decay of plant material during the fall and the t
sprinklers rather than by flooding or by ditch, hence washing of the nitrogenous byproducts into the
flow returning to the streams is probably negligible. streams by the heavy winter rains.
Natural influences thus dominate the chemical rela- Inasmuch as the winter rains originate over the
tions found. ocean, it was expected that winter stream samples
The pairs of samples representing, respectively, would contain appreciably larger amounts of wind-
late summer and early winter show persistent dif- blown salts derived from the ocean than the summer
ferences. Without exception the summer samples samples. It was found, however, that in terms of
contain almost twice the concentration of dissolved mean percentage composition, sodium and chloride
solids as the winter samples. The summer samples, both decrease in winter. Comparison of percentage
taken at a time of minimal flow, probably consist contents of chloride and of sulfate for· individual
almost entirely of ground water discharge because samples is given in figure 84.1. This graph shows
summer rains are almost unknown in this area. The that in six streams (8 pairs of samples) the chloride
samples taken during the winter rainy season con- percentage decreased and sulfate percentage in-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-203

PERCENT REACTING VALUES,

•
Streams north of San Francisco
IN ANIONS 0
10 20 30 40 Streams south of San Francisco
s 0 X
Molino Creek at road to Swanton
w 0~

Big Creek, 0.25 miles north s (~

of Swanton
w 0 ><

s 0
Little Creek at bridge near Swanton
w X )

Mill Creek, 0.25 miles southeast s 0 X

of Seaside School
w (~

s 0 X
Pescadero Creek at Pescadero
w X p

Pescadero Creek, 4 miles east s ex

of Pescadero w X 0

San Gregorio Creek, 2 miles s it' 0

south of La Honda w )o p

Nameless Creek above Tunitas s () X

Creek w X <D

Tunitas Creek above Nameless s 0 X

Creek
w ox PERCENTAGE REACTING VALUES
FIGURE 84.2.-Diagram showing differences in general chem-
Tunitas Creek, 0.5 miles above s 0 X ical composition of water in coas~l streams north and
mouth south of San Francisco.
w X (~

creased in the winter samples. In four streams ( 5

Purissima Creek, 2.5 miles above s X c pairs of samples) both sulfate and chloride per-
mouth
w )o (~
centages increased in winter. In no sample did
chloride increase and sulfate decrease. When con-
sideration is given to the fact that in seawate.r
s ox chloride is a little more than 7 times as abundant
Purissima Creek near mouth
w P< 0 as sulfate (Clarke, 1924, p. 127), it seems clear
that oceanic salts are of less influence than other
s >C factors in determining the chemical composition of
Scott Creek at Seaside School
w xo waters in the 10 streams.

CALIFORNIA COAST NORTH AND SOUTH OF THE

FIGURE 84.1.-Graph showing percentage reacting values of . SAN FRANCISCO PENINSULA
chloride (X) and of sulfate (0) in summer (S) and
winter (W) samples from 10 streams on the San Fran- The general chemical composition of water in 44 ·
cisco Peninsula, Calif. streams north of San Francisco and in 88 streams
B-204 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

south of San Francisco is shown in figure 84.2. All sedimentary rocks of diverse types and geologic age,
these streams discharge into the Pacific Ocean, all many of which are weakly consolidated and contain
rise within 125 miles of the ·coast and most of them readily soluble minerals. The northern coast also
rise within 25 to 50 miles. receives relatively large amounts of precipitation as
The solid circles, representing streams of the . compared to the southern coast (Dale, 1959).
northern coast, indicate by their location and tight The streams along the northern coast are rela-
grouping the predominance of calcium magnesium tively high in bicarbonate, in part (at least) because
bicarbonate waters. The open circles, representing of a relative abundance of carbon dioxide in the air
streams of the southern coast, indicate by their and soil. These streams are probably relatively low
sporadic distribution a wide variation of water types in chloride and sulfate because these substances are
and the scatter of points toward the top of the tied up in complex compounds in the igneous and
diagram reflects the predominance of sulfate and metamorphic· terrane and are not readily dissolved.
chloride among the anions and of calcium and mag- Amounts that are available for solution are removed
nesium among the cations. These differences reflect immediately and continuously by the heavier rainfall.
major differences in the geologic environment and The streams along the southern coast contain ·
in the amount of rainfall. As previously determined relatively larger quantities of sulfate, chloride, cal-
for streams on the San Francisco Peninsula, wind- cium and magnesium derived from the loosely con-
solidated sedimentary rocks.
blown salts derived, from the ocean are not present
in significant quantities in the streams along the REFERENCES
northern and southern coasts. As shown by the
Clarke, F. W., 1924, Data of geochemistry: U.S. Geol. Survey
Geologic Map of California (Jenkins, 1951) much of Bull. 770, 841 p.
the area along the northern coast is underlain by Dale, R. F., 1959, Climate of California, in Climatography of
igneous rocks and by low-rank metamorphic rocks the United States No. 60-4: U.S. Weather Bureau, 37 p.
Jenkins, 0. P., 1951, Outline geologic map of California show-
of the Franciscan formation. The southern coast, ing oil and gas fields and drilled areas: San Francisco,
on the other hand, is underlain predominantly by California Div. Mines.

85. GROUND WATER FROM COASTAL DUNE AND BEACH SANDS

By E. R. HAMPTON, Portland, Oreg.

The coastal plain along the youthful coast of lations to some as much as 20 miles in length and 4
Oregon is narrow or entirely lacking (Brown and miles in maximum width. The three largest areas,
Newcomb, 1956; Hampton, 1960). The harder rocks (fig. 85.1 A), are the Clatsop dunelands near the
of the cliffed headlands extend a few miles out to mouth of the Columbia River, the Florence dune-
sea, and the interheadland bays are relatively narrow lands near the town of Florence, and the Coos Bay
. low plains underlain by windblown sand. Onshore dunelands near Coos Bay. Smaller, but important,
winds prev_ail from the northwest in summer and sand areas occur at Manzanita, Newport, Sand Lake,
:·{rom the southwest in winter; consequently, the Bandon, and· Langlois:
longshore currents can feed sand to the interhead- These windblown sands lie on the westward
land beaches from either direction, and the baymouth sloping bedrock surface, as shown by figures 85.1 B
bars and the beaches are tied to headlands at either and C. The thickness of the sand ranges from zero
or both ends. The bedrock consists· alm.ost entirely at the inland edges to a maximum of about 200 feet.
of poorly permeable sedimentary, volcanic-sedimen- The uppermost 100 feet of the sand consists largely
tary, and volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. of evenly sized, subangular to rounded grains of
The areas of windblown sand in the interheadland quartz. Samples from the top 20 feet of sand of
bays range in. size from small pocketlike accumu- the Coos Bay dunelands deposit contain 78 percent
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEO.LOGIC AND HYDROLOGJC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-205

0 R E G 0 N

Bandon
Langlois
0 40 MILES
~

E
200'

100'

100' _._--------------------------~-..J...100'

0 5280 FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 10

w E
100' 100'

/
/
Sand Sand -""'/
/"
_..,.....,.---/
100' ----- ~ 100'

--- --- ---

--- Bedrock

---- ---
0 3000 FEET

VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X 20

c
FIGURE 85.1.-Map of Oregon, and cross section's of sand deposits. A, map of Oregon showing location of principal coastal
dune and beach sands; B, cross section of sand deposit north of Florence showing its surface, saturated zone, and part of
the bedrock base; C, cross section of the sand deposit north of Coos Bay showing its surface, saturated zone, and bedrock
base.
B-206 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

medium-grained sand and 19 percent fine-grained lenses. However, at the few places where wells have
sand. The sand of the top 20 feet of the Florence completely penetrated the sand, the entire body of
dunelands deposit is similar but finer, containing ground water is fresh. Apparently, infiltration from
from 50 to 80 percent fine-grained sand and 20 to precipitation is able to move the water seaward
·50 percent meqium-grained sand. through the sand at a rate sufficient to keep out the
· Some sand beds are silty and clayey, and in places sea water. As a result, the water table stands re-
contain considerable peat and wood. In some de- markably high above sea level in some of the dune-
posits, as in the Coos Bay dunelands, the percentage lands-10-30 feet in the Coos Bay dunelands, and
of silt increases progressively with depth, but in 10-115 feet in the Florencf; dunelands.
others, as in the Manzanita deposit, the sand is al- Lakes occur in the dunel~nds wherever depressions
most uniform down to bedrock at a depth of 200 in the land surface extej1d below the water table
feet. These conditions ·Suggest that the sand ac- (fig. 85.1 C). Lakes as deep as 100 feet, formed by
cumulated as a wind deposit inland from the beach the encroachment of the sand upon the channels of
as the ocean level rose 200 feet during late Pleisto- marginal streams, are common at the inner edge of
cene and Recent time. the dunelands, and are in hydraulic continuity with
The annual rainfall is 50-70 inches, but the sum- the ground-water bodies.
mers are· dry and the streams are very low during The ground water generally is of good chemical
the summer and fall. About 75 percent of the annual quality. It is soft and contains only about 20 ppm
precipitation sinks into the sand. Surface runoff (parts per million) chloride. However, some of it
occurs only in places where the sand has become has an amber color and contains enough dissolved
saturated to the land surface: as in some low areas, iron, and. is sufficiently acid to require treatment for
along a few creeks, and in the ground-water dis- some uses. Saline water has not been found above
charge areas around the edge of the dunelands. bedrock, but probably is in contact with the fresh
Within each dune area the water table slopes out- water in the sand farther offshore. Therefore, plans
ward toward its margins and is shallowest in topo- for large· withdrawals of fresh water should include
graphic lows. During the wet winter months the precautions against encroachment of sea water.
water table rises from 3 to 10 feet. These sand deposits are virtually the only natural
Properly screened 8-inch diameter wells com- reservoirs of fresh water along the coast, for the
monly yield 200 to 300 gpm (gallons per minute). older rocks are relatively impermeable.
The sand of the Coos Bay dunelands has a coefficient
of transmissibility of about 50,000 gpd/ft (gallons a REFERENCES
day per foot) and a specific yield of 35 percent. The Brown, S. G., and Newcomb, R. C., 1956, Ground-water re-
sand of the Florence dunelands probably has about sources of the coastal dune-sand area north of Coos Bay,
Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 27 p., 23 pls.
the same values. Hampton, E. R., 1960, Ground water in the dune-sand area
At some places, the ground-water bodies may near Florence, Oregon: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report,
"float" on sea water as so-called Gyhben-Herzberg 40 p., 15 figs.

86. MASS BUDGET OF SOUTH CASCADE GLACIER, 1957-60

By MARK F. MEIER, Tacoma, Wash.

Over a period of years, the changing mass of a the world during the International Geophysical Year
glacier represents a moving average of its mass net apd the year following. This paper reports on one
budgets during each of these years. Considerable of these cooperative investigations. ·
effort went into the measuring of net mass budgets, Accumulation and ablation usually predominate in
or volumetric changes, of typical glaciers all over different seasons, so the mass of a glacier varies
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-207
with time. Considering this variation we can define South Cascade Glacier for the 1957-58 budget year
. the following quantities: is reported in figure 86.1. Note that only a very
1. Budget year is the interval between the time of small area (3.9 percent) was included within the
minimum mass in one calendar year to the accumulation zone. The irregular distribution of net
time of minimum mass in the next following budget is primarily due to the effects of changes in
year. the inclination of the surface slope (which cause
2. Accumulation is the net change in mass from the erosion or augmented deposition by the wind) and
value at the beginning of one budget year to the movement of accumulated snow by avalanches.
the maximum value during that budget year. The average net budget for the whole glacier was
It is considered as a positive value. - 7.1 feet.
3. Ablation is the net change in mass from the Firn lines for 1959 and 1960 are also shown in
maximum value during a budget year to the figure 86.1. In 1959, 66.9 percent of the whole area
value at the end of the same budget year, and was included in the accumulation zone, and ·the
is defined as a negative value. average net budget was + 2.33 .feet. In 1960, 48.7
4. Net budget is the net change from the beginning percent of the area was included in the accumula-
to the end of a budget year, is equal to accumu- tion zone, and the average net budget was - 1.84
lation minus ablation, and can have a positive feet.
or negative value. The time distribution of accumulation and abla-
These components of the mass budget can be de- tion for a station in the middle of the glacier is
fined for a glacier as a whole, as an area-average shown in figure 86.2. This station is located on the
for a whole glacier, or at points on the glacier sur- flow centerline, and is located in such an area that
face: Values are given here in cubic feet of water its mass budget is closely related to the average mass
(density 1 gm per cubic em) per square foot of budget for the whole glacier. This illustration is
glacier surface, reported simply as feet. drawn showing true depths of the various layers of
It is also instructive to determine the altitudi11al snow, and these depths must be multiplied by ap-
gradient in the net budget. This parameter, termed propriate values of density in order to obtain values
'· here the "activity index," determines the amount of accumulation, ablation, or mass budget. Inspec-
of material that must be transferred from high ele- tion of this chart shows that-
vations to low elevations in order to maintain a· 1. Th.e long and intense period of ablation from
steady-state condition, and thus determines the thick- mid-April to mid-August 1958 not only· re-
ness and velocity of a glacier on a given bedrock moved the complete 1957-58 winter accumu-
slope. The net budget as a whole describes a gla- lation, but also the net snow remaining from
cier's state of health, and the activity index describes several. years before, creating a pronounced
its metabolism (Shumskii, 1947).
unconformity in the stratigraphic record. An-
The Geological Survey began studies on South
other unconformity was produced in October
Cascade Glacier in 1957 (Meier, 1958). This glacier
lies in the Northern Cascade Mountains of Wash- 196q. A third pronounced unconformity, oc-
ington, and is the source of the South Fork Cascade curring at depth, was formed in 1947, 1948,
River, a tributary of the Skagit River. It flows to- or 1950. Thus a stratigraphic section tal<en in
ward the northwest at an average speed of about 1961 at this locality (P1) would contain at least
60 feet per year. The glacier is 2.2 miles long, as three major time b:t;"eaks, and it would be diffi-
much as 3,600 feet wide, ranges in altitude from cult if not impossible to reconstruct the cli-
5,292 feet to about 7,300 feet, and covers an area of matic history or mass budget history from
1.0 square mile, not including partially or completely stratigraphic evidence· alone.
separated ice masses clinging to the contiguous 2. The close of the budget year occurred on different
slopes (fig. 86.1). These separated ice masses are dates: October 12, 1958, September 25, 1959,
not included in the information presented here. The and October 23, 1960. The 1959-60 budget.
glacier terminus calves into a lake, but the yearly year was 394 days long whereas the 1958-59
mass lost by this means is not considered in this budget year included only 348 days. It is
'report. common practice to measure the size of a
The distribution of mass net-budget values, given glacier once a year on a fixed date to deter-
1-
in feet of water equivalent, over the surface of mine its growth or decline. The data given
B-208 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

INDEX MAP OF WASHINGTON

).

0 1000 2000 3000 FEET

100 0 500 1000 METERS

FIGURE 86.1.-South Cascade Glacier, Wash., showing distribution of net budget values
for 1957-58 budget year. The accumulation area for' this budget year is indicated
by the stippled pattern; the perimeter of the stippled area is the firn line in 1958.
Interval between lines of equal net budget is 2 feet. Firn line in 1959 indicated by
heavy dashed line, and firn line in 1960 indicated by heavy dash-dot line. Topography
indicated by dotted lines, contour interval is 100 feet.

;
 -r
+- /

- rn
::r:
0
~
1-3
'"t:j·

Q)
>
'1:l
t:lO tzj
c:
ro ~
..C:c: rn
uo

I
40
E·~
ou
.::~
z
00 DOc: 1-3
-~.Q ::r:
-
'<t

"' 3~ f"y......_
tzj

w ..--'-/r-~--./\_ :G / _,..._,.... ,._/"\. Cl

~-~ J \
IJ) f'-J """
~t:i~30 tzj
;w / \
e /./ , / ~.../ \ ... _ 0
o_
wu.. ,..J '
w j' '\ t""

-
>z I \ •( 0
'\
Cl)
<{>
1- 1957-58 ' \\ .... -
r
I
J
r- ...... ,
1959-60
\ \
Cl
0
0~~20 \ J r./
z>
\

~·1956-57
<{a:: I ); 1958-59· 1.,
a..O I \. I
\
oa
s:u..
zu
cnz
./
J
/
/

)
/'-/.../
J
.......... ,
........
I
I

... , ./1960-61
_tj

::r:
/ ~
,J
0=>~10 1953-56 \.
\ I .> tj
~
I ~952-53f./ . I
0
1-
a.. '--7:!.. I
1952-53/ t""
0
w
0 1948?-53 .. 1948?-52 Cl
0 -- "'"""
0

J F M A M_l_JjJ
Pre-1948

A.lS.lO_l_N.lD
~

J.l.F.l.M
~

A 1 M
Pre-1948?

1 JiJ,A s 0 N D J F M_1_A M I J I J A .s I 0' N _l D

-
rn
0
'tzj
z
0
tzj
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1958 1959 1960 sn
>
FIGURE 86.2.-Growth and decay_ .of the snowpack at Station Pl ( 6,160 feet) on South Cascade Glacier. Solid lines indicate values known by direct measure-
ment, dashed lines indicate values estimated on basis of weather records obtained at Darrington, Wash., and streamflow records obtained at South Cas-
cade Glacier.
-
~
1-3
0
t""
tzj
rn
7'
~
~
0')

td
~
0
~
B-210 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

below show that this practice is not likely to near the long-term average position of the firn line,
yield more than qualitative results. at which place the vertical component is zero. The
effect of vertical motion on these data would be the
addition or subtraction of a constant small amount
Change in thickness (feet)
in budget year - to all values.
The altitudinal variation of accumulation, abla-
Measurement date
1958-59 1959-60 tion, and net budget is shown for each of the three
years in figure 86.3. The 1957.-58 curves show very
August 1 ................ . +0.6 +12.7 +7.3 large values of ablation and slightly less than aver-
September 1 ............. . -6.6 +8.1 +3.3
October 1 ................ . -7.8 +7.0 +1.3 age accumulation, producing a strongly negative net
Actual change in thickness .. -8.0 +6.0 -0.2 budget. In 1958-59 accumulation was large and
ablation less than average, causing a positive net
This analysis ignores the fact that there is a com- budget. The budget year 1959-60 appears to have
ponent of flow in a vertical di:r:ection so that a zero been intermediate in its characteristics although it
net budget does not necessarily imply a zero net is interesting to note that ablation was large and
thickness change. However, locality P1 is located accumulation was low at the lower elevations.

a c b
7000
I ' I' ".)
\
I
I I I
I

I I I I
I I
I I I I I
I I
I I I I I
I

I I I I
/ I \ I ,t

'
6500
I- I
\
I
" 'I
w
w I I
I
u.. I ~
(

.,· '
z I \ '\
w I I I
h I
Cl I I
I
I
::::> / // I f
I-
i= I _, /
/
I /
.....J
<( / I
6000
(

5500

I I I

-30 -20' -10 0 +10

I
BUDGET COMPONENT, IN FEET OF WATER

FIGURE 86.3.-Altitudinal variation in accumulation, ablation, and net budget, South Cascade Glacier, 1957-60. Light lines, a,
indicate ablation; light lines, b, indicate accumulation; and heavy lines, c, indicate net budget. Budget year 1957-58
designated by dash-dot lines, 1958-59 by dashed lines, and 1959-60 by solid lines.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-211
In analyzing a diagram such as figure 86.3, it is lar to that of the Blue Glacier, Olympic Mountains,
important to note that ablation is not independent Wash. (LaChapelle, 1959, p. 444-5), indicating that
of accumulation. Ablation is caused primarily by these glaciers occur in a maritime climate with rela-
the net absorption of radiation, and thus is a sen- tively high values of winter snow accumulation and
sitive function of albedo. The albedo of 'old firn or summer melt, and rapid transfer of material from
ice is very low compared with that of snow so that high to low elevations.
ice or old firn is capable of absorbing several times
as much radiant energy as snow. A heavy winter R.EFERENCES
snow accumulation will result in a snow cover per- LaChapelle, E. R., 1959, Annual mass and energy exchange on
sisting long into the ablation season, decreasing the ·the Blue Glacier: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 64, no. 4,
amount of possible ablation. p. 443-449.
The activity index, or vertical gradient of net Meier, M. F., 1958, Research on South Cascade Glacier: The
budget, was relatively constant for the 3 years- Mountaineer, Seattle, Wash., v. 51, p. 40-47.
Shumskii, P. A., 1947, Energiia oledeneniia i zhizn lednikov
0.014 ( 14 mm per m). This is a high value, as high (Energy of glacierization and the life of glaciers) : Mos-
as any values quoted by Shumskii (1947, fig. 3). cow, Geografgiz, translated by William Mandel, the
This activity index suggests an environment simi- Stefansson Library, New York, 60 p.

87. COMPETENCE OF A GLACIAL STREAM

By ROBERT K. FAHNESTOCK, Fort Collins, Colo.

Size measurements of boulders in transport, and predicted from the other data cited. White River
measurement of associated stream velocities were data show that boulders up to 1.8 feet intermediate
made in White River below the Emmons Glacier, diameter moved in currents of about 7 fps (feet per
Mount Rainier, Wash., during a study of the proc- second). For comparison, data that Nevin (1946)
esses of valley-train formation (Fahnestock, 1960). selected from Gilbert (1914), the U.S. Waterways
These measurements provide excellent data for the Experiment Station .(1935), Rubey (1937), and
study of competence, for in White River all sizes at Nevin's own traction-tube experiments have been
or near the range of competence are readily avail- used to define bed velocity and critical (traction
able for transport. velocity lines shown in figure 87.1. Projections of
Size measurements were made of boulders that· these lines intersect at a velocity of aboJt I
12 fps
were either trapped in a wooden-framed sieve with and a particle diameter of about 1.5 feet. The White
0.175-foot openings or caught by hand. Most point River data indicate that the critical traction ve-
velocities were measured with a Price Type-A cur-· locity 1 for coarse materials is closer to the velocity
rent meter set at 0.6 stream depth. Because of the at 0.6 depth than to the bed velocity computed with
large size of the particles, this depth setting · Rubey's formula.
provided velocity measurements in the immediate Parts of Hjulstrom's curves (1935, p. 298) which
j' vicinity of the moving particles. Surface float veloci- separate the zones of erosion, transportation, and
ties adjusted to 0.6 depth were used when current- deposition are also shown in figure 87.1. Most data
meter measurements of velocity could not be made. for White River boulders in motion plot in the zone
Velocity measurements were made in the reach of deposition that is defined by projections of these
through which the boulders had been transported. curves. Hjulstrom's curves, however, were based on
The relation of particle size to velocity (fig. 87.1) average velocity and uniform materials.
indicates that the boulders from White River were
1 Critical traction velocity (Nevin 1946, p. 665) is the velocity measured
moving at lower stream velocities than would be near the bed or mean velocity in shallow flow.
B-212 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

2.0r----------------r------~--------------~~-----r----------------~----~

l.Or----------------+------;---------------~~----~r---------------;------4
0.8

0.6
0.5~---------------+------~--------------~~~-+-+----------------~----~

0.4

0.3

0.2
1-
L..t.J
L..t.J
u...

0.1r----------------r------;-----------~--~~--~-+----------------;------4

0.08
0.06
0.05~---------------+------~------~~~~~~~---+----------------~----~
L..t.J
_I
(.)
0.04
t=
0::: 0.03
<(
CL
l- 0.02
en
L..t.J
(.!)
0:::
<(
_I

u.. 0.01~---------------+--~~~-----+~~~--~-------+----------------+-----~
0
0:::
0.008
L..t.J
1-
L..t.J
~
<(
0
L..t.J EXPLANATION OF
I-
<(
0.003
0 WHITE RIVER DATA
L..t.J
~ 0.002 ®
0:::
L..t.J Screened
1-
z Velocity measured at 0.6
depth with current meter
0.001 t----------------+----:~
0
0.0008
Screened
0.0006 Velocity measured with surface
0.0005 ~---------------+--~<:.=---~----------- floats and adjusted to 0.6
0.0004 depth
•
0.0003 Caught by hand
Velocity measured with surface
0.0002 floats and adjusted to 0.6
depth

0.2 0.3 0.5 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 80

VELOCITY, IN FEET PER SECOND
FIGURE 87.1.-Relation of particle size to velocity in White ·River.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-213
Hjulstrom's curves indicate that particle size is often set in motion by the blows from other boulders
proportional to the 2.6 power of velocity, which is loosened from the banks.
the power found by Nevin (194S), who used average Studies by White (1940) emphasize the impor-
velocity. A line with a slope of 2.6 fits the White tance of turbulence in initiation of motion of par-
River data better than one with a slope of 2.0 (the ticles on the bed of natural streams. He concluded
"sixth power law" when particle size is expressed that the higher the turbulence the more effective ·a
in terms of linear dimensions). Thus, for materials given mean velocity. White River's high tu·rbulence
having intermediate diameters larger than 0.1 foot, is another factor that·favors high competence.
streams may have greater competence than some
applications of the "sixth power law" would predict. REFERENCES
Most experiments related to erosion and traction Fahnestock, R. K., 1960, Morphology and hydrology of a
velocities have been made in laboratory flumes using glacial stream [abs.]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71,
no. 2, pt. 2, p. 1862 ..
uni~orm materials, mostly sand, with diameters of
Gilbert, G. K., 1914, The transportation of debris by running
less than 0.1 foot. The few experiments that have water: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 86, 263 p.
been made with mixed sizes show that the mobility Hjulstrom, Filip, 1935, Studies of the morphological activity
of such materials is quite different from that of uni- of rivers as illustrated by the river Fyris: Univ. Upsala
Geol. Inst. Bull., v. 25, p. 221-527.
form materials. Gilbert ( 1914, p. 173) stated that. Ippen, A. T., and Verma, R. P., 1953, The motion of discrete
fine particles fill irregularities in a rough stream bed particles along the bed of a turbulent stream: Minnesota
permitting larger particles to move more readily Internat. Hydraulics Convention Proc., 1953, Internat.
Assoc. Hydraulic Research and Am. Soc. Civil Eng., p.
on the smoother bed and to continue in motion
7-20.
longer. Ippen and Verma (1953) noted a similar Nevin, C. M., 1946, Competency of moving water to transport
effect of bed roughness. Thus, because of the wide debris: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 57, no. 7, p. 651-674.
variation of particle sizes in the bed and banks of Rubey, W. W., 1938, The force required to move particles on
a stream bed: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 189-E,
White River, one can expect erosion of particles p. 121-141.
larger than those predicted by formulas based on U.S. Waterways Experiment Station, 1935, Studies of river
data for uniform materials. On the valley train, bed materials and their movement with special reference
to the Low~r Mississippi River: Paper no. 17, 161 p.
boulders of all sizes are readily available for move- White, C. M., 1940, The equilibrium of grains on the bed of a
ment by any current capable of eroding the finer stream: Royal Soc. (London) Proc., ser. A., v. 17 4, p.
supporting materials. Boulders on the bed were 322-338.

88. STRUCTURAL BARRIER RESERVOIRS OF GROUND WATER IN THE COLUMBIA RIVER BASALT
I,

' By R. C. NEWCOMB, Portland, Oreg.

A thick sequence of dark-colored lava flows, the tral Oregon at the south, and the Cascade Range
Columbia River basalt of Miocene and early Plio- at the west, though it crosses through the Cascade
cene ( ?) , extends beneath about 50,000 square miles Range at a few places (fig. 88.1 top). The individual
of the Columbia Plateaus and adjacent areas of the lava flows range in thickness from about 5 to 150
Pacific Northwest. In the central part of its vast feet, and averag~ about 50 feet.
areal extent the total thickness of the basalt is The basalt. is a dense gray or black rock, composed
more than 5,000 feet and may exceed 10,000 feet. of microcrystals in a glassy groundmass, that solidi-
At its margins it tapers out _against the. pre-basalt fied in near horizontal position from highly fluid
slopes: the Okanogan Highlands at the north, the lava that rose along fissures. Cooling joints cracked
Rocky Mountains at the east, the mountains of cen- the rock into sets of vertic'al columnar and cubical
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961
B-214
CANADA 116"
--·-·-- ·-··--· -~-r------, 49·
(
\ :1\ :
I
t=-~j I I
EXPLANATION
>-

Columb~~;;~~r basalt }~ w

~
~ ~~~
·~~
Older rocks (inlying) a. o::
w
~

l .~ ··"
w
(.!)
z
<(
0::

0 60MILES

r---1 MILE

Static piezometric surface of the water

400' ;------------
1
400'

300' 300'

200'
200'

100'
100'

DATUM~-J----------------------------------------------------------------------1 DATUM
FIGURE 88.1.-Top, Generalized map of the main area underlain by the Columbia. River basalt; Bottom, Diagrammatic cross
section of a hypothetical ground-water withdrawal system operating on an aquifer of a barrier reservoir.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-215
blocks and into less prominent horizontal sheeting and cause impounding back to points of discharge.
slabs. Except for the cooling joints, most flows are These ground-water reservoirs updip from struc-
rather monolithic; little breccia or fragmental lava tural barriers occur in and near some of the valleys
is present. Few sedimentary interbeds are present and in the uplands. Notable among the barrier
except around the edges of the basalt unit. Most in- reservoirs now in use is one underlying the Upper
dividual. flows are dense and tight in their center Cold Creek v_alley northwest of Pasco, Wash., and
parts, but some are vesicular, rubbly, and porous one under the Walia Walla valley plain at College
near their tops. Water percolates mainly along the Place west of Wall a Walia, Wash. ·
porous tops of some of the lava flows. Tabular sep- The hydraulic characteristics of a typical barrier
aration of the aquifers is common, and the hydraulic reservoir in the basalt are illustrated in figure 88.1
conditions of such occurrences vary from place to (bottom). The impounded water is best tapped by
place. wells at the barrier end of the reservoir. The peren-
The basalt has been tectonically warped into nial yield would be determined by the annual re-
broad open folds with local areas of intense defor- charge and would differ from reservoir to reser-
mation. Infiltrated water moves down the dip of
voir. Withdrawals from reservoirs where flowing
inclined porous flow tops so that the downwarped
areas are sites of ground-water accumulation. streams cross the intake area may decrease the
Locally structural deformation has sheared and streamflow; however, calculations on theoretical ex-
crushed the rock along faults and along tight folds amples suggest this deduction in stream flow, at its
in which the porous tops of the flows were crushed maximum in late summer, would equal only a small
during the interflow slippage. These zones of crushed part of the water drawn from otherwise unused
rock obstruct the tabular percolation of ground-water storage.

GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY OF ALASKA AND HAWAII

89. XENOLITHIC NODULES IN THE 1800-1801 KAUPULEHU FLOW OF HUALALAI VOLCANO

By DONALD H. RICHTER and KIGUMA J. MURATA, Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Hawaii, and
Washington, D. C.

Hualalai is one of the five volcanoes whose flows believed, as well as a significant difference in their
have built up the island of Hawaii. Now dormant, it aggregate composition. The possible significance
was last active in 1800-1801 when the Kaupulehu which these nodules may have in regard to the genesis
and smaller Huehue flows were erupted from its of the Hawaiian lavas has prompted a detailed
northwe~t rift zone. The presence of xenolithic mineralogical-chemical study, now in· progress; this
nodules in the Kaupulehu lavas has long been known, paper describes the geologic occurrence and physical
but only limited mention of them or ot' their re- mineralogy of the nodules.
markable occurrence has appeared in the literature. The Kaupulehu flow, together with the Huehue
Stearns and Macdonald (1946) briefly described some flow, represents the youngest lavas of the alkalic
of the physical features of the nodules and later basalt series which mantle Hualalai Volcano. On the
Macdonald ( 1949) presented additional petrographi- basis of the wel~-established chronological succes-
cal data. Chemical analyses of a clinopyroxene and a sion of Hawaiian magma types, however, the main
spinel from the Kaupulehu nodules were given, along bulk of Hualalai is believed to be composed princi-
with a discussion on the origin of dunitic inclusions, pally of basalts of the tholeiitic series. The tholeiitic
by Ross, Foster, and Myers ( 1954). Recent geologic rocks, characterized by a saturated groundmass, are
studies on Hualalai Volcano have revealed some ex- erupted frequently and rapidly during the. youthful
ceptional exposures of nodules which indicate a pos- and mature stages of volcanic activity; whereas the
sibly greater abundance of nodules than heretofore undersaturated alkalic basalts and their differen-
B-216 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

level area a pond of considerable depth soon formed,

first by surface overflow and later by lava running
under the surface and floating the crust. Eventually,
as the lithostatic head increased, the impounded
fluid lava broke through the downslope wall of the
pond and cut · a deep channel through the nodule-
bearing flows which had spread out earlier over
the surface below the pond. As material drained
out of the pond, the still fluid lava in many of the
nodule zones also drained away leaving discrete
nodule beds, without appreciable matrix lava. To-
ward the end of eruptive activity, lava domes on the
surface of the pond and portions of tubes within the
pond collapsed, and it is in these collapse features
together with the main lava channel below the pond
that the spectacular nodule beds are now expQsed.
The great abundance of the nodules is well shown
in the wall of the main lava channel where no less
than 4 distinct nodule beds, ranging in thickness
SCALE
~===''~~····
tOIH~ INT[RV~l 1,000 fE[l
T-.-,DJUS~ ...

-----
S<I<"'T
--+
I
19•
from 3 to 9 feet, are exposed (figs. 89.2 and 89.3).
In fact, along one 200-foot long exposure, the nodule
beds have an aggregate thickness of 26 feet and con-
156" 155"
stitute more of the rock than the lava itself. In the
collapsed domes and tubes on the top of the lava
FIGURE 89.1.-Map of the island of Hawaii showing location pond only the uppermost nodule bed is visible; and
of the 1800-1801 Kaupulehu flow on Hualalai Volcano.
Outline of flow from report by Stearns and Macdonald
where collapse occurred prior to complete solidifica-
(1949). tion of remnant matrix lava the nodules tumbled
into the depressions forming an outcrop very similar
tiates are erupted intermittently and in minor vol- in appearance to a cobble beach deposit (fig. 89.4).
ume during the decadent stage of volcanism. Xeno- In size, the nodules generally range from a frac-
lithic nodules appear to be restricted in their oc- tion of an inch to more than one foot in diameter;
cm·rence to these later alkalic rocks, not only on the largest observed measured 27 inches in its great-
Hualalai, but on other volcanoes of the Hawaiian est dimension. They are angular to subrounded in
Islands as well.
The voluminous Kaupulehu lavas were erupted
from a group of vents, between 5,500 and 6,000 feet
in elevation, along the northwest rift of Hualalai,
and with the exception of a few short tongues that
flowed to the west, they flowed northward down the
slopes of the volcano some 10 miles before entering
the sea south of Kawaihae Bay (fig. 89.1). The
nodule locality recently investigated is along a rela-
tively flat bench, on the first major break in slope,
2 miles below the vent area at an elevation of about
· 3,250 feet .
Briefly reconstructing the history of the flow, it
appears that the rapidly flowing, extremely fluid
lava-heavily charged with nodules-lost velocity
and carrying capacity on reaching the area of re-
duced gradient. Here the early flows spread out in
relatively thin sheets, both on the level area and on
FIGURE 89.2.-Wall of main lava channel in Kaupulehu flow
the slopes below, depositing the nodules in well- showing four nodule beds (1, 2, 3, 4) each separated by
defined layers. As lava continued to flow into the several thin pahoehoe flows.
 'sHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-217
external form, although in the exposures where
matrix lava has been withdrawn the thin coating
of lava remaining on the nodules tends to accentuate
their roundness.
The nodules consist principally of medium- to
coarse-grained crystal aggregates of one or more of
the following three minerals: clinopyroxene (ap-
proximately Ca 4 ~Mg44 Fe 14 ), olivine (Fa 1 ~- 1 ~ ), and
plagioclase feldspar (Anoo- 7:;). Opaque minerals are
generally present in amounts ranging from a few
tenths to 2 percent. The crystals are all anhedral
and form a tightly interlocked allotriomorphic granu-
lar texture. With the exception of a minute corona-
like clinopyroxene growth observed around some
opaques in a few specimens, the minerals do not
exhibit any evidence of magmatic reaction. Some
of the olivine grains, however, do show an incipient FIGURE 89.4.-Loose nodules on the floor of a collapsed dome
marginal alteration probably caused by the action of in the surface of the lava pond. Note the relatively thin
lava caprock of the nodule bed.
hot water-laden gases streaming through the nodules
after the cessation of volcanic activity. CONCLUSIONS
On the basis of mineralogy four general types of Murata (1960) and Eaton and Murata (1960)
nodules are recognizable. These types in order of de- support the theory that the fundamental Hawaiian
creasing abundance, as shown by random sampling of magma is tholeiitic and that fractional crystalliza-
over 200 nodules, are: clinopyroxene-olivine, olivine, tion of pyroxene is the principal mechanism for pro-
clinopyroxene, and clinopyroxene-feldspar. Only ducing the undersaturated alkalic magmas. The
a few olivine-feldspar and olivine-clinopyroxene- mineralogy and abundance of the Kaupulehu nodules
feldspar nodules were observed, and predominantly (together with the fact that xenolithic nodules, in
feldspar nodules apparently do not exist. Modal general, occur only in alkalic rocks) lends additional
analyses of representative nodules from the different support to this view. The nodules therefore, are in-
types indicate that clinopyroxene is the most abun- terpreted to represent fragments of subterranean
consolidated deposits of crystals whose precipitation
dant mineral present.
has played a dominant role in affecting the funda-
mental change in magma type. Furthermore their
' angularity and lack of pronounced magmatic reac-
tion strongly suggest that the processes of frac-
tional crystallization occurred far above the original
source of the tholeiitic magma-probably in rela-
tively shallow magma reservoirs within the volcano.

REFERENCES

Eaton, J. P., and Murata, K. J ., 1960, How volcanoes grow:

Science, v. 132, p. 925-938.
Macdonald, G. A., 1949, Petrography of the Island of Hawaii:
U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 214-D , p. 51-96.
Murata, K. J., 1960, A new method of plotting chemical
analyses of basaltic rocks: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 258-A, p.
247-252.
Ross, C. S., Foster, M. D., and Myers, A. T., 1954, Origin of
dunites and of olivine-rich inclusions in basaltic rocks :
Am. Mineralogist, v. 39, p. 693-737.
FIGURE 89.3.-Closeup view of nodule bed 2, shown in figure Stearns, H. T., and Macdonald, G. A., 1946, Geology and
89.2. Spatter from the last flow s through channel is ground-water resources of the Island of Hawaii: Hawaii
draped over some of the nodules . Div. Hydrography Bull. 9, 363 p.
B-218 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

90. RECONNAISSANCE 0~ THE KANDIK AND NATION RIVERS, EAST-CENTRAL ALASKA

By EARL E. BRABB, Menlo Park, Calif.

The purpose of this report is to describe briefly plunging folds in these rocks can be seen near the
the rocks and structure along two previously un- mouth of Ettrain Creek. Most of the rocks. are not
mapped rivers in east central Alaska. All localities well dated but all of the fossils collected from them
mentioned are shown on Charley River A-2, B-1, indicate an Early Cretaceous age. For example,
B-2, B-3, C-1, C-2 and D-1 quadrangles, scale Foraminifera collected from shale along the Nation
1:63,360. River near the mouth of Tindir .Creek are possibly
All of the rocks cropping out along the Kandik of early Neocomian age, according to H. R. Bergquist
River are provisionally assigned to the Kandik for- (written communication, 1961). Megafossils col-
mation of Early Cretaceous age. They are predomi- lected from the same beds and from another locality
nantly shale, mudstone, argillite, slate, and gray- nea1·by were identified by D. L. Jones (written com-
wacke but include minor amounts of chert-pebble munication) as Polyptychites and Buchia cf. B.
conglomerate, "clean" sandstone, pebbly mudstone, crassicollis and are also suggestive of an early Neo-
and cherty limestone. These rocks seem to represent comian (Valanginian) age.
one lithogenetic sequence. Graded beds and other The Kandik formation may be in fault contact
features suggestive of turbidity current deposits are with petroliferous shale and limestone of Triassic
common. The rocks are intensely deformed between age, Tahkandit limestone of Permian age, and N a-
the mouth of the Kandik River and Easy Moose t ion River formation of Carboniferous (Pennsyl-
Creek and between Indian Grave Creek and the vanian?) age, which crop out along the Nation River
United States-Canada border. The beds have a gen- about 1 mile upstream from the mouth of Waterfall
eral northeast strike and a moderate northwest dip Creek. These late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic rocks
between Easy Moose Creek and Indian Grave Creek, have a northeast strike and, for the most part, a
and an anomalous northwest strike and moderate northwest dip. Conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone,
northeast dip in the vicinity of the border. Pelecy- and minor coal and "red beds" cropping out along
pods collected from the formation along the Kandik the Nation River between Waterfall and Hard Luck
River about 2 m'iles upstream from the mouth of Big Creeks are also provisionally referred to the Nation
Sitdown Creek suggest an Early Cretaceous (Valan- River formation. These rocks have a northeast
ginian) age according to D. L. Jones (written com-
strike and southeast dip. They are apparently in
munication, 1961).
fault contact with shale and limestone about 2 miles
Slate, shale, mudstone, argillite, and minor gray-
wacke and quartzite cropping out along the N atiori downstream from the mouth of Hard Luck Creek.
River between the mouths of Tindir and Jungle Corals from the limestone are of Silurian or De-
Creeks are also provisionally referred to as the vonian age, according to W~ A. Oliver, Jr. (written
Kandik formation. These rocks are moderately to communication, 1961).
intensely deformed and appear to have an anomalous No oil seeps or deposits of e~onomic interest were
northwest strike. Several minor southeastward- found.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-219

GEOLOGY OF PUERTO RICO

91 . HYDROTHERMALLY ALTERED ROCKS IN EASTERN PUERTO RICO

•• By FRED A. HILDEBRAND, Denver, Colo.

Wo·rk done in cooperation with the Depa•rtment of Indust·rial Research,

Puerto Rico Economic Development Administration

A belt of light-colored altered rocks ~pproximately The mineral assemblages at the largest and best
50 km long and 5 km wide extends from the eastern exposed areas along the hydrothermal belt are listed
coast of Puerto Rico northwest to the Cerro La Tiza in table 1. Most noteworthy observations at these
area, as shown in figure 91.1. The altered belt skirts areas are as follows :
the northern edges of the .San Lorenzo and Caguas I. At Cerro La Tiza and Pueblito Del Rio, ~lunite
plutons and lies within a broad zone of· structural and quartz occur as alternating bands in finely
weakness trending about N. 70° W. across north- banded and crenulated rock. The banding is
central Puerto Rico (Smith and Hildebrand, 1953; believed to be inherited from the foliated struc-
Hildebrand and Smith, 1959). Within the belt, ex- ture of the volcanic host rock.
posures of hard altered quartzose rock stand in 2. At Cerro La Tiza and Cerro Marquesa, kaolinite,
relief as ridges and knolls above the softer vol- and halloysite are more abundant at the south-
canic country rocks. ern margins of the altered zone. The margins
The greenish-gray volcanic country rocks consist of the zones in other areas are concealed.
principally of Ia va, tuff, tuff and volcanic breccia, 3. Crystalline pyrophyllite and diaspore are most
and agglomerate. In general, the volcanic rocks are abundant at Cerro Marquesa. ·
of borderline basaltic-andesitic composition · and 4. Between Aguas Buenas and Gurabo the rocks
their age is probably Cretaceous and early Tertiary are mainly silicified and sericitized volcanic
(Hildebrand, 1959). host rocks. Further study of quartz-sericite
The plutonic rocks shown on figure 91.1 consist rocks in this area may show that they are
mainly of granodiorite. Zircon age determinations greisen.
indicate that the San Lorenzo pluton is of late Cre- 5. That part of the belt richest in barite borders·
taceous or early Tertiary age. The age of the the north edge of the San Lorenzo pluton from
Caguas pluton has not been determined. · Cantagallo eastward to Pueblito Del Rio.
On the whole the altered rocks are light colored 6. Kaolinite and halloysite are generally less abun-
and consist of intermixed hard, massive quartzose dant and zunyite and jarosite more abundant
rocks and soft, clayey, sericitic rocks composed prin- toward the eastern end of the belt.
cipally of quartz, sericite, alunite, pyrophyllite, kao- The altered rock belt shown in figure 91.1 is be-
linite, and halloysite. Less abundant minerals are lieved to be of hydrothermal origin; that is, the vol-
hematite, goethite, diaspore, zunyite, jarosite, barite, canic host rocks were altered by emana.tions from a
sulfur, pyrite, and svanbergite. magmatic source. The emanations probably origi-
The belt of altered rocks is not continuous but nated in plutonic rocks that presumably underlie
consists of elongated patches of altered rock (fig. much of Puerto Rico (Hildebrand, 1959). The al-
91.1) surrounded by unaltered country rock. Within teration processes have destroyed all primary tex-
the patches of altered rock there is no distinct tures of the volcanic host rocks and have caused
zoning of rock types, however, elongated zones of profound compositional changes that have resulted
hard banded quartz-alunite rocks and soft foliated, in a completely different mineral assemblage. Cal-
pyrophyllitic rocks commonly occur within softer, cium, magnesium, and most of the iron were re-
clayey sericitic rocks. At the western end of the belt, moved from the host rocks, but silica, sulfur, and
where the terrain is generally higher, the altered probably potassium were added during the altera-
rocks have weathered to an earth-rock debris that tion processes. The ab1,1ndance of introduced quartz,
has moved downslope to form extensive tongue and aluminum silicates and sulfate-bearing minerals is
apron deposits over the volcanic country rocks. evidence that the emanations were acid, sulfate bear-
 b:j
66° 15' ~
1:\:)
0

Cerro Marquesa
~ Clllb
0

AGUAS 0
0 0 0

BUENAS
0
CD >'/$_/6 e 18° 15'
o<P ao ~%#~~./ ®~e>

/i~vPh~~
{/Fv
G0 CAGUAS/
C9o Pueblito del Rio
0 0
·~/Pl.UtoN NAGUABO

~~
'COMERiO 0
Q) Cl
t_:J:j

G> co~ 0
t"'
Colonia J unio 0
CIDRA Cl
~

~/a 0 (1
>
t"'
~e
Ul
e
~
<
t_:J:j
~
~
t_:J:j
Ul
t_:J:j
Outcrops of hydrothermally altered rocks of probable
Late Cretaceous or Eocene age >
~
(1

~ & ::r1
Plutonic rocks, principally granodiorite of probable Late
q~ 1--'
c.:>
0')
Cretaceous or Eocene age ~~ 1--'

D q
~
Volcanic rocks, principally lavas, tuffs, tuff breccias, and
agglomerates of probable Cretaceous and early Tertiary
age
~~
18°00'
10 KILOMETERS

FIGURE 91.1.-0utcrop belt of hydrothermally altered rocks and Puerto Rico.

..of -t
,.. # • •
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-221
TABLE 1.-Mine?·al assemblages at p?'om.inent outc?·op a?'eas in belt of hyd?·othennally alte?·ed ?'ocks shown in figure 91.1
[Hematite and goethite occur in the altered rocks at all areas. Some hematite is believed to be of hydrothermal origin but goethite and some hematite has
probably resulted from weathering of ferruginous minerals.]

Areas

Between
Cerro La Tizn Cerro Mnrquesn Aguns Buenas and Gurabo 1 Cantngallo and Las Pinas Pueblito Del Rio Colonia Junio
----------------- --------------- --------------- ----------
Qwutz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz Quartz.
Sericite Sericite Sericite Sericite Sericite.
Alunite Alunite Alunite Alunite Alunite.
Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite Pyrophyllite
1\:nolmite Kaolinite Kaolinite Kaolinite
Hnlloysitc Hnlloysite
Din.spore ·Diaspore Diaspore
Zunyit,e Zunyite Zunvite.
.Jnt·osite Jarosite .
Barite Barite
Sulfm·
Pyrite
Svnn bergi lie'!
Rutile? ·

1 The elongated outcrop area shown at the north edge of the Caguas pluton in figure 91.1 consists of greisen and is described in Art. 92 in this volume.

ing, and silica rich. This type of genesis agrees with Kaolinite could be employed in Puerto Rico in
stability relations in a similar mineral assemblage the glass, ceramic, pottery, and clay pipe industries.
studied experimentally by Remley (1959). The Halloysite could be used as a porous catalyst sup-
maximum temperature to permit the existence of port of high surface area in the cracking of petro-
kaolinite which is abundant in much of the belt is leum (Emmett, 1954, p. 261).
about 350°-400°C. In those areas where kaolinite
is lacking and the assemblage sericite-pyrophyllite- REFERENCES
diaspore predominates, the temperature was some- Emmett, P. H. (ed.), 1954, Catalysis: New York, Reinhold
what higher. Publishing Corporation, v. 1, 394 p.
Puerto Rico is rapidly undergoing industrial ex- Faith, W. L., Keyes, D. B., and Clark, R. L., 1950, Industrial
pansion and is keenly interested in reducing imports Chemicals: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc;, 652 p.
of raw materials and developing its own natural Hemley, J. Julian, 1959, Some mineralogical equilibri~ in the
system K~O-ALO,~-SiO::H"O: Am. Jour. Sci., v. 257, p.
resources. Alunite, which is now imported, is useful 241-270.
in the preparation of sulfates (Faith, Keys and Hildebrand, Fred A., and Smith, R. J., 1959, Occurrence of
Clark, 1950, p. 59-62) for use as a coagulant in alunite, pyrophyllite, and clays in the Ceuo La Tiza area,
water purification. The alunitic rocks of Puerto Puerto Rico: U.S. Geol. Survey open-file report, 82 p. 6 pl.
Rico might be used for this and also In· the manu- Hildebrand, Fred A., 1959, Zones of hydrothermally altered
facture of aluminum refractory materials (Knizek rocks in eastern Puerto Rico [in Spanish]: Common-
and Fetter, 1950, p. 202-249). The Puerto Rico wealth of Puerto Rico, Dept. Indus. Inv., Econ. Devel.
Adm., Tech. lnf., p. 82-96.
alunite probably contains too much sodium to be
Johnstone, S. J., 1954, Minerals for the chemical and allied
used for potash fertilizer. industries: New York, John Wiley and ~ons, Inc., 692 p.
Pyrophyllite could be used in the ceramic tile Knizek, J. 0., and Fetter, Hans, 1950, The refractory proper-
and refractory industries in the manufacture of ties of alunite: !~High alumina . refractories and the
vitreous floor tiles, which are commonly used in genesis, occurrence and uses of alunite: British Ceramic
buildings in Puerto Rico. Pyrophyllite could also be Soc. Trans., v. 49, no. 5, p. 202-223.
used as a carrier for paint pigments, insecticides, Mudd, S. W., 1949, Industrial Minerals and Rocks (non-
and fungicides, as a filler in the preparation of soaps, metallics other than fuels): New York, Am. Inst. Mining
Metall. Engineers, 2d ed., 1156 p.
and in the manufacture of porcelain, sanitary. ware,
Smith, R. J., and Hildebrand, F. A., 1953, Occurrence of
artware, and hotel china (Johnstone, 1954; Mudd, alunite and pyrophyllite in Puerto Rico [abs.]: ·Geol. Soc.
1949). America Bull., v. 64, no. 12, pt. 2, p. 1476.
B-222 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

92. ANDALUSITE-TOPAZ GREISEN NEAR CAGUAS, EAST-CENTRAL PUERTO RICO

By FRED A. HILDEBRAND, Denver, Colo.

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the Department of lndust'rial Resea1·ch,

Puerf.,o Rico Economic Development Administration

Hydrothermally altered rocks with a greisen min- Although the edges of the greisen zone are con-
eral assemblage are exposed about 3 km northeast cealed, scattered outcrops of country rock, and float
of Caguas, P. R., in the extreme southeast corner blocks of border-phase rock show that the greisen
of the Aguas Buenas quadrangle. The greisen zone probably grades through silicified, greenish-white
lies within a larger zone of hydrothermally altered volcanic rock to the greenish-gray" unaltered country
rocks of different and possibly lower temperature rock.
mineral assemblage than greisen. As shown in fig- Exposures of fresh, unweathered greisen are
ure 92.1, the area described in this report embraces scarce; specimens of fresh rock were found in only
only a small part of this larger zone, which extends two shallow test pits. The fresh rock is grayish white
from the east coast of Puerto Rico northwest for to tannish gray and has a faint banding. Because
about 50 km (30 miles) to the Cerro La Tiza area of the scarcity of outcrops, many specimens were
(Hildebrand, 1959). collected from massive, brown to brownish-red fer-
The greisen zone and the distribution of adjacent ruginous float blocks, some of which are strongly
volcanic country rocks and plutonic rocks are shown banded and have a pronounced fluting from differen-
in figure 92.2. The volcanic rocks are of probable tial weathering of the bands. The greisen rocks
Cretaceous and early Tertiary age; the greisen zone have a wide range of grain size from fine-grained
is presumably related in origin to the Caguas pluton quartzitelike phases to coarse-grained pegmatitelike
of undetermined age and the San Lorenzo pluton phases in which the minerals have maximum dimen-
of Late Cretaceous or Eocene age (Hildebrand, sions of about 1f2 to 1 em. Both banded and struc-
1959). tureless rocks contain well-djstributed mica and gen-
The host rocks of the greisen are metamorphosed erally the most mieaceous rocks are also the most
and silicified nearly beyond recognition. By analogy ferruginous.
to fresher rocks nearby, the host rocks are probably The greisen mineral assemblage consists princi-
lavas, tuffs, tuff breccias, volcanic breccias and ag- pally of muscovite, andalusite, quartz,· and topaz
glomerates of borderline andesitic-basaltic composi- with moderate amounts of hematite and goethite,
tion. They are greenish gray, moderately foliated, and minor amounts of rutile and jarosite. Topaz is
and contain local patches of weakly bedded siltstone less abundant than andalusite, muscovite, and quartz.
or sandstone. No contacts of the country rocks with Quartz occurs as pods and stringerlike masses. Mus-
either the plutonic rocks or the greisen zone were covite occurs as fine and coarse books and plates as
seen. large as 1 em in maximum dimension that commonly
Plutonic rocks along the south edge of the greisen contain blood-red hematite along cleavage planes,
zone are coarse-grained quartz diorite or granodio- especially at the outer edges. Hematite commonly
rite. Megascopically recognizable minerals are occurs in thin, black, submetallic veins less than 1
quartz, plagioclase feldspar, biotite, hornblende, mm in thickness. Hematite is present on some vuggy
sphene, and magnetite. Pinkish-white pegmatite
vein surfaces as tiny euhedral crystals with striated
dikes composed mainly of orthoclase and quartz and
faces. Some of these crystals of hematite have ap-
having a crude graphic granite texture intrude the
volcanic rocks adjacent to the pluton. parently been altered completely to goethite. Goe-
The greisen zone, because of its assemblage of thite most commonly occurs as thin, black to brown
hard resistant minerals, stands in relief above the botryoidal coatings. In some coatings and crusts,
valley floor of the Rio Grande de Loiza, which goethite grades into hematite and appears to have
cuts transversely across and separates the zone into been altered from it. Rutile occurs sparingly as tiny
two knolls (fig. 92.2). Where exposed only in these purplish-red to light-brown euhedral crystals with
knolls, the zone is about 3 km long and % km wide. adamantine luster. Jarosite was observed only in the
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-.146 B-223
65°4 '

18 ° 15'

.:>

0
Las Piedras

EXPLANATION .

~
Belt of hydrothennally altered rocks SAN LORENZO
~
Magnetite ore bodies
--------
., Inferred margin of plutonic rocks
Dashed where approximate
PLUTON
0
Yabucoa

5 10 KILOMETER 18°00'

5 MILES

FIGURE 92.1.-Index map showing position of greisen area in the long belt of hydrothermally altered rocks and relation of
greisen area to plutonic rocks and magnetite ore bodies. Area shown in details in figure 92.2 is outlined.

--
66°00'
EXPLA ATION

Outcrops of volcanic country rocks

Outcrops of plutonic rocks

~
Outcrops of greisen
Inferred contact between plutonic and vol-
canic rocks or plutonic rocks and greisen

0.5 18° 15'

1000 2000

FIGURE 92.2.-0utcrop map showing relation of greisen to plutonic and country rocks.
 B-224 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

1 freshest specimens as a thin yellowish-brown crust and fluorine were introduced into the host rocks.
in tiny vugs and as minute colloform clusters. Because of the lack of minerals containing sodium,
The greisen probably developed from hydrother- calcium, and magnesium, these cations must have
mal alteration o{ the volcanic country rocks by ema- been removed from the minerals of the host rock.
nations from the Caguas pluton or from similar plu- The hematite in the greisen may be of hydrothermal
tonic rocks at depth. The mode of origin is in origin but it may also have developed by alteration
agreement with stability relations among these min- from magnetite .. Assuming that the greisen pre-
erals as outlined by-Hemley (1959). The temperature viously contained primary magnetite that is now
ne.cessary for the development of andalusite was hematite and. goethite, it seems likely that this
probably above 400°C, which is too high for the greisen zone may be related in origin to magnetite
development or existence of kaolinitic clays that ore bodies that occur between the hydrothermal belt
occur elsewhere in the long, broad hydrothermally and the plutonic rocks (fig. 92~1).
altered belt (Hildebrand, 1959)1. By comparison
with the minerals of the volcanic host rock the REFERENCES
abundance of muscovite, topaz, and iron minerals Remley, J. J., 1959, Some mineralogical equilibria in the sys-
in the greisen indicates that potassium, silica, iron, tem K~O-ALOa-SiO,-H~O: Am. Jour. Sci., v., 257, p. 241-
270.
1 This belt is described in article 91 of this volume. Although information Hildebrand, F. A., 1959, Zones of hydrothermally altered rocks
on the temperature of formation of some minerals of this assemblage is
lacking at this time, pr~sumably the greisen zone was formed at a some-
in eastern Puerto Rico [in Spanish] : Commonwealth of
what greater temperature than was the rest of the hydrothermally altered Puerto Rico, Dept. Indus. Inv., Econ. Devel. Adm., Tech.
belt. Inf., p. 82-96.

93. ASH-FLOW DEPOSITS, CIALES QUADRANGLE, PUERTO RICO, AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

By HENRY L. BERRYHILL, JR., Denver, Colo.

W 01·k done in cooperation with the Depa1·tment of Indust1·ial Research,

Pne1·to Rico Economic Development Administration

The only known ash-flow deposits 1 in Puerto Rico STRATIGRAPHY

are in the north-central part of the island within The lower member of the C~amo formation in
and adjacent to an arcuate northwest ..trending the Ciales quadrangle (Berryhill and others, 1960)
graben about 30 km long and 3 km wide (Berryhill is about 495 m thick and consists of ash-flow de-
and others, 1960). A segment of this graben crosses posits interbedded with conglomerate, lapilli tuff,
the southern part of the Ciales quadrangle (fig. 93.1), and reworked coarse and fine tuff. A reddish color
'
which was mapped in 1958-59 with the assistance distinguishes this sequence of rocks from all other
of Fred A. Hildebrand. The ash-flow deposits rep- volcanic rocks in north-central Puerto Rico.
resent a specific phase of a regional volcanic cycle. Lenticular and very dense ash-flow deposits
Special thanks are extended to Ray E. Wilcox, within the sequence range in thickness from 10 to
whose knowledge of volcanic processes was freely 40 m and extend laterally for at least 4 km in dis-
given and extensively utilized during the study of continuous outcrops. The ash-flow deposits consist
these rocks. primarily of plagioclase crystals, devitrified glass
1 The term "ash flow" is applied here according to the nomenclature of
shards, fragments of feldspathic oxidized lava, pum-
Smith ( 1960, p. 800). ice, and a very fine ash matrix containing iron oxide
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC· AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-225
EXPLANATION

D
Quaternary deposits and middle
Tertiary limestone
D 'I
Lower Tertiary granodiorite
and dioritic intrusive rocks
Upper Cretaceous dacitic ash
flows and associated rocks

D
Cretaceous volcanic rocks; includes
some lower Tertiary rocks
_,.--- ______ ,.,.
N Contact
Dashed where approximately located

0 10 20 30 KILOMETERS
r Fault
U, upthrown side; D, downthrown side. A·r-
rows indicate direction of strike-slip
rnovement
--+.-----......
Syncline, approximately located
......,.
Strike and dip of beds

FIGURE 93.1.-Map of eastern Puerto Rico showing loca~ion of ash-,ow deposits.

dust. The plagioclase crystals are highly fragmented, Top
Thickness
(meters)
the microscopic glass shards are altered, mostly to makes up less than 20 percent of total mass, frag-
quartz and clay, and the flattened pumice bombs and mented plagioclase crystals less than 15 percent.
much of the matrix have been altered to a clay Some fragments have heat reaction rims; pumice
mineral (nontronite ?) , quartz, and zeolites. A con- bombs are compressed only in basal part________________ 26
5. Lapilli tuff, partially welded, reddish brown; hetero-
centration of plagioclase crystals is common at the geneous mixture of partially sericitized frag-
base of the deposits. mented plagioclase crystals, oxidized feldspathic
Welding of the glass shards and fragments under lava fragments, devitrified glass shards, and com-
intense heat and pressure at time of emplacement is pressed pumice bombs well alined parallel to
a distinctive feature of the lower part of each in- stratification. Reddish, fine-grained matrix,
largely altered to zeolite (?), quartz, and non-
dividual ash-flow deposit. The degree of compaction tronite( ?) , makes up 40 percent of total mass;
and cohesion decreases from base to top. Basal parts plagioclase crystals about 15 percent._____________________ 3
of most deposits have vitroclastic texture, but they 4. Tuff, welded, reddish-brown, with sparse fragments
also have a distinct parallelism of shards and flat- of feldspathic lava as much as 5 mm long, vitro-
tening of pumiceous bombs. Upper parts of flows clastic; abundant iron oxide dust; fragmented
plagioclase crystals make up about 15 percent of
are nonwelded tuff comprised primarily of pumi- mass; all pumice bombs compressed; feldspathic
ceous and feldspathic lava fragments and iron-rich lava fragments have heat-reaction rims._______________ 5
chert. 3. Tuff, welded, reddish-gray, vitroclastic; all pumice
The sequence of rock types and the crude zonation bombs compressed and altered to nontronite( ?) ;
within an ash-flow deposit are described in the fol- fragmented plagioclase crystals comprise about 15
lowing representative section: percent of mass·-----------------------------------~---------------------- 0.5
2. Tuff, welded, reddish-brown, vitroclastic-fluidal tex-
Section of an ash-flow deposit 200m west of Quebrada Blacho ture; consists of pulverized andesine (?) crystals
in cliff adjacent to Rio Toro Negro, northern part of in a flour of quartz, iron oxide, zeolite (?), and
barrio Pozas, Ciales quadrangle . nontronite( ?) ; plagioclase makes up about 40 per-
Thickness cent of mass·---------------------------------------------------------------- .3
Top (meters) 1. Crystal tuff, welded, vitroclastic-fluidal texture;
6. Lapilli tuff, nonwelded except for very slight weld- highly fragmented, cracked, and bent andesine(?)
ing at base, reddish brown, compact; intermixed crystals make up about 50 percent of mass (repre-
fragments of pumice, oxidized feldspathic lava, sents sole of ash flow)------·-------..--------------------------------- .07
and iron-rich, reddish-black chert. Fine matrix Base of ash-flow deposit.
B-226 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-Chemical and app1·oxirnate mineral composition of ' REGIONAL RELATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE
a dacite ash-flow deposit and of granodiorite f'rom the Ciales
stock, north-central Pue1·to Rico Ash-flow deposits of dacitic composition on top
[Analysts: P. D. Elmore, I. H. Barlow, S. D. Botts, and Gillison Chloe] of a pile of andesitic tuffs and basaltic pillow lavas
several thousand meters thick, suggest a progressive
Norms
change in the composition of magmas that supplied

~~----
SJ02
Al20 3
-------
Granodiorite

61.3
16.4
Dacite

--~=--
6.3'.
16.5
I
----'---(-
------------~-------
Granodiorite

Q
or
14. ,)
20.0
---~--
Q
OJ'
Dacite

W.8
25.0
the Late Cretaceous volcanic materials.
Although both overlain and underlain by volcanic
breccia and tuff that are obviously marine, the
Fe20a 3.0 :3.7 ab 28.8 ab :~6.6 Coamo formation ash-flow deposits are probably sub-
FeO 2. 7 1. 0 an 19. 5 an 10. 0 aerial in origin as shown by interlayers of fluvial
:\I gO 2.1 1.3 e J . :3
:\InO .18 . 15 wo 2.4 gravel and nonstratified mudflow deposits, and plant-
CaO 5. 1 2 .·2 en 5. 2 en :3. 2 root casts. Moreover, as pointed out by Rankin
~a 2 0 :~.4 4.2 fR 2.8
K 20 3.4 4.2 mt 4.4 mt 1.6 (1960, p. 32), an ash flow (the specific gravity of
H 20 1 .1 2. 2 il 1. 1 il 1.1 which is well below unity) could not be propagated
Ti0 2 • 5() . 74 ap l. 0 ap 1.:3
P 20 5 • 40 . 22 he 1 . :~ under water, much less become welded.
C0 2 .07 .06 r .2
The geographic and structural position of the
Total 99.61 100.17 100.1 98.4 graben relative to plutonic intrusives (fig. 93.1) and
the restricted occurrence of ash-flow deposits within
The age of the ash-flow deposits, based on cor- and adjacent to the graben suggest that the area of
relation with fossil-bearing marine rocks of the accumulation was initially outlined by sagging of a
Coamo formation elsewhere in Puerto Rico, is latest crustal segment above a magma chamber. Faulting,
Cretaceous (Maestrichtian). Massive gray poorly both contemporaneous with and subsequent to ash-
stratified andesitic volcanic breccia and possibly re- flow deposition, formed the graben. The chemical
worked marine tuffs of Late Cretaceous ( ?) and and mineralogical similarity (table 1) of the dacite
e~rly Tertiary age overlie the ash-flow deposits. ash-flow deposits and the granodiorite in the nearby
Chemical analyses and normative .mineralogic cal- stocks suggests that the ash-flow deposits represent
culations (table 1) indicate that the ash-flow de- expulsion of volatile-rich magmatic material from
posits are dacite.
these plutonic bodies after they had moved upward
STRUCTURE into the near-surface crustal zone.
The graben that contains the ash-flow deposits is
REFERENCES
bounded on the southwest by a regional strike-slip
fault and on the northeast by a fault that is sub- Berryhill, H. L., Jr., Briggs, R. P., and Glover, Lynn, III,
sidiary to the regional fault (fig. 93.1). The throw 1960, Stratigraphy, sedimentation, and structure of Late
Cretaceous rocks in eastern Puerto Rico--preliminary
of the graben increases progressively toward the
report: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 44, no.
southeast end where the ash-flow deposits are in 2, p. 137-155. f
juxtaposition with basaltic pillow lavas that are sev- Rankin, D. W., 1960, Paleogeographic implications of deposits
eral thousand meters stratigraphically lower than of hot ash flows: Internat. Geol. Cong., 21st, Copenhagen,
the ash-flow deposits. The rocks within the graben 1960, sec. 12, pt. 12, p. 19-34.
form a syncline, although internal faulting has seg- Smith, R. L., 1960, Ash flows: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71,
mented the graben into tilted blocks. no. 6, p. 795-846.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-227

PALEONTOLOGY AND PLANT ECOLOGY

94. REPLACED PALEOCENE FORAMINIFERA IN THE JACKSON PURCHASE AREA, KENTUCKY

By I. G. SOHN, S. M. HERRICK, and T. W. LAMBERT, Washington, D. C., Atlanta, Ga., and Paducah, Ky.

Abundant replaced Foraminifera were recognized Siphonina p1·ima Plummer, 1927

wilcoxen.<~is? Cushman, 1927
by Sohn in a glauconitic sandy claystone of the Clay-
Aste'rige1·ina p1·imm·ia Plummer, 1927
ton ( ?) formation near Reidland, 8.2 miles southeast Alabamina wilcoxensis Toulmin, 1941
• of the Paducah Court House. The fossiliferous bed
is in a bank of a tributary of the Clark River, in
Pullenia quinqueloba (Reuss). Cushman, 1940
Globige1·ina pseudo-bulliodes Plummer, 1927
which the following formations are exposed: t1·iloculinoides Plummer, 1927
Anomalina midwayensis (Plummer). Cushman, 1940
Section near Reidland, McCracken County, Ky. acuta Plummer, 1927
(Pnducnh Enst 71,-~J-minute quadrangle measured by T. W. Lambert)
clementiana (d'Orbigny). Franke, 1925
Paleocene. Feet
Cibicides alleni (Plummer). Plummer, 1933
Porters Creek clay: newmanae (Plummer). Cushman and Todd, 1942
Black claystone -----------------------·-------------------------------------- 10
Clayton(?) formation: When tested with dilute hydrochloric acid, speci-
Glauconitic claystone, sandy; Foraminifera and mens belonging in nor;mally calcareous foraminiferal
barite(?) crystals .. ------------------·----------------------------------- 2 to 3 genera did not dissolve. Charles Milton determined
Upper Cretaceous.
that the foraminiferal tests are composed of a mix-
Owl Creek(?) formation:
Black claystone -------------------------------------------------------------- 6
ture consisting of hulandite and, probably barite.
Black glauconitic claystone__________________________________________ 5 (?) Crystals probably composed of barite are found with
McNairy sand: the fossils.
lnterlaminated lignitic clay and fine-grained Switzer and Boucot ( 1955) record foraminiferal
micaceous sandstone ...... -------------------------------------------- 15+ tests replaced by heulandite in specimens of Paleo-
The bulk of the faunule is small enough to pass cene age from a well near Jackson, Tenn., at depths
through a 100-mesh screen, although some large 483-509 feet. Barite has not yet been recorded as ·
specimens also are present. The following forms replacing foraminiferal tests, although megafossils
were identified by S. M. Herrick : replaced by barite are known (Ladd, 1957, p. 23).
Reophax? sp. The only other record of Tertiary Foraminifera in
Textula~·ia midwayana La)icker, 1935 the Upper Mississippi Embayment is that by Cooper
Clavulinoides midwayensis Cushman, 1936 (1944). He described a foraminiferal assemblage of
Adhae'rentia midwayensis Plummer, 1938 Paleocene age from the Porters Creek formation in
Robulu.s midwayensis (Plummer), 1927
cf. R. rosettus (Gumbel). Cushman, 1940
well samples from depths of 115-135 feet at Cache,
Dentalina cf. D. cooperensis? Cushman. Cooper, 1944 Alexander County, Ill. These fossils are calcareous.
Nodosa'ria latejugata· Gumbel, 1870 Lamar and Sutton (1930) pointed out that absence
Chrysalogonium eocenicum? Cushman and Todd, 1946 of calcareous material is one of the outstanding
Ramulina cf. R. aculeata (d'Orbigny). Cushman, 1940 features of most of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
Nonionella sp.
Bolivinopsis cf. B. rosula (Ehrenberg). Cushman, 1949
sedimentary rocks in Kentucky, Illinois, and Mis-
Guembelina morsei Kline, 1943 souri. They suggested that the absence of fossils is
Siphogenerinoides eleganta (Plummer). Cushman, 1940 due to leaching. Replaced fossils near the surface
Bulimina cacu.menata Cushman and Parker, 1936 at Reidland, and unreplaced fossils at a depth of
(Desinobulimina) quadrata Plummer. Cushman, more than 100 feet in Illinois support that hy-
1940
Bolivina midwayensis Cushman, 1936
pothesis.
midwayensis· Cushman, 1936
REFERENCES
Loxostomum deadericki Cushman, 1947
deadericki Cushman var. exilis Cushman, 1947 Cooper, C. L., 1944, Smaller Foraminifera from the Porters
Ellipsonodosaria paleocenica? Cushman and Todd, 1946 Creek formation (Paleocene) of Illinois: Jour. Paleon-
Valvulineria wilcoxensis Cushman and Ponton, 1932 tology, v. 18, p. 343-354, pis. 54, 55.
'- Gyroidina. aequilateralis (Plummer). Cushman, 1944 Ladd, H. S., 1957, Treatise on marine ecology and paleoecol-
Gyroidina subangulata (Plummer). Cushman, 1940 ogy: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 67, v. 2, 1077 p.
B-228 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Lamar, J. E., and Sutton, A. H., 1930, Cretaceous a.nd .Tertiary I Switzer, George, and Boucot, A. J., 1955, The mineral com-
sediments of Kentucky, Illinois and Missouri: Am. Assoc. position of some microfossils: Jour. Paleontology, v. 29,
Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 14, p. 845-866, 3 figs. p. 525-533.

95. COAL-BALL OCCURRENCES IN EASTERN KENTUCKY

By JAMES M. ScHOPF, Columbus, Ohio

Coal balls containing abundant petrified plant re- currence, this bed thickens and resembles a coquinoid
mains were found beneath the marine Magoffin beds breccia. The Magoffin beds of Morse ( 1931) are
of Morse (1931f in eastern Kentucky during field discussed by Johnston and others ( 1955) in the
seasons of 1949, 1950, and 1951. Apparently, these Cornettsville area and have been widely identified
are the oldest coal-ball occurrences known in North by Wanless (1939, p. 53; 1946, p_. 145). McFarlan
America, and the first to be. found in the Appa- ( 1943) also has discussed the occurrence of this
lachian province. The eastern Kentucky coal balls marine zone in Kentucky. Wanless ( 1957, p. 73)
are intermediate in age between those known from indicated that the Magoffin beds of Morse (1931)
the Lower Coal Measures of Britain and the Interior were correlated with the Winefrede limestone of
basins· in the United States. Collections of this ma- West Virginia, the Lower Mercer limestone of Ohio
terial have been studied intermittently by me since and Pennsylvania, the Minshall limestone of Indiana,
autumn 1950. I am indebted to John W. Huddle, the Verne limestone of Michigan, and the Curlew
John E. Johnston, and other U. S. Geological Sur- and Seville limestones of Illinois.
vey geologists for knowledge of the Kentucky oc- The eastern Kentucky coal balls occur close below
·currences, which are listed below: the marine beds at Shock Branch and Lewis Creek
1. Shock Branch. Creek-bed outcrop half a mile and apparently occupy the position of the Copeland
above the confluence of Shock (Shack) Branch coal of Morse (1931). They evidently are- within
with Rockhouse Creek, about 3 miles south- Read's (1947) Neuropte1·is ten~tifolia zone of late
west of Hyden, Leslie Coui:J.ty, Ky. Kanawha (Mercer) age: The relation of the Bear
2. Lewis Creek. Creek-bed outcrop one-fourth mile Branch coal balls to the principal marine zone is
above confluence of Lewis Creek with Left less definite (J. E. Johnston, written communica-
Fork, about 4 miles east of Chappell townsite, tion) ; they probably are slightly older than those at
Leslie- County, Ky. the other localities.
3. Bear Branch. Outcrop in ravine on southeast The coal balls consist of limestone having less than
slope about three-fourths mile from the point 10 percent included plant substance. They generally
where Bear (Briar) Branch empties into North appear light buff to brown on weathered surfaces,
Fork of Kentucky River, about one mile west and include whiter areas of purer calcite and darker
of Cornettsville townsite (Dent), Perry areas due to crusts of coal. Coal balls range from
County, Ky. the size of small pisolites to large solid aggregated
The Magoffin beds of Morse ( 1931, p. 302-303)
masses as much as a yard thick. Coal balls charac-
represent one of the most widely distributed and
teristically are restricted to local areas in a coal bed,
easily identified stratigraphic "markers" of eastern'
coal measures. In some places, the marine beds are and, in this respect, the eastern Kentucky coal balls
distinguished chiefly by impressions of invertebrate are typical. The coal bed beneath the limestone is
fossils in shale; in other places, they are accompa- not thick, and it becomes particularly inconspicuous
nied by limestone masses of lenticular concretionary in the presence of abundant coal-ball deposits.
habit. A lower limestone layer a few inches thick Plant assemblages from coal balls at all three
is most persistent and, near the Lewis Creek oc- localities appear similar and include calamites and
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-229

60 E
E
3 Q

FIGURE 95.1.-1, Cross section of Bear Branch coal ball showing arrangement of peaty plant material. Stigmarian
axis (a), stigmarian roots radiating from axis (b), calamite stem fragments (c), and fine vegetable debris in-
cluding tiny leaves, stems, spores, and seeds (d).
2, Cross section of delicate stigmarian root from Bear Branch coal ball showing original form. Central air cavity
(a), conductive strand (b), and parenchymatous outer cortex (c).

lepidophytes in abundance; Botr·yopter"is, Car·diocar·- The marine limestone associated with these coal
pon, M edullosa, and other elements may be new. balls is argillaceous, calcite-cemented, and contains
Coal balls represent petrified peat litter, or peat, small cavities. Weathered surfaces are mottled buff
of Carboniferous age. A cross section of one of the or gray. Many dissociated crinoid stem segments,
coal balls shown in figure 95.1. (1) illustrates the worn brachiopod valves, small gastropods, bryozoan
arrangement of peaty plant material. If it had not fragments, and one shark tooth have been observed.
been petrified, this peat would have contributed a Pebbles and small cobbles of the brown coal-ball
layer of coal to the thin coal bed. The brown colora- limestone also may occur within this coquinoid
tion of coal-ball limestone is mostly derived from the matrix, but these appear to be erratic, redeposited
natural color of the original peat preserved in a in the coquina. The surfaces of these coal-ball
finely crystalline to cryptocrystalline calcite matrix. pebbles are rounded, with some re-entrant cavities.
Spherulitic or concretionary bands of crystal pat- Some rounding may come from local transport, but
terns in the matrix often pass through plant fossils the cavities suggest etching or solution. The coal
without notable interruption. However, tissue pres- ba.lls themselves, the later generation of coarsely
ervation is mostly a result of mineral infiltration and crystalline veins, and the coquina cement all show
impregnation, rather than replacement. The cell that excess calcium carbonate was present during
walls of tissues generally are intact and mineral petrification and early diagenesis.
infiltration has been early and rapid enough to pre- Preservation of cytologic details in some of the
serve even residues of protoplasmic substances in- land plant remains strongly indicates early and rapid
side the cells of some fossils. Preservation of deli- initial precipitation of coal-ball calcite. The close
cate cytologic structures of fossil plants is not as association with an overlying marine limestone in
unusual as was once supposed, but it serves to empha- eastern Kentucky is similar to relations at other coal-
ize the quality of preservation in some of these coal
ball localities such as those at Berryville, Ill. and
balls. A common type of delicate tissue preservation
West Mineral, Kans. described by Mamay and Yo-
is illustrated in figure 95.1 (2) by a section of stig-
marian root showing its original form. Preservation chelson (1953). Henbest (1958) has discussed
generally is poor wherever plant substance is ac- ecologic implications of a similar deposit in the
tually replaced by mineral matter. A few vugs and Secor coal bed near McAlester, Okla. The marine
veins represent a later generation of coarsely crystal- invasion over the coal swamp evidently was so rapid
line calcite within larger coal balls. Petrified tissues that it corresponds to a "local catyclism." The same
are interrupted in these areas. interpretation seems applicable to occurrences in
B-230 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

eastern Kentucky and nearly all the other 20-odd Mamay, S. H., and Yochelson, E. L., 1953, Floral-faunal
occurrences I have examined in the Interior coal associations in American coal balls: Science, v. 118, p.
240-241.
fields over the past 30 years. Morse, W. C., 1931, The Pennsylvanian invertebrate fauna of
Kentucky: Kentur~ky Geol. Survey, Ser. VI, v. 36, p.
REFERENCES 296-349.
Henbest, L. G., 1958, Ecology and life association of fossil Read, C. B., 1947, Pennsylvanian floral zones and floral
algae and Foraminifera in a Pennsylvanian limestone, provinces: Jour. Geology, v. 55, p. 271-279.
McAlester, Oklahoma: Cushman Foundation for Fora- . Wanless, H. R., 1939, Pennsylvanian correlations in the east-
ern Interior and Appalachian coal fields: Geol. Soc.
miniferal Research, v. 9, pt. 4, p. 104-111.
America Spec. Paper no. 17, p. 1-130, 9 pls.
Johnston, J. E., Stafford, P. T., and Welch, S. W., 1955, Pre- - - 1946, Pennsylvanian geology of a part of the Southern
liminary coal map of the Cornettsville quadrangle, Perry, Appalachian coal field: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 13, p.
Knott, Letcher, Harlan, and Leslie Counties, Kentucky: 1-161, 40 pls.
U.S. Geol. Survey Coal Inv. Map C-22. - - 1957, Geology and ·mineral resources of the Beards-
McFarlan, A. C., 1943, Geology of Kentucky: Lexington, town, Glasford, Havana, and Vermont quadrangles:
Univ. Kentucky, p. 105-106. Illinois Geol. Survey Bull. 82, 233 p., 7 pls.

96. AGE OF THE OHIO CREEK CONGLOMERATE, GUNNISON COUNTY, COLORADO

By D. L. GASKILL, Denver, Colo.

The discovery of fossil plants in the Ohio Creek tion, there is much argillaceous and carbonaceous
conglomerate about 10 miles northwest of the type material, including thin lenses and pellets of green-
locality ·in the Anthracite quadrangle, Gunnison ish-gray clay, thin silty shaly layers, and carbonized
County, Colo., indicates a Paleocene age for the wood fragments. The conglomeratic lenses are com-
formation. posed of smooth gen.erally well-rounded, poorly· ce-
The Ohio Creek beds were first referred to by mented pebbles and cobbles of variously-shaded gray,
Hill (1890), and by Cross (1892), and mapped as red, orange, yellow, or brown chert and quartzite,
the Ohio formation by Eldridge (1894). In the white quartzite, quartz, argillite, and claystone, and
northwest quarter of the Anthracite quadrangle the an occasional pebble of igneous or volcanic rock. The
Ohio Creek conglomerate is a light-gray to white, pebbles and cobbles range from about 1.4 to 3 inches
conglomeratic, feldspathic, quartzose sandstone un- in diameter, but most of them are lf2 to 11;2 inches
conformably overlying beds assigned to the Mesa- in diameter. At one locality numerous boulder-size
verde formation (Lee, 1912), and unconformably concretions and concretionary lenses of hard dense
overlain by the Wasatch ("Ruby") formation. The fine-grained sandstone were found. Torrential cross- .
Ohio Creek beds are generally massive, conglomeratic bedding commonly occurs within the individual lay-
at the base, with a few conglomeratic lenses or peb- ers. The mineral composition seems to be rather
ble layers above. Grain size is predominantly medium uniform, although no microscopic examinations were
to coarse, but individual lenses range from very fine made. The thickness of the formation ranges from
to very coarse angular-grained sandstone. Grains of
about 15 to 80 feet in this area.
quartz predominate. Weathered feldspar locally
Fossil plants were collected from a locality on
constitutes 15 to 30 percent of the matrix. Scattered
grains of chert, .argillite, and occasional rounded the ridge north of Middle Anthracite Creek at an
granules of chert are common constituents. Some elevation of 9,100 feet in the N~ sec. 1, T. 13 S., R.
lenses contain flakes of biotite, muscovite, and less 88 W., 6th P.M. From this collection, J. A. Wolfe
(written communication, 1960) identified "Juglans" _,
commonly, grains of pink feldspar and· hornblende.
At places, particularly at the base of the forma- rhamnoides Lesquereux, "Magnolia" magnifolia
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-231
Knowlton, and Platanus 1·egula'l'is Knowlton. Wolfe REFERENCES
states: Cross, Whitman, 1892, Post-Laramie deposits of Colorado:
Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., v. 44, no. 259, p. 19-42.
The "Juglans" 'rhamnoides is known from several Paleocene
Eldridge, G. H., 1894, Description of the sedimentary forma-
floras, but has also been recorded (erroneously I think) from
tions, i'n Anthracite-Crested Butte quadrangles, Colorado:
Late Cretaceous floras. The other two species are only known U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 9, p. 6-10.
from Paleocene floras such as the Raton and Denver. This Hill, R. C., 1890, Orographic and structural features of Rocky
small flora is certainly of Paleocene age, and is probably Mountain geology: Colorado Sci. Soc. Proc., v. 3, p. 362-
correlative with the early Paleocene Raton and Denver 458.
floras * * *. The species identified are characteristic forms of Lee, W. T., 1912, Coal fields of Grand -Mesa and the West Elk
the Paleocene and preclude a Cretaceous age. Mountains, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 510, 237 p.

97. BIOHERMS IN THE UPPER PART OF THE POGONIP IN SOUTHERN NEVADA

By REUBEN J. Ross, JR., and HENRY R. CORNWALL, Denver, Colo., and Menlo Park, Calif.

Recent stratigraphiG study in southern ·Nevada silty and muddy limestones which are highly fossili-
·• has led to the recognition of large bioherms of very ferous and are characterized in particular by the ·
pure limestone in the upper part of the Pogonip presence of trilobites that suggest correlation with
group (Early and Middle Ordovician). These are the Kanosh shale of Hintze (1952, p. 20-23) and of
known at Meiklejohn Peak in the Bare Mountain the brachiopods of the 01·thidiella zone of Nolan,
quadrangle (Cornwall and Kleinhampl, 1960), south- Merriam, and "'illiams (1956, p. 28-29). Each of
west of Aysees Peak in the Frenchman Lake quad- these surrounding beds seems to grade laterally into
rangle, and probably west of Oak Spring in the some portion of the upper convex side of the bioherm
northern part of the Tippipah Spring quadrangle. in w}?ich it loses. its identity within a few feet. Al-
In cross section these bioherms are great lens- though there is locally an appearance of "wrapping
shaped masses almost flat on the bottom and convex around" the upper surface of the bioherm, no single
upward on the top. The largest, located on the west bed can be found to overlie its curved surface for
side of Meiklejohn Peak (fig. 97.1), is estimated to an appreciable distance. At no place have we been
be 250 to 300 feet in maximum thickness and ap- able to find a .truly distinct contact along the sloping
proximately ~~ mile in lateral extent. All these sides of the bioherm. We infer that the surrounding
masses are composed of light-gray aphanitic lime- muddy beds were deposited while the bioherm was
stone of a massive nature that shows very few in- growing and that its mass was not developed and
ternal depositional structures. However, detailed then buried at a later date.
petrologic work is yet to be done. · Our ~xamination of lithologic features has been
All the bioherms are in the lower part of the only cursory and was undertaken only at Meiklejohn
Antelope Valley limestone of southern Nevada. Peak. There, small masses of thinly laminated lime-
Specifically they rest almost directly on top of unit stones, in which the laminae appear complexly con-
F of Johnson and Hibbard (1957,. p. 347) and they torted, are present within the base of the bioherm.
extend upward within what those authors call unit The boundaries of the laminae, which do not exceed
G. It is of considerable importance to note that unit 1 inch in thickness, are delineated by extensive de-
G does not increase in thickness where the bioherms velopment of secondary calcite. There are also some
are present. Its top and bottom limits remain essen- 6-inch to 1-foot beds composed almost entirely of the
tially paraJlel. shells of small brachiopods, but these beds are ex-
The bed on which each bioherm rests is seemingly ceedingly rare. On the north side of the bioherm on
continuous underneath the bioherm. Surrounding Meiklejohn Peak, large cephalopods are well defined
beds above the base are composed mostly of impure 1 in various orientations within its mass.
B-232 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

FIGURE 97.1.-Large bioherm (white area) in the Pogonip group in the southwest slope of Meiklejohn Peak js about 250 feet
thick.

F
and
E

FIGURE 97.2.-Bioherm (white area) in the Pogonip group southwest of Aysees Peak, Frenchman Lake quadrangle, is 75 feet
thick, rests on unit F, and is within lower part of unit G of Johnson and Hibbard (1957, p. 347).
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-233
The bioherm southwest of Aysees Peak (Nevada ined any of these deposits. We do not know what
grid, central zone, 750,100 feet E. and 773,000 feet organisms contributed most to their construction.
N., on Frenchman Lake quadrangle) (fig. 97.2) prob- When detailed studies have been undertaken and
ably does not exceed 75 feet in thickness. and 250 feet completed on these and any other similar structures
in width. It is located high on the east wall of a in the same stratigraphic posit{on it may be possible
large canyon. The eroded remains of· another bio- to reach conclusions concerning their ecologic sig-
herm ~re readily seen high above the canyon in a nificance, and concerning the factors that caused or
side draw 4,000 feet to the north-northeast (Nevada permitted growth of such impressive structures
grid, central zone, 751,000 feet E., 776,700 feet N.). essentially contemporaneously in a large area of
A third bioherm buildup may be located west of southern Nevada.
Oak Spring in the Tippipah Spring quadrangle (Ne- At the present time the economic significance of
vada grid, central zone, 674,750 feet E., 907,500 feet these buildups seems limited. They are so compact
N.). This area on the west side of Amphitheater and aphanitic in texture that they probably could
.Valley has been mapped geologically by Houser and not themselves serve as reservoirs for petroleum.
Poole ( 1960). Ross believes such a mass may be Analyses by I. C. Frost and E. J. Fennelly, U. S.
represented by the uppermost exposed unit of the Geological Survey, indicate that the single sample
Pogonip as mapped by Houser and Poole (1960, tested is composed 93 percent of calcite and 2.65
unit Opma, sheet 1) as the upper part of the Pogonip.
percent of dolomite.
This unit is composed of exceedingly fine grained
homogenous dolomite in which bedding is either REFERENCES
massive or very thick. The typical flat bottom and
Cornwall, H. R., and Kleinhampl, F. J., 1960, Preliminary
convex top cannot be demonstrated and the presence geologic map of the Bare Mountain quadrangle, Nye
of a bioherm is therefore uncertain. We have estab- County, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Mineral Inv. Field
lished the presence of a fauna within· the under- Studies Map MF-239.
lying unit which dates it beyond question as equiva- Hintze, L. F., 1952, Lower Ordovician trilobites from western
lent to the Ninemile formation and to unit D of Utah and eastern Nevada: Utah Geol. and Mineralogo.
Survey Bull 48, 249 p., 28 pis.
Johnson and Hibbard (1957, p. 346) in a much
Houser, F. N., and Poole, F. G., 1960, Preliminary geologic
dolomitized state. The stratigraphic position, homo- . map of the Climax stock and vicinity, Nye County,
geneous nature of the rock, and aphanitic texture Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Misc. Geol. Inv. Map I-328.
of the dolomite suggest to Ross that this body is Johnson, M. S., and Hibbard, D. E., 1957, Geology of the
also a bioherm. Atomic Energy Commission, Nevada Proving Grounds
The localities mentioned here are in an area that area, Nevada: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1021-K, p. 333-
384, pis. 32, 33, fig. 57.
is approximately 50 miles from east to west and 30 Nolan, T. B., Merriam, C. W., and Williams, J. S., 1956, The
miles from north to south in the southern part of stratigraphic section in the vicinity of Eureka, Nevada:
Nevada. To our knowledge, rio algalogist has exam- U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 276, 77 p., illus.

98. SOIL MOISTURE UNDER JUNIPER AND PINYON COMPARED WITH MOISTURE UNDER GRASSLAND IN
ARIZONA

By R. F. MILLER, F. A. BRANSON, I. S. McQUEEN, and R. C. CULLER, Denver, Colo.

r Soil-moisture movement and retention in areas from the eradication of juniper and pinyon and re-
under juniper and pinyon as compared with areas placement with grass. Soil moisture, temperature,
under grass are being investigated at selected sites and moisture tension under the three types of plant
on the Fort Apache Indian Reservation in Arizona to cover illustrated in figure 98.1 will be measured peri-
determine if a net gain of usable water· can result odically for one year starting early in 1961; prelimi-
B-234: GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Soil moisture, temperature, and moisture tension

were determined at 3- to 4-inch increments down
through each of the three soils (fig. 98.2). Soil
samples were obtained with a 3-inch diameter barrel-
type auger . . Part of each sample was placed in a can
with a disc of dry pentachlorophenol-treated filter
paper, and sealed with elastic adhesive tape. The
containers were then stored in a constant tempera-
ture chamber for 2 weeks to permit equilibration
between the moisture in the soil and the moisture
in the pa.p er. Moisture contents of the filter papers
and the soil samples were obtained gravimetrically.
Soil moisture tension was then determined from a
curve that relates the percent of moisture in the
paper to soil moisture tension (Gardner, 1936). Soil
temperature was determined for each sample as
A it was taken from the auger hole.
Moisture storage in the upper part of the soil
columns was greatest under the dense stand of trees

TEMPERATURE , IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE

SOIL MOISTURE, IN PERCENT
10 20 30

I
I
(f)
w
::r:
(.)
.. /
)
I

B ~
' '\
FIGURE 98.1.-Photographs of sites being investigated. A,
forested area in background, sparsely vegetated area in
foreground; B, open grassland.
:£
1-
a..
w
0
\
nary measurements were made at these sites near the
' l
c
end of the 1960 growing s.eason (late September). In-
formation on t he vegetative and aerial cover at each
site is given in t able 1.

TABLE 1.-Ground and aerial cove1· on each of th1·ee sites

· sampled.
l OOL-~~~~~~~LL~~~~L_LL~LULL~~_L_j
Ground cover lperrent) 100 50 10 5 3
MOISTURE TENSION. IN ATMOSPHERES
Vegetative
cover
Type of roots
using water
from t he soil
I Bare
soil
Bare
rocks Mulch Grass Forbs
Aerial
cover
~
EXPLANATION
_..... - ...... -~-
---·-··-······- ...
- -- -- - - -- - Grassland Sparsely vegetated Forested
Sparsely vegetated . Grass and t r<'C ... . 75.3 0 .2 20 .3 4.0 0.3 12
Forested .. . ....... 1J;ce.... .. .....•. 0 0 100 0 0 100 FIGURE 98.2.-Soil moisture (M), temperatures, in degrees
centigrade (C), and moisture tension (T) under the three
Grassland .. . ..•. . . Grass . .. . ·.· . .... ·14R 0.8 40.1 12.2 0 .9 25
different types of plant cover illustrated in figure 98.1.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, AliTICLES 1-146 B-235
(fig. 98.2). Soil moisture under the trees, to a depth 1 ture could move down by vapor diffusion in the two
of 3 feet, was also retained at lower moisture ten- grass-covered soils, but would move toward the sur-
sions. This is apparently the combined result of face under the trees in response to the slight tempera-
lower temperatures from shading, and reduction of ture gradients (Philip and Devries, 1957).
evaporation by a thick mulch of fallen foliage. The accumulations of moisture that are indicated
Soil temperatures and moisture tensions at the by zones of reduced moisture tension at several
surface (fig. 98.2) were highest in the site with the depths in each of the grass-covered soils (fig. 98.2),
least aerial plant cover and decreased as the cover reflect a downward movement of water. This move-
increased. ment could be· a response to moisture-tension grad-
Soil moisture in the grass-root zone (0-48 inches) ients as well as to temperature gradients, inasmuch
of the two grassed sites was held at about the same as capillary tension increases below each zone of
moisture tensions down through the soil profiles. moisture accumulation. Moisture tensions at depth
The decrease in moisture tension with depth prob- are within the range through which Philip and
ably reflects a decrease in the amount of grass roots Devries ( 1957) report a maximum of soil-moisture
with depth. The differences in moisture content transfer by a combination of capillary tension and
betwee!l soils are apparently the result of differences moisture diffusion in response to temperature
in soil porosity, rather than differences in water gradients.
use by the plants. Therefore, differences in water-
using capabilities of trees compared to those of grass REFERENCES
may be more adequately reflected by moisture-ten- Gardner, Robert, 1936, A method of measuring the capillary
sion data than by soil moisture. tension of soil moisture over a wide range: Soil Science,
v. 43, p. 277-283.
Throughout the profiles temperatures tend to de- Philip, J. R., and Devries, D. A., 1957, Moisture movement in
crease with depth in the two grass-covered soils, but porous materials under temperature gradients: Am. Geo-
to increase with depth under the trees. Thus, mois- phys. Union Trans., v. 38, p. 222-232.

99. CORALS FROM PERMIAN ROCKS OF THE NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION

By HELEN DUNCAN, Washington, D. C.

'rhe seeming absence of corals in the Permian during a period of about 15 years, I had seen no
rocks of the northern Rocky Mountain region has corals in Permian collections made by U.S. Geologi-
been a faunal anomaly to stratigraphic paleontolo- cal Survey geologists from the northern Rockies. It
·, gists concerned with studies of the Phosphoria, Park is therefore worthy of note that E. L. Yochelson's
City, and Shedhorn formations. Some of the sedi- current i~vestigations of faunas from the Phos-
mentary environments that prevailed in the region phoria, Park City, and Shedhorn formations have
through much of Permian time quite obviously disclosed the presence of horn corals in 4 collections,
were unfavorable for corals, but it is difficult to I of which at least 2 are certainly Permian. E. R.
1
explain why these organisms should not be present Cressman's discovery of colonial rugose corals in
in carbonate facies that supported a fairly prolific strata assigned to the lower member (supposedly
fauna of bryozoans and articulate brachiopods. Grandeur equivalent) of the Park City formation in
Solitary rugose corals normally occur in such faunal Lemhi County, Idaho, extends our data on the geo-
associations, and representatives of the group are graphic distribution of a coral zone that is fairly
found, at least sporadically, in temporally equivalent widely developed in western Lower Permian rocks
strata to the west and south. (Wolfcamp and early Leonard equivalents).
The many reports of Girty on Permian faunas of The material presently available is meager and
the region contain no references to corals; moreover, very poorly preserved, but it is adequate to demon-
B-236 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

strate that corals are not entirely lacking in the art Flat quadrangle, Caribou County, Idaho. The t

Permian of the region. It is hoped that future col- corals were obtained when rock from this locality
lecting will provide specimens that can be used for was dissolved in acid. These silicified specimens have
systematic description. Known occurrences are re- slightly curved ceratoid coralla, the largest being
viewed in this paper. about 10 mm long, with rather conspicuous longi-
tudinal ribbing. Evidence of internal deposits
MONTANA (septa, tabulae, etc.) is lacking, possibly having been
Corals were found in two collections from tongues destroyed by the acid treatment.
of the Park City that extend into the Sno:wcrest E. R. Cressman found colonial rugose corals at
Range in southeast Beaverhead County, Mont. A three localities in the Morrison Lake quadrangle,.
mold of a calyx of a small horn coral was collected Lemhi County, Idaho. The material is recorded as
about the middle of the Franson tongue on Sawtooth coming from the lower part of the Park City forma-
Peak (USGS 10854-PC). The rock is composed tion, a unit that presumably would now be called the
largely of organic debris, and the coral was reworked Grandeur member. The corals are replaced by silica,
to some extent but presumably came from essentially and one cannot be. certain that all critical internal
contemporaneous deposits. This occurrence is defin- structures are preserved. Specimens from two of
itely Permian .. the localities, one (USGS 19302-PC) 66 feet above
Two fragments of small horn corals in fine-grained the base of the Park City in the Hawley Creek sec-
siliceous rock were collected from beds considered tion and the other (USGS 19303-PC) from about the
in the field to be about the middle of the Grandeur middle of the suppos'ed Grandeur member, are dis-
tongue of the Park City on Hogback Mountain sepimented phaceloid forms. The corallites seem to
(USGS 11674-PC). Sections reveal that one of the have relatively short septa and slightly domed tabu-
specimens is probably LophoJJhyllidium.. The othei· lae. Most individuals show no evidence of columel-
is a zaphrentoid coral too altered for generic identi- lae or axial structures; however, traces of delicate
fication. According to Yochelson (oral communica- axial rods and slightly more complicated structures
tion, 1961), the beds from which the collection came were seen in a few transverse sections. It is impos-
probably are older than the type Grandeur member. sible to tell whether axial structures originally were
The corals are not of kinds that can be safely used present in all corallites and largely destroyed in the
to differentiate Permian from Pennsylvania. course of replacement, or whether these corals repre-
sent a diphyphyllid variant of some lithostrotionoid
WYOMING genus.
Another genus of dissepimented phaceloid coral
A collection (USGS 12201-PC) from the base
was collected 185 feet above the base of the Park
of the lower part of the Shedhorn sandstone on Tosi
City in the Hawley Creek section (USGS 19304-PC).
Creek, Gros Ventre quadrangle, Sublette County,
Wyo., provided a mold of a small horn coral, which The septa are persistent and relatively long, and
I suspect belongs to the lophophyllidid group. There most of the corallites exhibit an arachnoid axial
is no· good evidence from the associated fauna that structure. This form is related to H eritschioides.
the beds in question are Permian. The colonial corals obtained from the lower part
of the Park City of the Morrison Lake quadrangle
IDAHO suggest that the beds involved are pre-Kaibab in age
Three minute horn corals of indisputable Permian and somewhat older than the Grandeur member of
age were discovered in a collection from a limestone the type area in the Wasatch Mountains. Similar
lens near the middle of the Rex chert member of the corals occur rather widely in the Great Basin, com-
Phosphoria formation. This lot (USGS 19532-PC) monly in the zone of Pseudoschwagerina and primi-
was collected on the South Fork of Sage Creek, Stew- tive PaTafusulina.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-14fi B-237

100. OCCUnnENCES OF THE PERMIAN GASTnOPOD OMPH.-.lf.O'fllOCHUS IN NOI{THWESTERN. UNITED

STATES

By ELLIS L. YOCHELSON, Washington, D. C.

Omphalot'roch:us is a guide to the lower part of the formation (USGS 19153-PC). Specimens are rare
Lower Permian (Yochelson, 1954) occurring in the and too incomplete to be specifically identified.
type Wolfcamp formation and its equivalents. More Wy01ning.-Thompson and Thomas (in Thomas,
than half a century ago George H. Girty (1905a, p. Th.ompson, and Harrison, 1953, p. 19) cite an identi-
20) wrote of an American uon"phalot'I'Ochus zone," fication by J. Brookes Knight of O'mphalot1·ochus
and Knight ( 1940) discussed the stratigraphic im- collected in 1940 by H. R. McCurdy from the upper
portance of the genus in Russia. part of the Casper formation near Farthing, Wyo.
The genus is a common, widely distributed fossil In 1959, 0'mphalot'l·ochus wolfca-mpensis Yochelson
in southwestern United States (Yochelson, 1956). was collected by the writer in abundance from a
It is also widespread in northwestern United States cherty limestone on the north side of a branch of
but has rarely been collected, possibly because the Chugwater Creek in the NE14SW14SE14 sec. 34,
significance of this gastropod has not been empha- T. 19 S. 70 W., Laramie County, Wyo., as determined
sized. Localities where it has been found are here from Harrison's unpublished map (USGS 19820-
documented. Because Om,phalot'rochus is easily PC). Thomas, Thompson, and Harrison (1953, pl.
identified in the field it has a high potential useful- 9) indicate that OmphalotTochus occurs about 450
ness in stratigraphic investigations. feet below the top of the Casper formati~:m.
Ont,phalot?·ochus is large : specimens are seldom I~ 1922, C. R. Longwell and W. W. Rubey collected
less than one inch across the base and may be up to a specimen 70 feet below the top of the Minnelusa
6 inches across. The base is flattened and bears a sandstone, in Fawcett Canyon, Newcastle quad-
large umbilicus with nearly vertical walls. Shells rangle, Weston County, Wyo., (USGS 4397-PC).
are low spired, with few whorls and with a fairly The specimen may be 0. wolfcampensis, but addi-
simple whorl profile. Incomplete specimens and. tional material is needed to verify the specific identi-
cross sections can be identified as to genus with a fication.
high degree of confidence. All known American Utah.-Girty (1905b, p. 391) listed Omphalot?·o-
species are illustrated by Yochelson ( 1956). Aper- chus in a fauna collected by him and J. M. Boutwell,
tural and basal views of representative specimens in the Bingham mining district. His specimens came
are shown in figure 100.1. from the "upper portion of limestone," now recog-
Occurrences of On~phalot1·ochus in Arizona, Kan- nized as the upper part of the Oquirrh formation,
sas, 1'-{ew Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas are given by one-eighth mile west of the Dalton and Lark mine,
Yochelson ( 1956), and no additional records from Salt Lake County, Utah (USGS 2555 green series).
these states are included in this review. HOmphalo- In 1959, the writer, R. J.· Roberts and E. W. Tooker,
t?·ochus" as used by Girty for specimens from the relocated this locality in Cooper Canyon, west of
Park City, Phosphoria·, and "Embar" formations has Lark, Utah, on the extreme edge of the Bingham
been assigned to the genus Babylonites Yochelson, Canyon quadrangle (USGS 18892-PC). The speci-
which is excluded. Numbers in parenthesis refer mens we obtained were identified as 0. wolfcam-
to the permanent register of U. S. Geological Survey pensis. In 1958, Roberts and Tooker collected the
fossil localities. same species in the upper part of the Oquirrh at an
South Dalcota.-In 1957, V. R. Wilmarth collected elevation of 5,700 feet in Black Rock Canyon, NEl)a,
0'1nphalot1·ochus near Minnekahta, S. Dak., in the sec. 30, T. 1 S., R. 3 W., Garfield quadrangle, Tooele
SWl)a. sec. 27, T. 6 S., R. 4 E. Fossils were collected County, Utah, (USGS 18486-PC, 18893-PC).
from the steep west wall of the unnamed canyon just Girty (in Nolan, 1935, p. 38) listed OmphalotTo-
east of Argyle Canyon, about 1.25 miles north of chus sp., from the "western facies" of the Oquirrh
the Custer-Fall River County line. Omphalot1·ochus· formation about l!:! mile NNE of the AB Claim on
occurs in two zones: one is a red, fine- to medium- the west side of Dutch Mountain in the Gold Hill
grained sandstone, 59 to 22 feet below the top of mining district (USGS 6332-PC). From the "cen-
the Minnelusa sandstone (19152-PC); the second is tral facies" of the Oquirrh, he listed OmphalotTochus
a limestone breccia 96 to 84 feet below the top of the sp., occurring just west of the intersection of the
 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

1 this is from the Carbon Ridge formation. Girty

identified the specimen in the collection as 0. whit-
neyi. This first use of the specific name for a speci-
men far from the type area in California probably
was based on the large size of the shell, here con-
sidered to be specifically indeterminate.
In 1923, C. R. Longwell's party, mapping in the
Las Vegas quadrangle, collected specifically indeter-
minate Omphalotrochus from 250 feet of "Pennsyl-
vanian limestone and sandstone" at the top of Wil-
liams Peak in the Sp_ring Mountains (USGS 6484-
PC). Excellent 0. wolfca,mpensis was collected in
the quadrangle, but the locality data are poor; the
specimens are from the first 30 feet of black dense
limestone just below the "Supai" formation (USGS
6473-PC). Presumably both collections are from
the upper part of the Bird Spring formation of
current terminology.
A single small specimen of 0. wolfca·mpensis was
collected by H. G. Ferguson and J. S. Williams in
1940 in float from the Antler Peak limestone. It was
obtained on the southeast slope of Antler Peak, near
the top, in theSE%. sec. 33, T. 31 N., R. 43 E., Antler
FIGURE 100.1.-Apertural and basal views of representative
Peak quadrangle (USGS 8730-PC).
specimens of Omphalotrochus, approximately natural size. ldaho.-ln 1958, W. J. Carr and D. E. Trimble
collected two specimens from approximately sec. 5,
center spur in Sheridan Canyon with the main ridge T. 12 S., R. 32 E., about 7 miles south of the south-
line (USGS 6362-PC), and Omphalot1·ochus? sp. west corner of the Arbon quadrangle on the west
from the lower slopes of the center spur in Sheridan face of the Deep Creek Mountains, Power County,
Canyon (USGS 6360-PC). The specimens from the Idaho. The first specimen (USGS 19114-PC) is 0.
first two localities are 0. wolfcampensis; that from wolfcampens·is; the second (USGS 19116-PC) is less
the third locality is indeterminate. All localities were well preserved and is ·specifically indeterminate.
considered to be from the "higher Pennsylvanian" Carr and Trimble obtained one other specimen,
as used by Girty, which now refers to the lower which probably is 0. wolfcampensis, 890 feet below
part of the Permian. the top of a measured section, ending at the top of
Omphalotrochus may occur in the Silver Island peak 7484, Deep Creek Mountains, on the east side
Range of northwest Utah, but specimens are incom- of the north fork of Sawmill Canyon in the NW1,4 sec.
plete and locality data unsatisfactory. In faunal lists, 19, T. 9 S., R. 32 E., Rockland quadrangle, Power
Girty (in McKnight, 1940, p. 34) reports 01nphalo- County, Idaho (USGS 19105-PC).
trochus? sp. from the Rico .formation in San Juan Oregon.-In 1908, J. T. Pardee submitted several
County. Unfortunately, the specimen or specimens collections from the Sumpter quadrangle to George
could not be found in the collection (USGS 6036-PC), H. Girty for identification. One collection from along
and this report cannot be substantiated. the railway about 2.75 miles south of Sumpter, Baker
N evada.-Although this genus has been reported County, Oreg., (USGS 19549-PC) contains fusul-
informally as being widespread and locally abundant, inids, echinoid spines, Composita? sp. indet., and a
a brief examination of the many Survey collections poorly preserved Omphalotrochus.
from this State yielded Omphalotrochus from only California.-A review of old collections has
three areas. To the best of the writer's knowledge brought to light additional specimens of Omphalo-
these occurrences have not been cited heretofore . trochus, including some from the Redding quad-
.In 1900, F. B. Weeks collected a large specimen rangle (Diller, 1906). Some of the specimens are
from the southeast slope of Hamels Peak, Egan topotypes of 0. whitneyi (Meek), the type of the
Range, 17 miles south of Ely in the gully south of genus, but also the least well known species. Because
Ice Creek (USGS 2702 green series) ; presumably some Omphalotrochus undergo pronounced ontogen-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-239
etic change, there has been a question of the rela- McKnight, E. T., 1940 [1941] Geology of area between Green
tionship of 0. whitneyi to better known forms. In- and Colorado Rivers, Grand and San Juan Counties,
Utah: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 908, 147 p., 13 pls.
vestigation of all California specimens may result Nolan, T. B., 1935, The Gold Hill mining district, Utah: U.S.
in revision of the limits of several species. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 177, 172 p., 15 pis.
Thomas, H. D., Thompson, M. L., and· Harrison, John W., 1953,
REFERENCES Stratigraphy of the Casper formation, p. 1-14, pl. 9, in
Diller, J. S., 1906, Description of the Redding folio [Cali- Fusulinids of the Casper formation of Wyoming: Wyo-
fornia]: U.S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, Folio 138. ming Geol. Survey Bull. 46.
Girty, G. H., 1905a, The relations of some Carboniferous Thompson, M. L., and Thomas, H. D., 1953, Systematic
faunas: Washington Acad. ScL Proc., vol. 7, p. 1-26. Paleontology of fusulinids from the Casper formation,
---1905b, Paleontology, p. 387-393 in Boutwell, J. M., p. 15-56, pls. 1-8, in Fusulinids of the Casper formation
Economic geology of the Bingham mining district, Utah, of Wyoming: Wyoming Geol. Survey Bull. 46.
with a section on areal geology, by Arthur Keith, and an Yochelson, E. L., 1954, Some problems concerning the distri-
bution of the late Paleozoic gastropod Omphalotrochus:
introduction on general geology, by S. F. Emmons: U.S. Science, v. 120, p. 233-234.
Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 38, 413 p., 49 pis. ·--1956, Permian Gastropoda of the southwestern United
Knight, J. B., 1940, Are the "Omphalotrochus beds" of the States: 1, Euomphalacea, Trochonematacea, Pseudo-
U.S.S.R. Permian?: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists phoracea, Anomphalacea, Craspedostomatacea, and
Bull., v. 24, p. 1128-1131, with additional discussion by Platyceratacea: Am. Mus. Nat. History Bull., v. 110, art.
C. 0. Dunbar and R. B. King. 3, p. 173-276.

101. PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS IN SOUTHEASTERN ALASKA

By J. THOMAS DUTRO, JR., and RAYMOND C. DOUGLASS, Washington, D. C.

The apparent scarcity of marine rocks of Pennsyl- pian Gigantoproductus beds, present also at Soda
vanian age in Alaska has been a stratigraphic anom- Bay. On the other hand, the strata of dou.btful age
aly that has· puzzled geologists for nearly 50 years. could correlate with the Lower Pennsylvanian beds
In his summary of the geology of Alaska, P. S. Smith with Gastrioceras, which crop out in Trocadero Bay,
( 1939, p. 26) emphasized the importance of a lime- just to the !lOrth on the west coast of Prince of Wales
stone at a single locality in Soda Bay, Prince of Island (Gordon, 1955).
Wales Island, concluding: Fusuline foraminifers were listed in several col-
More detailed examination of the locality will be required lections from southeastern Alaska by G. H. Girty in
before this determination (Pennsylvanian?) can be regarded Buddington and Chapin (1929, p. 112-115). Girty
as definite, but should it be confirmed by that study it would stated that the evidence, although not unequivocal,
be of special importance, because it would prove the presence suggested a Mississippian age. L. G. Henbest (writ-
of Pennsylvanian rocks, which are unknown not only else- ten communication, 1936) called Girty's attention
where in southeastern Alaska but in any other part of the
Territory. to the significance of the Fusulinellas in a collection
from northern Kuiu Island; this .information, to-
PRINCE OF WALES ISLAND gether with the evidence from crinoids and a reevalu-
ation by Girty of the rest of the fossils, was the basis
Material collected from this locality is not suf-
for Kirk's (1937a, p. 110) Pennsrlvanian age assign-
ficiently diagnostic to establish the precise age of
ment. Our detailed reexamination of this collection
the beds in question. A restudy of the coelenterates has resulted in a definite Middle Pennsylvanian age
by Helen Duncan, the gastropods by Ellis Yochelson, determination.
and the foraminifers by Douglass has been incon- Field geologists should be alert to the possibility
clusive. The fossils could represent a lower Namur- that Pennsylvanian rocks are more widespread in
ian fauna (highest Mississippian equivalent) which the area than hitherto assumed. Further study is
might reasonably occur above the Upper Mississip- needed to determine the areal extent of these rocks
 B-240 GEOLOGICAL SURVE.Y RESEARCH 1961

134 °30' 134° forms referred to this species by Forbes ( 1960) from
.---------------------------------~---,5?"
0 5 MILES
Spitzbergen. The species is quite like-and may. be
referable to-Fusulinella jamesensis Thompson, Pit-
rat, and Sanderson (1953), described from British
Columbia.
The other species is more tightly coiled, fusiform
to elongate, and has asymmetrical chomata extending
along. the septa and floors toward the poles, some-
what resembling W edekindellina. Fusulinella iowen-
sis Thompson .(1936) is similar in many ways to the
Alaskan speciip.ens.
The foraminiferal fauna indicates an early Middle
Pennsylvanian age, possibly an Atoka equivalent.
Although Girty prepared a long fossil list from
this locality, many of the forms either were not de-
N
termined as to species or were listed as new. A re-
study of the collection has resulted in the identifi-
1 KUIU ISLAND
cation of the following larger fossils:
. __ _ _. _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ____J 56° 45' Clithrocrinus pyrifo'rmis Kirk
Synbathocrinus sp.
FIGURE 101.1-Locality of Middle Pennsylvanian collection Delocrinus sp.
(USGS 5443-PC) near the head of Saginaw Bay, northern Cyathaxonia sp.
Kuiu Island, southeastern Alaska. aulophylloid corals, genus undet.
'horn coral, undet.
and their precise stratigraphic relations with the F enestella sp.
Mississippian and Permian strata. "Batostomella" sp.
Cystodictya sp.
KUIU ISLAND LOCALITY
rhomboporoid bryozoan, indet.
Collection 5443-PC came from a 40-foot thick bed multifoliate fistulipor.oid, ·undet.
of limestone, intercalated in a series of interlayered Leioclema ? sp.
chert, quartzite, and chert-bearing limestone, at the PetrocTania? sp.
northwest end of the long island near the head of Rhipid01nella aff. R. nevadensis (Meek)
Saginaw Bay, Kuiu Island (figure 101.1). Litho- SchizophoTia aff. S. resupinoides (Cox)
logically similar rock sequences are relatively wide- Derbyia? sp.
spread in southeastern Alaska at the top of what Chonetes sp.
was considered Mississippian by Buddington and Chonetina? sp. (compare C. flemingi crassi'i·-
Chapin (1929, p. 110), and Pennsylvanian fossils adiata Dunbar and Condra)
should be sought in this part of the section during Juresania aff. J. ovalis Dunbar and Condra
future field investigations. Krotovia? sp.
Foraminifera identified in this collection ( 5443- Linop1·oductus (sensu stTicto) spp.
PC == f2277 == Buddington field No. 930) are: dictyoclostid brachiopod, genus indet.
Clirnacamrnina sp. "Marginifera" sp.
endothyrid foraminifer, undet. Spirifer aff. S. 1·ockynwntanus Marcou
Tetrataxis sp. Neospirifer sp.
Bradyina sp. Spi'i·iferella aff. S. texana (Shumard)
Nummulostegina ? sp. M aTtinia? sp.
Fusulinella spp. Composita sp. (small)
Probably two species of Fusulinella are repre- Crurithyris sp.
sented. One is a loosely coiled form with plane septa P hricodothyris? sp.
and small, nearly symmetrical chomata. This form Stenoscisma sp.
resembles F. bocki Moller, 1878. It is smaller and H ustedia sp.
shows less fluting of the septa than is shown by Rhynchopora cf. R. magnicosta Mather
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-241
C?·enispi't'i/e?·? sp. Dunbar, C. 0., and Condra, G. E., 1932, Brachiopoda. of the
Punctospi?·ije?'? sp. Pennsylvanian system in Nebraska: Nebraska Geol. Sur-
. vey Bull. 5, second series, 377 p., 44 pls., 25 figs.
Dielasma spp. Forbes, C. L., 1960, Carboniferous and Permian Fusulinidae
A viculopecten sp. from Spitzbergen: Palaeontology, v. 2, pt. 2, p. 210-225,
Schizodus sp. pls. 30-33, text fjg.
Platyce?·as sp. Gordon, Mackenzie, Jr., 1955, Alaskan Carboniferous gonia-
cf. St?·apa?·ollus (EuO'Inphalus?) savagei Knight tites [abstract]: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66, no. 12,
euomphalacean gastropod, indet. pt. 2, ,p. 1565.
. pleurotomariacean gastropod, indet. Kirk, E., 1937a, Clistocrinus, a new Carboniferous crinoid
genus: Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 27, no. 3, p. 105-
bellerophontacean gastropod, indet. 111, figs. 1-8.
ostracodes, indet. - - 1937b, Clith?·oc?·inus, new name for Clistoc'r·inus Kirk:
This revised list of megafossils clearly indicates Washington Acad. Sci. Jour., v. 27, no. 9, p. 373-374.
a Pennsylvanian age. Several species to which the Knight, J. B., 1934, The gastropods of the St. Louis',· Missouri,
Alaskan fossils have been compared are restricted Pennsylvanian outlier: VII. The Euomphalidae and
Platyceratidae: Jour. Paleontology, v. 8, no. 2, p. 139-166,
to the lower part of the Pennsylvaniap, insofar as pis. 20-26.
their distribution is known at present. For. example, Moore, R. C., and others, 1944, Correlation of Pennsylvanian
Rhipidontella nevadensis (Meek), Chonetina flemingi formations of North America: Geol. Soc. America Bull.,
'- c?·assi?·adiata Dunbar and Condra, Spirifer rocky- v. 55, p. 657-706.
nwntanus Marcou, Rhynchopo?··a n~agnicosta Mather, Muir-Wood, H., and Cooper, G. A., 1960, Morphology, classifi-
and St?·aparollus savagei Knight are all compatible cation and life habits of the Productoidea (Brachiopoda):
Geol. Soc. America Mem. 81, 447 p. 135 pls., 8 figs.
with the early Middle Pennsylvanian age assignment
Smith, P. S., 1939, Areal geology of Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey
suggested by the fusulines. The other fossils do not
Prof. Paper 192, 100 p., 18 pis., chart.
conflict with such an assignment.
Thompson, M. L., 1936, Pennsylvanian fusulinids from Ohio:
Jour. Paleontology, v. 10, no. 8, p. 673-683, pis. 90, 91.
REFERENCES
Thompson, M. L., Pitrat, C. W., and Sanderson, G. A., 1953,
Buddington, A. F., and Chapin, T., 1929, Geology and mineral Primitive Cache Creek fusulinids from central British
deposits of southeastern Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. Columbia: Jour. Paleontology, v. 27, no. 4, p. 545-552,
800, 398 p., 22 pis., 3 figs. pis. 57, 58.

GEOPHYSICS

102. POISSON'S RATIO OF ROCK SALT AND POTASH ORE

By R. E. WARRICK and W. H.· JACKSON, Denver, Colo.

W01·k done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Ato'mic Energy Commission

jo1· the Plowshare Prog?'a?n, P1·oject Gnome

Measurements of elastic constants of rock salt and methods was found to differ. The writer is grateful
potash ore of the Salado formation of Permian age for help given in the field by the management and
(DQnlap, 1951) were made in the mine of the U.S. staff of the U.S. Potash Co.
Potash Co. near Carlsbad, N. Mex. The same con- In-place measurements.-ln-place measurements
stants were measured on samples in the laboratory, of elastic constants consisted of determining the
and Poisson's ratio determined by the different velocities of compressional and shear waves in a
B-242 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

pillar of rock (Roller and others, 1959). Pillars rep- TABLE !.-Poisson's 1·atio detennined by different techniques
resenting t'he potash rock and the salt rock were se- In-place t-est Ultrasonic test Unconfined uniaxial compression
lected. Four sites in the same h_orizontal plane along Type of rock
test

the pillars were chosen for instrument locations, and and location of
test or sample 600 1,000 lb.
a matching set of four positions was surveyed di- within pillar
Ratio
Standard
deviation Ratio
Standard
deviation
lb.
per
per sq. in.
-------------
1,fi00
lb. per
rectly opposite from the first set of points on the sq. Standard sq. in.
in. Ratio deviation
other side of the pillar. The· potash pillar was 38
feet wide and l50 feet long. The salt pillar was 25 Potash pillar:
North ....... 0.32 0.03 0.35 0.05 0.16 0.17 0.02 0.23
Central ..... .32 .01 .24 .05 . . . . . . ...... ... . . . . .
·········· ........
feet wide and more than 300 feet long. South ....... .29 .01 .31 .05 ······ ...... ··········
The source of vibrations was a small hammer Salt pillar:
North ....... .27 .03 .15 .0-t 0.14 0.19 .02 0.27
that was struck against a steel block fastened to the South ....... .24 .01 .18 .04
rock wall with an expansion bolt. Two barium-
titanate accelerometers were fastened on the opposite
of 0. J. Olson in the Bureau of Reclamation labora-
side of the pillar with a small expansion bolt. One
tories in Denver, Colo.
was mounted with its principal axis of sensitivity
C01nparison of results.-Values of Poisson's ratio
perpendicular to the wall, and the other with its axis
determined by the three methods are shown in table
parallel to the wall. The signals from the accelerom-
1. Poisson's ratio was selected for comparison be-
eters were amplified with a wide-band preampli-
cause it is derived more directly from the measured
fier, and were displayed on a calibrated oscilloscope.
data than other elastic constants. The values listed
Permanent records were made by photographing
are mean values of the several determinations. The
the oscilloscope screen. ·The instant the hammer
in-place and ultrasonic methods yielded values of
struck the anvil, the· oscilloscope sweep began mov-
Poisson's ratio that are in fairly good agreement for
ing across the screen at a constant rate. The energy
potash. Internally disrupted or slightly weathered
arriving through the pillar was detected by accel-
samples may be the cause of lower values determined
erometers and the signal that was produced was pre-
by the ultrasonic method for the salt. The salt pillar
sented on this time base. ·
was several years older than the potash pillar, and
The first energy ·arriving at the detectors was
the salt samples could not be taken as deep within
compressional. The shear energy arrived somewhat
the pillar as the potash samples.
later and could be distinguished by the change of the Unconfined uniaxial-compression determinations
wave form. The velocities of both waves were de- did not agree with in-place and ultrasonic determina-
termined from transit times of the waves trans- tions of Poisson's ratio for potash. The compression-
mitted through the pillar. All elastic constants can test values approached the in-place values as the
be derived from compressional and shear velocities stress increased for both potash and salt samples.
and the density of the rock (Howell, 1959, p. 204). Exact correspondence of Poisson's ratio deter-
Density was determined ,from large samples taken mined by the different techniques could not be ex-
from the pillars. pected because of the variation of elastic constants
Spectrographic analyses .of the samples, made by ·with the method of measurement. The in-place
T. Botinelly, showed the salt was 90 to 93 percent method should be preferable because the problem of
NaCl, an:i included a trace of sylvite (KCl). The altering properties through sampling is less sev~re.
potash was 95 percent sylvite, and included trac~s
REFERENCES
of haUte and polyhalite.
Laboratory measurements.-Samples from the Dunlap, John C., 1951, Geologic studies in a New Mexico
mine pillars were sent to· two laboratories for de- potash mine: Econ. Geology, v. 46, no. 8, p. 909-923.
Howell, B. F., Jr., 1959, Introduction to geophysics: New
termination of the elastic constants. For one set York, McGraw-Hill Book Co.
the constants were measured by ultrasonic-pulse Mason, Warren P., 1958, Physical acoustics and the properties
_methods (Mason, 1958, p. 95) by E. C. Walker in of solids: Princeton, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.
Roller, .J. C., and others, 1959, Seismic measurements by the
the Geological Survey, laboratories in Washington, U.S. Geological· Survey during the pre-Gnome high-
D.C. For the other set the constants were measured explosive tests: A preliminary suinmary: U.S. Geo!.
by uniaxial compression tests through the courtesy Survey open-file report.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-243

103. FREQUENCY CONTENT OF SEISMOGRAMS OF NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS AND AFTERSHOCKS

By S. W. STEWART and W. H. DIMENT, Denver, Colo., and Washington, D. C.

Wo·rk done ·in coope·ra.tion with the Adva?"-ced Research Projects Agency, Department of Defense

The frequency content of seismic waves is a funda- a Datatron 220 digital computer. The seismogram
mental part of the data obtained from seismograms. trace was prepared for input into the computer by
Reported methods for studying the frequency spec- digitizing it at intervals of 10 milliseconds, using
tra of seismic waves have ranged from simple mea- a semi-automatic seismogram digitizer developeq
surements of apparent frequency along the seismo- under the direction of Donald Rock, with assistance
gram to elaborate cross- and auto-correlation from E. C. Moore. Frequency spectra were calcu-
calculations by digital or analog computers. Most of lated for 1-second segments along the trace, with
these studies have necessarily been concerned with the 1-second segments overlapping by l/2 second.
the frequency spectrum of fairly large parts of the For e.xample, spectra were calculated that covered
seismogram. However, some investigators have re- the intervals 10.0-11.0 seconds, 10.5-11.5 .seconds,
ported a technique of presenting a continuously 11.0-12.0 seconds, etc. Although the time associated
changing frequency spectrum as a function of time. with the spectrum covering a 1-second interval of
This technique, called here the moving-spectrum
the trace has been taken to be the time at the mid-
method, essentially is one of calculating the frequency
point of the i'nterval, it must be realized that the
spectrum of relatively small parts of the seismogram,
and presenting the frequency spectra so calculated time of arrival of any frequency component is no
as a function of time. Ewing and others ( 1959) more accurate than the length of this interval, or
have used seismograms recorded on magnetic tape, approximately ± V:! second.
and appropriate analog methods, to present moving- Referring to figures 103.1, 103.2, and 103.3, the
spectrum representations of seismograms of earth- spectra so computed are then plotted in the form of
quakes and explosions. In this paper results are a contour map, with the X-axis representing time
given for the calculation of moving-spectrum data along the seismic trace, the Y -axis representing fre-
by digital methods. quency, and the values of the contours representing
R. G. Henderson and H. W~ Oliver helped in set- the amplitude components of the Fourier frequency
ting up the digitizing program. We are particularly spectrum calculation, referred to a maximum Fourier
indebted to R. G. Henderson for helping us in de- amplitude component of 100. Fourier amplitude
signing the method of analysis, and to Walter Ander-
components were calculated for the frequency range
son for writing the program. F. M. Valentine as-
sisted in the seismogram digitizing and plotting of of 0 to 20 cycles per second, at intervals of lj~-cycle
the data. per second. The Fourier amplitude components were
not corrected for the frequency response charactP..r-
CALCULATION OF MOVING-SPECTRUM DATA istics of the seismic recording system. Because the
Seismograms used in this study were taken from seismic recording system has a peak response at
larger groups used in studies of nuclear explosions about 3 cycles per second (Diment and others, 1961,
in Nevada (Diment and others, 1961), and after- p. 205, curve B), the effect of this is to make the
shocks of the Hebgen Lake, Mont., earthquake of Fourier amplitude components progressively smaller
August 1959 (Stewart and others, 1960). For these than they should be, for progressively higher fre-
seismograms, frequencies were chiefly in the range quencies. However, the. qualitative nature of the
2 to 10 cycles per second, and the main part of the contour map is preserved. Although a smaller con-
seismic energy had traveled past the recording sta- tour interval adds greatly to the usefulness of the
tion in a few tens of seconds. data, the large contour interval used in these figures
The frequency content of parts of seismograms is sufficient to bring out the main features of the
was calculated by the Fourier transform method on method.
 B-244 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

cycles per second. Taking into account the time

20 delays associated with the shot and station locations,

I~
the observed time of arrival of this transient event
18
is only 0.2 seconds earlier than that calculated for
c
z
0 16
a P-wave reflection from the base of crustal material
(.)
w
CJ)
having a velocity of 6.15 km per sec in this region
0::
w
14 (Diment and others, 1961). The good agreement
c.. between· the observed event at 13.4 seconds and the
CJ)
w 12
....J
(.)
calculated time of 13.6 seconds suggests that the ob-
>
(.)
10
served spectral broadening beginning at 13 seconds
~
may be related to this reflection event. The effect of
:.:
(.)
zw 8 reciprocal spreading (Ewing and others, 1959) may
:::::>
0'
w
account for the broad-band nature of these short-
0::
LL.. lived events.
4
Similar broadenings of the spectrum, beginning
at 17 and 191/:! seconds, are suggested in figure 103.1.
2 These may also be caused by the appearance of
short-lived but coherent transients superposed upon

c
TRAVEL TIME, IN SECONDS z
0
(.)
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 w
CJ)

0::
7 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2.2 w
c..
GROUP VELOCITY, IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND CJ)
w
....J
(.)
FIGURE 103.1.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seis .. >
(.)

mogram for vertical component of air nuclear shot !;

SMOKY. Distance from shot to station is 58.8 kilometers. :.:
(.)
Contours are in percent of largest Fourier amplitude z
w
component present. :::::>
0'
w
a: 6
RESULTS
The seismogram for air nuclear shot SMOKY
(fig. 103.1) shows, just before the arrival of the ini-
tial P-wave at 10.6 seconds, a background of con-
tinual noise. The moving spectrum analysis indicates
that this microseismic noise is confined to a rela-
tively narrow frequency band centered at about 12
cycles per second, and that the amplitude of this
noise is about 1 percent of the maximum amplitude
recorded on the seismogram. The arrival of the
initial P-wave coincides with a noticeable broaden-
12
ing of the frequency spectrum, both above and below I
this microseismic band. I I I I
6 5 2.2 2
The seismogram also shows a large-amplitude GROUP VELOCITY. IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND
transient event with .an arrival time of 13.4 seconds.
1 The spectrum beginning at 13 seconds shows a FIGURE 103.2.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seis-
mogram, for vertical component of underground nuclear
,noticeable broadening, the 10-percent contour lines
shot BLANCA. Di~tance from shot to station is 61.2
~overing the spectrum from 2 to 7 cycles per second, kilometers. Contours are in percent of largest Fourier
and the !-percent contour lines extending up to 16.5 amplitude component present.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-245
recorded on these seismograms would complicate
greatly the appearance and interpretation of seismic
surface waves, it was hoped that the dispersive char-
acter, if any, of the surface waves could be displayed
0 by this moving-spectrum technique. The best exam-
~ 16 -·
u
UJ
ple of dispersed waves found is shown on figure
en
0:: 14 103.2, corresponding to group velocities in the range
UJ
Cl. 2.3 to 2.6 km per sec, and frequencies in the range
~
....J
12 2 to 3 cps. The dispersion is reversed, the higher
~ frequencies having the higher group velocities.
u 10
~ It is instructive to compare the envelopes of the
> 10-percent contour lines for the moving-spectrum
~ 8
UJ presentation. For the air and underground nuclear
::::>
0'
UJ
shots (figs 103.1 and 103.2) the main part of the
0::
u.. seismic energy is below 10 cycles per second, and
the envelope of the 10-percent contour decreases in
frequency only gradually with time. For the after-
shock (fig. 103.3) the main part of the seismic energy
is in a higher part of the frequency spectrum, and
the envelope of the 10-percent contour decreases
more rapidly with time. This difference has been
noted for most seismograms from the Nevada and
Montana groups, and we attribute it primarily to
differences in the near-surface geology along the
propagation path and in the broad vicinity of the
APPROXIMATE TRAVEL TIME, IN SECONDS recording stations, rather than to differences in the
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 source mechanism. All other conditions being es-
sentially the same, seismograms from recording
6 5 4 3 2.5 2 1.5
stations located within predominantly bedrock areas
APPROXIMATE GROUP VELOCITY, IN KILOMETERS PER SECOND
generally are characterized by higher frequency
FIGURE 103.3.-Moving-spectrum analysis, and tracing of seis-
mogram, for vertical component of an aftershock of the
waves and shorter duration of the entire wave train
Hebgen Lake, Mont., earthquake of August 1959. Dis- than are seismograms from stations located within
tance from focus to station is about 37 kilometers. predominantly alluviated areas. Conversion and
Contours are in percent of largest Fourier amplitude scattering of body and surface waves by changes
component present.
in geology and topography along the propagation
the relative "noise" of the seismic trace, but it seems path may account for much of this effect (Tatel and
reasonable to associate the broadening of the spec- Tuve, 1955).
trum at 19th seconds with the onset of the large- The data presented here do not permit generali-
amplitude surface waves at this time. zations about the character of seismograms of
Because the seismic traces on figures 103.2 and natural and artificial seismic sources. However,
103.3 were free of noise, spectrum analyses were they do suggest that the moving-spectrum method
calculated only from the beginning of the first ar- furnishes a useful way to study and characterize
rival of seismic ene'rgy. The seismogram on figure seismograms.
103.2 shows a large-amplitude pulselike event arriv-
The digital method of' preparing moving-spectrum
ing at about 13.3 seconds, and a noticeable broaden-
diagrams, as presented here, is more time-consuming
ing of the spectrum beginning at 13 seconds. The
observed time of this event is only about 0.2 seconds than the analog method reported by Ewing and
earlier than that calculated for a P-wave reflection others (1959). However, the digital method has the
from the base of crustal material having a velocity advantages that seismic data not on magnetic tape
of 6.15 km per sec in this region. can be analyzed; the calculation of phase angles from
Although the complex nature of the near-surface the Fourier transform program is valuable (for
geology in Nevada and the relatively high frequencies example, Sa to, 1960) ; and quantitative amplitude
B-246 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

"information can be obtained. Recent developments REFERENCES

in the preparation of seismic traces for input into Adams, W. M., and Allen, D. C., 1961, Reading seismo·grams
digital computers (for example, Adams and Allen, with digital computers: Seismol. Soc. America Bull., v.
51, no. 1, p. 61-67.
1961), and of methods for plotting large masses of Diment, W; H., Stewart, S. W., and Roller, J. C., 1961, Crustal
data, can speed up the digital method of presentation. structure from the Nevada Test Site to Kingman, Ari-
In the examples presented here, nothing has been zona, from seismic and gravity observations: Jour.
Geophys. Research, v. 66, no. 1, p. 201-214.
brought out by the moving-spectrum presentation, at Ewing, Maurice, Mueller, Stephan, Landisman, Mark, and
least in a qualitative sense, that is not already ap- Sato, Yasuo, 1959, Transient analysis of earthquake and
parent by examination of the seismogram itself. explosion arrivals: Geofisica Pura e Appl., v. 44, p. 83-
118.
Presently, the chief merit of the moving-spectrum Sato, Yasuo, 1960, Analysis of dispersed surface waves, in
method is that it separates the various frequency Davids, N., ed., International symposium on stress wave
components in a way that calls attention to events propagation in solids: New York, Interscience Publishers,
p. 303-327.
that might be overlooked by the observer, and it
Stewart, S. W., Hofmann, R. B., and Diment, W. H., 1960,
provides quantitative information on amplitudes, Some aftershocks of the Hebgen Lake, Montana, earth-
frequencies, and phase angles that should be helpful quake of August .1959, in Short papers in the geological
in describing and studying the seismogram. It re- sciences: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, p. B219-
mains to be seen if the fine structure and details of B221.
Tatel, H. E., and Tuve, M. A., 1955, Seismic exploration of a
these presentations will provide useful information continental crust, in Poldervaart, Arie, ed., Crust of the
not derived directly from the seismogram. earth: Geol. Soc. America Spec. Paper 62, p. 35-50.

104. ·GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN AND NEAR YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK

By L. C. PAKISER and HARRY BALDWIN, JR., Denver, Colo.

A gravity survey made during 1960 in Yellowstone RELATIONS OF GRAVITY AND GEOLOGY
National Park and adjacent parts of Idaho, Mon- Gravity is high over (a) the pre-Tertiary rocks
tana, and Wyoming, revealed a pronounced gravity that form the high mountains north, south, and
low that coincides approximately with the late Ceno- west of the Yellowstone Plateau, (b) the basalts of
zoic rhyolites of the Yellowstone Plateau. A narrow the Snake River Plain, and (c) the Tertiary vol-
north-trending gravity low was also r~vealed along canic breccias east of the Plateau. Gravity is rela-
Madison Valley, west of the Madison Range (fig. tively low over (a) the Cenozoic rhyolites of the
104.1). The area of the Yellowstone Plateau Yellowstone Plateau and (b) the Cenozoic clastic
anomaly, inside the zone of steep gradients, is about deposits and rhyolites of Madison Valley (fig. 104.1).
1,500 square miles. The steepest gradient, on the The gravity low of Madison Valley probably re-
southeast side of the anomaly, is 7 milligals (mgals) flects a narrow graben filled with low-density Ceno-
per mile (fig. 104.1), and the. maximum residual zoic clastic deposits and rhyolites several thousand
gravity. relief is about 40 mgals. feet thick, bounded by high-angle faults.
Gravity was measured at 890 stations, some of A disc-shaped accumulation of rhyolite with gently
them north of the area discussed in this paper. The tapered sides, 10,000 or more feet thick, and 0.3 g per
measurements were reduced to the simple-Bouguer cma less dense than the surrounding rocks, could
anomaly with respect to the International Ellipsoid explain a major part of the Yellowstone Plateau
(Nettleton, 1940, p. 139-143) using an assumed gravity low. If the interface of density contrast is
density above sea level of 2.67 g per em'\ and the deeply buried, the disc-shaped body could have steep
resulting data were then contoured at an interval of or even vertical sides. Using Gauss's theorem in a
10 mgals (fig. 104.1). manner described by Yokoyama ( 1958), the mass
 11o·oo·
<. --:--:1 EXPLANATION
~ :"" t. ) ,
~ ..: L -# '- ,. r '7

~ : : : :: -~ ~ ~. '-'~
•,.-· ~' v;
>" ,
LV

< ... 7 ~~
v
D
Cenozoic clastic deposits rn
7 ...
<
.,
~
::r:
.

[]]. 0
~
~
'"0
Cenozoic rhyolite deposits
and rhyolite welded tuff >
"'0
t%j
~
rn

Cenozoic basalt
z
t-3
::r:
t%j

~
t%j
Tertiary volcanic breccias 0
t"4
0
~
~

0
>
Pre-Tertiary rocks z
t1
::r:
~
t1
~

---------
Contact

__ ,60---
0
t"4
0
~
~

0
rn
Gravity contour 0
Contcur interval 10 milligals ~
t%j
z
G.:) 0
t%j
Gravity low sn
___ , >
~
t-3
~
Lake boundary 0
t"4
t%j
rn
44°00' 44•oo• 7"
~

11o•oo·
""'
0)

112·oo· 111"00'
Geology compiled from State geologic
0 5 10 20 30 MILES maps of Idaho, Montana. and
Wyoming, and from Hamilton (1960)

FIGURE 104.1.-Combined gravity_ and geologic map of the Yellowstone region, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. td
~
~
-:t
B-248 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

deficiency corresponding to the gravity low was de- fraction is overwhelmed by the gravity low of the
termined to be about 5 X 10 1 ~o~ g, which is equivalent near-surface low-density rocks of the Yellowstone
to 4,000 cubic miles of material 0.3 g per cma less Plateau. Alternatively, the rhyolites of the Yellow-
dense than the surrounding material. If this volume stone Plateau could have been formed from silicic
of material is spread over a circular area 40 miles in magma generated by partial fusion of relatively
diameter, the average thickness would be nearly shallow crustal rocks.
20,000 feet. The gravity data are consistent both with F. R.
The Yellowstone Plateau gravity data could also Boyd's (written communication) conclusion that the
be explained in part by (a) a thickening of the low- Yellowstone Plateau marks the site of a gigantic
density silicic upper part of the earth's crust from, caldera formed by collapse into a huge underlying
say, 15 to 21 km, (b) a magma chamber, or (c) a magma chamber which may still exist, and with
silicic batholith. Daly's (1933, p. 142-143) suggestion that the rhyo-
Hamilton (1959, p. 228) has suggested that the lite may be the foundered crust of a roofless batho-
rhyolites of the Yellowstone Plateau " * * * may be lith of low density, that is, a silicic batholith.
the upper crust of a lopolith which has been forming
with a complex history since early Pliocene time, REFERENCES
an extrusive lopolith roofed by its own differentiates, Daly, R. A., 1933, Igneous rocks and the depths of the earth:
its mafic bulk hidden beneath its felsic cover * * *". New York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 508 p.
The mafic bulk of such a lopolith would presumably Hamilton, Warren, 1959, Yellowstone Park area, Wyoming: a
possible modern lopolith: Geol: Soc. America Bull., v: 70,
be dense, especially if it is the mafic fraction of
p. 225-228.
which the silicic differentiate has a mass deficiency
Hamilton, Warren, 1960, Late Cenozoic tectonics and vol-
as large as 5 X 10 1 N g. The lack of a positive gravity canism of the Yellowstone Region, Wyoming, Montana,
expression of such a dense mass, assuming that it and Idaho: Billings Geol. Soc. Guidebook 11, p. 92-105.
immediately underlies the rhyolite, must mean that Nettleton, L. L., 1940, Geophysical prospecting for oil: New
the proposed lopolith does not exist. If the rhyolite York, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 444 p.
differentiated from a mafic magma, it was· at such a Yokoyama, Izumi, 1958, Gravity survey on Kuttyaro Caldera
great depth that the gravity exl?ression of the mafic Lake: Jour. Physics of the Earth, v. 6, p. 75-79.

105. GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN THE SNAKE RIVER PLAIN, IDAHO

By D. P. HILL, HARRY L. BALDWIN, JR., and L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo.

A net of gravity recordings was established over Pliocene age covers the silicic volcanic rocks in the
6,800 square miles of the Snake River Plain in south- lower elevations.· The western Snake River Plain is
western Idaho during 1959 and 1960. a graben filled with Pliocene and Pleistocene sedi-
The western Snake River Plain is a relatively flat mentary rocks and interbedded. basalt flows to a
lava plain that trends northwest and ranges in width depth of at least 3,000 feet below the surface of
from 40 to 100 miles. It is bounded on the southwest the plain (H. E. Malde and H. A. Powers, written
by the Owyhee Mountains and· on the northeast by communication, 1961). Subsidence of the graben
the mountains of the Idaho batholith. The average took place along a series of faults trending north-
elevation of the plain is about 3,000 feet above sea west. The most prominent fault zone forms a sharp
level. escarpment along the northern edge of the Snake
The highlands immediately to the north and south River Plain. Malde (1959) estimates that the ag-
of the plain .are composed mainly of silicic volcanic gregate throw along this zone is at least 9,000 feet.
rocks of early Pliocene age and of granite of 'ere- / The net of 1,859 gravity stations has an average
taceous age. A veneer of basalt flows/ of middle/ density of one station per 3. 7 square miles. The
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-249

0 10 15 20 MILES
CONTOUR INTERVAL 10 MILLIGALS

115' 114'15'
43'30'
·'

FIGURE 105.1.-Simple-Bouguer gravity map of part of the Snake River Plain, Idaho.

vertical and horizontal control for the survey was Glenns Ferry, Idaho. The eastern section of the high
taken from Geological Survey 71j2 - and 15-minute is slightly offset to the northeast with respect to
topographic maps. The gravity data were reduced the western section.
to simple-Bouguer values assuming a density of 2.67 The northern and southern gi"avity highs are simi-
grams per cma down to sea level. These simple- lar in outline and amplitude; both are approximately
Bouguer values are represented as gravity contours 35 miles long and have amplitudes of about 20 mgals.
plotted at a 10-milligal contour interval on figure The northern high is offset about 15 miles northeast
105.1. from the central high, and the southern high is offset
The major anomalies form three elongated, en about the same distance sout~west from the central
echelon gravity highs, oriented in a northwest direc- high.
tion. The axes of the g·ravity highs are parallel to Preliminary two-dimensional analyses, based on
the major fault zones of the region. an assumed density contrast of 0.3 grams per em\
The central gravity high is the largest of the have been made along several profiles normal to the
three; it extends for 95 miles from Wen dell north- axes of the gravity highs. These analyses take into
westward to about 10 miles south .of Nampa, has a account the fact that •the gravity highs are over the.
maximum amplitude of about 70 mgals, and a maxi- relatively low-density. sedimentary deposits of Plio-
mum simple-Bouguer gravity of -66.5 mgals. cene and Pleistocene age:·. The tops of the anomaly·-
Gradients ar~ steepest on the northeast side of the causing bodies are at·· least 3,000 ·feet· below the
anomaly, reaching 6 to 8 mgals per mile in places. surface as the thickness of these sedimentary de-
The high is divided into two parts in the vicinity of posits is knpwn. ·Re~sults ·of the two-dimensional
B-250 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

analyses suggest that the anomaly-causing bodies in explanation of the gravity highs. The most im-
extend at least 16,000 feet below sea level and may portant of these are :
reach 60,000 feet below sea level, depending on how 1. The Snake River Plain is a broad downwarp that
the shape of the bodies and the regional gravity has been filled with extensive basalt flows.
are assumed. In the preferred interpretation the 2. The plain is a graben bounded by faults with
large vertical displacements. Volcanism has
disturbing masses are approximated by tabular
accompanied the subsidence. The resulting
bodies, the largest about 90 miles long, 4 to 6 miles
lava flows filled the depression, yielding thick
wide, and extending from about 5,000 to 60,000 feet
accumulations of basalt.
below sea level. 3. Crustal stresses have caused large en echelon fis-
A graphical integration using Gauss's theorem sures under the Snake River Plain. These fis-
over the surface of the gravity map was used to sures have been injected with basalt or basalt-
estimate the total mass excess of the anomalous like material.
bodies. A mass excess of about 1 X 10 111 grams, or In light of the evidence presented in this paper,
1 X 10 1 :{ tons, is obtained if the simple-Bouguer back- the authors believe that the anomalies are explained
ground is taken as -120 mgals. The volume of this by a combination of the second and third hypotheses.
mass excess for material 0.3 grams per cma more
REFERENCE
dense than the surrounding material would be ap-
Malde, H. E., 1959, Fault zone along northern boundary of
proximately 8,000 cubic miles.
western Snake River Plain, Idaho: Science, v. 130, no.
Several geological hypotheses have been offered 3370, p. 272.

106. GRAVITY, VOLCANISM, AND CRUSTAL DEFORMATION IN LONG VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

By L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo.

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the California Division of Mines

A gravity survey made during 1955 and 1956 in gravity low a short distance west of the intersec-
and aroun~ Long Valley, Mono County, Calif., led tion of sections A-A' and B-B'.
to the discovery of a pronounced elliptical gravity An aeromagnetic survey of the Long Valley area
low bounded by steep gradients that coincide. ap- was flown in 1956.
proximately with the margin of the basin and with The areal geology shown on figure 106.1 has been
the exposed boundary between Cenozoic volcanic generalized from reports by Gilbert ( 1941), and
Rinehart and Ross ( 1957), and from unpublished
and sedimentary rocks and pre-Tertiary. crystalline
work between 1952 and 1959 by C. D. Rinehart, D. C.
rocks. The area of the anomaly inside the zone of
Ross, and N. K. Huber (C. D. Rinehart, written
steep gradients is about 150 square miles, the steep-
con1munication). I am grateful to Mr. Rinehart for
est gradient on the east end of the anomaly is 20 permission to use the results of the geologic map-
mgals per mile, and the maximum local gravity re- ping in this study.
li~f is 78 mgals (fig. 106.1). This is the largest local
difference in gravity in the Great Basin reported to RELATIONS OF GRAVITY AND GEOLOGY
date. A prominent gravity high, only suggested at Gravity tends to be high over exposures of pre-
the 10-mgal contour interval of the gravity map Tertiary rocks and relatively low over areas where
(fig. 106.1), was found near the center of the Cenozoic deposits are found at the surface (fig.
 ~ r

119"00' 118"45' 118"30'

EXPLANATION

D
Cenozoic clastic deposits
en
::t=
0
~
.....,.
~
>
'i::1
Pleistocene Bishop tuff of Gilbert (1938) ttl

~..
. ~
en

Cenozoic rhyolite and quartz latite

z
.....,
::t=
1++1 ttl
~ C1
37"45' Cenozoic andesite and basalt ttl
0
t""

D "
~

Pre-Tertiary rocks
.,

-
0
0
( ")

>
CJCJCJ z
Vertical fault based on geophysical evidence t:1
::t=
---250--- ~
---260--- t:1
~
Gravity contour 0
Contour interval10 milligals t'"'
0

D -
0
( "}

1
~ ~" v-~ ~' '~'
~ ,'S/fRi?A.' ,>' ',',", ',->_:
: : .: •" L' : "" ' ', < <
A
Gravity low

A'
Location of cross section
-en
(")

t tl
z(")
~ ~ ~ ~
' v' <? l;fj
Gilbert {1941)
v ' -' v " •> ;_I I ' ' i. v > ', ''< ;' : 37"45' sn
:0
.... < . . <;, "' I" :- f '? \
1::~~ >
~
Rinehart and Ross

-
.... I\>,., co .0 "'
..c:::::J:.:
Q)r.o ~
~

.s-o
a:
a
c: c:
(1957, unpublished)
( ")
"'2- t'"'
3 7 ° 30' ~ ' . < ..... 37'30' l;fj
119"00' 118"45' 118"30'
ll'J'OO' llR'30' en
INDEX TO FIGURE SHOWING
GEOLOGY SOURCES
";"'
~
>1::-
0 If.! 1 2 3 4 5 MILES C'l
I I I I I I I
DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL

FIGURE 106.1.-Combined gravity and g-eoiogic map of Long Valley, Calif., showing locations of profiles A-A' and B-B'.
td
~
01
~
B-252 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 ·

A A'
(.)

i=cn
~<{
2000 ~~
~<{
(.!)
...J
<tZ
.... -
.....0 ~-
UJin
>Z
1500 ~UJ-~
0::

1o.oo6'.A ·

-1o.ooo'

1
-20,000

B' EXPLANATION

r:>en CJ
<{...J
o::<t
(.!)~ Cenozoic clastic deposits
...J
o::...J
~~
(.!) z -250
::J-
0
CD Pleistocene Bishop
tuff of Gilbert (1938)

Cenozoic rhyolite

Cenozoic andesite and basalt

D v
(

Pre-Tertiary rocks

0 If.! 1 2. 3 4 5 MILES
I 1 I I I I I

FIGURE 106.2.-Analysis of gravity and magnetic profiles.

106.1). The average density of pre-Tertiary rocks By making a simple computation, using the ex-
is about 2.7 g per em:\ and the average density of pression for the gravity attraction of. an infinite
Cenozoic deposits is probably about 2.3 g per cma. sheet and an assumed density contrast of 0.4 g per
The correspondence of high gravity over rocks of em a between the Cenozoic and pre-Tertiary rocks, it
high density and low gravity over material of low can be concluded that the thickness of Cenozoic de-
density suggests the configuration of the surface of posits in Long Valley corresponding to a residual
pre-Tertiary rocks. The amplitude of negative de- gravity low of 60 mgals is greater than 12,000 feet.
parture of the gravity field from higher values over Similar relations between gravity and geology
exposures of pre-Tertiary rocks is related to the were found in the Mono Basin area just north of
thickness of the Cenozoic deposits, but the form of Long Valley (Pakiser, Press, and Kane, 1960).
the gravity contours does not in general cori·espond
to the actual subsurface configuration of the Cenozoic ANALYSIS OF GRAVITY AND MAGNETIC PROFILES
and pre-Tertiary boundary (fig. 106.2). However, Profiles A-A' and B-B' (fig. 106.1) were analyzed
the steepness of gravity gradients is a general guide to determine a depressed structure filled with Ceno-
to the steepness of this boundary. zoic deposits 0.4 g per em=~ less dense than the en-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-253
closing pre-Tertiary rocks that could account for to solve a similar problem. The volume of the Long
the measured gravity anomaly (fig. 106.2) .. The Valley structural block based on the same density
gravity effect within the ellipse-shaped area bounded contrast was found by direct computation to be 375
on all sides by a vertical fault zone (fig. 106.1) was cubic miles. Local accumulations of low-density ma-
computed and compared with the measured gravity terial · outside the boundaries of the Long Valley
along the east segment of profile A-A' at 9 points by structure contribute to the gravity low and the vol-
a method previously described (Pakiser, Press, and ume determined from Gauss's theorem but not to
Kane, 1960, p. 424, 441, fig. 17). Using the result the volume of the structure found by direct compu-
of this computation of gravity effect as a guide, tation, so the agreement between volumes computed
generalized geologic cross sections were constructed by the two methods is good.
along profiles A-A' and B-B' and compared with the The volume of clastic deposits that could have
measured gravity. A wedge of Cenozoic deposits been transported to Long Valley by streams was •
bounded on all sides by a vertical fault zone and in- found by a method described by Pakiser, Press, and
creasing gradually from a thickness of less than Kane (1960, p. 444) to be only about 150 cubic
5,000 feet on the west to 18,000 feet on the east can miles. The discrepancy between the probable vol-
account for the gravity anomaly (fig. 106.2). The umes of the structure and the stream-transported
density contrast between the Cenozoic deposits and deposits suggests that a large proportion of the Ceno-
pre-Tertiary rocks may be greater or less than that zoic deposits in Long Valley is volcanic. This con-
assumed, so there is an uncertainty of ± 5,000 feet clusion is supported by direct observation of volcanic
in the computed maximum depth of 18,000 feet. rocks at the surface and by gravity and magnetic
Total-intensity aeromagnetic profiles along parts evidence of a mass of dense and magnetic material
of profiles A-A' and B-B' reveal that the magnetic buried near the center of Long Valley.
field is generally high over Long Valley, in con- Long Valley may be a volcano-tectonic depression
trast with the low gravity (fig. 106.2). However, caused by subsidence along faults, following extru-
the sharp magnetic high near the center of Long sion of magma from a chamber at depth. A similar
Valley corresponds very roughly with the local grav- conclusion was reached for the origin of Mono Basin
ity high in the same general area. By measuring (Pakiser, Press, and Kane, 1960). ·
the horizontal extent of steepest gradients and
using an interpretive method described by Vacquier REFERENCES
and others ( 1951), Isidore Zietz (wt:itten communi- Gilbert, C. M., 1938, Welded tuffs in eastern California: Geol.
cation) calculated the depth to the upper sL1rface of Soc. America Bull., v. 49, p. 1829-1862.
the magnetic body to be about 3,000 feet below the - - 1941, Late Tertiary geology southeast of Mono Lake,
California: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 52, p. 781-816.
surface. This is in the upper part of the Cenozoic
Pakiser, L. C., Press, Frank, and Kane, M. F., 1960, Geo-
section as determined by gravity. physical investigation of Mono Basin, California: Geol.
Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 415-448.
DISCUSSION
Rinehart, C. D., and Ross, D. C., 1957, Geology of the Casa
The mass deficiency corresponding to the. entire Diablo Mountain quadrangle, California: U.S. Geol. Sur-
gravity low of the Long Valley area was determined vey Geol. Quad. Map GQ-99.
uniquely by Gauss's theorem to be about 7.8 X 10 17 Vacquier, V., Steenland, Clarence, Henderson, R. G., and Zietz,
Isidore, 1951, Interpretation of aeromagnetic maps: Geol.
g, which is equivalent to 470 cubic miles of Cenozoic Soc. America Mem. 47, 151 p.
deposits 0.4 g per cm:1 less dense than pre-Tertiary Yokoyama, Izumi, 1958, Gravity survey on Kuttyaro Caldera
rocks. Yokoyama (1958) has used Gauss's theorem Lake: Jour. Physics of the Earth, v. 6, p. 75-79.
 B-254 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 ....

107. GRAVITY STUDY OF THE STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY OF SIERRA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA

By W. H. JACKSON, F. R. SHAWE, and L. C. PAKISER, Denver, Colo., Bowling Green, Ky., and Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with Califo'rnia Department of w·ate·r Resources

'!
Sierra Valley is in parts of Sierra and Plumas units vary greatly. Much of the region is covered
• Counties, Calif., and near the northern end of the by deposits of unconsolidated or poorly consolidated
Sierra Nevada. The valley is a flat, almost feature- clastic sediments of Quaternary age. The age of
less plain, approximately 10 miles on a side. An the underlying .valley deposits is not known but
arm about 4 miles wide extends south about 7 miles could possibly range from late Tertiary to Recent.
from the southwest corner. Mountains rise abruptly The geologic history is incompletely known. The
on all sides to altitudes of more than 3,000 feet above area may have undergone diastrophism during Pre-
the valley floor, which has an altitude of about 4,900 cambrian time; certainly the rocks were deformed
feet. prior to the intrusion of the Sierra Nevada granitoid
During parts of 1959 and 1960 approximately rocks during Late Jurassic(?) to Cretaceous time.
300 gravity stations. were established in Sierra Val- The post-Cretaceous rocks have also been deformed;
ley and in the surrounding areas as a part of a long- both normal and strike~slip faults seem to have de-
range study of major crustal features.· Data from. veloped during this period of deformation, although
an additional 418 stations in the valley were made high-angle reverse and minor thrust faults may
available to the Geological Survey by the Division have contributed to the present geologic configura-
of Resources Planning of the California Department tion. Faulting that commenced with the initial up-
of Water Resources. The observed gravity data were lift of the Sierra Nevada has continued intermit-
corrected for latitude, elevation, and terrain effects. tently to the present.
Terrain corrections were made through Hayford As in other ~reas along the Sierra Nevada front,
Zone "H" using the modified Hayford-Bowie charts the gravity maxima in the Sierra Valley area are
·and tables described by Swick ( 1942). Both terrain generally associated with outcrops of pre-Tertiary
and elevation corrections wen~ based on a density rocks, and the gravity minima with thick deposits of
of 2.67 grams per cm:l. The data were tied to the Cenozoic rocks. The average density contrast be-
airport gravity control network (Woollard, 1958) tween the pre-Tertiary rocks and Cenozoic rocks
at Reno, Nev., and San Francisco, Calif., contoured probably ranges from 0.3 to 0.5 grams per cm 11 •
at a 5-milligal interval, and generalized to delete The largest residual gravity minimum in Sierra
the minor irregularities (fig. 107.1). Valley is about -15 milligals, which for a simple
The authors are especially indebted to Mr. Law- approximation based on the gravity attraction of
rence B. James, Chief Geologist of the California an infinite slab represents a minimum thickness of
Department of Water Resources, and to Mr. Jerome from 2,500 to 3,000 feet of Cenozoic deposits.
C. Nelson, Geophysicist of· the Division of Resources The prominent, elongated gravity minimum asso-
Planning, California Department of Water Re- ciated with the valley floor indicates a broad, deep
sources, for making available geologic and gravity basin with a northeasterly trend, corresponding ap-
data for this area. proximately with the outline of the valley floor.
Rocks ranging in age from Precambrian ( ?) to Relatively steep gravity' gradients on the northwest
Quaternary are exposed in the region surrounding and west margins of the valley suggest steep bound-
Sierra Valley (fig. 107.1), although rocks of many ing faults. The trend of'the marginal faults on the
geologic periods are missing. Most of the bedrock west side of the valley is slightly east of north ;
is composed of volcanic rocks of Tertiary age. These however, an abrupt change in direction occurs near
rocks range in composition from basalt to rhyolite; Beckwourth, where the trend is approximately north-
andesite predominates. The total thickness of the east. The southern boundary _of the valley, in the
volcanic rocks and the thickness of the individual vicinity of Sierraville, may be formed by a complex
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-255

45

EXPLANATION
.,.-------
D Contact

-
Dashed where approximate
Cenozoic clastic deposits
,....-----
Inferred fault
Cenozoic volcanic rocks --/50-
Predominantly andesite' Gravity contour
Contou.r interval 5 milligals

~
Pre-Tertiary ro~ks Closed gravity low
15'

0 1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 MILES

FIGURE 107.1.-Generalized geologic and gravity map of Sierra Valley, California.

pattern of faults. The gravity gradient at the north- hills called The Buttes. This rock gives rise to the
east end of Sierra Valley near Vinton suggests a northernmost of three gravity highs that form a line
gently sloping contact between Cenozoic fill and pre- trending southeastward across the valley. There is
Tertiary bedrock. The margin of the valley south- no exposed bedrock associated with the high near
west of Vinton is probably bounded by a steeply the center of the valley, which may represent a
dipping faults, and the trend of the gravity field is buried hill of pre-Tertiary rock or of dense volcanic
northeast, suggesting that bounding faults on each rock. The southernmost high is relatively broad
side of the valley are parallel. and centers near a hill of Tertiary volcanic rock.
Pre-Tertiary rock is exposed on the low, rounded This ano~aly suggests that dense volcanic rock may
B-256 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

extend under the alluvial cover for some· distance REFERENCES

toward the center of the valley. Pakiser, L. C., Press, Frank, and Kane, M. F., 1960, Geo-
The gentle gravity gradient near Beckwourth Pass physical investigation of Mono Basin, California: Geol.
indicates an easterly sloping bedrock surface be- Soc. America Bull., v. 71, no. 4, p. 415-448.
neath the .light Cenozoic stream and lake deposits Swick, C. H., 1942, Pendulum gravity measurements and
isostatic reductions: U.S. Coast and Geod. Survey Spec.
in Long Valley. The structural setting of Sierra
Pub. 232, 82 p.
Valley is similar in many respects to that of Mono
Woollard, G. P., 1958, Results for a gravity control network at
Basin and Long Valley, Calif., (Pakiser, Press and airports in the United States: Geophysics, v. 23, no. 3, p.
Kane, 1960; Pakiser, Art. 106). 520-535.

MINERALOGY, GEOCHEMISTRY,· AND PETROLOGY

108. DISTRIBUTION OF NIOBIUM IN THREE CONTRASTING COMAGMATIC SERIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

By DAVID GOTTFRIED, LILLIE JENKINS, and FRANK S. GRIMALDI, Washington, D. C.

Because of the difficulties involved in the measure- between this method and spectrographic analyses
ment of small concentration of niobium, little is (Ahrens and Fleischer, 1960).
known regarding the distribution of this element in
suites of igneous rocks from the United States. SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA BATHOLITH
Much of our present knowledge on the geochemistry This batholith has been studied in great detail
of niobium in igneous rocks is based on about 80 by Larsen (1948) both in the field and in the labora-
analyses by Ran kama ( 1948) of various igneous tory. The igneous rocks range in composition from
rocks, chiefly from localities in Europe. From this calcic gabbro to granite and constitute a calc-alkalic
study it was· shown that siliceous rocks generally batholith typical of the great Mesozoic batholiths of
contain greater amounts of niobium than the mafic western North America. Twenty-two chemically
rocks; but relatively few samples of a single province analyzed igneous rocks were analyzed spectrophoto-
were analyzed to determine the distribution of nio- metrically for niobium. The average niobium con-
bium in an individual differentiated rock series. tent for each of the major rock types is given in
This paper presents a summary of new data on the table 1. Figure 108.1 is a variation diagram showing
niobium conterit of 62 sAmples of related igneous the relation of niobium content of the rocks to their
rocks from three different petrographic provinces: chemical composition. The position of each rock is
the southern California batholith; the Shonkin Sag calculated from its chemical analyses by the method
laccolith of Montana; and the White Mountain plu- described by Larsen ( 1938).
tonic-volcanic series of New Hampshire. Niobium is low in the mafic rocks, averaging 4. 7
ppm in the gabbros, and shows only a small upward
The analyses for niobium were made by a modi-
trend in the tonalites and granodiorites, which aver-
fied niobium thiocyanate spectrophotometric pro-
age 5.3 and 5.6 ppm niobium, respectively. The most
cedure (Grimaldi, 1960) adapted to the determi'- siliceous rocks of the batholith, the quartz monzonites
nation of niobium in the parts~per-million range in and granites, average 7.4 ppm of niobium. The
rocks. The method yields results reproducible to data show a considerable variation in niobium con-
better than ± 5 percent as determined by replicate tent for rocks of nearly the same composition. On
analyses on 22 samples containing different amounts the average, however, niobium shows an enrichment
of niobium. Satisfactory agreement was obtained of about 11/2 times in the most siliceous rocks over .
on the niobium content of standard granite G-1 the gabbroic rocks.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-257
TABLE 1.-Niobium ·in ig1woltS 1·ocks j'1·om the southern TABLE 2.-Niobium in igneous 1·ocks of the Shonkin Sag
Ca.lifornia batholith. laccolith.

Niohium (ppm) tiamplt· Rock type and location t Niobium (ppm)

Number of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
samp(('S Range Average
21 ...... Upper part of Upper shonkonite....... 24
450...... Upper shonkonite.................... 15
15 .... ' . s,,·cnite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
~:~:::1 1 ;~\< :.:: :::::::::::::::::::
11 G 2.2- 7.7 4.7
5 :L:~- G. 9 5.:3 1044 ...... Aegirine syenite..................... 28
(o~·anolhontl' .................. . I 4.4- 7.5 5.fi 1067. . . . . . Aegirine ~yenite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Quart?. monwnite and granite ... . 4 4.H-10.5 7.4 10G5. . . . . . Minette (:3 inehes thiek). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:3
1OGG. . . . . . Aplitie s~·enite.... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -t:3
a 1 . . . . . . Transition roek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
a ....... Transition roek...................... 20
THE SHONKIN SAG LACCOLITH 451 . . . . . . Transition roek... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2:3
h . . . . . . Lower shonkinite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
This laccolith provides an excellent opportunity 1008 ...... Lower shonkinite.................... 15
415. . . . . . Basal mafie phonolite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
to follow the behavior of niobium during differen- 1081...... Basal mafic phonolite next to r.ontad 15
tiation of a subsilicic-alkalic magma. Chemically with sandstone.
these rocks are unusually high in potassium for
1 Samples nre listed in approximate order from top to bottom of the lacco-
rocks containing from about 45 to 50 percent silica. lith.
The laccolith consists mainly of four ro~k types:
shonkinite, syenite, aegirine syenite, and transition According to Hurlbut (1939), most of the rocks of
rock which separates shonkinite and syenite. Also the laccolith were derived from a magma which
present are small aplitic and minette dikelets. Four- differentiated in place. The niobium content of the
teen samples of rocks representing successive stages initial magma, based on the niobium content from
of differentiation have been analyzed for niobium. the chilled mafic phonolite,. is probably about 15 to
The samples were provided by the Department of 20 parts per million. There is a small increase in
Mineralogy and Petrography of Harvard University. niobium in the transition rocks and syenite, and a
The results are given in table 2. The chilled shon- relatively large increase of niobium in the latest
konite is represented by two samples from the lower differentiates. Our data on niobium distribution are
contact. One sample contains 22 ppm niobi~m and as yet too few to use the distribution guide to sup-
another that was in contact with the underlying port or reject Hurlbut's (1939) proposal of differen-
sandstone contains 15. ppm niobium. The mafic tiation in place.
phonolite is transitional to the lower shonkinite, two
WHITE MOUNTAIN PLUTONIC-VOLCANIC SERIES
samples of which contain 13 and 15 ppm niobium.
The transition rock ranges from 17 to 23 ppm and This series contains a considerable variety of plu-
the syenite 25 ppm niobium. The aegirine syenite tonic rocks which have definite alkalic characteris-
is intrusive into the enclosing rocks as thin hori- tics (Chapman and Williams, 1935). The plutonic
zontal dikes. Two samples of this rock contain 28 rocks (in order of decreasing age) consist of gabbro,
and 56 ppm of niobium. The minette and aplitic diorite, nepheline syenite, syenite, quartz syenite,
syenite contain 23 and 43 ppm niobium respectively. and a variety of amphibole and biotite granite. The
syenite and granitic rocks are predominant. Quartz
is a late mineral in the series and is important only
12.
in the quartz syenites and granites. Chemically these
10 rocks are relatively high in Na:!O and low in CaO
and MgO.
ia. 8 Twenty-six samples of some of the plutonic rocks
Q.

2 6 •
were analyzed for niobium. These samples were
:::>
Ill
made available by Arthur P. Butler of the U.S.
~
z
4 Geological Survey. The results (table 3) show that
the plutonic rocks of this province contain much
more niobium than the rocks of southern California.
The granitic. rocks from the main intrusive mass
·30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
average about 100 ppm niobium and those from
the outlying masses contain about 80 ppm niobium.
FIGURE 108.1.-Distribution of niobium in igneous rocks of the Only a few of the other rock types were analyzed.
southern California batholith. The gabbro contains 55 ppm and the nepheline
B-258 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 3.-Niobiunt content of plutonic 1·ocks of the White ered typical major crustal igneous masses. Hence,
Mountain plutonic-volcanic series.
it is of interest to compare the. niobium content of
Niobium (ppm) this batholith with the estimates of the average
Numher - - - - - - - - - - -
Rock types of abundance of niobium in igneous rocks. According
samples Range Averages
to Rankama the average niobium content of igneous
rocks is 24 ppm, whereas the average niobium con-
Gabbro .............................. . 1 55
.\fonzodiorite ......................... . 1 119 tent of the southern California batholith is probably
X epheline s~·enite ...................... . 1 ........ 179
between 5 and 6 ppm. Assuming that this diver-
S~·cnitc ............................... . 1 . . . . . . . . 120
Quartz s~·enite ......................... . J .. 102 gence is not due to analytical procedures, either the
Biotite granites (main intrusive mass) .... . 8 70-1-!8 105
Amphibole granites (main intrusive mass). -l 72-126 101 batholith of southern California is abnormally low
Biotite granites (outl~·ing masses) ....... . 8 -lG-120 82 in niobium, or, as pointed out by Fleischer and
Chao ( 1960), estimates of the abundance of many
syenite 179 ppm of niobium. One sample not in- elements, including niobium, are of questionable
cluded in the table, a riebeckite granite cut by value unless regional variations are taken into
veinlets, contains 330 ppm niobium. The composi- account.
tion of the veinlets is as yet unknown.
REFERENCES
DISCUSSION Ahrens, L. H., and Fleischer, Michael, 1960, Report on trace
Just as each of the petrographic provinces dis- constituents of the granite G-1 and the diabase W-1, in
Stevens, R. E., and others, Second report on a cooperative
cussed here has distinct mineralogic and chemical
investigation of the composition of two silicate rocks:
characteristics, the niobium content of each province U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 1113, p. 83:--1113.
is distinctly different. From the available data, Chapman, R. W., and Williams, C. R., 1935, Evolution of the
there is very little overlap in the niobium content White Mountain magma series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 20,
of the rocks of one suite as compared to another. p. 502-530.
The lowest niobium content in the rocks of the Fleischer, Michael, and Chao, E. C. T., 1960, Some problems
in the estimation of the abundances of elements in the
southern California batholith is in a gabbro which
earth's crust: Internat. Geol. Cong., 21st, Copenhagen,
contains 2.2 ppm niobium. The maximum content 1960, pt. I, p. 141-148.
is 10.5 ppm in a granite. In the Shonkin Sag lac- Grimaldi, F. S., 1960, Determination of niobium in the parts
colith the minimum value is 13 ppm in the mafic per million range in rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 32, p.
shonkonite and the maximum is 56 ppm in the 119-121.
aegirine syenite. Except for two samples of granite Hurlbut, C. S., Jr., 1939, Igneous rocks of the Highwood
Mountains, Montana, pt. I, The laccoliths: Geol. Soc.
from outlying masses, the gabbro of the White Moun- ·America Bull., v. 50, p. 1043-1112.
tain plutonic-volcanic series contains 55 ppm of Larsen, E. S., Jr., 1938, Some new variation diagrams for
niobium and most ·of the late differentiates contain groups of igneous rocks: Jour. Geology, v. 46, p. 505-520.
more than 100 ppm. The results also indicate that, - - - 1948, Batholith and associated rocks of Corona,
·~
on the average, niobium is concentrated in the later Elsinore, and San Luis Rey quadrangles, southern Cali-
differentiates of each of the series. fornia: Geol. Soc. America Mem. 29, 182 p.
Rankama, Kalervo, 1948, On the geochemistry of niobium:
Of the three provinces discussed, only the rocks Acad. Sci. Fennicae Annales, ser. A, III. Geol.-geog., no.
of the southern California batholith can be consid- 13, p. 1-57.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-259

109. BEHYLLIUM CONTENT OF CORDIERITE

By WALLACE R. GRIFFITTS, and ELMO F. COOLEY, Denver, Colo.

The abundance of information about the beryllium or sedimentary processes. Formation of gneiss in
contents of many rock-forming minerals contrasts which cordierite is rich in beryllium, thus would re-
sharply with the lack of data on the beryllium con- quire an introduction of beryllium before or during
tent of cordierite. This is especially odd in view of metamorphism.
the structural similarity between cordierite and
beryl, and the occurrence of cordierite in contact .TABLE l.-Be1·yllium, content of co1·die1·ite.
metamorphic rocks, pegmatites, and veins, al.l of [Sample 262664 analyzed by J. C. Hamilton, all others by E. F. Cooley)
which are types of deposits that may contain
beryllium minerals. We have made beryllium deter- Laboratory No.
Beryllium content
(parts per million) Type of occurrcnc.e Locality
minations on 16 cordierite specimens, both fresh ':'lnd -------1---------------------
altered, from several geologic environments. The I 2,000 Pegmatite ..... . Colorado.
beryllium contents of these specimens range from I 2,000 . . . . do ......... . Do .
60-40n .... . 2,000 Quartz vein or Connecticut.
less than one to 2,000 parts per million (table 1). pegmatite.
The well-known abundance of beryllium in some 262G64 ..... . 1,500 Quartz vein .... . South Dakota.
60-4007 .... . I 1,500 Pegmatite ..... . Finland.
pegmatites needs no discussion. The veins that con- 1,000 Quartz vein .... . Colorado.
tain beryllium-rich cordierite are in pegmatite dis- 60-4017 .... . 700 . . . . do ......... . Do .
60-4015 .... . 50 Pegmatite ...... . Norway.
tricts, though not necessarily districts of beryl- 60-400:3 .... . :30 Gneiss ........ . New
bearing pegmatites; they may represent deposits Hampshire.
60-4008 .... . :30 . . . . do ......... . Finland .
from solutions that escaped from the pegmatite 60-4004 .... . 20 . . . . do ......... . Sweden .
magmas. Igneous and sedimentary rocks rich 60;_4005 .... . 15 . . . . do ......... . Norway .
60-4006 .... . 10 . . . . do ......... . Wyoming .
enough in magnesium to yield cordierite-bearing 60-4014 .... . 10 . . . . do ......... . Czechoslovakia .
gneisses by isochemical metamorphism are unlikely 60-4016 .... . 1.5 Vein .......... . Colorado.
60-4011 .... . 1 <1 Homfels ....... . Japan.
to contain much beryllium, because beryllium and
magnesium tend to be separated by either magmatic 1 Cordierite that has been altered to micaceous minerals.

110. GERMANIUM CONTENT OF ENAHGITE AND OTHER COPPER SULFIDE MINERALS

By MICHAEL FLEISCHER, Washington, D. C.

The principal source of germanium has for many Noddack, 1931) that appreciable amounts of ger-
years been as a byproduct of zinc smelters, although manium may be present in other copper sulfide min-
some has been recovered in England from flue dusts erals, and especially in enargite, but very little work
Jrom the burning of coal, and germanium has been seems to have been done on the possibility of recov-
produced in recent years as a byproduct of copper ering germani urn as a byproduct of the smelting of
ores at Tsumeb, South West Africa, and at Kipushi, su~h ores.
Congo. At these mines, much of the germanium is The U.S. Geological Survey has been interested in
present as germanite, probably .Cua (Fe,Ge) S,., and analyzing such ores, especially those rich in enargite.
the related mineral renierite, perhaps (Cu,Fe):{ In 1954, Earl M. Irving, then with the U.S. Geologi-
(Fe,Ge)S,.. cal Survey at Manila, obtained from Mr. C. B. Fos-
It has long been known (Papish, Brewer, and Holt, ter, Superintendent, Lepanto Consolidated Mining
1927; Goldschmidt and Peters, 1933; · Noddack and Co., a suite of ores from the Lepanto mine, where
B-260 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961 .•
TABLE 1.-Spect?·og?·aphic analyses of O'tes f?'o?n Lepanto
Consolidated Mines, Philippines
90
Sa-mple Ge Sn Ag "b Bi
No. 1 (ppm) (ppm) (percent) (pe~~ent) (percent) EXPLANATION
------ - - - - ------ - - - - - ------ - - - - - 80
D sphalerite ( 1386 samples)

I. ~~0 90 O.OOX X. O.X ~ enargite (44 samples)

2. .. 0 20 .OX 0 .X
:~. 20 200 . OX X. .X ·10 []I chalcopyrite (244 samples)
4. .. 1oo· 300 .OX X. .X
5. . . .. -tO 90 .ox X. .X
6. .. 40 200 . OX X. .X U) r--

7. ... . . no 80 . OX X. ':x· ILI;_6Q

...J
n.
~

8. .. 0 .1)00 . OOX X. .OX :::e

<(
9 .. .. 0 2000 . OX X. .OX U)

10 ... .... 0 800 . OX X. .OX l:> 50 1-

1--
z
ILl
1 ( 1) Enargite and luzonite, hanging wall, 1030 level; (2) chalcocite with 0
luzonite, hanging wall, 1030 level; ( 3) luzonite, enargite, and chalcocit~. ha~g­
ing wall, 1030 level; (4) enargite, hanging wall, 1000)evel; (5) enargtte wtth
f5n. 40 1- -
luzonite, footwall, 1070 level; ( 6) luzonite with enargite, footwall, 1070 level; :·:=··
( 7) enargite, footwall, 950 level; ( 8) enargite, footwall branch vein, 1030
level; (9-10) luzonite, footwall branch vein, 1030 level.·
30 1- -
the ore consists predominantly of enargite and luzo- ·:::·:

~
nite (Gonzales, 1956). These were analyzed quan- 20 1-
r-
-
titatively for germanium and tin, and semiquantita- r-
tively for other elements by Harry Bastron, and the 10 1- -
results are given in table 1.
All samples contained major Cu, and all but No. 2
(O.X percent As) contained major As. Nos,7 and 9 II rrn. bt!/.1 ~~
0.1- 0.05- 100- 10- ( 10
contained Au; Nos. 3, 7, and 9 contained Pb; No. 7 0.504 0.1% SOOppm IOOppm ppm

contained Zn X. percent and Fe X. percent. Gallium FIGURE 110.1.-Distribution of germanium content of sphal-
was riot found in any. erite, enargite, and chalcopyrite.
-It will be noted that antimony, arsenic, tin, ger-
manium, and silver are present in nearly every ( 1959), only a few of the analyses summarized in
l?ample. The presence of such large amounts of tin table 2 refer to coexisting minerals, and therefore
had not been noted previously in enargite or luzo- do not indicate the preferential takeup of germanium
nite. The germanium contents are lower than in by one mineral or another. Burnham's analyses show
most samples of enargite analyzed (table 2) ; data clearly that germanium is much more ·concentrated
are as yet too scattered to permit any generaliza- in sphalerite than in chalcopyrite from the same
tions between germanium content and geological deposit. A few analyses indicate that enargite and
conditions of formation of enargite. luzonite contain more germanium than sphalerite
Table 2 is a summary of available analyses, in- from the same deposit, and analyses by Arsenijevic
cluding some unpublished determinations, of the ( 1959) show higher contents of germanium in bor- ·
germanium content of some sulfides. Those for nite than in enargite from the Bor deposit, Yugo-
sphalerite, wurtzite, and chalcopyrite are mainly slavia.
from Fleischer (1955),_plus later data, especially by It is evident that further study should be made
Burnham (1959), El Shazly and others (1957), and of the distribution of germanium among the minerals
H;aranczyk ( 1957). The distribution of the ger- of major deposits containing enargite and bornite.
manium contents in sphalerite, enargite, and chalco- Scattered analyses have been published of material
pyrite is shown graphically in figure 110.1. from Butte, from Bor, and from Tsumeb, but no
Other copper sulfides that have been reported to data have been published for the remaining major
contain germanium include chalcocite (sec9ndary?) deposits. Studies of the fate of germanium during
up to 300 ppm Ge, colusite (up to 200 ppm), covellite the smelting of such ores are· also needed; analy-ses
(up to 60 ppm), stannite (up to 50 ppm), tetrahe- by Arsenijevic (1959) showed contents of 150 to 860
drite (up to 200 ppm), and chalcostibite (0.5-1 per- ppm germanium in various flue dusts obtained dur-
cent). It is possible that germanite or renierite ing the smelting of ore from Bor.
might have been present in some of these samples. I thank Harry Bastron for the spectrographic
Except for the samples analyzed by Bur,nham analyses, Mr~ C. ·B. Foster of the Lepanto Consoli-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-261
TABLE 2.-Smnmm·y of data on gennaniuut content of va'rious sulfides
~umber of samples reported in each concentration range
-----·------- ---------·----------,---------.--·------.-·--·---c-·--·---.----,-------
:\laximum Total
:\lin('rnl (ppm} I perc('nt 5000- 1000- 500-999 200-499 100-lll9 50-99 10-·19 <10 Not number
or more !1999 ·1999 (ppm} (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) found of
(ppm) (ppm) samples

Sphalcl'ite ....... . 1000 50 l!l !li 105 121 t:32 86 ii6 1:386
"'ul'tzite ........ . 5000 (i I 2 ] 2 5 :3 21
Qhalc'<;>P.\'I'it:e ..... . 200 I 2 :3 i 18 21:3 244
l~.nnl'gt t:e ........ . > 1000 2 l 12 8 5 6 2 8 4-l-
Bot·nite ......... . 1000 1 2 2 ] 1 J • 0. 0 ••••
() 1-l-

dated Mining Co., who furnished the samples, and Goldschmidt, V. M., and Peters, Cl., 1933, Zur Geochemie des
Mr. V. E. Lednicky, President, Lepanto Consolidated Germaniums: Gesell. Wiss. Gottingen N achr., Math.-
phys. Kl., Heft 2, p. 141-166.
Mining Co., who kindly gave permission to publish
Gonzales, Arsenio, 1956, Geology of the Lepanto copper mine,
the results. Mankayan, Mountain Province, in Copper Deposits of the
Philippines, Part 1, Text: Manila, Philippine Bur. Mines,
REFERENCES Spec. Projects Ser., Pub. No. 16, p. 17-50.
Arsenijevic, M., 1959, Germanium in the Bor copper mines: Haranczyk, Czeslaw, 1957, Trace elements in ore minerals
Srpskog geol. Drushtva, Zapisnici for 1957, p. 149-151. from Silesian Cracovian zinc lead deposits: Inst. geol.
Burnham, C. W., 1959, Metallogenetic provinces of the south- (Poland), Buil. 115, p. 63-126 (Polish with English
western United States and northern Mexico: New Mexico summary).
Bur. Mines and Mineral Resources Bull. 65, p. 1-76. Noddack, Ida, and Noddl:l,ck, Walter, 1931, Die Geochemie des
El Shazly, E. M., Webb, J. S., and Williams, David, 1957, Rheniums: Zeitschr. physikal. Chemie, v. 154 A, p. 207-
Trace elements in sphalerite, galena, and associated min- 244.
erals from the British Isles: Inst. Mining and Metallurgy Papish, Jacob, Brewer, F. M., and Holt, D. A., 1927, Ger-
Trans., v. 66, p. 241-271. manium, XXV, Arc spectrographic detection and estima-
Fleischer, Michael, 1955, Minor elements in some sulfide min- tion of germanium. Occurrence of germanium in certain
erals: Econ. Geology, 50th anniversary Volume, p. 970- tin minerals. Enargite as a possible source of ger-
1024. manium: Am .. Chem. Soc. Jour., v. 49, p. 3028-3033.

111. CHLORINE AND FLUORINE IN SILICIC VOLCANIC GLASS

By HowARD A. POWERS, Denver, Colo.

The chlorine and fluorine content of 120 samples Reamsville ash beds in the central Great Plains
of silicic volcanic glass is plotted on figure 111.1 1 • (Swineford and others, 1955, p. 254), the Peters
Five of the samples are matrix glass separated frorri Gulch and the Narrows _ash layers in Idaho (Powers
blocks of. vitrophyric pumice, and 115 samples are a'nd Malde, Art. 70), the Wray ash in Colorado, a·nd
vitric shards from beds of volcanic ash. The chlorine five .beds labeled· "X" on figure 111.1 are all of
content differs from ash bed to ash bed independently Pliocene age from the Snake River Plain, Idaho. The
of the fluorine content, and differences in both content of Cl and F is fairly constant in different
chlorine and fluorine content have no apparent re- samples from the same ash bed except in those from
lation to geologic age. The Galata ash in Montana the Pearlette; 14 samples from the type Pearlette
and Alberta (Horberg and Robie, 1955, p. 949) is localities range in Cl from 0.12 to 0.15 percent and
postglacial, the Pearlette ash in Kansas (Carey and in F from 0.13 to 0.17 percent. Even greater ranges
others, 1952, p. 13) is late Kansan, the Reager and are found in samples of the glass from three blocks
of pumice collected by R. L. Smith and R. A. Bailey
1 Chlorine content was determined by a method described by Peck and
Tomasi (1969). from different parts of the Bandelier tuff from the
B-262 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

8 +

+0+0 2.
+0
0
+~
+ 0
C0 8 0
M:to
-f6
Cb 0

I-
zLLJ
u
•
a::
~ 0.10
~
u..i
C9
z
a:0
:::>
• •
...J
L.L..

• @
~
• •
..
• 0@..:.
~ •

~
~ •.

• •
• •
~· •• •• • •
•

EXPLANATION
+ Known individual ash beds.
Sample known to be from named ash bed 1 Galata 5 Peters Gulch
0 2 Pearlette 6 Narrows
Sample similar physica:ly and chemically to named ash bed 3 Reager 7 Wray
•
Isolated sample known to be different from other known beds
4 Reamsville 8 Sand Point-
9 Recent pumice. Saint Helens

•
Sample of unknown relation
X Unnamed ash bed of Pliocene age

D
Pumice from Bandalier rhyolite tuff (Smith, 1938)

FIGURE 111.1.-Chlorine and fluorine content in silicic volcanic glass.

Valles caldera in New Mexico (R. L. Smith and (including the 120 mentioned above) of silicic vol-
R. A. Bailey, oral commul)ication, 1960); these canic glass of late Cenozoic age collected from many
samples contain Cl 0.20 and F 0.14, Cl 0.09 and F places in the western United States is summarized
0.05, and Cl 0.14 and F 0.04 percent, respectively. as follows:
In contrast, 2 samples of glass fro1p blocks of R.e-
Percent F: 0.01 .02-.06 .07-.08 .09-.12 .13-.17 .19-.30
cent pumice from St. Helens volcano in the Wash-
No. of samples: 20 295 40 105 80 15
ington Cascades (D. R. Mullineaux, oral communica-
tion, 1961) are very similar in their content, Cl 0.0,7 The source area from which many of these samples
and F 0.03 and Cl 0.08 and F 0.03 .percent, r~­ were erupted is knowii~"and some of the data support
spectively. the conclusion of R. R. Coats (1956, p. 76) that the
More data are available from U.S. Geological abundance of fluorine, and of several other elements
Survey analytical laboratories on fluorine content present in trace amounts, differs in different igneous
than on chlorine. The fluorine content of 555 samples provinces. For instance, 75 samples known to be
 ~ -
SHORT PAPE~S IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-263
from the H.igh Cascade volcanoes range from 0.005 REFERENCES
to 0.065 percent F; 30 samples of early Pliocene Carey, J. S., Frye, ,J. C., Plummer, N., and Swineford, Ada,
age from a proxince overlapping the Idaho-Nevada 1952, Kansas volcanic ash resources: Kansas State Geol.
border range from 0.065 to 0.14 percent F;. and 7 Survey Bull. 96, pt. 1, p. 1-68.
Coats, R. R., 1956, Uranium and certain other trace elements
samples of the younger silicic tuffs in the Thomas
. in felsic volcanic rocks of Cenozoic age in western United
Range in west-central Utah (M. H. Staatz, written States, in Contributions to the geology of uranium and
communication, 1960) range from 0.14 to 0.32 per- thorium by the United States Geological Survey and
cent F in contrast to 4 samples of the older series Atomic Energy Commission for the United Nations Inter-
national Conference on Peaceful uses of atomic energy,
of rhyolite-latite rocks that contain from 0.04 to 0.07 Geneva, Switzerland, 1955: U.S. ·Geol. Survey Prof.
percent F. However, the different content of fluorine Paper 300, p. 75-78.
in the 3 blocks of pumice from the Bandelier rhyolite Horberg, Leland, and Robie, R. A., 1955, Postglacial volcanic
ash in the Rocky Mountain Piedmont, Montana and
tuff does not support the generalization.
Alberta: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 60, p. 949-956.
Friedman and Harris (written communication, Peck, L. C., and Tomasi, E. J., 1959, Determination of chlorine
1961) have determined that hydration of volcanic in silicate rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 31, p. 2024-2026.
glass does not drive out a measurable part of the Swineford, Ada, Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B., 1955,
i.. Petrography of the late Tertiary volcanic ash falls in the
fluorine contained in the original glass, but no simi- central Great Plains: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 25, p.
lar tests have been made in respect to chlorine. 243-261.

. 112. ELECTRONPROBE ANALYSIS OF SCHREIBERSITE (RHABDITE) IN THE CANYON DIABLO METEORITE

By I. ADLER and E. J. DWORNIK, Washington, D. C.

W01·k done in coope'ration with the National Ae'ronautics and Space Agency

The problem of the mode of formation of metallic The electronprobe is ideally suited to this type
meteorites requires thorough and detailed knowledge of· analysis as it can be used to provide point by
of their composition. The many existing analyses point analysis of microscopic volumes of the order
made by conventional methods are essentially of several cubic microns which in the ideal case
analyses of composites; many problems, however, correspond to absolute amounts of 10- 11 to 10-t:!
such as the distribution of nickel and cobidt between grams of an element.
two different phases in contact, require analyses of The electronprobe microanalyzer was developed in
specific localized areas definable only under high France by Castaing (1951, Application of electron
magnification. For example, analyses exist of kama- probes to local chemical and crystallographic analy-
cite (alpha-Ni-Fe), taenite (gamma-Ni-Fe), schrei- sis, ·Paris Univ. Thesis). This device })as been de-
bersite (Fe,NO:~P and cohenite (Fe,Ni)aC from scribed in a number of reports dealing in the main
meteorites, but nearly all of them represent com-
with metallurgical applications.
posite samples. It is of great interest to analyze
A particularly appealing feature is the nondestruc-
individual grains to determine the constancy or
variation in composition of each phase, and the con- tive nature of the technique which enables the re-
stancy or variation of ratios of ~lements (such as searcher to reexamine the specimen in the light of
Ni :Fe) in two adjacent phases. Such studies could the compositional data obtained. The tedious prep-
yield valuable information on whether equilibrium aration of any constituent phase for analysis by con-
conditions prevailed .. ventional methods can be circumvented.
B-264 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Maringer, Richard, and Austin (1959) have stud-

ied the Widmanstatten structure in the Grant meteo-
·'' ~. rite from New Mexico with an electronprobe and

l
i . . JI
I.. . reported on the nickel-iron content of kamacite, tae-
. .. . ····I nite, and plessite-a fine-grained mixture of both
. ·, j phases. David B. Wittry (written communication,
ff 1959), using the electron probe, reported on the
nickel-iron content of kamacite and taenite in the
aE
D· Canyon Diablo meteorite. He also described an in-
dividual crystal within a taenite band and tentatively
F identified it as Ni a Fe~P 2 • Presumably, this is similar
to the rhabdite rhombs of this study.
A one-quarter by one-eighth inch fragment was
I carefully removed from the edge of the Canyon
200 }l Diablo meteorite specimen 841, generously provided

FIGURE 112.1.-Photomicrograph of polished specimen of

Canyon Diablo meteorite. Rhabdite grains, E, D, F,
and G. li
• •
•
7
Briefly, in principle, a focused beam of electrons is
• li I
made to impinge on a selected area of the specimen.
The X-rays which are excited are diffracted by
analyzers, which are various single crystals with
characteristic interplanar spacings to cover the range I •
of elements of atomic number 12 and greater. The 1
intensity of the X-radiation is measured by radia- •
tion detectors such as Geiger or proportional count-
ers and scalers. The intensities measured are com-
pared with those given by standards, and corrections
are made for fluorescence and absorption in order to 100 J.L
relate the intensities to concentration. A probe simi-
lar in principle to the Castaing probe, but somewhat
modified in design, is now in operation in the U.S. FIGURE 112.2.-View enlarged from figure 112.1 to show point-
Geological Survey laboratories. by-point traverses I and II.

TABLE !.-Analytical 1·esults fo1 · t1·averses I and II

I In percent; precision of meas urements approximately 5 percent of the amount p resent I

Traverse I Traverse Il
------------------------ -- - ---
Spot. ::-<i Fe Ni+Fe Spot ::-<i Fe ::-<i+Fe
----- - - - - - - ------- - - - - - - -
Kam acite ..... 1 7.8 88 06 K amae itc .... I 6.5 89 96
2 7.9 88 !)(i 2 6.6 90 !J/
:3 7.\J 91 \H)
4 7.4 86 n:3
Gray phase. 5 1.4 48 -l9 Gray phase. :3 :3. 1 -l(i 49
6 2.0 -16 -l8
Rha bdite . . .... 7 :38 40 78 Rhabd ite. ..... 4 -12 4:) 85
Gra}• phase. ... 8 2.5 41 H Gra.1· phase. 5 3.9 ..JO H
9 1.4 46 47
10 2. 4 47 49
Kam acite ... ... 11 7.4 90 U7 Kamacitc .... .. 6 7.2 90 U7
12 7.6 89 97 7 7 .2 8\J 96
13 7.2 89 96
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GE.OLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCE~, ARTICLES 1-146 B-265
TABLE 2.-New analyses of 1·habdites, Canyon Diablo smallest of the 9 crystals analyzed, has been con-
?neteo?·ite cealed by the contamination spot.
[In percent; precision of measurements approximately± 5 percent of the
amount p1·esent] No clear-cut chemical relationship between the
rhabdites and the surrounding gray areas could be
C:rnin
Size
(microns) Ni Fe Ni+ Fe
Ni:Fe
(ratios) established. The total Ni + Fe in rhabdite grain
F, exhibiting virtually no oxide halo, corresponds
A .... ···················· 10 22 63 85 .34
B ....................... . 31 41 ~6 87 .89 closely to the total in other rhabdites. Grains A and
c ...................... . 21 37 ~2 79 .88
D, which show the maximum variation in Ni and
D ....................... . 5 48 36 84 1.33
g, ... ···················· 20 45 39 8~ 1.15
F ........................ . 18 H 39 83 I. 12 Fe content, both show good agreement with the for-
n. ······················ 35 44 38 R2 1.15
mula (Ni,Fe)HP used by Perry· (1944) for schrei-
bersite. Henderson and Monnig ( 1956), analyzed
by E. P. Henderson of the U.S. National Museum, rhabdite needles removed from the Richland, Tex.,
and the fragment was prepared for examination in and Coahuila, Mex., meteorites by dissolving the
the conventional bakelite polished-section mount. k~macite matrix in dilute hydrochloric acid. They
Fragments of pure iron, pure nickel, and stainless report 33.17 and 31.71 percent Ni, respectively. The
steel (National Bureau of Standards standard sam- average nickel content of the 9 rhabdites analyzed
ple no. 101d) were also mounted for use as reference in this study is 40.1 percent.
standards. Figure 112.1 illustrates the general area The present study clearly demonstrates the va-
studied. The various phases present, as described in riation in content of iron and nickel in rhabdites in'
metallographic studies of ~eteoritic irons by Perry one single meteorite specimen .. The nickel in these
(1944), include a kamacite matrix, irregularly rhabdites ranges from· 22 percent in grain A to 48
shaped gray bodies (probably iron oxides with some percent in grain D ; the: NJ :Fe ratios range from
carbon in the form of graphite), and schreibersite, 0.34 to 1.33. The sum of the. weight percents of
an iron-nickel phosphide, (Fe,Ni)HP, as rhombs or nickel and iron range from 79 to 87 percent. Two
squares and referred to as rhabdites. analyses of schreibersite from the Canyon Diablo
The gourd-shaped gray mass in the upper right meteorite are given by Palache, Berman, and Fron-
of figure 112.1 is the site· of two separate point by de! ( 1944, p. 125) as follows: Fe 58.54, Ni 26.08,
point traverses for which analytical data are given in and Ni :Fe 0.44 percent; and Fe 54.34, Ni 31.48, and
table 1. The small regularly spaced spots on a line Ni :Fe 0.57 percent.
through the area are contamination spots formed by Eleven analyses of the kamacite phase adjacent to
the electron beam. The spots are normally of the the gourd-shaped area show average contents of 7.3
order of i to 3 microns but appear somewhat en- percent nickel and 89 percent iron; the range in
larged because of prolonged exposure to the beam. compositi.on is strikingly less than in the rhabdites,
In figure 112.2 these spots are numbered so that the namely, Ni 6.5 to 7.9 and Fe 86 to 91 percent. The
analyses can be related to the particular area. Also gray phase has the lowest nickel content, 1.4 to 3.1
shown in figui.·e 112.1 are 4 of the 7 additional rhab- percent; its iron .content is 46 to 48 percent.
dites for which . Ni-Fe contents were determined
(table 2). Appreciable amounts of phosphorus in REFERENCES
these rhabdite grains were demonstrated by spec- Henderson, E. P., and Monnig, 0. E., 1956, The. Richland,
Navarro County, Texas,· meteorite (CN=0964,319)-A
trometer traces but the element was not determined
new hexahedrite: Meteoritics, v. 1, .no. 4, p. 459-467.
quantitatively. The theoretical content of phosphor- Maringer, R. E., Richard, N. A., and Austin, A. E., 1959,
ous for (Fe,Ni)HP with Fe :Ni = 1:1 is 15.27 per- Microbeam analysis of Widmanstatten structure in me-
cent. teoritic iron: Am. Inst. Mining Metall. Engineers, Metall.
Soc. Trans., v. 215, p. 56-68.
The magnetism of the meteorite made it necessary Palache, Charles, Berman, Harry, and Jrrondel, Clifford, 1944,
to recenter the beam with· respect to the optical mi- Th~ system of mineralogy of James Dwight Dana and
croscope in moving from point to point and accounts Edward Salisbury Dana, Volume 1, Elements, sulfides,
for the unnumbered beam spots appearing in the sulfosalts, oxides. 7th ed.: New York, John Wiley and
Sons, 834 p.
micrographs. The rhabdite grain D (figs. 112.1 and Perry, S. H., 1944, The metallography of meteoric iron: U.S.
112.2), approximately 5 microns across and the Natl. Mus. Bull. 184, 206 p.
B-266 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

113. THE SYNTHESIS OF LARGE CRYSTALS OF ANDERSONITE

By ROBERT MEYROWITZ and DAPHNE R. Ross, Washington, D. C.

Andersonite, Na:!CaUO:! (COHL•6H:!O, was first sodium carbonate is added dropwise with constant
synthesized by Axelrod and others (1951) from a stirring until the pH of the solution is 8.0. The solu-
solution containing uranyl nitrate, potassium carbo- tion is allowed to stand after sealing the beaker with
nate, sodium nitrate, and calcium nitrate. Micro- plastic film so that no evaporation takes place. The
scopic crystals were formed by allowing the solution crystals which form on standing are detached from
to evaporate at room temperature. The procedure the sides and bottom of the beaker and washed by
described below was developed to prepare large decantation with water. Most of the excess water is
crystals (0.5 to 1 mm and occasionally some slightly removed by rolling the crystals on absorbent paper.
larger) of synthetic andersonite. The crystals are then allowed to air dry. They were
An aqueous solution (10 ml) containing 7.53 g identified as andersonite by their powder X-ray dif-
UOANOH):!•6H 2 0 (0.015 mol UOH) is added slowly fraction patterns (Axelrod and others, 1951).
with constant stirring (magnetic stirrer) to an The help of Alan L. Meyrowitz is acknowledged.
aqueous solution ( 100 ml) containing 4. 77 g an-
REFERENCE
hydrous Na 2 CO;{ (0.045 mol C0 2 ). An aqueous solu-
tion (10 ml) containing 3.54 g Ca(N0 3 ) 2 •4H 2 0 Axelrod, J. M., Grimaldi, F. S., Milton, C., and Murata, K. J.,
1951, The uranium minerals from the Hillside Mine,
(0.015 mol CaO) is added slowly with constant Yavapai County,. Arizona: Am. Mineralogist, v. 36, p.
stirring to the uranyl carbonate solution. Dilute 1-22.
~

U4. UNIT-CELL DIMENSION VERSUS COMPOSITION IN THE SYSTEMS:

PbS-CdS, PbS-PSe, ZnS-ZnSe, and CuFeS~.~~~-CuFeSe~,~ . .
By P~ILIP M. BETHKE and PAUL B. BARTON, JR., Washington, D. C.

As part of an extensive experimental investigation silica glass tubes with a slight excess of sulfur (or
of the distribution of minor elements between co- selenium) over the stoichiometric proportions. Ex-
existing sulfide minerals (Bethke and Barton, 1959), cess sulfur or selenium was removed by repeated
the relationship between unit-cell edge and composi- washing with warm carbon disulfide in a soxhlet
tion was established with· high precision for PbS- extractor.
PbSe and ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions and cadmium- Solid solutions of various compositions were pre-
bearing galenas. The relationship between a and com- pared by sintering mechanical mixtures of the above
position for CuFeSuw-CuFeSu10 solid solution was end members in evacuated silica glass tubes until a
also established, but with less precision. single homogeneous phase was formed. CuFeS1 . 110-
Shirley K. Mosburg made and measured a num- CuFeSe1 .llo solid solutions were prepared directly
ber of the X-ray diffraction runs. Jean Bethke meas- from mixtures of the elements.
ured and computed all the PbS-PbSe diffraction The iron, zinc, and sulfur are the same reagents
patterns. used by Skinner, Barton, and Kullerud (1959). The
sources and analyses of the selenium, cadmium and
SAMPLE PREPARATION lead used in this study are given in table 1.
Pure PbS, fbSe, ZnS, ZnSe, and. CdS were pre- Reagents were weighed to ± 0.05 mg and the
pared from high-purity elements. The metals were total weight of the charges ranged between 100 and
heated for several days at about 750°C in evacuated 500 mg.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-267
X-RAY DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUES ments were made for each sample, the slide being
All X-ray diffraction data were gathered on a rotated 180° in its own plane between each set. At
N orelco diffractometer using copper radiation least three complete oscillations were made in each
(A = ~.54050A). The ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-CdS sys- set when using the oscillation technique. Measure-
tems were analyzed at our laboratory in Washington ments were made at 25 ± 2°C. The values of the
using the counting rate computer. The bulk of the cell edges given are numerical averages of all meas-
PbS-PbSe data were gathered at the Missouri School urements on a given sample. The plus or minus at~
of Mines and Metallurgy at Rolla, Mo., using an tached to the cell edges is the standard deviation
oscillating technique. The chalcopyrite data· were computed from the deviations from the average
gathered in Washington, also by the oscillating tech- values for all the samples in a given system, regard-
nique. In all cases the peaks of the samples were less of composition.
measured against those of various internal standards Because galena deforms on grinding, giving rise
that had been mutually calibrated against silicon to diffuse X-ray reflections, the galena crystals were
powder supplied by Dr. Gunnar Kullerud of the Geo- reduced in size by giving them several sharp "raps"
physical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Wash- with a pestle. The sample was then sized and only
ington. The cell edge of a = 5.4301A for silicon, those fragments smaller than 200 mesh used to
given by Swanson and Fuyat (1953), was used. Pre- prepare the slide. The galena reflections were very
cision of measurement by either method was ± sharp, even at high angles, using this procedure.
0.005° 20, and various checks indicate that data
gathered by either method, in Washington or Rolla, CELL EDGES OF PbS, ZnS, PbSe, AND ZnSe
are mutually comparable, within the limit of pre- The cell edges of pure PbS, PbSe, ZnS, and ZnSe
cision of measurement. were determined from a large number of individual
Diffraction slides were prepared by evaporating a measurements, all from oscillation tracings. These
slurry of the sample and internal standard in amyl values, together with the peaks measured, internal
acetate onto a microscope slide. Oscillation tracings · standards used, and number of measurements made
were made at a scanning rate of %, o 28 per minute are given in table 2. The plus-minus attached to each
with a chart speed of half an inch per minute. The value is the standard deviation computed from all
step scan interval was 0.01 o 28. Two sets of measure- the measurements.
The value of a for ZnS determined in this study
TABLE l.-Spect'rog1·a.phic a.na.lyses of 1·ea.gents (in weight
pe1·cent) is in exact agreement with that reported by Skinner
I N.D., looked for but not detected: ... not specifically looked for; V.F. Tr., and Barton (1960) and Skinner, Barton, and Kul-
very faint trace.]
lerud ·( 1959). Our value of 5.9358 ± 0.0002 A for
Element Lead 1 Cadmium 2 Selenium 2 PbS is in excellent agreement with that of Wasser-
stein (1951) (5.9360 ± 0.0004 A 1 ) and of Swanson
Ag ...... .. 0.001 0.0001 X.D. and Fuyat (1953) (5.9362). Our val~e of 6.1255 ±
AI. .. X.D. .. .. .. .. X.D .
As ...... ... X.D. X.D. 0.0001 0.0004 A for the cell edge of PbSe is in only fair
Bi. .. 0.000:.3 0.001 S.D.
Ca ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D . agreeme~t with that of 6.1243 A reported by Swan-.
Cd ...... ... X.D. (3) X.D. son and others (1955), but is much more consistent
Cr· ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D .
Cu ...... .. o.ooa 0.001 V.F. Tl'. with our data on PbS~PbSe solid solutions. Our
Fe ... 0.001 0.001 X.D. value of 5.6685 ± 0.0004 A for ZnSe is in good
Hg ....... . . X.D. X.D. X.D .
In .. . . ... . . X.D. 0.001 X.D. agreement with the less precise value of 5.667 A
~lg. .. o.oooo:~ 0.00001 X.D .
.:\·tn ..... X.D. S.D. X.D.
Sn ......... X.D. ... ... .... X.D .
Xi ....... . . 0.001 S.D. X.D . TABLE 2.-Cell edges of PbS, PbSe, ZnS, a.nd ZnSe
Pb ..... . . . (3) o.om X.D . :-.iumbcr of
Sh ... .. . . . . . X.D. X.D. X.D. Com- Average a in A Standards ReAections measured measure-
Si. .. X.D. S.D. S.D. pound used ments
Sc. ·.::::: ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. c~)
---- - - - - - - ----- ---------- ----
Sn ....... S.D. 0.0001 X.D.
Tc ..... X.D. X.D. 0.0001 PhS .5 . !):358 ± 0 . 0002 CaF2 (600) (620) (5:3:3)(-!H) 1-ll
\' ........... 0.0001 . . ... . . . . .. ..
0 ••• PbSe fi . 1255 ± 0 . 000-l CaF2 (620) (6-tO) (7 1 I) 128
Zn ..... • • 0 •• X.D. X.D. S.D . and PbS
ZnS 5 . -!09:3 ± 0 . 0002 CaF2 ((i20) 30
ZnSe 5 . ()()85 ± 0 . 000-l CaF2 (()20) :n
1 National Bureau of Standards melting point standard 49d. Semi-quanti-
tative spectrograph analysis by K. V. Hazel, U.S. Geological Survey.
2 Spectrographic analysis by supplier: American Smelting and Refining Co.
3 Major constituent. 1 Converted from kX units by the kX/ A conversion factor of 1.00202.
B-268 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 4.-Cell edges of ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions

Linear cell t>dge Linear cell volume

assumption assumption
:'llol
percent "' measured
ZnSe ±0.0004A a calculated Difference a calculated Difference

0 ..... ·. .5. 409:3 •• 0 0 ••••• • 0 ••••••• 0 . ........ . ..........

7. 72 ... .5. 4290 5.429:3 -0.000:3 5.-t-:302 -0.0012
H. :30 ... 5.H58 5 . .J...l64 -.0006 5.H7H -.0021
30.04 ... 5.4865 5.4872 -.0007 5.48H8 -.00:3:3
3:3.35 5.4H39 5.4957 -.0018 5. 498.5 -.0046
49.84 5. 5:375 5.5385 -.0010 5.5415 - .0040·
69.22 5.5870 5.5887 -.0017 5.5415 -.0044
~
0 77.11 5.6096 5.6092 +.0004 5.611:3 -.0017
a:: 100.00 5.6685 • • • • • 0 •• 0 .......... • • 0 0 •• 0 •• • • 0 0. 0 •••

~
en
(!)
z
<(

~ 5.880 of cell edge to composition is illustrated in figure

<::l
114.1.
The best fitting straight line determined by least
squares analysis of the solid solution data intersects
the a axis at a value of a= 5.9359 A, almost exactly
Cubic cleava~ __________ ..... that determined for pure PbS. The equation of this
line is
····-----------·--
Conchoidal fracture
:.::........;c_ _ __
a = 5.9359 - 0.004194 mol percent CdS

5 10 15
where a is in A units. The standard deviation of
MOL PERCENT CdS IN GALENA the measured values of a of PbS-CdS solid solutions
FIGURE 114.1.-a versus composition for cadmium-bearing from those calculated through the above relationship
galenas. Size of circle equals 2 times standard deviation is less than ± 0.0002 A. The extrapolated value of
of individual a determinations. a for a hypothetical pure CdS having the galena
structure is 5.516 A.
reported by Swanson and others (1954). Again our An interesting feature of the PbS-CdS solid solu-
value is entirely consistent with our data on ZnS- tions is the relationship between cleavage and (or)
ZnSe solid solutions. fracture and composition. Low cadmium-bearing
galenas retain a cubic cleavage and break along this
PbS-CdS SOLID SOLUTIONS
cleavage almost exclusively. At compositions above
A series of solid solutions in tpe system PbS-CdS about 6 mol percent CdS, however, a conchoidal frac-
was prepared from the pure end members by holding ture appears in addition to the cubic cleavage. With
carefully weighed mixtures of t'he end members at increasing CdS content the number of cleavage sur-
860°C for a period of two w~eks. The limit of solid faces seen in a crushed sample decreases, until for
solution at this temperature is ap-proximately 17.5 CdS concentrations over 15 mol percent only the
mol percent CdS. The cell edges determined for these conchoidal fracture is seen. These comments are
compositions are given in table 3.' The relationship
TABLE 5.-Cell edges of PbS-PbSe solid solutions
TABLE 3.-Cell edges of cadmium-bearing galenas
I Linear c~ll ~dg~ Linear cell volume
:'llol p<'reent Cd::' a measurl'd ± 0.0002.\ I a ealeulated I Dit1'l'rene!' :'llol ----~~~~~:__ _____ -----~~mptiot~-----
-------- ---------- ------ ·------ perrent
Pb:ie
I
a nwusured
±0 0004A
_

"calculated
I Difference a calculated Diff~rence
0 5. !l:t58 5. !);~.5!1 -0.0001 _____ ,_____ -----1----- - - - - - - - - - -
.28. ,j. !):~41 5.!l:HI .0000
.40 ... 5.!1:)-!0 1 5. 9:{42 .0002 0. 5.\1:358 . .. .. .. . .. .. ....... • • 0 •••••• 0 •

.li-L .. .s. !););){j 5. 9:):)2 + .0004 IO.Oti .. 5. !15-1-7 5.!15-J.H -0.0002 5.055-J. -0.0001
.80 ..... . 5. !):~27 5.!):{25 + .0002 20.10 ... 5. !1758 5. !1751 + .0001 5. 91(11 - .00o:3
.!18. 5. !J:) II 5. !):)18 .0001 :{0.15 ... 5.!l9-J.l 5. ~)9:30 + .0011 5. 9\)4:3 -.0002
1 .u7 .... . 5.!)28!1 5. !)28!1 .0000 :3!1. 8:.3 ... (:i.0126 6.0114 +.0012 6.0128 -.0002
2. 77 ... . .s. !124-J. 5. !124:) + .0001 l:iO.IO ... 6.0507 6.04!)8 + .oom) 6.0512 -.0005
7 .Oii. 5. !IOI:i:3 5. !lOG:) .0000 79.08 .. 6.0811 6.0858 + .001:3 6.0868 + .000:3
!1.!18. .5.8!1-1-2 5.8!1JI + .0001 \10.72 6. 101!) 6. 1079 .0000 6.1084 -.0005
Jli. 21. 5.8ulu 5. !Hill .0001 100.00 ... l:i.l255 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........
• • • • 0 0 0 •••
'- SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-269
based on· observation of the spacing curve runs as TABLE 6.-a of CuFeSI.!Iti-CuFeSe~.9o solid solut-ions
well as others prepared for other purposes.
Mol percent
Cul'\'lc::let.uu a+O.OOI5A Calculated Difference
ZnS-ZnSe AND PbS-PbSe SOLID SOLUTIONS

Complete series of ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-PbSe solid 0 .............. 0 50 2987 5. 2H8.8 -0.0001
solutions were prepared from mixtures .of the end 5.26. 0000000000 5.:n:3o 50:3128 + .0002
10.5:3 00000000000 5.:326 5 5. :32m) - .000-l-
members at 900°C and 750°C, respectively. The 25.:32. 0000000000 50:3672 5.:366-l- + .0008
· ZnS-ZnSe runs equilibrated in one month, the PbS- :36. 8-l-. 0000000000 5. :3n66 5 0:3971 -.0005
PbSe in two weeks. The cell edge data for these series
are given in tables 4 and 5.
The ZnS-ZnSe data fall slightly below a straight suming both linear cell edge and linear cell volume
line drawn between the values of a for the pure end relationships are given in tables 4 and 5 for both
members. Least squares analysis of the solid solu- ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-PbSe data. It is immediately
tion data yields a linear relation between cell edge obvious from these differences that a linear volume
and composition essentially parallel to the line drawn. asRumption much better describes our data for
between the pure end m'embers. This least squares PbS-PbSe solid solutions, whereas a linear cell.
line extrapolates to values of a:~.uH _:_ 5.4086 A and edge assumption much better describes our data for
a:~.uH:· = 5.6679 A. Because of the larger .number of
ZnS-ZnSe solid solutions. The relationship adopted
measurements used in calculating the cell edges of between cell edge and composition for the PbS-PbSe
the end :members and because of the minimum com- solid solution is-
positional uncertainty, a linear relationship between a = 3y209.140 + 0.20699 mol percent PbSe,
cell edge and composition passing through the a where a is the cell edge in Angstrom units.
values of pure ZnS and ZnSe is preferred. The Earley ( 1950) found an apparently linear relation-
equation of such a line is- ship between cell edge and composition for the PbS-
a= 5.4093 + 0.002592 mol percent ZnSe PbSe series. Earley's study was of broad scale and
where a is in Angstron units. The small deviation neither his cell edge measurements nor c.ompositional
of the solid solution data from this relationship is control were of sufficient precision to differentiate
not considered significant. between a linear cell volume or linear cell edge re-
In contrast, the cell edges of PbS-PbSe solid lationship with composition. ·
solutions are not linear functions of composition. Coleman ( 1959) has determined the cell edges
Rather, they indicate a linear relationship between of 20 analyzed galena-clausthalite solid solutions,
cell volu-rne and composition. The differences be- mostly from the Colorado Plateau. H.is objective
tween measured Yalues of a and those calculated as- was to establish the existence of such a series in
nature, and his data seem to confirm such a conclu-
sion. However, the wide scatter of his data allow
only the most general conclusions as to the way in
5.390
which ce1l dimension varies with composition.
(/')
!:: .
Bloss (1952) and Zen (1956) have emphasized that
z 5.370 for ideal solid solutions partial molar volumes are
:::>
:::!E
0
additive. Thus, a linear relationship between cell
I=
(/')
5.350 volume and composition would be predicted, were
(.!)
z
<(
the solid solutions ideal. Our work on the distri-
~ 5.330 bution of selenium between sphalerite and galena
c:s
(Bethke and Barton, 1959) strongly indicates that
at least above 740°C both ZnS-ZnSe and PbS-
PbSe solid solutions behave ideally. The cell edge
measurements reported in this study were made at
20 30
MOL PERCENT CuFeSe 1. 90
approximately 25°C, however, and it is possible that
the PbS-PbSe solid solutions are ideal, or nearly
FIGURE 114.2.-a versus composition for CuFeS~,~.,-CuFeSe1.11n
solid solutions. Size of circle equals standard deviation of so, at this temperature, whereas ZnS-ZnSe solid
individual a. determinations. solutions are not.
B-270 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

A great deal of precisiOn of measurement was tions of the distribution experiments. The results of
necessary to establish the additivity of cell volumes our study are, therefore, not directly comparable to
for PbS-PbSe solid solutions as opposed to th~ ad- those obtained on chalcopyrites of different cation:
ditivity of cell edges (Vegard's Law) for ZnS-ZnSe anion or Cu :Fe ratios.
compounds, even though the difference in molar vol- The cell edge and compositional data are listed in
umes of the end members is very large. Most meas- table 6 and illustrated in figure 114.2. Within the
urements made on solid solutions are not this pre- limits of precision, the a dimension of chalcopyrite
cise and few complete solid solution series exhibit is seen to be a linear function of selenium content.
such a large volume difference. Further, most natu- The data are not sufficier1tly precise to define the
rally occurring solid solutions contain other ele- details of the relationship, but it is approximately
ments as structural impurities in sufficient concen~ given by the expression--
trations to mask the detailed relations between cell a= 5.298H + 0.00266>< mol percent CuFeSe 1 .nu
edge and concentrations of the major components.
Finally, almost all precise lattice parameter measure- where a is in Angstrom units.
ments are made at room temperature where it is
REFERENCES
quite likely that solid solutions, although possibly
ideal under the conditions of their formation, may Bethke, P. M., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1959, Trace-element
distribution as an indicator of pressure and temperature
show a measurable departure from ideality. For of ore deposition [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 70,
most systems the difference between Vegard's Law no. 12, pt. 2, p: 1569.
(additive cell edge) and ideal behavior (additive Bloss, F. D., 1952, Relationships between density and com-
cell volume) is too small to be detectable by standard position in mol percent for some solid solution series: Am.
procedures. Mineralogist, v. 37, p. 966-981.
Coleman, R. G., 1959, The natural occurrence of galena-
clausthalite solid solution series: Am. Mineralogist, v. 44,
CuFe~.oo - CuFeSeuo SOLID SOLUTIONS
p. 166-175.
Solid solutions up to 36.8 mol percent CuFeSe 1 . 110 Earley, J. W., 1950, Description and synthesis of the selenide
were prepared in 2 weeks at 600°C starting directly minerals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 35, p. 337-364.
from the elements. Runs with higher selenium con- Skinner, B. J., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1960, The substitution
of oxygen for sulfur in wurtzite and sphalerite: Am.
tent produced spurious phases. The poor quality of Mineralogist, v. 45, p. 612-625.
the X-ray diffraction patterns of chalcopyrite at high Skinner, B. J., Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1959,
angles, particularly with copper radiation, necessi- Effect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite. A re-
tated the use of low-angle lines in establishing the vision: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1040-1046.
relationship between cell edge and composition for Swanson, H. E., and Fuyat, R. K., 1953, Standard X-ray
diffraction powder patterns: U.S. N atl. Bur. Standards
selenium-bearing chalcopyrites. Correspondingly,
Circ. 539, v. 2, p. 6-9, 18-19.
,the precision of measurement was much lower, in Swanson, H. E., Fuyat, R. K., and U grinic, G. M., 1954,
terms of cell edge, than for the above-described sys- Standard X-ray diffraction powder patterns: U.S. NatL
tems. Although the chalcopyrites measured were Bur. Standards Circ. 539, v. 3, p. 23.
tetragonal, only the a dimension, as computed from Swanson, H. E., Gilfrich, N. T., and Ugrinic, G. M., 1955,
the (220) reflection is reported here. It should be Standard X-ray diffraction powder ·patterns: U.S. Natl.
Bur. Standards Circ. 539, v. 5, p. 38-39.
noted that the chalcopy:rite solid solutions were
Wasserstein, )3., 1~51, Pr~cision lattice measurements of
specifically prepared to be anion deficient and with galenayi.m. Mmeralog1st, v. 36, p. 102-115.
a 1 :1 Cu :Fe ratio in order that they would be within Zen, E-an, 1956, Validity of "Vegard's Law": Am. Miner-
their compositional stability ranges under the condi- alogist v. 41, p. 523-524.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-271

115. UNIT-CELL EDGES OF COBALT- AND COBALT-IRON-BEARING SPHALERITES

By WAYNE E. HALL, Washington, D. C.

Pure ZnS, •"CoS", and FeS were prepared by COBALT-BEARING SPHALERITE

combining high-purity elements in sealed, evacuated A series of cobalt-bearing sphalerites was pre-
silica glass tubes. The iron, zinc, and sulfur are the pared from "CoS" and pure ZnS by holding known
same reagents used by Skinner, Barton, and Kul- proportions of the two at 850°C for 21 days. At the
lerud (1959). The cobalt reagent was obtained from end of one week the silica glass tubes were opened
Johnson, Matthey and Co., Ltd., catalogue no. J. M. and the samples reground in acetone. The charge
870, who supplied the following spectrographic was then reheated at 850°C until homogeneous.
analysis: The cell edges of the cobalt-bearing sphalerites
Percent Percent are listed in table 1, and the relation of cell edge to
Ag <0.0001 Mg <0.0001 composition is shown in figure 115.1. The relation
AI Mn is linear, and the best fitting straight line by least
As Mo squares analysis intersects the a axis for pure ZnS
Ba Na .0001
at 5.4093A. The equation for the line is:
Bi Ni
Ca .0002 Pb a= 5.4093 - 0.00700Y where Y is the mol
Co Major Sb percent "CoS".
Cr Si .0002 The maximum amount of CoS that can substitute in
Cu < .0001 Sn
Fe .0005 V ZnS is 33 mol percent at 850°C. The precision given
Ge Zn for each unit-cell edge measurement is the IJlaximum
ZnS was prepared by heating zinc with sulfur in deviation from the numerical average of 4 to 6 re-
slight excess of stoichiometric proportions for 10 peated measurements. A comparison of the measured
days at 650°C. Excess sulfur was removed by wash- and calculated unit-cell edges based on a linear re-
ing with carbon disulfide. FeS and "CoS" were pre- lationship between a and composition is also given
pared by combining stoichiometric mixtures at in table 1. The standard deviation of the measured
650°C for at least 7 days. Stoichiometric CoS was values of a and those calculated by the above for-
not formed, but the resulting intergrowth of Co1 _xS mula is 0.0003A.
and probably Co 11 Sx was so fine and uniform that it COBALT-IRON -BEARING SPHALERITES
had the bulk composition CoS in the quantities used
for individual runs. Definite identification of' the A series of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites were
two phases has not been completed, and the inter- prepared from known proportions of pure ZnS, FeS,
growth will be referred to hereafter as "CoS". and "CoS", and were heated at 850°C for 4 weeks.
All X-ray data were obtained using Ni-filtered
CuKa 1 radiation (A = 1.54050A). An oscillation tech-
nique was used, and all peaks were repeated at least
4 times at a scanning speed of 14 o 20 per minute IJ)

and a chart speed of half an inch per minute. The 1--

z
::::>
peaks were measured against those of the same CaF:!
~ 5.400
or N aCl internal standards used by Bethke and Bar- a:
1--
IJ)
ton (Art. 114). Several checks were made by using (!)
z
a counting-rate computer at a step-scanning rate of ct 5.395
~
0.01° 20, and the unit-cell edge measurements by <::!

both techniques are comparable. Shirley K. Mosburg

made most of the X-ray diffraction patterns and cal-
culated the unit-cell edges.
The unit-cell edge of ZnS determined as 5.4093A
in this investigation is the same as that determined
by Skinner and others ( 1959, p. 1043), Skinner and FIGURE 115.1.-Relation of a and ~omposition in cobalt-bearing
Barton ( 1960), and Bethke and Barton (Art. 114). sphalerites.
B-272 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 1.-Unit cell edges of cobalt-bearing sphalerite

CoS content
Unit-cell Unit-cell
\reight Mol edge in A ·edge in A Difference
percent percent (rneasurrd) (calculated)

0.57 .... 0.60 5 . 4090 ±.o . ooo:~ 5.-±089 -0.0001

2.21 .... 2.:36 5.4078 ± .0002 5.4076 - .0002
:3.70 .... :3.95 5.4068 ± .0003 5.4065 -.000:3
5.90 .... 6.28 5.4045 ± .0003 5.4049 + .0004
7.23 .... 7.70 5.4042 ± .000-± 5. 40:39 -.000:3
9.75 .... 10.36 5. 4025 ± .0005 5.-±020 -.0005
1-±.:H .... 15.19 5.3990 ± .0002 5.3987 -.000:3
19.94 .... 21.05 5.3948.± .0002 5.:39-±6 -.0002
23.32 .... 2-±.56. 5.3918± .0003 5.:3921 + .000:3

The charges were regroqnd in acetone after 2 weeks.

The measured unit-cell edges are listed in table. 2.
These are compared wit~ a calculated unit-cell edge
based on a linear relation between a of cobalt-bearing
sphalerite and a of iron-bearing sphalerite. The ef- a, IN ANGSTROM UNITS
fect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite was in- Unit cell edge of iron-bearing
sphalerite from Skinner, Barton,
vestigated by Kullerud. (1953) and by Skinner and and Kullerud (1959)
others (1959). The latter derived the linear FIGURE 115.2.-Relation of a (in angstrom units) and com-
function: position (mol percent) of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites.
a = 5.4093 + 0.000456X (where X is the mol
percent FeS and a is in Angstrom units).
The unit-cell edges are approximately additive, but
This equation. was combined with the one deter- the calculated unit-cell edges tend to be slightly
mined in this investigation for cobalt-bearing sphal~ smaller than measured ones in cobalt-iron-bearing
erite to give the a for cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites sphalerites containing more than 75 mol percent
as follows:
ZnS, and larger in ones containing 65 to 75 mol per-
a = 5.4093 + 0.000456X - 0.000700Y cent ZnS.
The relation between a and composition of cobalt- The a is one parameter used by the writer in con-
iron-bearing sphalerite is shown in figure 115.2. junction with an Fe :Zn ratio to determine composi-

TABLE 2.-Unit-cell edges of· cobalt-and-iron-bearing sphale'rites

Composition of sphalerite
a, in angstrom units a, in anstrom units
-----------~~:::::~--------1----------~~~~:~~---------- (measured) (calculated) Differenee

Zn8 CoS Fe::: Zn~ Co::: Fe::i

-------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - - --------- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
HO .87 4. 6:3 4.50 90.15 4.91 4.9-± 5.408-± ±0.0002 5.4082 0.0002
86 . :30 4.60 !) . 10 85' 19 4.86 9.95 5.4109 ± .0002 5.-±104 -.0005
85 .!l8 !) . 4:3 4.59 85.00 !) . !)8 5.02 5.4042 ± .000:3 5.4046 + .0004
82 .01 1:3.68 4.:31 80.85 14.44 4.71 5. 401-! ± .0002 5.4013 -.0001
81 .6() 4.51 I:L8:3 80.22 4.7-± 15.04 5.41:30± .000:3 5.-±129 - .0001
80 .82 !1. !11 \1.27 7!l.47 10.4:3 10.10 5.406D ± .0005 5.4066 -.000:3
76 .81 18.70 4.4!l 75.45 ]!). ()6 4.89 5.:3977± .0002 5.:3977 .0000
76 .76 14.24 !).00 75.28 14.!15 !1.77 5.40:30 ± .0003 5.403:3 + .0003
76 . 7.5 !1.47 1:3.78 75.1:3 H.!l2 14.95 5.4084 ± . 000:3 5.4092 + .0008
76 .20 5.52 18.28 74.H 5. 77 19.79 5.41:34± .0007 5. 414:3 + .0009
72 .:34 4.:30 2:3' :36 70.:3.5 4 . ..J-7 25.18 5.4169 ± .0006 5.4177 + .0008
71 .64 J!l. 19 9.17 70.00 20.07 9. 9:3 5' :3!)92 ± .0005 5.3998 + .0006
71 .26 9.60 19' 14 69.:35 10.00 20.65 5. 411:3 ± .0005 5. 4117 + .0004
71 .06 1-1.76 14.18 69.15 15.:37 15.28 5.4046 ± .0005 5.4055 + .0009
70 .60 24.40 5.00 69.0:~ 25.55 5.41 5' :3928 ± .0007 5.3939 + .OOll
65 .77 28.82 .5' 41 64.09 :30.07 5.84 5.:390:3 ± .0002 5.3910 + .0007
 SHORT· PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-273
tion of cobalt-iron-bearing sphalerites in the phase Skinner, B. J., Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1959,
studies. Effect of FeS on the unit-cell edge of sphalerite. A re-
vision: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 1040-1046.
REFERENCES Skinner, B. J., and Barton, P. B., Jr., 1960, The substitution
Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system. A geological of oxygen for sulfur in wurtzite and sphalerite: Am.
thermometer: Norsk g·eol. tidsskr., v. 32, p. 61-147. Mineralogi_st, v. 45, p. 612-625.

116. X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETER METHOD FOR MEASURING PREFERRED ORIENTATION IN CLAYS

By ROBE~! H. MEADE, Menlo Park, Calif.

The preferred orientation of clay minerals is a represent reflections from basal planes. In the other
key to the understanding of the deposition and com- specimen, prepared with random rather than pre-
paction of clayey sediments. This orientation is not ferred orientation of the clay minerals, the reflections
always· susceptible to measurement by optical means from the basal planes are less intense. Other crystal-
because (a) individual clay-mineral particles are lographic planes within the minerals reflect X-rays,
generally too· small to be studied, and (b) many and their peaks also appear in the pattern (upper
clays, particularly those rich in montmorillonite, pattern, fig. 116.1).
have swelling properties that make the preparation In the pattern from the specimen that has pre-
of thin se'ctions difficult. X-ray diffraction provides ferred orientation, the ( 001) reflection from basal
a way to overcome these difficulties. planes of montmorillonite (at 15 A) is much en-
X-ray diffractometer methods of petrofabric study hanced and the ( 020) reflection from planes per-
have been described by Higgs and others ( 1960), pendicular to the basal planes (at 4.4 A) is absent.
Silverman and Bates ( 1960), and Kaarsberg (1959, On the other hand, in the pattern from the speci-
p. 453-454). The method to be described in this men that is oriented at random, the 4.4-A peak is
article is similar to the one used by Kaarsberg. Its nearly as high as the one at 15 A. These two peaks
main advantage over previously described methods is are the ones whose heights are used to measure the
that a numerical index is obtained that can be used preferred orientation of montmorillonite particles.
to compare the orientation of different phyllosilicate Because montmorillonite is the most abundant clay
minerals in rock specimens from different terranes. mineral in the sediments that were examined by this
method, this article will describe the measurement
BASIS OF METHOD
of its preferred orientation. The same principle,
The use of X-ray diffraction in petrofabric study however, can be used to measure the preferred orien-
depends on the fact that the intensity of the reflec- tation of other clay minerals.
tion from any crystallographic plane varies dir~ctly The samples illustrated in figure 116.1 were taken
with the mass of material oriented so that the plane from a clay-mineral fraction that is especially rich
reflects X-rays according to th.e Bragg relation. in montmorillonite. The X-ray patterns are ideally
This is illustrated by X-ray diffraction patterns simplified because most of the nonclay minerals haye
from two specimens of the same clay-mineral frac- been removed, and· the orientation of the clay par-
tion (fig. 116.1). The first specimen was prepared ticles was produced artificially. Patterns from
by allowing the clay-mineral particles to settle out natural sediments are not so well defined.
of suspension and lie with their basal planes parallel;
the preferred orientation of these clay particles is PREPARATION AND X-RAY DIFFRACTION
ne~rly perfect. All the peaks in the diffraction pat- From a block of air-dried sample, three small cylin-
tern from this specimen (lower pattern, fig. 116.1) ders are cut in such a way that their circular ends
B-274 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

ANGSTROMS 4.4 15

5 10 20 30

001

RANDOM ORIENTATION

PREFERRED ORIENTATION
FIGURE 116.1.-Effects of particle orientation on X-ray diffraction patterns of clay minerals.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-275

4.4 15 ANGSTROMS 4.4 15

5 10 20 5 10 20

HORIZONTAL

VERTiCAL
I

VERTICAL
II

92 113
42 74
=2.8 = 1.0
62+69 103+ 110
84+83 72+71
PREFERRED ORIENTATION RANDOM ORIENTATION
FIGURE 116.2.-Measurement of horizontal preferred orientation by comparison of X-ray 'diffraction peak heights.

form mutually perp~ndicular planes, one horizontal (Norelco type 52184-A) on the Norelco X-ray dif-
(parallel to the bedding) and two vertical. The fractometer. The plane sections are polished on
cylinders have diameters of about 2 em so that they
I progressively finer frosted-glass plates without
fit snugly into a low-angle rotating specimen holder I added abrasives as suggested by Weatherhead (1940,
B--276 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

p. 530). The polished specimens are then placed in horizontal orientation have orientation ratios larger
the rotating specimen holder, which is mounted on a than 1.0. The orientation ratios given in figure
wide-range goniometer, and exp~sed to radiation. 116.2 measure only. the preferred orientation parallel
to the bedding. The planes may be adjusted, how-
ORIENTATION RATIO ever, to measure the orientation in any directions-
For each section, the (001) and (020) reflections parallel to cleavage, schistosity, or other planar
are recorded three times, and average values are elements.
used for the peak heights. From the average values The most precise measurements of the orientation
the ratio between the heights of the 15-A peak ratio are obtained from materials in which one
and 4.4-A peak is computed for each section. The phyllosilicate predominatt !S over ·all others to the
peak-height ratio for the horizontal section is then extent that X-ray reflections from the other minerals
divided by an average ratio for the two vertical sec- do not interfere seriously with the reflections from
tions. The quotient is taken as a measure of the the principal mineral. Reflections from montmoril-
horizontal· orientation of the basal planes of mont- lonite, for example, can be masked or modified by
morillonite, and is called the orientation ratio. Other (020) reflections from illite at 4.4 A or by (001)
factors that affect the intensities of X-ray reflections reflections from chlorite at 14 A. This method,
-particle size, chemical composition, degree of therefore, should be applied cautiously to rocks that
crystallinity-are cancelled out of the orientation contain heterogeneous mixtures of clay minerals and
ratio when the h<;>rizontal peak-height ratio is di- other layer silicates.
vided by the vertical peak-height ratios.
REFERENCES
Figure 116.2 shows the measurement of the orien-
tation ratio in two samples, one having preferred Higgs, D. V., Friedman, Melvin, and Gebhart, J. E., 1960,
orientation and the other having random orienta- Petrofabric analysis by means of the X-ray diffractome-
tion. In contrast with those in figure 116.1, the pat- ter, in Rock deformation (a symposium): Geol. Soc.
terns are complicated by reflections from illite, chlo- America Mem. 79, p. 275-292.
rite, and by stronger reflections from quartz and Kaarsberg, E. A., 1959, Introductory studies of natural and
artificial argillaceous aggregates by sound-propagation
feldspar. The peak heights of montmorillonite have and X-ray diffraction methods: Jour. Geology, v. 67, p.
been adjusted ("noise corrected") to eliminate the 447-472.
effects of background reflections. Peak-height ratios Silverman, E. N., and Bates, T. F., 1960, X-ray diffraction
are given for each section, and the orientation ratios study of orientation in the Chattanooga shale:· Am. Min-
are computed from them. An orientation ratio of eralogist, v. 45, p. 60-68. '
Weatherhead, A. V., 1940, A new method for the preparation
1.0 indicates completely random orientation with of thin sections of clays: Mineralog. Mag., v. 25, p .. 529-
respect to the horizontal; clays having preferred 533.

117. MOLYBDENUM CONTENT OF GLACIAL DRIFT RELATED TO MOLYBDENITE-BEARING BEDROCK,

AROOSTOOK COUNTY, MAINE

By F. C. CANNEY, F. N. WARD, and M. J. BRIGHT, JR., Denver, Colo.

A recent survey by Riddell (1960) of the experi- from "extremely useful and valuable tool" to "no
ence of 24 Canadian companies engaged in mineral value whatsoever." At least part of the negative
exploration disclosed a lack of unanimity of opinion attitude· is attributed to the scarcity of published
concerning the usefulness of soil-sampling tech- studies that provide useful data for guiding mineral
niques in glaciated areas. Although. widely used, exploration programs in glaciated areas. The moly-
opinion on the value of applied geochemistry ranged bdenum anomaly described in this paper provides
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-277
SE NW
100

Approximate location
/molybdenite-bearing zone
-?--?-
0.5"-------------------------------------------
0 100 200 FEET

FIGURE 117.1.-Geochemical profile showing lateral distribution of molybdenum in glacial drift over molybdenite-bearing zone.
Land surface along sample traverse is nearly level.

another positive illustration of the usefulness of samples collected along this line contained a large
geochemical prospecting techniques in a glaciated percentage of material in the silt- and clay-size
area. range.
A zone of silicified limestone containing easily All samples were ·dried and sieved through a 100-
visible but sparse molybdenite as flakes and thin mesh sieve, and the fines analyzed for molybdenum
seams is poorly exposed in a group of prospect pits by a geochemical prospecting field method utilizing
about 6 miles north-northeast of Houlton, Maine. a carbonate fusion to decompose the sample (Ward,
Detailed mapping by Louis Pavlides (oral communi- 1951).
cation, 1960) in the Houlton quadrangle has shown The molybdenum contents e;>f the soil samples (fig.
this zone to be satellitic to a small intrusive plug of 117.1) show that the soil both over and on either
granite. The bedrock in this test area is almost side of the exposed part of the mineralized zone
completely covered with glacial ground moraine, 6 contains anomalous amounts of molybdenum (back-
to 24 inches thick. Although . glacial-fluviatile de- ground in ·this area is 1 to 2 ppm molybdenum). For
posits are very common in the Houlton quadrangle, a distance of more than 80 feet the soil contains more
the available exposures were insufficient for us to than 8 ppm, and the soil contains 30 ppm or more
classify the cover as till or stratified drift. The in one stretch of 35 feet. The soils containing the .
brief investigation described here· was designed to most molybden urn occur just to the southeast of the
determine whether anomalous amounts of moly- exposed .zone.· Because this zone, which seems to
bdenum occurred in the soil in the vicinity of this trend northeasterly, is exposed in only a few small
metallized zone. trenches, its maximum dim~nsions as well as the
A line 800 feet long was surveyed across the pro- possible presence of other molybdenite-bearing zones
jected trend of the mineralized zone. Soil samples are unknown. The rather abrupt decrease in a
were collected along this line at intervals of 5 feet southeasterly direction from the peak value of 90
above and near the suboutcrop of the zone and the ppm to background in less than 150 feet. suggests
spacing between samples was increased progressively little, if any, glacial drag. In this part of Maine
to 50 feet as the distance from the dep9sit increased~ the ice movement ·was prob~bly in a south-southeast-
The samples were· taken from a depth of 8 to 12 erly direction. If the anomaly were formed by dif-
inches below the land surface. Becaus~ the area had fusion of soluble molybdenum up'Yard into the glacia1
once been cultivated, no original soil profile is pres- cover after retreat of the ice, no ;asymmetry due(to
ent, but we believe that the samples were from un- ice movement
I
would be present.
I •

disturbed soil below plow depth. Most of the 49 . The form in which the molybdenum occurs in the
 B-278 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

soil is not known. Several samples containing of the usefulness of soil sampling techniques in the
anomalous amounts of molybdenum were leached search for mineral deposits concealed beneath a
with hot water, but no molybdenum was found in thin cover of glacial materials.
the leachate; this apparent lack of water-soluble
molybdenum could be interpreted as weak evidence
REFERENCES
that this anomaly is not a superimposed diffusion
pattern. Riddell, J. F., 1960, Geochemical prospecting methods em-
Although certain questions about the genesis of ployed in Canada's glaciated Precambrian terrains: Min-
this p~articular anomaly remain unanswered, the ing Eng., v. 12, no. 11, p. 1170-1172.
point of greatest significance to those engaged in Ward; F. N., 1951, Determination of molybdenum in soils and
mineral exploration is that this is another example. rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 23, p. 788.

118. ANOMALOUS HEAVY MINERALS IN THE HIGH ROCK QUADRANGLE, NORTH CAROLINA

By AMOS M. WHITE and ARVID A. STROMQUIST, Washington, D. C., and Denver, Colo.

Work done in cooperation with North Carolina Division of Mineral Resources

Heavy-mineral concentrates obtained by panning Forty-pound samples of sand and gravel deposited
alluvial sediment from streams in the High Rock by the modern streams were collected at 57 localities
71j2-minute quadrangle, North Carolina, contain in the High Rock quadrangle. Each sample was col-
minerals anomalous to the known bedrock of the lected from the channel of a stream having a drain-
quadrangle. The area investigated lies west of the age area of 2 square miles or less, and was collected
Atlantic Coastal Plain in Davidson, Rowan, Stanly, at a point outside the flood plain of the present
and Montgomery Counties, N. C., and is underlain Yadkin River, the major stream in the quadrangle
by rocks of the so-called Carolina slate belt, a vol- (fig. 118.1). All the concentrates contain one or more
canic and sedimentary sequence probably of Pre- minerals characteristic of the almandine-amphibo-
cambrian and Paleozoic ages in the eastern part lite facies of regional metamorphism (Fyfe, Tur~
of the North Carolina Piedmont (fig. 118_.1). ner, and Verhoogen, 1958, p. 228-232). These min-
Geologic mapping of the area has established for erals are staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite, and garnet.
the first time a stratigraphic sequence for the Caro- Kyanite is present in 55 of the concentrates, stauro-
lina slate belt (Stromquist and Conley, 1959). Out- lite is in 4 7 concentrates, and sillimanite or probable
cropping rocks in the High Rock quadrangle are sillimanite is in 23. Garnet is present in 48 concen-
largely tuffaceous argillite interbedded with and un- trates and is abundant in many of these. Relatively
conformably overlain by metamorphosed tuffs, lapilli coarse-grained zircon, much of which shows some
tuffs, and minor flows, all of rhyolitic to andesitic degree of rounding, is present in· 35 of the concen-
composition. Diabase dikes and dacitic ( ?) to gab- trates. At least 13 concentrates contain monazite or
broic intrusive bodies are also present. Regional probable monazite. In general, the concentrates with
· metamorphism of these rocks is low grade, nowhere the largest suites of anomalous minerals are from
exceeding the greenschist facies. Metamorphic streams in the west half of the quadrangle.
grade increases west of the slate belt in rocks com- Most of the kyanite shows some degree of round-
prising the adjoining Charlotte, Kings Mountain, ing, and the monazite is well rounded, which sug-
and Inner Piedmont belts (King, 1955, p~ 346-356). gests transport from some fairly remote source.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-279
81° 80" concentrates were obtained have steep gradients and
are relatively short and fast moving, particularly
.--------- those draining the highest points in the quadrangle .
The nearest known occurrence of rocks of the
almandine-amphibolite metamorphic facies is ap-
cbr
proximately 30 miles to the northwest, and the Yad-
kin is the only stream in the area that extends west-
ward to these rocks (fig. 118.1)- Presumably the
higher grade metamorphic minerals were deposited
in sediments along former courses of the Yadkin,
possible remnants of which are now preserved on
topographically high surfaces in the quadrangle.
The small streams in eroding these surfaces pick
up the anomalous minerals and redeposit them a,t
cbr
I
lower elevations. The presence of heavy minerals
I in the surficial materials in the High Rock quad-
I
I rangle suggests that regional studies of heavy min-
CAROLINA I eral distribution would provide data for tracing the
CA ROi:'iN A-
former major drainage systems in the region.
0 10 20 5"
REFERENCES
Fyfe, W. S., Turner, F. J., and Verhoogen, John, 1958, Meta-
EXPLANATION morphic reactions and metamorphic facies: Geol. Soc.
~
~
Rocks of the Coastal Plain
GJ
Rocks of the Charlotte, Kings Mountain,
America Mem. 73, 259 p.
King, P. B., 1955, A geologic section across the southern
Inner Piedmont, Brevard, and Blue Appalachians-an outline of the geology in the segment
~
Ridge belts in Tennessee, North Carolina, and South Carolina, in
Volcanic and sedimentary rocks ,.----""' Russell, R. J., ed., Guides to southeastern geology: Geol.
Soc. America, p. 332-373.
of the Carolina slate belt Approximate eastern limit of rocks with
staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite Krumbein, W. C., and Pettijohn, F. J., 1938, Manual of sedi-
(almandine-amphibolite facies)
mentary petrography: New York, Appleton-Century-
Crofts, Inc., 549 p.
FIGURE 118.1.-Index map of west-central North Carolina
showing location of the High Rock quadrangle. Geology Stromquist, A. A., and Conley, J. F., 1959, Geology of the
generalized from King (1955) and from the geologic map Albemarle and Denton quadrangles, North Carolina:
Carolina Geol. Soc. Field Trip Guidebook, Oct. 24, 1959,
of North Carolina (Stuckey and Conrad 1958).
Div. Mineral Resources, Raleigh, N. C., 36 p.
Stuckey, J. L., and Conrad, S. G., 1958, Explanatory text for
Rounded detrital kyanite denotes a stream of low geologic map of North Carolina: North Carolina Dept.
velocity according to Krumbein and Pettijohn (1938, Cons. and Devel., Div Mineral Resources, Bull. 71, p.
p. 436), but many of the streams from which the 3-51, map.
~

119. IRON CONTENT OF SOILS AND TREES, BEAVER CREEK STRIP MINING AREA, KENTUCKY

By EUGENE T. 0BORN, Denver, Colo.

In the Beaver Creek strip mining area, Kentucky, root feeding zone and samples of vegetation col-
trees growing on the soil through which the mine lected at two locations, one upslope and one down-
waters percolate extract iron from the drainage slope from a strip mine opened in May 1955.
water. This is shown by samples of soil from the Sampling of vegetation was restricted to the white
B-280 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

'fABLE !.-Analyses of white oak plant parts, strip-mine area TABLE 2.-Analyses of soil in the root feeding zone, strip mine
area
Iron per gram Iron in ash
Location of tree. sampled Material analyzed dry matter (percent)
(milligrams) Total iron
content of Iron in fresh
dry soil soi I extract 1
Above mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leaves .................. ·. 0.07. 0.11 Location of Moisture Organic (milligrams (parts per pH of
Do.................... Trunk before 1955 ........ . .05 1. 72 sample (percent) matter per gram) million) extract
Do.................... Trunk 1955-60 ........... . . .07 1.25 (percent)
Do.................... Bark .................... . .13 .13
Below mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Leaves .................. . .29 .47
Do.................... Trunk before 1955 ........ . .04 1.40
Do.................... Trunk 1955-60 ........... . .10 1. 79 Above mine, in
Do........ f ........... Bark .................... . .32 .35· treeroot feeding
zone ............ 6.0 6.13 6.81 7.28 0.11 0.07 6. 7
Below mine, in
treeroot feeding
oak, Quer·cus alba L. Wood and bark were sampled zone ............ 9.6 5.37 5.96 6.28 .04 .02 4.3

in duplicate with a large-diameter increment borer.

1 Extract made by mi~ing 100 ml of distilled water and 1.0 g of fresh
Analyses of the samples are given in tables 1 and 2; soil. Filtered after 1 hour.
the results are· summarized below.
Iron content, on a dry-matter basis, in the wood plants that leaves and bark have a greater concen-
of trees growing both upslope and downslope from tration of iron than does the wood. Leaves and bark
the mine is greater in wood produced from 1955 to slough off regularly, hence only recent accumulations
1960 than in wood produced earlier. The iron con- of iron are shown by the analyses of these plant
tent is greatest in the 1955 to 1960 wood of the parts.
downslope tree which received drainage from the The soil sample taken from the root feeding zone
mine: The iron content in ash of the wood from the below the strip mine contained less iron than the
tree above the mine is greater for the period pre- sample taken from the slope above the mine. At
ceding 1955 than it is for the period 1955 to 1960. both sites the ferrous-iron concentration in the fresh-
The reverse is true for the downslope tree. These soil extracts is about double the corresponding ferric-
data indicate that from 1955 to 1960 iron was more iron concentration. The water-soluble (and thus
readily available and absorbed by the downslope tree readily leachable and physiologically available) iron
than was the case with th~ upslope tree. in soil from the root feeding zone of the tree below
As determined by analyses of the dry matter, the mine is only about one third that of the soil
in the downslope trees the iron content of the leaves from the root-feeding zone of the tree above the
is four times, and the bark is more than two times, mine. This was true in spite of the fact that the
the iron content
I
of the corresponding
,
parts of the extract of soil from below the mine had a pH of
upslope trees. Analyses of the ash of the leaves and 4.3 whereas the soil extract from above the mine had
bark also shows a greater concentration of iron in a pH of 6.7. The moisture content of the soil sample
the ash of these parts of the downslope trees than taken below the mine was greater than that of the
in the upslope trees. It is usually true in woody sample taken from the upslope location.
~

120. MINERALOGY OF THE OLIVE HILL CLAY BED, KENTUCKY

By.JOHN W. HOSTERMAN and SAM H. PATTERSON, Beltsville, Md.

Work done in cooperation with the Kentucky Geological Survey

The Olive Hill clay bed of Crider (1913) in north- able thicknesses. Boundaries between types of clay
eastern Kentucky contains three types of clay-flint, are usually sharp and well defined, and the clay bed
semiflint, and plastic-in irregular lenses of vari- is nonbedded except for the superposition of one
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYD.ROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-281
type of clay above the other. Typically, the flint clay
overlies the semiflint clay, but at many places this , I
order is reversed. Where plastic clay is .present it
is usually in the lower part of the bed, but ther~
are exceptions.
Much of the clay is medium gray to brownish gray,
but colors may range from very light gray to almost
black. The darker gray colors are due to carbona-
ceous material of fossil roots, and occur at the top
of the clay bed which underlies a thin coal bed. The
R
lighter colors occur toward the base of the bed.
Reddish-brown staining of iron oxides along joints
is quite common.
Flint clay in the Olive Hill clay bed is hard, resist-
ant, and nonplastic. It possesses the flintlike char-
acteristics of almost complete homogeneity and con-
choidal fracture. Oolites are very abundant in some
of the flint clays. The flint clay weathers to shard-
like fragments having sharply curved knife edges
and pointed corners. It is composed of more than 85
A
percent kaolinite and less than 15 percent illite and
mixed-layer clay minerals. Boehmite has been found
in the flint clay at only one locality.
Plastic clay in the Olive Hill clay bed is quite
plastic after it has been exposed to weathering for
a short time, but the fresh clay requires grinding
before maximum plasticity is developed. Abundant
slickensides are present in the fresh plastic clay,
but after the clay weathers the slickensides become 20•
I
1o· 2e
sealed and disappear and the clay becomes a homo-
geneous mass. The plastic clay is composed of less FIGURE 120.1.-X-ray diffraction traces using CuKa radiation.
· A, well-crystallized kaolinite in flint clay; B, kaolinite and
than 60 percent ~aolinite; illite and mixed-layer
boehmite in flint clay; and C, poorly crystallized kaolinite
minerals make up the balance. and illite in plastic clay.
Semiflint clay is intermediate between flint and
plastic clay in physical properties and mineral com-
samples were obtained using CuKa radiation. Ori-
position. Nearly all semiflint clays contain abundant
ented specimens were heated to 550°C for 30 min-
randomly oriented slickensides along which partings
utes, heated to 300°C for 30 minutes, treated with
may occur. When exposed to the weather, semi-
ethylene glycol, and X~ray dried.
flint clay breaks down into rubble of irregular poly-
Kaolinite in the Olive Hill clay bed ranges from
hedra having a slickenside surface on each face.
well crystallized in the flint clay to poorly crystal-
Semiflint clay consists of 60 to 85 percent of kao-
lized in the plastic clay, with intermediate stages of
linite; illite and mixed-layer minerals form the
crystallinity in the semiflint clay. Well-crystallized
balance.
The sedimentary nonclay minerals are quartz, kaolinite has a narrow basal (001) peak, which has
tourmaline, garnet, ilmenite, and magnetite. Authi- an area-to-height ratio that approaches 1 in the
genic minerals are siderite and pyrite. Fine-grained X-ray diffraction trace at 7.14A (fig. 120.1A).
anatase is also present, but the time of its formation Poorly crystallized kaolinite or "fireclay" (Brindley
is not known. and Robinson, 1947) has a broad basal (001) reflec-
The mineralogy of the Olive Hill clay bed has tion at about 7.20A and the area-to-height ratio of
been interpreted primarily from X-ray diffraction the peak is almost 2 in the X-ray diffraction trace
traces supplemented by differential thermal anaiysis (fig. 120.1C). The well-crystallized kaolinite occurs
and petrographic microscope studies . .The diffraction in samples having a small amount of other clay
traces of oriented and random specimens of several minerals, and the poorly crystallized kaolinite is
B-282 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

hydroxyl ion bonds in the flint clay than in the

plastic clay. The exothermic peak suggests that the
strength of the bonds holding the final structure
of the kaolinite is more uniform and tends to re-
lease suddenly in the flint clay but not in the plastic
clay.
Boehmite, a mineral usually found in bauxite, but
also found in the flint clays of central Pennsylvania
(Bolger and Weitz, 1952), has been recognized in
two samples taken from the strip mine on Grassy
Creek about 1 mile west of Kehoe, Greenup County,
~-_) \B Ky. It occurs as nodules V:! to 1 millimeter in diam-
-~
( eter in a matrix of flint clay. The major X-ray dif-
fraction peaks of boehmite (fig. 120.1B) are 6.23A,
3.53A, 3.16A, and 2.34A. The differential thermal-
analysis curve (fig. 120.2B) s~ows a single endo-
thermic peak at 525°C.
Illite is the second most common clay mineral in
the Olive Hill clay bed .. The amount ranges from a
-~--- trace in the flint clay to about 40 percent in the
plastic Clay. Illite is recognized on the X-ray diffrac-
tion traces by its basal (001) peak at about lOA
(fig. 120.1C). Only the clay mineral that gives this
sharp peak and does not expand when treated with
ethylene glycol is considered to b~ illite. The presence
of illite is shown on the differential-thermal-analysis
curves by the broad weak endothermic reaction
between 100°C and 200°C and by the small endo-
thermic reaction beginning at 450°C (fig. 120.2D).
1oo• 2oo• 3oo· 4oo· soo· Goo· ?oo· soo· goo· 1ooo•c
Mixed-layer clay minerals consist of a heterogen-
eous mixture of illite, montmorillonite, chlorite, and
FIGURE 120.2.-Differential thermal-analysis curves. A, well-
probably some vermiculite. X-ray diffraction traces
crystallized kaolinite in flint clay; B, kaolinite with
boehmite in flint clay; C, medium-crystallized kaolinite in of these minerals have a broad diffuse peak in the
semiflint clay; and D, poorly crystallized kaolinite in lOA to 14A range, and the position of this peak is
plastic clay. changed very little with ethylene glycol or heat
treatments. These mixed-layer clay minerals are
associated with abundant illite and mixed-layer clay present in all types of clay but are most abundant in
minerals. · the plastic and semiflint clay.
Differential thermal-analysis curves support the
above determinations of the kaolinite. The endo- REFERENCES
thermic peak of kaolinite occurs at approximately Bolger, R. C., and Weitz, J. H., 1952, Mineralogy and origin
600°C for flint clay (fig. i20.2A) and at about 580°C of the Mercer fire clay of north-central Pennsylvania, in
for plastic clay (fig. 120.2D). Also, the exothermic Problems of Clay and Laterite Genesis: Am. Inst. Mining
reaction at about 975°C occurs over a 25° interval Metall. Engineers Symposium, p. 81-93.
Brindley, G. W., and Robinson, K., 1947, An X-ray study of
for flint clay and over a 75 o interval for plastic clay. some kaolinitic fire clays: British C~ramic Soc. Trans.,
The differential thermal curve for semiflint clay . v. 46, p. 49-62.
is intermediate between flint and plastic clay (fig. Crider, A. F., 1913, The fire clays and fire clay industries of
the Olive Hill and Ashland districts of northeastern
120.2C). The temperature of ,the endothermic peak Kentucky: Kentucky Geol. Survey, ser. 4, v. 1, pt. 2, p.
indicates that more energy is required to break the 592-711.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-283

121. . FOUH ENVIRONMENTS OF THORIUM-, NIOBIUM-, AND RARE-EARTH-BEAHING MINERALS IN THE

POWDERHORN DISTRICT OF SOUTHWESTERN COLORADO

By D. C. HEDLUND and J. C. OLSON, Denver, Colo.

Geologic mapping and radioactivity investigations cium in the apatite. Analyses of the carbonatites
in the Powderhorn district, Gunnison County, Colo., are summarized in figure 121.2.
show that the thorium, rare earths, and niobium The carbonatite stock of Iron Hill is less radio-
deposits of the district are related to alkalic intrusive active than the carbonatite dikes and has a maxi-
rocks, probably of Precambrian age, that cut diverse mum radioactivity of about 0.10 mr per hr, or 5
Precambrian rocks. The alkalic rock complex of times background. The radioactivity is due chiefly
Iron Hill, which has been mapped and described by to thorium in monazite ( ?) , pyrochlore, and perhaps·
Larsen (1942), occupies an elliptical area of about other minerals.
12 square miles and is economically the most im- The magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite veins, dikes,
portant intrusive body in the district. The rocks in and segregations make up a very small percentage
the complex from oldest to youngest are pyroxenite, of the total outcrop area in the pyroxenite, ijolite,
uncompahgrite, ijolite, diverse hybrid pyroxenite- and uncompahgrite of the alkaline complex of Iron
syenite rocks, nepheline syenite, gabbro, and car- Hill, chiefly in the parts of the complex north of Iron
bonatite. Locally at the borders of the complex is Hill. The magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite veins and
a syenite that is interpreted to be fenite, or metaso- dikes are discontinuous and generally occur in
matically altered granite. The carbonatite, the swarms; most are less than 2 feet thick but some
youngest rock of the intrusive series, underlies an are as much as 150 feet thick. The magnetite, ilme-
area of 2 by 114 miles at Iron Hill. Many carbonatite nite, and perovskite also occur as disseminated dis-
dikes radiate from the main carbonatite mass and crete grains within the pyroxenite, ijolite, and un-
cut all the other rock types of the complex. compahgrite and are generally more abundant in the
Four rock types in the Powderhorn district (fig. coarser grained rocks.
121.1) that have radioactivities appreciably higher The radioactivity of the magnetite-ilmenite-perov-
than background and contain thorium, niobium, or skite bodies at 128 localities ranges from 0.05 to 0.25
rare earths in abnormal amounts are (a) carbona- mr per hr or 2 to 12 times background. This radioac-
tite, (b) magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite bodies, (c) tivity is attributable to thorium in the perovskite,
tho rite veins, and (d) trachyte porphyry dikes. concentrates of which have an equivalent thoria con-
Carbonatite dikes are the most radioactive rocks tent of 0.12 to 0.15 percent. In transmitted light the
within the alkaline complex of Iron Hill. Of 214 perovskite is dusky purple, strongly twinned, and
carbonatite dikes examined; 132 have radioactivities ·anisotropic. The perovskite content of the magnetite-
ranging from 0.05- 0.70 mr per hr or 2 to 35 times ilmenite-perovskite bodies is highly variable and
background. These more radioactive dikes generally locally is as much as 50 percent.
contain layers of siderite or ankerite alternating The thorite veins, which occur outside the complex
with layers of dolomite, calcite, or biotite. They also of Iron Hill, constitute the third and most radio-
contain pyrite and moderate to very minor amounts active type of rare-metal concentration in the Pow-
of barite, apatite, monazite, quartz, bastnaesite, and derhorn district. About 217 thorium-bearing veins
synchisite, artd commonly weather to a chocolate- have been examined, and 96 of these veins have
brown color. In contrast, the less radioactive car- radioactivities in th.e range of 0.15 to 5.0 mr per hr
bonatite dikes, with radioactivity less than twice or 5 to 250 times background. These veins cut the
background, generally are homogeneous, contain amphibolite, quartz-biotite schist, granite, and other
dolomite, quartz, calcite, and biotite with only sparse Precambrian rocks outside of the complex· of Iron
pyrite and apatite, and weather to buff or rusty Hill and tend to be more abu·ndant in the vicinity of
yellow colors. The thorium in the carbonatite 'is, the complex and outlying syenitic bodies. The thorite
in part at least, in reddish-brown monazite which veins are generally less than a foot thick and com-
has an equivalent thoria content of 0.5 - 0.6 percent. monly occur in anastomosing shear or breccia zones
up to 10 feet wide. The veins are discontinuous,
Rare earths occur as monazite, as the fluocarbonates rarely as much as 3,500 feet long, and preferentially
.synchisite and bastnaesite, and substitute for cal- strike N. 45°-60° W. and N. 60°-80° E.
B-284 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

\
(··.
f'...
·.. '1\
.\Vulcan
"·.
I . . \
I \. \
38° 20' )
~

\~ :~
\
c?
\~

\
\Q
\~
·.~
../ ·'-.

Deposits with radioactivity greater

than 0.1 mr per hour
A
Thorite vein
+
Trachyte porphyry dike

X 0
Magnetite-ilmenite-
Carbonatite erovskite rock

0 I· 2 MILES

FIGURE 121.1.-Generalized map of part of Powderhorn district, Colorado, showing locations of thorium-bearing deposits.

The thorium-bearing veins consist of orthoclase, characteristic of the radioactive minerals of the alk-
quartz, barite, specular and earthy hematite, goethite, alic rock complex of Iron Hill.
thorite, thorogummite, calcite, dolomite, fluorite, bio- The fourth type of radioactive deposit consists of
tite, sodic amphibole, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, pink to red fine-grained trachyte porphyry dikes
and sphalerite. Commonly the wall rocks have been which also cut various Precambrian rocks of the
partly replaced by orthoclase, and fragments of the district outside the complex of Iron Hill. Abouf 100
resulting syenitic rock have locally been incorpor- dikes have been mapped, chiefly in the vicinity of .
ated in the veins. · From the analyses (fig. 121.2B) the complex. The dikes, which are generally less
it is apparent that the thorite veins are character- than 50 feet thick but locally as much as 75 feet
ized by relatively large amounts of Th, Ba, Sr, rare thick, are discontinuous, branching, and locally fol-
earths, Nb, and alkalies, an assemblage that is also low joint planes in the country rock. The trachyte
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-285

?': 1.5 6 I
M
~ ? 5 2 ~~IOIII<t------ Rare-earth elements----~..~~
2 15 3 7 8
I 2 2 3 2
2 3 2 3 2 2 3
10 3 9 8 ~ 2 ~ 7 9
2 ~ 4 3 3
1-
4 I ! 3 3 zL&J
(.)
2 4 6 2 5. .
5 - 3. -I 3 a:
L&J
3 I 5
. - 3. 2 3 3 3 Q..

6 2-
0.007
9 2- 2
3
0.0015
2
0.0007
-?- 0.0003

~0®0®®0000000@0@@@@@@ ~7@ 1~ ® 0.00015

&.PK~TIA&YM&~~h~~~~Th~~&~n~~
Atomic No. 11 12 15 19 20 22 26 38 39 41 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 ~
~

A. CARBONATITES FROM IRON HILL COMPLEX (21 ANALYSES)

5
4
4 ~ ? II
2 9 3
3 1.1
1,5 ~
! 2.0
?
1.4 :r---
7
Rare-earth elements~
M
7
3
2 2 5 ~ I I
1.5
2 I
? ~-'- ? ? 9 3 2
0.7
1p 1.2 7 13 5 4 8 I ? I ~ 3 8
\,
0.3
II 6 - 4 8 a 2 6 8 3 4 4 2 4
0.15 1-
4 II 3 9 I~ a 4 4 10 ~ 15 6 4 4 -
9 8 0.07 z
L&J
-7 4 1.0 ? 5 4 1.3 ·lp -~- ? I? -~-1.1 8 7 (.)
a:
0.03 L&J
3 2' 5 II 15 3 7 - 3 2 5 7 6 9 5 Q..

I ? ? 4 2 ~ -~-?- ~-
2 8 9 4 4
2 2 9
12
0.0007
4 2 3 -6-

00®@0®0®0000@@0@@@@@@@@ ;e
&.PK~TIA&YM&~~~~~~~Th~~&~Th~~
Atomic No. 11 12 15 19 20 22 26 38 39 41 56 57 58 59 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 ~
~

B. THORIUM-BEARING VEINS (47 ANALYSES)

FIGURE 121..2-Distribution of semiquantitive spectographic analyses and radiometric (eThO~) analyses of carbonatite
(A) and thorium-bearing veins (B) front Powderhorn district, Colo. The numbers indicate the number of analyses in
which a given element is present in the percentage shown. The approximate limit of detection by this analytical method
is shown by a horizontal dash, although a few determinations were made below this limit; the number of samples in which
percentages are below this threshold amount and too low to determine is indicated by number in circle. Equivalent thoria
was determined radiometrically and adjusted to scale of percentages used for spectrographic data.
B-286 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

porphyry dikes are generally radioactive with read- alkaline complex of Iron Hill the granitic country
ings of 0.04 - 0.08 mr per hr or 2 to 4 times baJ~k­ rocks are locally feldspathi~ed to form soda syenite
ground. About 20 of the dike.l? have radioactivities (fenite), implying the introduction of Na rather
between 0.05 and 0.3 mr per h·r, and one has as much than K.
as 5.0 mr per hr. In the rock studied, the radio- The four types of thorium-rare-earth-niobium con-
activity is concentrated in hematite pseudomorphs centrations are thought to have been formed during
after pyrite pyritohedrons and may be due to ex- the late stages of emplacement of the Iron Hill stock
tremely fine-grained intergrown thorogummite. and related syenitic rocks. Within the complex of
Features that characterize most ofHhe four types Iron Hill, the magnetite-ilmenite-perovskite bodies
of radioactive deposits and indicate their genetic are among the youngest rocks, and the stock and
relation include (a) the amounts of such elements dikes of carbonatite are the youngest. Inasmuch as
as Th, rare earths, Nb, Ba, Sr, which are well above
the thorite veins and trachyte dikes are known only
that of most igneous rocks; (b) the spatial relation
outside the complex, their age in relation to the main
to the environs of the complex of Iron Hill and
smaller bodies of syenitic rock in the district; (c) a mass. of the complex is uncertain, but the similar
fetid odor like garlic that locally characterizes freshly features mentioned above suggest they also formed
broken rock from thorite veins, trachyte dikes, and late in the sequence of the alkalic rocks.
fenitic rocks; and (d) alkali ·metasomatism or re- REFERENCE
placement of wall rocks by orthoclase, wpich is
Larsen, E. S., Jr., 1942, Alkalic rocks of Iron Hill, Gunnison
especially characteristic of the thorite veins and less County, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 197-A,
so of the trachyte dikes. Along the borders of the p. 1-64.

122. RHENIUM IN PLANT'SAMPLES FROM THE COLORADO PLATEAU

By A. T. MYERS and J. C. HAMILTON, Denver, Colo.

In a recent review of the geochemistry of rhenium, (oral communication, 1960) had noted that Ast1·aga-
Fleischer (1959) pointed out that our present knowl- lus and other plants from the Yellow Cat area of
edge rests almost entirely on the work of the Nod- Grand County,. Utah, . contained relatively large
dacks (1931), with the exception of new analyses of amounts of molybdenum, in addition to toxic
molybdenite arid a few other determinations. He amounts of selenium. These are the so-called "indi-
pointed out that no mineral other than the moly- cator" plants used by her as a prospecting guide to
bdenul? minerals, molybdenite and wulfenite, has uranium mineralization. With the above geochemical
been reported to contain as much as 2 ppm (parts association in mind, several plants from soils rich
per million) rhenium. The close association of in uranium and molybdenum were analyzed and
rhenium with molybdenum is further confirmed by found to contain rhenium in the ash. This is the first
the fact that in nearly 1,000 analyses of ores and time rhenium has been found in plants.
smelter products, Kaiser, Herring, and Rabbitt Helen Cannon provided many plant samples she
collected from the Yellow Cat area in Utah. Other
(1954) found rhenium in only three, all of which
plant samples were collected by P. F. Narten, C. M.
were molybdenite ores or concentrates. Mobley, Frank Kleinhampel, Fred Ward, Harry
Rhenium was discovered for the first time in Nakagawa, and Henry Bell, III. A preliminary state-
urani urn ore from Triassic sedimentary rocks of the · ment of the results presented below has been pub-
Colorado Plateau by Peterson, Hamilton, and Myers lished (Myers and .Hamilton, 1960).
(1959); it was associated with the molybdenum min- The analyses, reported by numbers on a semiquan-
erals jordisite ( ?) and ilsemannite. Helen Cannon titative basis, were obtained by the method of Myers
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 "B-287
TABLE 1.-Rhenium and some other elements in plant ash 1
[In parts per million; ... , not looked for; d, detected, but concentration uncertain]

Laborntory
No. Plant Plant
part I Ash
(percent) I He I Mo I Cu u Locality
I •· I
Yellow Cat area, Grand County, Utah

-
56-2:308 Grindel-ia fastigiata (gum weed) ... Tops ... 8.2 150 1500 150 7 30 10 100 McCoy group
(schroeckingerite
deposit).
56-2309 . . . . do ......................... Roots .. 6.4 <50 1500 300 15 150 . . . . . . ...... Do.
59-:3.t7B Astragalus preussi (poisonvetch) ... Tops ... . . . . . . . 150 700 150 15 70 . . . . . . • 0 •••• Do.
.57-1811 Astra(Jalus pattersoni (locoweed) .. .. do .... 21.8 70 300 70 30 70 61 1500 Do.
32-60 J!Jphedm viridis (Mormon tea) .... .. do .... 9.6 150 150 15 15 70 ...... ••••• 0 Do.
:33-60 Atriplex confertifolia (shadscale
salt bush) ................... .. do .... 26.3 300 300 15 15 30 . . . . . . •• 0 ••• Do.

Gypsum V,alley, Montrose County, Colo.

D-7.1417 Astragalus pattersoni (locoweed) .. Tops ... 18.7 70 30 70 7 70 4 400 Gypsum claim.
D-7141!) .... do ......................... .. do .... 15.2 70 7 70 7 70 1 400 Do.
D-71420 . . . . do ......................... .. do .... 18.4 300 7 70 7 70 2 1900 Do.
D-714:38 .... do ......................... .. do .... 28.6 d 300 70 15 300 33 1800 Terrible claim.
DD-7.1441 .... do ......................... .. do .... 16.8 70 70 70· 15 30 4 36 Do.
~-
D-714:35 Eriogonu·m ·injlatum (desert
trumpet) .................... .. do .... 7.4 70 15 150 15 70 3 0.5 Do.
D-71~~:36 .... do .. ·: ...................... .. do .. :. 6.2 150 15 150 15 70 3.2 l.O Do.
D-71437 . . . . do ......................... .. do .... 7.5 70 15 150 7 30 4 28 Do.

Grants area, Grant County, N.Mex.

D-7.1142 ... ;tstragalus con.fertijloms ('?) ...... Tops ... 8. ~) d 30 150 15 70 2.5 560
D-71146 M entzelia pumilis (stick leaf) ..... . . do .... 1:3.4 d 15 300 30 300 25.2 100
D-71147 Onothera caespitosa (primrose) .... . . do .... 17.6 150 70 300 30 :300 :33.6 300

1 Semiquantitative spectographic analyses, J. C. Hamilton, analyst, method C. Thompson, E. Smith, W. Bowles, Jr., G. Burrow, and W. Meadows, anal-
of Myers and others (1961). Chemical analysis for U, E. Fennelly, ysts; methods of Association of Official Agricultural Chemists ( 1950, J>.
G. Burrow, and C. Huffman, analysts; method of Grimaldi and others ( 1954, 416-419). .
p. 195). Chemical analysis for Se reported on a dry weight basis, H. Crow,

and others ( 1961). The plant samples were origi- but was not detected in 'the roots of 1 sample of
.nally ashed overnight in a muffle furnace at 550°C. G1·indelia (gum weed). The rhenium content ranges
Ashing experiments made on a number of plant from about 50 to 500. ppm in the ash of these plants.
samples for a shorter time interval (3 hours instead 'An At1·iplex (shadscale salt bush) plant contains
of overnight) indicated very little if any loss by the about 300 ppm rhenium. The data show little appar-
longer ashing period.· Analyses of th~ rhenium-bear- ent correlation of rhenium content with other ele-
ing samples are listed on table 1. ments listed on table 1.
Mr. J. D. Stephens, Kennecott Copper Corp., Salt Analyses are shown on table 1 for 8 plants, in-
Lake City, Utah, has advised us (written communi- cluding 5 Astragalus and 3 E1·iogonunt, growing in
cation, 1960) that rhenium oxide begins to volatilize uraniferous ground in the Gypsum Valley area of
at 375°C. Therefore, it is possible that there may Colorado. The rhenium content ranges from about
be a slight loss of rhenium during the ashing process · 50 to 500 ppm in the ash of these plants. One
at 550°C if it is present. as the oxide. When the AstTagalus pattersoni plant contained about 300 ppm
ashing temperature was lowered to 450 o C for one in the ash. There is no apparent correlation of
hour, the final result for rhenium content showed rhenium with any of the other elements listed on
little if any change. table 1. With the exception of one Astragalus sample
Spectrographic and chemical results are shown on ( D-71438), the plants all contained significantly less
table 1 for 5 different plant samples, including 4 molybdenum than the plants that grew in the
different plant species, growing in a small schroeckin- schroeckingerite deposit in the Yellow Cat area.
gerite deposit in the Yellow Cat area of Utah. Rhen- Table 1 shows analyses for three rhenium-rich
i urn was detected in all 5 different plant tops and 4 plants growing in mineralized ground in the Grants
different plant species; it was detected in the tops, area, New Mexico. These samples, like the Gypsum
B-288 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE 2.-Samples in which rhenium was not detected TABLE 3.-Coul-parison of results from duplicate
[Rhenium less than 50 parts per million] asking of plant samples
(In parts per million; ... not looked for; d, detected but concentration un-
N1tmber of analyses Area certain]

Uranium-mineralized ground (105 plants analyzed) Ash

Sample No. (percent) Rc Mo Cu Ni v
6 plants (5 species) ______ Yellow Cat area, Grand County, Utah. - - - - - - ---
73 plants (7 species) ______ Gypsum Valley, San Miguel and Mont-
56-2308A ........ 8.2 150 1500 150 7 :30
rose Counties, Colo. 56-2308B ........ 8.5 150 1500 150 7 30
17 plants (11 species) .... Grants area, McKinley County, N. 59-317BA ....... • 0. 0 •••••• 150 700 150 15 70
Mex. 59-317BB ....... 11.3 150 700 300 15 70
3 plants (3 species) ______ Paradox Valley, Montrose County, D-71417A ....... 18.7 70 30 70 7 70
D-71417B ....... 19.8 d 30 150 7 30
Colo. D-71438A ....... 27.:3 d :300 70 15 :300
3 plants (1 species) ______ Marysvale, Piute County, Utah. D-71438B ....... • •••• 0 •••• d :300 70 15 300
3 plants (1 species) ______ Elk Ridge, San Juan County, Utah.
Barren ground (39 plants analyzed)
The data so far gathered seem to indicate that the
34 plants __________________________ Death Valley, lnyo County, Calif.
plant tops (or leaves) are more likely than the stems
3 plants (2 species) ___·___ Southern Black Hills, Fall River
County, S. Dak.
or roots to show the presence of rhenium in min-
2 plants (2 species) ______ Paradox Valley, Montrose County, eralized soil.
Colo.
REFERENCES
Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, 1950, Official
Valley plants, contained significantly less moly- methods of analysis, 7th ed.: Washington, D. C., 910 p.
bdenum than the plants from the schroeckingerite Grimaldi, F. S., and others, compilers, 1954, Collected papers
de.posit. on methods of analysis for uranium and thorium: U.S.
Samples that contained no detectable rhenium are Geol. Survey Bull. 1006, 184 p.
grouped on table 2 according to locality. Six plants Fleischer, Michael, 1959, The geochemistry of rhenium with
that are listed as growing in uranium-mineralized special reference to its occurrence in molybdenite: Econ.
Geology, v. ·54, p. 1406-1413.
ground at the Yellow Cat area were not growing over
Kaiser, E. P., Herring, B. F., and Rabbitt, J. C., 1954, Minor
the schroeckingerite deposit; plant species analyzed elements in some rocks, ores, and mill and smelter prod-
in this group included Astragalus confertiflorus. ucts: U.S. Geol. Survey TEI-415, 119 p., issued by U.S.
Rhenium could not be detected in 73 plants from Atomic Energy Comm. Tech. Inf. Serv., Oak~idge, Tenn.
mineralized areas at Gypsum Valley (table 2). In- Myers, A. T., Havens, R. G., and Dunton, P. J. 1961, A,
cluded in these plants were 7 different species. in- spectrochemical method for the semiquantitative analysis
cluding Astragalus from the ·following claims: of rocks, minerals, and ores: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
1084-1.
Pooch,. Pay Day, Terrible, .Rambler, Gypsum, and
American Eagle. Myers, A. T., and Hamilton, J. C., 1960, Rhenium in plant
samples from the Colorado Plateau [abs.]: Geol. Soc.
In order to test the repeatabilit:y; of both the ash-
America Bull., v. 71, p. 1934.
ing and spectrographic method, four of the plant
Noddack, Ida, anq Noddack, Walter, 1931, Die Geochemie des
samples were reashed and analyze~. a second ti~e Rheniums: Zeitschr. phys. Chemie, v. A154, p. 207-244.
for Re, Mo, Cu, V, and Ni. The results are shown in Peterson, R. G., Hamilton, J. C., and Myers, A. T., 1959, An
table 3 for samples 56~2308, 59-317B, D-71417, and occurrence of rhenium associated with uraninite in Co-
D-71438. conino County, Ariz.: Econ. Geology, v. 54, p. 254.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-289

123. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS IN COLORADO PLATEAU URANIUM DEPOSITS AND MULTIPLE

STAGES OF MINERALIZATION

By A. T. MIESCH, Denver, Colo.

Chemical elements in sandstone-type uranium de- tween elements in different groups are less than
posits of the Colorado Plateau have been classified moderate. Elements in Group I (fig. 123.1) have
into two broad groups: (a) dominantly intrinsic moderate or nearly moderate correlations with iron,
elements, or elements whose presence in the deposits and none has a moderate or higher correlation with
is largely unrelated to the process of uranium min- aluminum. Elements in Group II have moderate or
eralization, and (b) dominantly extrinsic ·elements, nearly moderate correlations with aluminum,- but
or elements whose presence in the deposits is largely their correlations with iron are lower than moderate.
a result of uranium mineralization or related proc- Elements in Group III and IV, yttrium and uranium
esses (Shoemaker and others, 1959, p. 35). Elements respectively, do not have moderate or higher corre-
that are dominantly intrinsic and those that are lations with any of the other dominantly extrinsic
dominantly extrinsic can generally be distinguished
empirically by their relative abundances in uranium
ore and unmineralized sedimentary host rocks. Ex-
trinsic components of various elements were intro- Group I
CoX~i.,
/ .... I
duced into the host sandstone and mudstone to form / Subgroup A I
/
/ / I
the present deposits epigenetically, but were not / As-------Mo
necessarily introduced at the same time nor by /
/
/

_,/'
_,/' ' \.
Fe,.. \
exactly the same process. Elements that are domi-
nantly intrinsic in uranium deposits in t~e Salt
'' \
Zn
''
Wash member of the Morrison formation include ''
silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, sodium,
'' Group I Group I
Subgroup 8 Subgroup C
potassium, antimony, boron, beryllium, carbon,
chlorine, chromium, fluorine, gallium, manganese,
phosphorus, scandium, strontium, and titanium.
Dominantly extrinsic elements in these deposits, in
addition to uranium, include arsenic, cobalt, copper, Group II ===-Ag
,..,-
molybdenum, nickel, lead, selenium, silver, vanadium, AI:_.... ...............
Subgroup A
Cu~~
yttrium, and zinc. Several elements, including iron, Pb
barium, and zirconium, seem to be about equally in- '' I

''
{
I
t~insic and extri.nsic in deposits. in the Salt Wash
'' Group II
,I
member.
Examination of the co-variation of extrinsic ele-
" Subgroup 8
v'
ments among uranium deposits in the Salt Wash l
member shows that they may be classified further
into geochemically coherent groups and subgroups Gro<.~p Ill y
(fig. 123.1). Deposits rich in one of the elements
tend to be rich in the other elements of the same
subgroup. The classification of extrinsic elements
into coherent groups and subgroups has been ac- Group IV u
complished through computation of linear correla-
tion coefficients between logarithms of element con-
centrations in samples from· 215 deposits. Every ele- Very high correlation (r>0.75)
ment within a subgroup has a moderate or higher
High correlation (0.75>r>0.50)
correlation with each of the other elements in the
subgroup (fig. 123.1). Elements in the same group, Moderate correlation (0.50>r>0.35)
but in different subgroups, have moderate or weaker FIGURE 123.1.-Groups of coherent elements in uranium ores
correlations with each other. All correlations be- from the Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation.
B-290 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

elements studied. Examination of the low correla-

tion coefficients, however, indicates that both yttrium
ber of the Morrison formation might be explained by
the hypothesis outlined below. ,
and uranium in the deposits have greater affinities After burial of the Salt Wash member by the
for the Group I elements than for the Group II Brushy Basin member of the Morrison formation,
elements. ground water within the Salt Wash was confined
All elements in Group I, in addition to iron, tend and discharge probably minor. As a result, the
to be more highly concentrated in uranium deposits ground water became nearly stagnant. It is postu-
of the Salt Wash member of the Morrison formation lated that precipitation of iron and minute amounts
on the western and northwestern parts of the Colo- of other elements near carbonaceous material caused
rado Plateau, and in this respect their distributions concentration gradients to be established within the
correspond to the distribution of tuffaceous materia~s stagnant ground water, and diffusion of iron and
in unmineralized sandstone of the Salt Wash, as other elements toward the carbonaceous material
determined from lithologic data of R. A. Cadigan began in response to the gradients. In the chemical
(written communication, 1958). Copper, silver, and environments likely to occur near carbonaceous ma-
lead, in Group II, are distinctly more highly concen- terial (Hostetler and Garrels, written communica-
trated in uranium deposits in the structurally de- tion), the solubility of iron is highly sensitive to Eh
formed region of the salt anticlines in western Colo- and pH differences. This implies that the concentra-
rado and eastern Utah, a region where vein-type tion gradients of iron in solution were steep and that
copper-silver deposits are known to occur and where diffusion of iron may have been relatively rapid.
the sandstone of the Salt Wash member tends to con- Boundaries or interfaces between nearly stagnant
tain more copper (and possibly other elements) than solutions near and more distant from carbonaceous
sandstone of the same unit elsewhere on the Plateau. material were established owing to contrasting
Zinc, in addition to being more highly concentrated chemistry of the solutions, and could have remained
in deposits on the western and northwestern parts relatively stable because of the nearly stagnant
of the Plateau, also tends to be highly concentrated ground-water conditions. The interfaces were
in deposits within the salt anticline region. Vana- marked by the precipitation of pyrite and other
dium is, in general, more highly concentrated in de- sulfides; these formed roll-type structures. Iron and
posits on the eastern part of the Plateau. The re- most other Group I elements that accumulated during
gional distribution of uranium in the deposits has this early stage of mineralization could have. been
not been determined; the samples which were studied derived from devitrification of tuffaceous material in
are biased with respect to uranium grade, and the the sandstone within a few hundred feet of the de-
distribution· of uranium assays on a map appears posits. Deposits on the western part of the Plateau
random. may be richer in these elements because the sand-
Recent study of the abundances and distributions stone there contained. more tuff.
of the elements in uranium deposits and in the At a later stage in the history of the deposits,
altered sandstone that encloses the deposits in a structural deformation of the Salt Wash and assq-
typical mining district (Legin area, San Miguel ciated rocks occurred on a regional scale in the Salt
County, Colo.) shows that the amount of each ele- Valley region of western Colorado and eastern Utah.
·~
ment added to t];le deposits, except urani urn and Numerous northwest.:.trending faults were developed
vanadium, could have come from the altered sand- on the flanks and crests of the anticlines, and the
stone, without the sandstone having had unusually rocks of Early Cretaceous and older age were in-
high original concentrations of the elements. How- truded by laccoliths which are now partially exposed
ever, the· regional distributions of the elements in in the La Sal Mountains. The structural deforma-
uranium deposits of the Salt Wash member, con- tion opened channels of recharge and discharge and
activated ground-water flow. within the Salt Wash
sidered together with the hydrologic arid structural
member. Solutions bearing copper, silver, lead, and
history of the Salt Wash and the occurrence of some
zinc (Fischer, 1936, p. 575) deposited these elements
elements in veins, indicate that sources external to as sulfides In several formations along faults in the
the Salt Wash host rock contributed some elements, salt anticline region, and may have enriched the
and that at least two periods of mineralization ground waters in these elements. Enrichment of
occurred. ground water in the Salt Wash member by addition
The broad features of the regional distribution of of solutions from an external source may account
elements in ura.nium deposits of the Salt Wash mem- for the relative high copper content of sandstones
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-291
from the Salt Wash in this region, and may also pyrite, thereby preserving the roll-structures as
explain why the uranium ores from the . Salt Wash uraniferous ore ·}?odies. In the laboratory,. uraninite
member in the salt anticline region contain more has been precipitated from aqueous solutions by the
copper, silver, lead, and zinc~ than ores from the Salt reduction of uranium with pyrite (Vickers, 1956).
Wash in other areas. ··~ This mechanism explains the common abundance of
Inasmuch as uranium .·and vanadium could not limoriffe adjacent to uraniferous ore bodies.
have been derived from altered sandstone adjacent
to the deposits, they must have been derived from REFERENCES
more distant sources, and the transporting. m.~ch­ Fischer, R. P., 1936, Peculiar hydrothermal copper-bearing
anism was probably flowing solutions, rather· than veins of the northeastern Colorado Plateau: Econ. Geol-
diffusion. Uranium and vanadium may have been ogy, v. 31, no. 6, p. 571-599.
Shoemaker, E. M., Miesch, A. T., Newman, W. L., and Riley,
deposited during the second stage of mineralization, L. B., 1959, Elemental composition of the sandstone-type
along with copper, lead, silver, and some of the zinc, deposits, in Geochemistry and mineralogy of the Colorado
but this is uncertain. According to this hypothesis, Plateau uranium ores, compiled by R .. M. Garrels and
the forms of the deposits were established by the E. S. Larsen, 3d: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 320, p.
first stage of mineralization, when pyrite and other 25-54.
sulfides of Group I elements accumulated in roll- Vickers, R. C.,. 1956, Syntheses of pitchblende, in Geologic
investigations of radioactive deposits-Semiannual prog-
structures. Uranium may have been precipitated ress report, June 1 to November 30, 1956: U.S. Geol.
from solution by the reduction of hexavalent uranium Survey TEI-640, p. 305, issued by U.S. Atomic Energy
in a complex carbonate ion by the earlier formed Comm. Tech. lnf. Service, Oak Ridge, Tenn., P: 305.

124. HYDROGEOCHEMICAL ANOMALIES, FOURMILE CANYON, EUREKA COUNTY, NEVADA

By R. L ..ERICKSON and A. P. MARRANZINO, Denver, Colo.

Results of analyses of spring waters in Fourmile 4 to 5, sulfate is the principal anion, and the heavy
Canyon, Cortez quadrangle, Eureka County, Nev., metal content determined with dithizone ranges from
show marked metal anomalies in a little-prospected 100 to 300 ppb (background in Fourmile Canyon is
area. Spring waters near the head of the canyon less than 20 ppb). Spectrographic analyses of the
are acid sulfate waters that contain as much as 300 residue after evaporation of the waters show that
ppb (parts per billion) heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Pb); the chief heavy metal is zinc, but that manganese,
waters near the mouth of the canyon are slightly nickel, copper, and cobalt are also anomalously high.
alkaline bicarbonate-sulfate waters that contain as Coatings of red iron oxide on stream-bottom sedi-
much as 60 ppb molybdenum. ments contain as much as 1,500 ppm arsenic and 20
The springs occur in siliceous clastic rocks of ppm molybdenum. The source of the acid, high
Silurian age in the upper plate of the Roberts Moun- sulfate, and high base metal content of the springs
tains thrust fault (James Gilluly, oral communica- and also the high arsenic content of the iron-oxide
tion, 1960). A quartz monzonite mass intrudes the
precipitate on the stream bottom probably is a con-
clastic rocks near the head of the canyon and the
cealed oxidizing sulfide deposit ..
strongest base-metal anomaly occurs in springs near
the contact of quartz monzonite and clastics (fig. Bicarbonate-sulfate spring water contains 60 ppb
124.1). Sufficient water issues from these springs to molybdenum at locality W-50 and 15 to 20 ppb
maintain permanent flow a few hundred yards down- molybdenum in adjacent springs (background in
stream. Between sample localities W-52 and W-52B Fourmile Canyon is about 2 ppb). There are no
the pH and heavy metal content of the water were rock exposures in the vicinity of W-50 and the
determined at 100-foot intervals; the pH ranges from source of the molybdenum is unknown.
B-292 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

\
\ ~~!b-··--- .. _ .
'-~-----···--··.__....··· ~Ho-:_~g ···-
~, HM~O

··."··
l.'·. ~· ···-··--···-...,
Rocks of Silurian age
~:
:\\ W-50
·.E. ... - pH-7.1
'-. \ Mo-60 /
\ ···-....... HM-30 ·
··y··· ~:"·· .._ ________ __,----<:=:_
! 'k ·..._ __ _

~~~o.~pH-7.9 ··<-.. --.. -'

-· : Mo-15 ·.
/.· \_HM-100 ·'-...

I
... ·...........
-..
' W-57
.. r .. :.:.o
.-. J ... ·. W-53 W 58 --pH 7 4
____ ./' -\ /'"pH-6:8\ / •• -----~H-:'7~1"··-··· H;~<-220
J :' Mo-20 \ ·· Mo-8
: I HM-<20 y.: HM-40

j /_/,... .. / . . i
.. / \ ... ___ __...
';"""··--
.A
-----··.:~'"'··· ... \., ..... __, ... -
(pH-7.0 ... ·~ ..L.·.·~-----
W-51 / Mo-10 ·/ ·-. - ... _
'- -, < > L ~-· ·. HM-2~./ \
-..J v \. .- 7 v
1 '1 ~ • • ;_ •
< < v > < < > I > -.J .<./t.- ...1 r- ~--. .
...1 v > '- L.- " ~ "' 7 \ -J ..l - ..........
L 7
o(
L- 1.- \ > '7 ~- ,.,_p ( V r- /.... ,._ .• •
-..J ~..; Quartz monzonite l..: ...1 ...; " ;/ •• pH-6.6
'- £.. ' ...1 7 I ./" .L 1 < ..l ,,>; " \.w. 528 Mo-<2
< L.- 7 v 1 . t< .::. ...; Y' , · ~'- HM-1~
., > r- > -.J < L.- /.... v 'L ( > <. -. · . ...._ . { pH-4.7
L.- <; L .., 7 ...1 , L <: _,.-(;."-;_ /.... 11 'pW-521fC Mo-<2
.:~-L_;:L. ~ W-59
0
7 ...1 "' > " ' 1.- ...1 < l...l r- HM-240
L <:. ..J . 'v ...1 .0 ,. ., 'X L h_ pH-4.6
" " ~ > " ~- W-52\1 Mo-<2
1
,
<. " • ...1
1
> ~~
'-·· -.J ~ p H-6.•
2: ·:, HM-300
.., >. v ,... . Mo-4 }
" . HM-20.

0
/,...... Y.?
/
lMILE

1 Geology modified from unpublished geologic map of ~ortez

quadrangle by James Gilluly and Harold Masursky

FIGURE 124.1.-Map showing sample locality (W), pH, molyb-

denum (M-o) arid heavy metal (HM) content, in parts per
billion, ~f some· spring waters in Fourmile Canyon, Eu-
reka County, Ner.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-293

125. GHANTSITE, A NEW HYDRATED SODIUM CALCIUM VANADYL VANADATE FROM NEW MEXICO AND
COLORADO-A PRELIMINARY DESCRIPTION

By A. D. WEEKS, M.. L. LINDBERG, and ROBERT MEYROWITZ, Washington, D. C.

Grantsite, a new hydrated sodium calcium vanadyl I and absorption. The blades or fibers are "length
vanadate, is a dark dive-green to greenish-black slow." The indices of refraction are a between 1.81
mineral which occurs in fibrous aggregates that coat ::;tn.d. 1.83, {3 > 2.0, and y > 2.0. The orientation and
fractures or form thin seams in sandstone or lime- pleochroism are · X normal to the blade, green, Y
stone in vanadiferous uranium ores of the Colorado parallel to the intermediate dimension of the blade,
Plateau. It very rarely forms microscopic bladed greenish .brown, and Z = b parallel to the length of
single crystals. It is soft and smears easily when the blade, brown. The absorption is. Z · > Y > X.
rubbed-a characteristic of most of the vanadyl The mineral is biaxial negative.
vanadate minerals or "corvusite" group to which it The strongest lines of the X-ray diffraction powder
belongs. pattern for sample A W -43-56, Golden Cycle mine,
A small amount of this mineral was first found with Cr-radiation, Y-filter (Ka 1 = 2.2897) are as
in an ore sample collected in 1952 by T. W. Stern follows in order of decreasing d-spacings in Ang-
from an early prospect of the F-33 mine (Anaconda strom units and intensity given as strong S, medium
Company, Sec. 33, T. 12 N., R. 9 W.) in Valencia strong MS, and medium M: 12.4 MS, 8.7 S, 4.34 M,
County, near the town of Grants, N. Mex. It comes 3.719 M, 3.607 MS, 3.008 MS, 2.866 M, 2.715 M,
from the Todqto limestone of Late Jurassic age. 2.275 M, and 2.240 M. A partially completed set of
Grantsite was also collected in 1954 by A. D. Weeks, single-crystal pr·ecession and rotation patterns indi-
R. B. Thompson, and R. F. Marvin from the La Salle. cates grantsite is monoclinic: a = 17.54, b = 3.60,
Mining Company's shaft on Club Mesa, Montrose c = 12.45; {3 = 95°15'; unit cell volume = 781Aa,
County, Colo. and in.1956 by.A. D. Weeks and A. H. The. b-axis is the fiber axis; individual fibers are
Truesdell fr<;>m the Golden Cy.cle mine on Atkinson tabular parallel to (100).
Mesa, near Uravan in Montrose County, Colo. The Chemical analyses have been complet.ed on sample
two Colorado samples are from the Salt Wash sand- AW-47-54 from the La Salle mine, AW-43-56. from
stone member of the Morrison formation of Late th.e Golden Cycle mine, and A W-20-57 from the
Jurassic age. In 1957 during a detailed study of the· F ~33 mine. All are essentially hydrated sodium
F-33 mine near Grants, N. Mex., Weeks and Trues- calcium vanadyl vanadates but the amount of cal-
dell found much more material ·~nd observed the cium and V+ 4 varies slightly in the samp·l~~. The
paragenesis and oxidation sequence, which will not ratio of the oxides is close to 2Na:.!O•Ca0·V:.!0 4 •
be discussed here. 5V:.!Or;•8H:.!O. The gram-formula-weight as derived
Grantsite is monoclinic with the elongation of the from the unit cell volume and the observed density
fibe'i-s parallel to the b-axis. It usually forms aggre- of 2.94 gcmx·is 1383. This corres:ponds .. closely to the
gates of extremely fine fibers or ··narrow blades, simi- weight of the oxides as derived f~ok the chemical
lar in habit to the hewettite group of vanadates which analysis and e.quals 1400. .
are also elongated parallel to the b-axis. Its luster is The name grantsite is for the town of Grants,
silky or pearly to subadamantine. The optical prop- , N. Mex., near which the: miperal was discovered and
erties cannot be determined accurately or completely later found inore abundaritiy in partly oxidized vana-
~.

because of its very fine grain size and high refraction diferous uranium ore. · ·

~·

;i

:·:·.
i''·'
 B-294 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

126. INSOLUBLE RESIDUES AND Ca:Mg RATIOS IN THE MADISON GROUP, LIVINGSTON, MONTANA

By ALBERT E. ROBERTS, Denver, Colo.

The Madison group is exposed prominently in the glomerate is found at the same stratigraphic horizon
lower canyon of the Yellowstone River near Living- in the Gallatin Basin, Mont. (Laudon, 1948, p. 295;
ston, Mont. It includes the Lodgepole limestone, Andrichuk, 1955, p. 2179) and a breccia zone is found
which is partly Kinderhook and partly Osage in age, at this horizon in north-central Wyoming (Denson
and the oyerlying Mission Canyon limestone, which and Morrissey, 1952, p. 40) and in western Wyoming
is partly Osage and partly Meramec in age. Age (Strickland, 1956, p. 54).
assignments are similar, in part, to those suggested Calcium-magnesium ratios and percentages of in-
by Sloss and Moritz ( 1951, p. 2155) and Sando and soluble residues are given on figure 126.1. The Lodge-
Dutro (1960, p. 118). The Lodgepole is 575 feet pole limestone has relatively few dolomite or dolo-
thick; the Mission Canyon is subdivided into a lower mitic limestone strata; the Mission Canyon has con-
member 330 feet thick, and an upper member 325 siderable dolomite and dolomitic limestone. The
feet thick. Ca :Mg molal ratio curve illustrates a cyclic alterna-
Generally, the limestone in the Madison group is tion of carbonate rocks of varying CaCoa-MgCoa
massive to thick bedded, finely to coarsely crystalline, composition. The cycles are imperfect or are not
light olive· gray ( 5Y5/2) t, fossiliferous, oolitic, and apparent in the lower part of the Lodgepole but be-
·contains less than 5 percent insoluble residues. The come better defined in the Mission Canyon, and in
dolomite is generally medium to thin bedded, micro- the upper member of the Mission Canyon they are
crystalline, variable in color, but usually light olive easily demonstrated. The intimate interlayering of
gray (5Y6/1) to yellowish brown (10YR6/2), com- dolomite and limestone, as well as the finer crystal-
monly brecciated, and contains more than 5 per- . Iinity of tpe dolomites and a larger content of in-
cent insoluble residues. A few. dolomite units are soluble residues in the dolomites relative to the lime-
. fossiliferous, but most of the fossils are in lime- stones are systematic variations that seem most
stone units. Oolites occur only in massive limestone easily explained if most of the limestone and dolo-
containing very little insoluble residues. The lith- mite was deposited directly from sea water. Cyclic
ology of the formation is shown on figure 126.1. deposition of limestone and dolomite in Mississippian
Chert is common throughout the carbonate se- rocks is excellently illustra~ed by Laudon and Sever-
quence in thin layers along bedding planes or, less son (1953, p. 509-512) in the Bridger Range, Mont.,
commonly, in nodules or lenses. The thin laye·rs have and cyclic deposits of this age at Logan, Mont., have
irregular shapes in cross section and they stand out been observed by G. D. Robinson (1961, oral commu-
in etched relief on weathered surfaces. The relative nication). The fossil assemblages in these rocks indi-
amounts of Ghert and insoluble residues in individual cate normal marine benthonic faunas that probably
stratigraphic units have no apparent relation. lived in relatively shallow, well-aerated waters on
Dolomite beds in the Madison group include some extensive shelves or in epeiric seas (Dutro, Sando,
intraformational breccias and some local breccias and Yochelson, 1958, written communication).
caused· by readjustment during folding. Laterally The percent-carbonate curve (fig. 126.1) shows,
persistent breccia beds in the Mission Canyon lime- in general, an increase of insoluble residues in the
stone may be solution breccias resulting from re- dolomite compared to the limestone. Recent studie~
moval of soluble minerals such as anhydrite or gyp- by Roy and others (1955), Fairbridge (1957), Dun-
sum. Similar laterally continuous breccia beds in the bar and Rodgers (1957), and Bisque and Lemish
Mission Canyon have been described by McMannis ( 1959) discuss or demonstrate this same relation for
(1955, p. 1400) in the Bridger Range, and by Klep- dolomites in general.
per, Weeks, and Ruppel (1957, p. 19) in the Elkhorn Insoluble residues in the Madison group at Living-
Mountains. A bed 51/i feet thick of limestone con- ston consist predominantly of clay minerals, fossil
glomerate forms the base of the upper member of fragments, quartz, feld.spar (mostly microcline), and
the Mission Canyon at Livingston. A similar con- chert, and lesser amounts of pyrite, magnetite, tour-
1 Designation as shown on the Rock-Color Chart of the National Re·
maline, zircon, garnet, biotite, and sphene. The clay
search Council, 1948. minerals, identified by X-ray diffraction, are illite,
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC ·SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-295

~
~
a..
l-en ~lffi
0 c(~ ~~~uQ
;:)
~>-~~(/)
UJUJoi=z
>-
8
...J
0
MOLAL RATIO Ca:Mg
(/)
0: ~UJ ctb~~!;( J: Limestone ~agnesian Dolomitic 1 Calcitic :.~

~ ·~ ~~ ::)(/)~8~ 1-
:J
hmeston~ limestone : dolomite :..§ PERCENT CARBONATE
~
3 •. :19 17.!67 'R'i I~
FEET 50 75 100

1200
i
"" ~ .c '*'
'V'

-l'
I
--;
~:ol
llOO
"''
e I
I
. -·
ii'"'-- !
:. i
I

~I 1
Cl)
c:
"lmu:t / 7
·- ~ ri.
'

£Ill
Cl) i
-~
.5
c:
~- -.900
c: I

~
c: / / i
0
'iii
7 / /'
I
i
Ill
~;:::.. .~:
~ 800
t-- : !
... :--~ .. ·<::
Cl)

~
I
I
•:::-i'
~.I
·:
...J
700
I
I \
-01 I
en zl ~ : \ \
g~ / /A/ / /c./ / /A 0
~----:·
0: a.. c:
~ ~ ~
/A/ / A
A
/ /A/
A 0
- -- I I
i
z:~:g

.-
I 'I

600
gv;~
a:!!?
17769-PC
1 1-t:::: ·:
!
()~ ...........
17768-PC :--
:l' __ k-~ I
17767-PC ...... I
\
. 500
17766-PC

)
li1
400
17765-PC

117764-PC
"""'
"""'
""""
-
......
- /"""'
/NW
-. ?
oC::
--·\.,
~-

:.:1 : 300
117763-PC
\
I
I_!! I
·R
~:
ICI),

100
~
-J
I -~:
:
I
I I 200 !
I
I
\
100
i
./
\
~·

0
A A A A A /;.~ A A

PERCENT CALCITE
0
·----
Section measured i~ section 35 T. 2 ~·· R. 9 E., and sections 1 and 2, T. 3 S., R. 9 E.
1
75 1( 0

EXPLANATION
~
~
~ ~ § ~ ~
Limy siltstone Limestone Dolomitic limestone Dolomite Silty dolomite

~
~
fE2El ~
Magnesian limestone
~
Silty_ dolomitic limestone
~
Calcitic dolomite
-~
Conglomeratic dolomite
Silty limestone
t::. C!:: h. ,'
Chert ·· Samples containing phosphate-
sulfate mineral

FIGURE 126.1.-Stratigraphic section of the Madison group near Livingston, Mont.

B-296 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

kaolinite, and mixed clays. Illite ranges from 60 to the Devonian Cedar Valley formation: Jour. Sed. Petrol-
100 percent of the total clay minerals and averages ogy, v. 29, no. 1, p. 73-76.
Denson, M. E., Jr., and Morrissey, N. S., 1952, The Madison
approximately 90 percent. A few insoluble residues group (Mississippian) of the Big Horn and Wind River
contain as much as 30 percent kaolinite, but most Basins, Wy?ming, in Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook,
contain 10 percent or less. About half the insoluble 7th Ann. Field Conf., p. 37-43.
residues from the Mission Canyon limestone contain Dunbar, C. 0., and Rodgers, John, 1957, Principles of strati-
mixed clays (illite and· montmorillonite), ranging gra·phy: New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 356 p.
Fairbridge, R. W., 1957, The dolomite question, in Le Blanc
from a trace to as much a·s 20 percent. Only one in- and Breeding, eds., Regional aspects of carbonate deposi-
soluble residue from the Lodgepole limestone con- tion-a symposium: Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Min-
taii1ed mixed clays. In the upper member of the eralogists Spec. Pub. no. 5, p. 125-178.
Mission Canyon six insoluble residues contained an Klepper, M. R., Weeks, R. A., and Ruppel, E. T., 1957, Geol-
unidentified hydrous double salt (probably of the ogy of the southern Elkhorn Mountains, Jefferson and
Broadwater Counties, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
beudantite group) very similar to woodhousite [Ca.--.
Paper 292, 82 p.
A1x (P0 4 ) (SO.t) (OHH)]. This mineral was found Laudon, L. R., 1948, Osage-Meramec contact, in Weller, J. M.,
in the dolomites or calcitic dolomites that contained ed., Symposium on problems of Mississippian stratigraphy
less than 15 percent insoluble residues. Samples con- and correlation: Jour. Geology, v. 56, no. 4, p. 288-302.
taining this mineral generally were rich in kaolinite Laudon, L. R., and Severson, J. L., 1953, New crinoid fauna,
Mississippian, Lodgepole formation, Montana: Jour.
or mixed clays and poor in illite. Phosphate and sul- Paleontology," v. 27, no. 4, p. 505-536.
fate radicals in. this mineral suggest incipient de- McMannis, W. J., 1955, Geology of the Bridger Range, Mon-
position· of evaporites. The solution-breccia . zones tana: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 66, no. 11, p. 1385-1430.
and presence of' this mineral are consistent with a Roy, C. J., Thomas, L~ A., Weissmann, R. C., and Schneider,
tentative correlation of the upper member of the R. C., 1955, Geologic factors related to quality of lime-
stone aggregates: Hi.ghway Research Board Proc., v. 34,
Mission Canyon Fmestone at Livingston with· inter- p. 400-412.
bedded carbonates and evaporites that elsewhere in Sando, W. J., and Dutro, J. T., Jr., 1960, Stratigraphy. and
Montana make up· the Charles formation. coral zonation of the Madison group and Brazer dolomite
in northeastern Utah, western Wyoming, and south-
REFERENCES western Montana, in Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook,
15th Ann. Field Conf., p. 117-126.
Andrichuk, J. M., 1955, Mississippian Madison group strati- Sloss, L. L., and Moritz, C. A., 1951, Paleozoic stratigraphy of
graphy arid sedimentation in Wyoming and southern southwestern Montana: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists
Montana: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 39, Bull., v. 35, no. 10, p. 2135-2169.
no. 11, p. 2170-2210 .. Strickland, J. W., 1956, Mississippian stratigraphy, western
Bisque, R. E., and Lemish,· Johri, 1959, Insoluble residue-. Wyoming, in· Wyoming Geol. Assoc. Guidebook, 11th Ann.
magnesium content relationship of carbonate rocks from Field Conf., p. 51..:...57.

127. MANGANESE OXIDE MINERALS AT PHILIPSBURG, MONTANA

By WILLIAM. C. PRI~Z, Washington, D. C.

·r ~ .1 ':''. 1

The Philipsburg district is underlafn by· sedime-~­ quart'z, sphaJerite, galena, silver- and copper-bearing
tary and metamorphic rocks of Precambrian ·and sulfides,. ·barite, and late rhodochrosite cut both the
early Paleozoic age that" have been intruded· by a granodiorite and the sedimentary rocks:· These veins
granodiorite batholith .of Tertiary age. The. sedi- · strike· west or northwest and have steep southerly
mentary rocks consist of limestone, dolomitic and dips or are vertical. Late hydrothermal rhodochro-
calcitic marble, shale, and quartzite that have been site has partly replaced some favorable limestone
folded into a broad rit>~'th-::Plun.ging anticiine (God- and marble v·beds ·adjace'nf to some veins. In thin
dard, 1~40, pl. 26). Hydrothermal veins containing lim.~stone or marble beds, the replacement deposits

I .
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-297
follow bedding closely and form tabular ore bodies. Hetaerolite (ZnMn:!0 4 ) was found in only a few
In massive or thick-bedded marble they tend to be samples from oxidized veins where it is associated
irregular vertical pipes that swell in more favorable with chalcophanite.
beds and pinch in less favorable ones. Sphalerite, Manganite ( Mn:!Oa• H:!O) is rare. In one place it
some silver, and sparse galena accompany rhodo- formed early and is cut by later manganese oxide
chrosite in the primary replacement deposits in parts minerals; in another it was formed late and lines
of the district. · vugs in earlier formed oxides.
Oxidation of rhodochrosite by ground water has Wad, the soft, dark brown to black earthy ma-
produced various manganese oxide minerals. The terial, was shown by X-ray analysis to consist of one
following have been identified by X-ray and micro- or more of the following minerals : todorokite, cryp-
scopic techniques : tomelane, chalcophanite, pyrolusite, or goethite.
Todorokite ( (Ca,Na,Mn 11 ,K) (Mnn·,Mn n,Mg)nOt:! Cryptomelane, todorokite, gamma-Mn0 2 , and py-
•3H:!O) until recently was considered rare as it had rolusite are the most a~undant. manganese oxide
been observed only at its type locality in Japan, but minerals at Philipsburg (probably in that order),
in the last year it has been identified at numerous chalcophanite is locally abun<;Iant, hetaerolite and
localities. At Philipsburg it is widely distributed- in manganite are rare. Todorokite is restricted to 'the
the oxidized replacement deposits where it forms oxidized replacement deposits, probably because of
aggregates of irregular or fibrous grains. It is com- the availability of calcium in these deposits and its
monly pseudomorphous after carbonate minerals or absence in the veins. The zinc-bearing manganese
in bands with cryptomelane, .gamma-Mn0 2, or py- oxides, chalcophanite and hetaerolite, are fo~nd in
rolusite. or adjacent to oxidized veins or in oxidized replace-
Cryptomelane (KRs0 1 u, R = Mnu,Mnn·) was first ment deposits only in areas where the primary rhodo-
identified in the Philipsburg oxide ore by Richmond chrosite is accompanied by sphalerite. These two
and Fleischer ( 1942, table 1). It is probably one of minerals may prove to be valuable g1:1ides to the
the more abundant oxide minerals in the district, exploration for deeper primary rhodochrosite de-
but to date I have done little chemical work on the posits that also contain sphalerite.
mineral and some of the material that I have identi- The depth of oxidation ranges from as little as
fied as cryptomelane may. be one of the other mem- 100 feet in some impure limestone beds to more than
bers of the psilomelane group. Cryptomelane. and 850 feet in massive coarse-grained marble where
gamma-MnO:! comprise the bulk of the material open cavities and water courses are common. Un-
called "psilomelane" in hand specimen. oxidized remnants of rhodochrosite are preserved
Gamma-MnO:! is hard (about 6), anisotropic, and within some oxidized ·ore bodies or below imper-
white with a faint cream tint .in polished section. meable beds.
It gives X-ray patterns similar to those of synthetic I agree with the suggestion of Pardee (1921, p.
gamma- and rho-Mn0 2 and is probably the same 155) that the formation of the manganese oxide
mineral described by Sorem and Cameron (1960) minerals was accompanied by only limited migration
as Nsuta Mn0 2 • It is in bands with cryptomelane a_nd secondary concentration of manganese.
and todorokite, forms pseudomorphs after carbonate
minerals, and is in late veinlets that cut earlier REFERENCES
formed manganese oxides. Goddard, E. N., 1940, Manganese deposits at Philipsburg,
Pyrolusite (MnO:!) is ~·ommonly a late mineral that Granite County, Montana: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 922-G,
lines vugs in quartz or earlier formed oxide min- 'p, 157-204. ••,'1

Pardee, J. T., 1921, Deposits of manganese ore in Montana,

erals. Some also formed with the other oxides and Utah, Oregon, and Washington: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
has a habit similar .to theirs. 725-C, p. 141-177 .
. Chalcophanite. ( (Mnu, Zn')Mni'))r.•2H 2 0) is com:- Richmond, W. E, and Fleischer, M., 1942, Qryptomelane, a
monly late and fills vugs, but it is also in bands with new name for the commonest of the "psilomelane" min-
cryptomelane, in tiny prisms in a fine~grained ,matrix erals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 27, p. 607-610.
Sorem, R .. K., and Cameron, E. N., 1960, Manganese o'Sddes
of todorokite, and in stalactite.s with.hetaerolite arid and associated minerals of the N suta manganese d~posits,
todorokite. ,. 1 Ghana, West Africa: Econ. Geology, v. 55, p. 278~·310.
B-298 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

128. URANIUM AND RADIUM IN GROUND WATER FROM IGNEOUS TERRANES OF THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST

By FRANKLIN B. BARKER and ROBERT C. SCOTT, Denver, Colo.

Water samples from the igneous terranes of the The relative abundances of uranium in igneous
Pacific Northwest were collected and analyzed for rocks are generally in the order: silicic extrusive >
uranium and radium as part of a study of the silicic intrusive > basic extrusive. The relative
geochemistry of radioelements. For this work these abundance of radium should roughly parallel the
igneous terranes were divided into those developed abundances of uranium. The concentrations of ura-
on the Idaho batholith (silicic intrusive terrane), nium in the water samples were in the order: Snake
Columbia River basalt, Snake River basalt, and River basalt > silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks >
silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks. The data on radium Columbia River basalt ~ Idaho batholith; the con-
and uranium concentrations in water from each centrations of radium, on the basis of the estimated
terrane were analyzed statistically so that character- geometric means, were in the order: silicic-subsilicic
istic parameters could be obtained and compared. volcanic rocks > Idaho batholith ~ Snake Rive~
The concentrations of uranium in· water from each basalt > Columbia River basalt. The apparent dis-
terrane except the Snake River basalt are in ex- order of concentrations of uranium in water with
cellent agreement with log-normal distributions. The respect to the abundances of uranium in rocks has
samples from the Snake River basalt showed a been attributed partly to climatological and topo-
uranium-concentration distribution that was skewed graphical factors for the Idaho batholith, and to
to the left (lower concentration). The concentrations man's agricultural developments on the Snake River
of radium in all of these terranes were so low that Plain.
only small portions of the distribution curves were The Idaho batholith is a mountainous region that
above the detection limit, 0.1 pc/1 (picocuries per receives much more precipitation than the other
liter; 1 pc = 10-l:! curies), and could readily be terranes, with an annual average of more than 20
examined. In all instances, however, these portions inches over the entire area, compared with less than
were found to agree with log-normal distributions; 10 inches for most of the area underlain by the
therefore, these distributions have been assumed to silicic-subsilicic volcanic rocks and the Snake River
be valid for the entire range of concentrations. The basalt (Visher, 1954). Except for joints and other
statistical parameters applicable to the radium and fractures, the permeability and porosity of the rocks
uranium concentrations in water from th-e various of the batholith are lower than those of the other
terranes are given in table 1. The geometric means terranes. Thus, as ground water moves more rapidly
are those obtained from the assumed log-normal dis- through the jointed granitic rocks it· has only a
tributions. No value is reported for the geometric limited degree of rock-water contact, and, hence, has
mean of uranium concentrations in water from the less opportunity to dissolve mineral matter. The
Snake River basalt because a log-normal distribution concentrations are further reduced by dilution with
does not fit the data. the relatively large quantities of recharge resulting
from the high precipitation rates. The· flushing ac-
TABLE 1.-Statist·ical parameters relating to concentrations of tion of the large volumes of flow also contributes to
uranium and radium in water from igneous terranes the low concentrations in that much of the readily
Uranium ,.gfli Radium pc/1
soluble material has already been dissolved and car-
Number - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
ried out of the area. As might be expected on the
Terrane of Geo- Geo- basis of this reasoning, the concentrations of alJ
samples Range Median metric Range Median metric
mean mean dissolved matter tends to be lower than in water
from the other terranes. Variations in composition
Silicic-suhsiliric
rocks ......... 73 <0.1-10 0.2 0.3 <0.1-62 0.1 0.1
of the rocks probably contribute also to the observed
Idaho batholit~ .. 41 <0.1-13 .1 .07 <0.1-6.0 .03
differences in uranium concentrations. ·
<.1
Snake River
The Snake River Plain, which includes most of
basalt .. ...... 82 <0.1-2.6 1.4 ········· <0.1-17 <.1 .03 the area of the Snake River basalt, has been de-
Columbia River
basalt .........
veloped agriculturally in many areas, and both
30 <0.1-0.6 .1 .1 <0.1-10 <.1 <.01
ground water and surface water are used exten-
1 ,ug/1 =micrograms per liter or (approximately) parts per billion. sively for irrigation. Irrigation water dissolves ad-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-299
ditional mineral matter from the soil and is further Columbia River basalt, but they are not so anomalous
concentrated by evapotranspiration during its use; as the uranium Goncentrations in water from the
the unconsumed water then returns to the ground- Snake River basalt. Radium is subject to the same
water reservoir as a more concentrated solution. concentrating processes as uranium, but it has not
·Much of the water tributary to the Snake River been enriched in the water of the Snake River basalt
Plain originates in the adjacent silicic volcanic rock to the same extent as uranium. The basalt under-
terranes, thus the recharge to the Snake River basalt lying the Snake River plain contains many inter-
has uranium concentrations greater than would be calated lacustrine and other sedimentary beds of
expected to be derived from the basalt. Another fac- clastic material. Clays in this sedimentary material
tor that, possibly, contributes uranium to solution may have adsorbed some of the radium by cation
is that small amounts of uranium are present in exchange, thus reducing its concentration. The ura-
some commercial high-phosphate fertilizers. The nium, which probably exists in solution as an anionic
skewness. of the observed distribution could have uranyl carbonate complex, is not adsorbed effectively
arisen if a few of the samples were from low-uranium by this mechanism. Removal of radium from solu-
water, representing a normal basalt terrane, and if tion in this or some other manner would partly com-
a larger number of samples were from sources af- pensate for the factors tending to cause enrichment.
fected by one or more of those factors leading to
The observations discussed in this report are not
abnormal concentrations of uranium. The water
definitive; however, they do indicate some general
samples from the Columbia River basalt probably
are more representative of the normal uranium con- trends regarding the concentrations of uranium and
tent in ground water from basalt terranes. radium· to be expected in water from igneous ter-
The concentrations of radium in water from the ranes. More detailed examination of possible inter-
Idaho batholith are less than those in water from relations, both among samples from individual ter-
the silicic-subsilicic volcanic rock terrane in about ranes and among parameters characteristic of the
the same ratio as the differences in uranium con- different terranes, may define better the roles of
centrations. This phenomenon might be explained various geologic, hydrologic, and geochemical factors
partly by the large differences in annual precipi- in controlling the occurrence of uranium and radium
tation; however, variations in co~position of the in water.
rocks may also ~ontribute to the differences in
concentrations. REFERENCE
The concentrations of radium in water from the Visher, S. S., 1954, Climatic atlas of the United States: Cam-
Snake River basalt are higher than tl].ose from the bridge, Mass., Harvard Univ. Press, p. 197.

129. SBORGITE IN THE FURNACE CREEK AREA, CALIFORNIA

By JAMES F. McALLISTER, Menlo Park, Calif.

Work done partly in coope1·ation with the California Divis·ion of Mines

Sborgite ( N a:!0•5B:!0:~·10H:!.O), which Cipriani cial conduits for natural steam; samples were recov-
( 1957) described as a new mineral from Larderello, ered from depths between 104 and 256 meters some
Italy, has been found in a different environment in time after eruption of steam at 180° to 200°C had
the Furnace Creek area, Death Valley region, Cali- ceased (Cipriani, 1957, p. 520). In contrast, sborgite
fornia. The sborgite at Larderello is in fine-grained in the Furnace Creek area is unrelated to steam vents
mixtures of borax and thenardite that encrust artifi- or thermal springs, but forms virtually at the surface
 B-300 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

by common processes that redistribute constituents TABLE !.-Comparison of X-1·ay diffraction_data fo1' sbo1'g·ite
of borate minerals under the control of the present ,h·oJn Califm·nia and Italy
desert climate. At three separate places near the [Only reflections having d-spacings between 10.0 and 2.000 A and having
intensities greater than 1/2 are listed I
Twenty Mule Team Canyo_n road, sborgite has been
found locally concentrated within a few centimeters Larderello, Italy;
Furnace CrrEc'k, Synthetic salllple 10;
of the surface of the ground iiJ debris weathered chart X-92:3' Na~O · 5B~03 'IOH20 sborgitl', borax. and
sborgite (Cipriani, 1957) · · thenarditr
from the underlying Furnace Creek formation. In (Cipriani, 195i)
the Widow N 6. 3 mine 1 , 10 miles southeast of --------------- ------,------ ----------------
d-spacing d-spacing d-spacing
Twenty Mule Team Canyon, sborgite is a constituent (A) Intensity. (A) lntensity 2 (A) lntensity 2
of small stalactites on an ore chute near the surface. ...
----- ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
At two localities near the Twenty Mule Team Can- 8 ..59 2 8.62 2 8.58 2
8. 19 2 8.22 2 8.21 2
yori road, concentrations of sborgite are localized in 7. 7!) 1
surficial debris around weathering colemanite and 7 .1-t- 2
priceite veins in altered fragmental basalt. The 6.86 2 6.88 -t- G.84 2
6.24 2 6.24 1 6. 2:3 2
veins lie stratigraphically above a zone that contains 6. 11 I 6.12 1·
5.97 1
commercial deposits of colemanite and ulexite. Re- 5.()9 : :3
lationships of other borate minerals in the varied 5.:H 1
5.15 ]
assemblages associated with sborgite and derived 5. 11 2 5.10 1 5.11 1
'from the same veins have been briefly described- 4.80 1 4.81 1 4.8-1 5
4.60 10 4.60 10 4.5\J 10
(Erd, · McAllister, and Vlisidis, 1961). Sborgite, 4.35 2 4.:35 2 . 4.:34 2
like ·sassolite or ginorite, generally is dis'ttibuted 4.29 :3 4.29 :3 4.28 :3
4.11 2 4.11 1 4.0\J ]
farther from the decomposing vein, whereas meyer- :3.9:3 2
hofferite, gowerite, and nobleite generally remain ... :3.8:3 2
3.74 5 :3.74 2 :3.7:3 4
nearer the vein .. No other hydrous sodium borate :3.56 :3 :3.56 4 :3.55 :3
mineral has been identified in these assemblages, :3.52 3 :3.54 4 :3.52 4
which contain minerals consisting or
boric acid or :3.:3:3
:3.30
1 :3.:35
:3.:30
2
:3.44
:3.:34
:3 .2H
1
l
8
a hydrous borate of calicu~, sodium-calcium, cal- :3.20
8
:3.20
8
7 8
cium-magnesium, or magnesium. 3.18 5 :3. 18 7
3.12 1 :3. 1:3 :3. 1:3 2
Concentrations of sborgite at the third locality :3.07 5
are limited to a strip about a meter wide along the :3.04 2 :3.04 2 :3.04 :3
2.95 2 2.95 1 2. !)4 2
strike of tilted beds of saline, tuffaceous siltstone 2. H:3 :3 2. !1:3 2 2.!)2 :)
and sandstone. Much of .this sborgite is associated 2.86 2 2.865 2 2.827 4
2.784 5
with halite and thenardite in a layer as much as 15 2.676 2 2.GG!) I
em thick that lies on bedrock. Above the bottom 2.64 1 2.fi4() :3
2.57 2 2.572 4 2.5li-t- 5
layer, a conspicuous efflorescence of thenardite, like 2.40 ] 2.409 I 2.40(i l
that left by the dessication of mirabilite, makes an 2. :3.5 1 2.350 1
2.:32H 2
incoherent but more persistent layer about 8 em .. 2.274 1
thick, which in turn is covered by a thin crust of 2.25 2.253 1 2.253 I
2.21 2.215 2 2.210 2
very fine-grained debris. The underlying siltstone 2.17 2.177 1
and sandstone, in contrast .to the. basaltic rpcks, do 2. 1()!) 1 2.17:3 I
2. J-t-· 2. 1:3!) I 2.140 2
not contain veins of cole~anite and priceite or· 2.0!l 2.090 1 2.08.5 1
other obvious accumulations of borate minerals. ... 2.on 1
2.0G4 1
The source of the sborgite, thenardite, and· halite 2.0:37 1
seems to be minerals disseminated in the clastic 2.02.5 2
rocks and secondarily encrusted ~:m minor joint
1 CuK a (Ni filter), A::::: 1.5418A
surfaces. . · · !! Intensities recorded by Cipriani have been rounded to the nearest whole
number, maximum 10.
Sta!actites that contain sborgite were formed at
the.t: foot. ' of. .an ore
•.. .
chute
'
..in·
J.i
~
the Widow No. 3 mine
• ' J.
~
•; . . .. r . ., . .
the; chute. Several· nearby openings to the surface
._about 25 met~~s. below tl)e stp:·face . where storm.
oh ·the sallje. ·level_ as: the stalactites pro.v1ded good
water could seep down through colemanite .ore. in
circtilation o{ desert air for evaporating the saline
· l'Property 'or ·the United States .. Borax & Chemical ·corp., Los Angele·s,
Calif., which ·owns also the other' specified ;ites. within the· boundary ·of
sol~tion that. d~posited a· highly soluble fin~-grail).ed
Death Valley National Mon\1~~nt .. , ~i)(hire of thenard.it~, s]?orgite,· and. il~iite. rh~se
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-301
minerals go into solution readily in water at 26°C. other known borate minerals: biaxial positive, mod-
'I'he larg~st stalactite is 20 mm in diameter; a erately small optic angle, lowest measured index of
slender one, ovate in section, is from 5 to 10 mm refraction 1.432 ± 0.002, and highest measured in-
in diameter. The stalactites consist of a shell of dex of refraction 1.488 ± 0.003. R. C. Erd (written
sborgite, thenardite, and some halite, from a frac- communication, 1958) has provided X-ray powder
tion of a millimeter to about 3 mm thick, that en- d.iffraction data given on table 1, and pointed out
closes a more friable mixture of. thenardite, halite, the close similarity to data for sborgite and syn-
and an unidentified borate. The rate of growth is thetic Na:!0•5B:!0:~·10H:!O as reported by Cipriani
not known, but the age is no more than 35 years, (1957, table 1).
which is the length of time since mining stopped in
the mid-1920's. REFERENCES
The sborgite occurs in sugary-textured crystal ag- Cipriani, Curzio, 1957, Un nuovo minerale fra i prodotti
gregates and mesh-work in loosely coherent weath- boriferi di Larderello: Accad. naz. Lincei, Atti, classe sci.
fis., mat. e nat., Rend., v. 22, p. 519-525.
ered materials. Anhedral to euhedral crystals are
Errl, R. C., McAlliste:r, J. F., and Vlisidis, A. C., 1961, No-
colorless and generally 0.05 to· 0.2 mm in diameter, bleite, another new hydrous calcium borate from the
but some are nearly 1 mm. The following combina- Death Valley region, California: Am. Mineralogist, v. 46,
tion of optical properties distinguishes sborgite from p. 560-571.

GEOLOGY AND, HYDROLOGY APPLIED 1'0 ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC HEALTH

130. ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE OF A BURIED BEDROCK BENCH BENEATH THE MISSOURI RIVER FLOOD
PLAIN NEAR COUNCIL BLUFFS, lOWA

By ROBERT D. MILLER, Denver, Colo.

Industrial plants are beginning to dot the flood part of sec. 20, and all of sec. 29 and 32, T. 74 N.,
plain of the Missouri River in ever-increasing num- R. 43 W., and sec. 5 and part of sec. 8, T. 73 N.,
bers since the completion of several flood-control R. 43 W. This bench is more than 3 miles long and
dams along the Missouri River north of Omaha, 1 mile wide, is 80 to 90 feet below the floqd plain,
Nebr. and Council Bluffs, Iowa. Availability of large and has a nearly level surface. On the west the
tracts of levelland, ample cheap water for industrial bench slopes gradually to depths of about 130 and
uses, and access to transportation are major factors 141 feet.
in building on the flood plain. Absence of bedrock The bedrock surface east of the bench proper is
near the surface of the flood plain can, at place~, lower-more than 95 feet below the surface-which
require costly types of foundation construction. may indicate the presence of an old channel. The
Bedrock configuration was studied as part of an channel ( ?) may cross the northern. part of sec. 20,
investigation of the gf..Jogy of the Omaha-Council
T. 74 N., R. 43 W., but this is not definitely estab-
Bluffs area. In most places bedrock is more than
lished. Bedrock is only 80 feet below the surface
100 feet below the flood plain. Southeast of Council
Bluffs, however, a well-defined bedrock bench lies in the southeastern part of sec. 17, T. 74 N., R. 43
within 100 feet of the surface. The northern edge W.; bedrock at this depth suggests that there may
of the bench is about 3 miles southeast of Council be a northern remnant, or perhaps an extension, of
Bluffs, about ll/2 miles east of Lake Manawa, and the bedrock bench. Bedrock in the northern part of
about 1 mile east of the channel of the Missouri sec. 17, T. 74 N., R. 43 W. is more than 95 feet below
River (fig. 130.1). The bench underlies the southern the surface of the flood plain.
B-302. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

EXPLANATION

, Edge of flood plain

0 90
882
Depth and altitude of bedrock
Upper figure, depth to bedrock;
Lower flfJure, altitude of bedrock

.?

~~~~~~~~~~----~~--T.74N.
T. 73 N.

:tlltif.l~r~r
-

RIGURE 130.1.-Map showing location of area underlain by bedrock bench near Council Bluffs, Iowa.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-14:6 B-303
The bedrock bench consists of limestone of Penn- is provided by U.S. Highway 275, Iowa State Road
sylvanian age that would provide a stable foundation 370, and the Chi.cago, Burlington, and Quincy Rail-
for piles. Water-saturated alluvium overlies the road.
bench and consists of fine, medium, and coarse sand, Suitable foundation conditions, good accessibility
as well as layers of fine to medi urn gravel; no con- into the area, and ample water from the underlying
solidated layer intervenes between the bedrock bench alluvium indicate this area to be a potential indus-
and the ground surface. Access to the bench area trial site.

131. RELATION OF SUPPORTS TO GEOLOGY IN THE HAROLD D. ROBERTS TUNNEL, COLORADO

By E. E. WAHLSTROM, L. A. WARNER, and C. S. ROBINSON, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo., and

Denver, Colo.

Geologic conditions played an important part in rocks between the Williams Range thrust and the
the location and engineering of the Harold D. Roberts Montezuma stock, (d) the Montezuma quartz mon-
Tunnel, which extends for 23.3 miles from near zonite stock, and (e) the Precambrian rocks between
Dillon to near Grant, Colo. (fig. 131.1). Among the the Montezuma stock and the east portal. Figure
engineering problems directly due to the geologic
conditions was the use of supports during construc-
tion of the tunnel.
The purpose of the tunnel, which holed through
in February 1960, is to bring water from the Blue
River on the western side of the Continental Divide
to the Platte River on the eastern side where it will
be utilized as part of the water supply of Denver
and environs. Construction was by the Blue River
Constructors, Inc., under the supervision of Tipton
and Kalmbach, Inc., for the Board of Water Com-
missioners of the City and County- of Denver.
-The regional geology in the vicinity of the tunnel
has been described by T. S. Lovering (1935). Geo-
logic investigations from 1943 to 1960 (prior to and
during construction of the tunnel) were made by
E. E. Wahlstrom assisted by L. A. Warner and
V. Q. Hornback. In 1960 the U.S. Geological Survey
established a project to compile and publish the
geology as related to the .engineering. This article
is a preliminary report of that project.

GENERAL GEOLOGY D
COLORADO I
The geology of the Roberts Tunnel, as it affects - - - - - - - L __ _
engineering problems, can be divided into five sec-
tions: (a) a section of sedimentary rocks between 0l ___ __L_
5 ___t__
10 _ ___,__ 30 MILES
_J

the west portal and the Williams Range thrust, (b) FIGURE 131.1.-Index map showing location of the Harold D.
the Williams Range thrust plate, (c) the sedimentary Roberts Tunnel.
 to
I
Cl.:l
0
~

Engineering stations
w 0 + 00 50+ 00 100 + 00 150 + 00 200 + 00 250 + 00 300 + 00 350 + 00 400 +00 450 + 00 500 + 00 550 + 00 600 +00

nooo·j I I i I I I I I I I

12,000'-"4

i
I
I
Angle point
I
Angle point
~
..Q
ll
11.000'--1
WILLIAMS. RANGE THRUST
Access shaft
18
c: 0
10,000'
j tzj
0
~
9QQQ'~'S, ------=--<<':<<::::--- --:..,<:::<2<2c::::><><._'(>-·cc;'>>< ( (> ":!:):S/bf"?>F.'S/i'/':?~~+T+T+T+·¥·¥ + .• 0 'ell I I I I I I I I $ i ~·~ 0
Q
8000' __L___
~ --._ =:, 1 '> '> '> =::, =:,o =::, •• ' '> ..., 1=:, =::, --... ..,. " .., ' ' ' > 1 1-<
0
MESOZOIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS TERTIARY QUARTZ MONZONITE, MONTEZUMA STOCK
>
~
rn
650 + 00 700 + 00 750 + 00 800 + 00 850 + 00 900 +00 950 + 00 1000 +00 1050 + 00 1100 +00 1150 + 00 1200 + 00 1250 + oo E ~
I I I I I I I I I I I I ~
Continental Divide <:
13,000' tzj
~ t-<
I ·II~~~\\,........___....../
I ,,~- ./' ../--- ~
1 \ I \ \ I \\ \ \.,." ~ ...-- ..r r ,..- / / SILVER PLUME(?) GRANITE
12,000'
tzj
11 \\ \ I \ I '\ "
1 '>:., __- _,.,...-:::::-- _,.-/ ,...--/
.,-' / . / /,..,
.........,..,.., ,./ / BOULDER CREEK(?) GRANITE rn
II II,
I\ I) '::.. ' \ \ \..
I\\'-~"/--~~~ r//--' ~~
1,':: ~:: ..~-"
11,000' tr:l
>
~ ~..-,~' _,.. / -- ------ ,.-- - - ...- ////
//;/If,='= ;;;~"""' ~

f ,..,~+
~,..,d,.,.. \~ ....._) ,../
,.-- - - ----- ,-r /
_,.. ,..-- ----- --- , '. '''·"'"''·"~~==-
/1 /1 ,, 0
::q
IV + "..-,"'\. , -
~ ~
.r-' .-- - ""

\ / + + + + '\ /- - - ---- f-'

9000' CD
. • ' ...J - ..___- - ----
\V( +
m
1-'
+~· +
8000'
PRECAMBRIAN SCHIST,
GNEISS, AND QUARTZITE

. 5000 0 5000 10,000 15,000 FEET Geology from maps prepared for Tipton and Kalmbach Inc .
by E. E. Wahlstrom, L.A. Warner, and Quentin Hornback.
VERTICAL SCALE X 2 Published with permission of the Board of Water
Commissioners, City and County of Denver

FIGURE 131.2.-Generalized geologic section through the Harold D. Roberts Tunnel.

 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 .B-305
131.2 is a geologic section through the tunnel show- TABLE 1 -Sum?1ta?'Y of ?'elation ol tunne suppO?' s o geology
ing the dis~ribution of the principal rock types.
Average
· The shale, sandstone, and limestone of Mesozoic Section Percent
supported
spacing
of sets Heruarks
(stations)
age between the west portal and the Williams Range (in feet)

thrust have been extensively folded and faulted. The 9+46 (west portal)
Williams Range thrust plate is brecciated Precam·- to43+14 ............ 75.5 4.9 ~1esozoic sedimentary rocks. Unsup-
ported section in quartzite of Dakota
brian rock of uncertain original composition that 43+ 1-1 to 180+20 ...... 100 3.9
grOUil only.
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks below \Yilliams
was silicified and later extensively faulted. The Range thrust. Mostly shales, limy
shales, and sandy shales.
metasedimentary rock east of the Williams Range 180+20 to 29!+50 ..... 100 2.5 Highly fractured and altered Precambrian
schist, gneiss, and aplite in plate above
thrust plate probably is equivalent to some part of 291+50 to 339+75 ..... 100 4.2
Williams Range thrust.
Baked shale below Williams Range thrust.
the section west of the thrust plate, but it has been 339+75 to 3-17+50 ..... 60.9 5.0 Mixed quartz monzonite and baked shale
in border zone of Montezuma stock.
baked to a black brittle hornfels by the intrusion 347+50 to 625+00 .....
625+00 to 636+85 .....
88.0
58.6
4. 7
5.0
Quartz monzonite of Montc?.Uma stock.
Quartzite roof pendant in Montezuma
of the Montezuma stock. The Montezuma stock con- 636+85 to 686+50 ..... 72.4 5.0
stock.
Quartz monzonite of Montezuma stock ..
Precambrian schist, gneiss, and quartzrte
sists of fine- to medium-grained locally porphyritic 686+50 to 886+20 ..... 69.9 4.5
with minor aplite, pegmatite, and
granite.
biotite quartz monzonite, which probably was in- 886+20 to 977+00 .... 52.3 5.1 Boulder Creek(?) granite (granodiorit~)
with minor inclusions of metamorphic
truded during the Laramide orogeny. The Precam- rocks.
977+00 to 1084+00 .... 48.9 4.8 Precambrian schist and gneiss with minor
brian schist, gneiss, quartzite, and lime-silicate aplite, pegmatite, and granite.
1084+00 to 1187+50 ... 24.0 4.8 Silver Plume(?) granite with numer~us
rocks between the Montezuma stock and the east inclusions of schist, gneiss, and quartzite.
1187+50 to 1238+58
portal are complexly interlayered and injected with (cast portal) ......... 7.3 4.5 Prc~ambrian schist, gneiss, and lime ~ili-
cates injected by granite and pcgmat1tc.
large and small bodies of granite, granodiorite,
pegmatite, and aplite. The rock of one of the
larger plutons resembles the Boulder Creek granite
erally proved adequate to· prevent detachment of
(Lovering and Goddard, 1950, p. 25-27). Near the
slabs. The only section of sedimentary rock west of
east portal is granitic rock, containing ~any bodies
the Williams Range thrust that did not require sup-
of schist and gneiss, similar to the Silver Plume
port was massive quartzite of the Dakota group
granite (Lovering and Goddard, 1950, p. 28).
near the west portal. The stratification of the meta
SUPPORTS IN RELATION TO GEOLOGY sedimentary rock east of the Williams Range thrust
was largely obliterated and therefore little support.
The geologic factors that influenced the· use of was needed.
supports are layering in the rock, spalling and pop- The layering in the schist and gneiss between the
ping rock, faults and joints, and squeezing and swell- Montezuma stock and the east portal is commonly
ing rock. Table 1 summarizes the relation between contorted, and the attitude of this layering in rela
supports and geology. tion to the bearing of the tunnel determined to a
The supports used are 6- and 8-inch steel horse- large extent whether or not supports were needed
shoe-shaped H ribs supported on wooden footblocks, Where the layering dips steeply, few or no supports
with struts across the tunnel invert where necessary were required, but where the layering is fiat, sup
Tie rods were used between ribs, and wooden lagging ports were required, usually on 5- or 6-foot centers
and wedges were placed above and on the sides of The schist and gneiss in the Williams Range thrust
the ribs as required. The steel supports will be left plate were silicified so layering in these rocks was
i!l the tunnel as part of the reenforcing for the not a factor in the need for support.
concrete lining.
SPALLING AND POPPING ROCK
LAYERING IN ROCK
Spalling and popping rock, although not a serious
Two types of layering contributed to the.need for problem, was encountered chiefly in that part of
supports-stratification in the sedimentary rocks the tunnel extending southeast from station 595 + 00
and layering in the schist and gneiss. in the Montezuma stock into the Precambrian rock
The sedimentary rocks west of the Williams Range ·at about station 965 + 00 (fig. 131.2). The thickness
thrust (fig. 131.2) dip northeast at angles ranging of cover in this portion of the tunnel ranges from
from a few degrees to 30°. Consequently, the beds, about 1,500 to 4,500 feet. Spalling in parts of the
especially in the shaly rocks, were flat enough in tunnel continued for several hours after the rock
· the tunnel arch to tend to break a way from bedding was exposed and supports were_ used to enable safe
planes if unsupported. Sets on 5-foot centers gen- advance of the headin·g.
 B-306 GEQLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

The spalling or popping rock generally was fresh, ditions combined. Closely spaced joints, or closely
brittle, competent rock, such as granite or quartz spaced faults and joints, generally produced blocks
monzonite, or unaltered schist or gneiss in flat layers. that required support. Joints, particularly in the
Some of the popping and spalling sections were be- Montezuma stock, also localized hydrothermal al-
tween less competent rock, or were bounded by teration, which produced incompetent rock.
faulted or fractured rock masses. The popping and
spalling are attributed to the tendency of some of SQUEEZING AND SWELLING ROCK
the rocks to establish a more stable arch ; to the Squeezing and swelling rock, which generally oc-
release of asymmetric stresses in rigid rock masses curs in areas of extensive faulting and fracturing,
subjected to unequal loading by incompetent, plas- caused considerable difficulty in several sections of
tically behaving, surrounding rock masses; and, pos- the tunnel. Many faults, such as the Williams Range
sibly, to residual stresses in rigid rock masses. thrust, contain gouge that, where saturated with
water, created heavy loads on the tunnel supports.
FAULTS AND JOINTS Some of the faults, especially in the plate over the
The west portion of the tunnel, from the portal Williams Range thrust and in the Montezuma stock,
eastward to the west contact of the Montezuma were channelways for montmorillonitic alteration,
stock, exposed jointed rock and numerous faults which resulted in slow swelling of the rock on ex-
(fig. 131.2), including the Williams Range thrust. posure to moisture. This swelling tendency re-
Faults in the Montezuma stock are not extensive, but quired installation of considerable additional sup-
locally they contributed to the development of sev- port and realinement of tunnel supports in several
eral intersecting joint' systems. Southeast of the sections of the tunnel behind the headings.
Montezuma stock, faults of large displacement are
uncommon, but locally many small faults and com- REFERENCES
plex joint systems are present.
Lovering, T. S., 1935, Geology and ore deposits of the Monte-
The faults causing the most difficulty in the tun-
zuma quadrangle, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof.
neling operation were flat lying, contained consid- Paper 178, 119 p.
erable thicknesses of wet gouge, or were accom- Lovering, T. S., and Goddard, E. N., 1950, Geology and ore
panied by hydrothermally altered zones. Especially deposits of the Front Range, Colorado: U.S. Geol. Survey
· bad tunneling conditions prevailed where these con- Prof. Paper 223, 319 p.

132. LANDSLIDES ALONG THE UINTA FAULT EAST OF FLAMING GORGE, UTAH

By WALLACE R. HANSEN, Denver, Colo.

Several factors in combination have produced Landslides are common along or near the Uinta
abundant landslides along the Uinta fault east of fault on north-facing slopes of relatively high re-
Flaming Gorge, Utah, in the Antelope Flat-Clay lief; ex·amples are on the northeast slope of Boars
a
Basin area. The Uinta fault is large south-dipping Tusk, near the east end of Dutch John Mountain,
high-angle thrust that trends east-northeast from and along the north slopes of Goslin Mountain, Moun-
th.e vicinity of Flaming Gorge toward and beyond tain Home, and Bender Mountain (fig. 132.1). Slides
the Utah-Colorado State line.· Precambrian rocks in these areas range from small discrete slump blocks
form the hanging wall; Mississippian to Tertiary a few yards across to large complex masses of
rocks form the footwall. Drag has steepened and jumbled earth and rock covering hundreds of acres.
overturned the bedding as much as a mile or more Most of them appear to be relatively inactive or
from the fault trace, especially in the footwall. stabilized at the present time, although some show
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-307

-----------.---------
109" 15'

FLAT

0 10 MILES ·

FIGURE 132.1.-Index map of Flaming Gorge area.

evidence of recent .movement such as headward group or the Red Creek quartzite, have overridden
scarplets and disarranged vegetation. Some older incompetent rocks, such as the Cretaceous Hilliard
slides are much dissected and evidently have ceased shale (fig. 132.2). At such localities differential ero-
moving. Locally, large boulders of n~sistant rock sion along the fault trace has locally produced high,
far removed from their source formatjons are all steep north-sloping faultline scarps that are topo-
that remain of ancient" slides. graphically unstable. Most important, the north-
Landslides are most commor. where competent erly exposure of slopes minimizes insolation and
rocks, such as the Pref.!ambrian Uinta Mountain promotes a rank growth of vegetation, which en-
courages and is encouraged by infiltration of mois-
ture from rainfall and snowmelt. The larger amount
of water in the north-facing slopes is a major factor
in causing slides.
Saturated conditions on the slopes along the Uinta
fault are indicated by many small springs. Most of
these springs· are mere seeps, but some of them,
such as Ford Spring, Edith Aspden Spring, and
Fighting Spring, 11, 15, and 25 miles, respectively,
east of Flaming Gorge, yield several gallons of
water per minute.
Virtually all landslides in the Flaming Gorge area
are on northward-facing slopes-a few rockfalls ex-
cepted. Otherwise similar, southward-facing slopes
are stable and lack landslides. In the Mesaverde for-
FIGURE 132.2.-Factors leading to slope failure along trace of
Uinta fault (1) competent quartzite overlies incompetent mation, for example, where south-facing cliffs of
steeply dipping shale; (2) oversteepened slope caused by competent sandstone overlie steep slopes of incom-
differential erosion causes potential instability; ( 3 i . petent Hilliard shale, intense direct insolation sta-
northerly exposure minimizes insolation, resulting in ( 4)
rank growth of vegetation and ( 5) rapid infiltration of bilizes the slopes by drying the shale, inhibiting the
moisture, which promotes sliding. growth of vegetation, and pro.moting rapid runoff.
B--308 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

EXPLORATION AND MAPPING TECHNIQUES

133. GEOCHEMICAL PROSPECTING FOR COPPER DEPOSITS HIDDEN BENEATH ALLUVIUM IN THE PIMA
DISTRICT, ARIZONA

By LYMAN C. HUFF and A. P. MARRANZINO, Denver, Colo.

That important mineral deposits lie hidden be- vium, a carbonate-cement·~d zone at the base of the.
neath alluvium in the Basin and Range Province alluvium, ground water, and vegetation. The soil
was convincingly demonstrated in 1951 by the dis- and the alluvium samples were sieved to minus 80
covery of the Pima copper deposit near Tucson, Ariz .. mesh when collected and the fines were used for
Since this discovery other important ore deposits analysis. The carbonate-cemented alluvium required
have been found hidden beneath alluvium in the Pima crushing before sieving. Samples of these materials
district and exploration activity has markedly in- were obtained from the land surface, the open pit
creased throughout the Great Basin where many of the Pima mine, drill holes, and wells. The deeper
potential host rocks are covered by only a thin zones of the alluvium and ground· water throughout
alluvial cover. The studies described here were made much of the area of interest are not accessible for
to determine what chemical techniques can be of sampling.
use in this exploration. The samples were analyzed in the field or in a
temporary field laboratory by standard geochemical
GEOLOGIC SETTING prospecting tests. Copper determinations were made
The Pima mining district is in Pi:ma County about using the biquinoline test and molybdenum using the
15 miles southwest of Tucson, Ariz., in the north- thiocyanate test. The field results were checked
eastern foothills. of the Sierrita Mountains-a low, subsequently both ·with a spectrograph and by using
maturely dissected range bounded on all sides by an standard wet laboratory methods.
extensive alluvium-covered pediment.
The ore deposits are on the northeast margin o~ DISPERSION OF COPPER AND MOLYBDENUM
a large batholithic intrusion of granodiorite of Lara- Most of the samples of alluvium and alluvial soil
mide age which forms the core of the Sierrita Moun- collected at the land surface have copper contents
tains. Near these deposits the margin·al zone con- ranging from 10 to 100 ppm (parts per million).
sists of sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic Modern alluvium near the Pima and Mission ore
age that are metamorphosed, folded, complexly bodies has a higher-than-average copper content,
faulted, and intruded by various kinds of igneous but these high values can be traced along washes
rocks among which are small bodies of quartz mon- upstream past the buried ore bodies to · exposed
zonite porphyry believed to be genetically related copper mines and prospects closer to the Sierrita
to the ore deposits (Cooper, 1960, p. 74). The Pima
Mountains. The distribution of copper-rich float and
ore deposit was found beneath about 200 feet of
of copper in the modern alluvium, which is not de-
alluvium by exploratory drilling following magnetic
surveys and geologic study (Heinrichs and Thur- scribed in detail here, is interpreted as being due
mond, 1956). The ore of this mine and that of the primarily to mechanical erosion from the exposed
nearby Banner and Mission deposits consists of dis- copper deposits and as having no relation to the
seminated chalcopyrite and molybdenite in metasedi- buried ore bodies.
ments and hydrothermally altered porphyry. It is The carbonate-cemented zone at the base of the
similar in many respects to other deposits of por- ·alluvium locally contains very high concentration~
phyry copper type of the Southwest• except for its of copper. The samples highest in copper are at the
alluvial cover. extreme base of the alluvium. An area where the
copper content ranges from 200 to 1,000 ppm can
SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS be traced for 2 or 3 miles to the northeast and down
To indicate whether geochemical anomalies were the pediment from the ore bodies (fig. 133.1). Be-
present in the vicinity of these concealed ore bodies, cause most of the copper is in th~ carbonate matrix
samples were collected of surface soil, surface allu- of the alluvium it is believed that most of the
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-309

0 •
<SO PPB >50 PPB
Molybdenum in ground
water

0 •
<200 PPM >200 PP"
Copper in basal alluvium

T.
0 16
s.

Sahuarita
• 0
T.
17
5.

FIGURE 133.1.-Geochemical map showing anomalies resulting from dispersion of ore metals in ground water, Pima district,
Arizona.

copper is a chemical precipitate from the ground phreatophyte. The highest values were found in
water and is not detrital. leaves of mesquite growing in the general area
The molybdenum content of the ground water where ground water has a high molybdenum content
ranges from less than 6 ppb (parts per billion) to (fig. 133.1), and we believe that most of the moly-
over 200 ppb. Within the limitations imposed by bdenum content of the mesquite is derived chiefly
distribution of wells, anomalous concentrations of from the ground water and not from the alluvium
molybden urn were traced from the mining area to a in which it grows.
point about 8 miles northeast (fig. 133.1). The
greater solubility of molybdenum in the ground APPLICATION TO PROSPECTING
water as compared to that of copper apparently Tracing the dissolved ore metals in. ground water
permits it to be traced for a much greater distance. appears to have more significance in prospecting
The molybdenum content of the plant samples than the other methods tried. Molybdenum in the
ranges from about 10 ppm (parts per million in ground water and in mesquite fed by ground water
ash) to about 50 ppm. Among the species compared, can be traced over 8 miles from the ore. The mo-
molybdenum is highest in mesquite, a deep-rooted bility of molybdenum observed here confirms the
B-310 GEOLOGICAL SURV.EY RESEARCH 1961

results of earlier studies in Russia (Ginzburg, 1960, REFERENCES

p. 204). Copper deposited by ground water in the Cooper, J. R., 1960, Some geologic features of the Pima Mining
basal alluvium can be traced 2 to 3 miles from the District, Pima County, Arizona: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull.
ore. In the search for similar deposits, reconnais:.. 1112-C, p. 63-103.
sance studies along major drainage routes apparently Ginzburg, I. I., 1960, Principles of geochemical prospecting
(English ~ranslation of Russian original) : Pergamon
can be used to locate large areas with an anomalously
Press, 311 p.
high molybdenum content. Widely spaced core drill-
Heinrichs, W. E., Jr., and Thurmond, R. E., 1956, A case
ing and chemical study of the basal alluvial con- history of the geophysical discovery of the Pima Mine,
glomerate within these areas may be a useful local Pima County, Arizona: Geophysical Case Histories, v. 2,
guide for buried ore. . p. 600-612.

134. MEASUREMENT OF BULK DENSITY OF DRILL CORE BY GAMMA-RAY ABSORPTION

By CARL M. BUNKER and WENDELL A. BRADLEY,' Denver, Colo.

The bulk density of drill-core samples can be cuit is adjusted to accept gamma-ray energies that
determined by a nuclear irradiation technique in- are within a 20-volt range, about ± 10 pulse-height
volving gamma-ray absorption. Comparative data volts, of the determined voltage at the energy peak
on a series of samples show that the gamma-ray to eliminate the measurement of scattered radiation
absorption method is much faster and has about the and minimize the effect of natural background radio-
same accuracy as fluid immersion methods for de-
termining the bulk density of homogeneous core
High-voltage power
samples. supply

t
EQUIPMENT ..----=4!....1' Linear pulse amplifier Recorder
The equipment for measuring bulk density ot"core
samples (fig. 134.1) consists of the following:
Pulse-height analyzer - ~ Ratemeter
1. A 1-millicur.ie l;>arium-133 source which emits
gamma radioactivity having an energy of 0.36
million electron volts (Mev).
2. A sample .holder for collimating the radiation
from the source through, the sample and into
the gamma-ray detector in a beam 1.6 centim-
eters in diameter. The sample holder is split
and hinged to facilitate loading the samples.
3. A scintillation-type detector consisting of a
sodium iodide crystal optically coupled to a
photoinultiplier tube.
4. Electronic circuitry consisting of a high-voltage
power supply, a linear pulse amplifier, a dis-
criminator circuit, and a ratemeter.
A gamma-ray spectrum of the barium-133 source
Components (numbered) described in text
(fig .. 134.2) was obtained to determine the pulse-
height voltage that corresponds to the known energy FIGURE 134.1.-Diagrammatic sketch of instruments for
peak of barium (0.36 Mev). The discriminator cir- measuring bulk density of core samples.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-311
70.0 the investigation. This. small error in .measurement
does not affect the interpretation of density.
METHOD
60.0 The instrument was calibrated by determining
the relation between percent of gamma radiation
absorbed by the sample, sample length, and bulk
50.0 \

---
UJ
(.!)
<(
\ 42.0 volts
t- .........
...J 40.0
0
> 1----
33.6~ .-
t-
:r:
(.!)
--...
...;.- ~
ijj
:r:
w 30.0 -
C/)
...J
::> / Radiation accepted by
discriminator circuit m -~

~
a.. this range of voltage · .

\ 22.0 volts
20.0

10.0
( t- 60.0
z
~
~----+----/"'-----ll...f--,f--ld'.f--T-.f---?'l-->l7,__T-+--+---i

~
I

~
0:: 0/
~ roi
~
ci
00.0 ~ 50.0 1------+-__;_--1-++IH--+-..,.._,.~~~£...4,.~~:....__"7"----t
0 200 400 600 800 0::
0
(J)
COUNTS PER SECOND co
<(

FIGURE 134.2.-Gamma-ray spectrum of barium-133 and en- ~

ergy rang·e used for bulk-density measurements. ~
~ 40.0 ~-----IH-1'-III--I-f"-,l--,f+--,A-+-:~<......-y<----:;,.<-+--?'---"7"---t
::::>
0
activity in the samples. The gamma-ray source, (.)
...J
sample holder, and detector are enclosed in a cylin- <(
z
(3
drical lead shield (fig. 134.1), 15.2 em in diameter, 0:
to minimize the radiation hazard to the operator and 0
30.0 ~----~~-,t--r---,~--w-:--r----:~----h..:----,,£----t
to reduce the effect of background radioactivity.
The source-to-detector spacing without a sample
in the sample holder is adjusted to yield a counting
rate of 6,400 counts per second and the circuit is
adjusted to accept photo peak pulses. This basic 20.0

counting rate is used for determining the absorption

in the samples. Because of drift in instrument re-
sponse, slight adjustments in the nominal spacing,
about 6.5 centimeters, are sometimes required to
maintain the count rate.
0
The average count rate for about a 1-minute in- Control measurement point
terval is obtained to reduce the statistical error to
less than 10 counts per second, which is the accu-
00
ra~y of reading the ratemeter and recorder. Repeated · o.oo 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
DENSITY BY STANDARD METHOD, IN GRAMS PER CUBIC CENTIMETER
readings at successive 1-minute intervals show that
FIGURE 134.3.-Calibration chart relating bulk density, sample
the reproducibility of readings is·within these limits length, and percent of radiation absorbed by core
throughout the count-rate range observed during samples.
B-312 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

TABLE l.-Summa1·y of ?"ock types and experimental data

[Analysts: R. W·. Babcock and G. R. Johnson]

Core Length of (:amma-ray

Sample Rock type diameter sample Absorption Standard absorption Hemarks
(inches) (centimeters) (percent) bulk method
density bulk density
----------1----·------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ...,..----:----------------·
CZ-5. Siltstone. I%. 5.62 08.6 2.40 2.38
6. . do ... do . :3.3:3 51.() 2.38 2.40
7. . do .. .do . 6.14 71.4 2.62 2.35 Sample fractured and vuggy.
8. .do .. .do. 3.61 54.0 2.38 2.39
9. . do. .do . 3.12 49.2 2.36 2.3-1
10. . do ... .do . 5.62 68.0 2.35 2.38 Fractures and vugs.
11. . do. .do . 5.62 68.7 2.38 2.37
12. . do. .do . 3.8:3 55.9 2.35 2.36
1:3. . . do .. .do . 5.8:3 68.4 2.31 2.32
14. · .do. .do. 4.70 61.7 2.28 2.29
15. . '• . do .. .do . . . 4.72 62.5 2.34 2.34
16. Oxidized iron formation . . do. 4.30 59.5 2.38 2.35 Iron formation seams through
sample.
17. . do. .do . :3.22 -1:8.9 2.30 2.30
18. . do .. .do . 4.60 66.7 2.69 2.69
20. . do .. .do . 4.51 68.3 2.84 2.83
21. . do .. .do . 2.27 4:3.8 2.6-1: 2.72 Fractures and vugs.
22. . do. .do . -1:.65 G0.8 2.:H 2.30
24. Ferruginous chert. .do. :3.75 57.1 2.58 2.50 Fractures and vugs.
L-69. Dolomite. 1. 2.-1-5 46.9 2.81. 2.79
70. . . do .... .do . 2.4:3 44.5 2.64 2.63
71. Quartzite .. .'do. 2 ..50 -1-5.3 2.62 2.60
72. Dolomite. .do. 1. 92 :3~). 2 2.77 2.7:3
7:3. . . . do ..... .do . 2. 4:3 47.:3 2.84 2.83
74. Quartzite .. .do. 2.42 -1-4.5 2.61 2.62
75. Dolomite .. . do. 2.02 -1:0.9 2.76 2.70 Fmctmed.
76. . . do ..... .do . 2.42 -1:6.1 2.75 2.74
77. Quartzite .. . do. 1.85 :36.7 2.62 2.59
78. Dolomite .. .do. 2.42 47.7 2.85 2.85
79. . do. .do . 2.48 46.9 2. 7:3 2.75
80. . . do ..... .do . 2.51 -1-8.5 2.81 2.83
81. Quartzite .. .do. 2.45 45.3 2. o:3 2.63
82. Dolomite. .do. 2. 4:3 -1:7.7 2.85 2.85
83. . . do ... .do. 2.4:3 -1:-1:.5 2.62 2.6:3
8-1:. Quartzite .. .do .. 1.89 37.9 2.75 2.72
85. Dolomite. .do. 2.:37 -1-1.4 2.42 2.4-1:
87. .do.. .. .do .. 2.25 40.6 2.4-1 2.46
88. .do .. .do. l.GO :31 . 1 2.40 2.40

density. The samples used for calibration were RESULTS

analyzed for bulk density by routine laboratory The calibration chart was used to compare bulk
(fluid immersion) methods. The calibration was density measurements obtained by standard labora-
limited to sample sizes and densities normally proc- tory (fluid immersion) methods (table 1) with bulk-
essed by the mass physical-properties laboratory of density measurements obtained by the nuclear
the U. S. Geological Survey in Denver, Colo. Core- irradiation technique. The standard laboratory meas-
sample diameters of 1 inch and 1%: inches, lengths urements were assumed to be correct for this com-
from 1.0 to 6.0 em in increments of about 1 em, and parison. The results are given on figure 134.4 .. Sam-
densities from 0.92 to 3.78 gm per cc were used for ples containing visible fractures or vugs were not
calibration. Sample lengths were determined by used because preliminary measurements showed
making several measurements at the ends of the that the nuclear irradiation technique may give er-
sample in the area penetrated by the collimated beam roneous results for these types of samples. These
of gamma rays. Each of the core samples was placed samples can usually be recognized from outward ap-
in the sample holder in the collimated beam of gamma pearances and are set aside for analysis by standard
radiation, and the percent reduction in radiation as methods, which give more reliable results for this
a result of gamma-ray absorption was determined. type of sample because of the larger volume of rock
The absorption, in percent, of the gamma radia- used for the measurement.
tion passing through the samples was plotted as a Changes ·in counting rate related to density
function of sample length and density on a calibra- changes of as little as 0.01 gm per cc can be observed
tion chart (fig. 134.3). easily on the ratemeter or recorder. Interpretation
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-313
from the calibration chart is less accurate because
·some bulk density values must ~e interpolated from
the curves.
The measurement of bulk density by the nuclear
8- II
Density lower than
laboratory
Density higher than
laboratory
- irradiation technique-including the time required
to obtain an accurate reading on the ratemeter,
1- --
measurement measurement
- measure of the sample length, calculate the percent
absorption, and inter.pret the density with these data
CJ)
-requires only 2 or 3 minutes. The standard labora-
cr6 - -
UJ

::E tory procedure requires from about 4 to 20 minutes

~ for the same analysis, depending on the method
u...
0 - - used.
a:
UJ
en Although this investigation was limited to ~ample
~4 1- -
lengths between 1.0 and 6.0 centimeters, diameters
z
up to l:J/8 inch, and densities from 0.92 to 3.78 gm
f- Note: Samples with visible- per· cc, the method can be adapted easily to other
fractures or vugs were
not used. sample sizes and densities.
2- - The equipment ·is portable and can be transported
I
to field offices or well sites. Bulk density measure-
1- - ments of drill core can be completed within a few
minutes after core is recovered from a drill hole. A
II
I -0.04 -O.Ot' 0.00 0.02 I O.b4 I
major advantage of gamma-ray absorption method
for field use is that it requires neither laboratory
DENSITY DIFFERENCE, IN GRAM PER CUBIC CENTIMETER
conditions nor laboratory apparatus such as analyti-
FIGURE 134.4.-Comparison of bulk density measurements
determined by gamma-ray absorption method and by cal balances, water, or mercury, which are incon-
standard laboratory methods. venient to use in the field.

135. MECHANICAL CONTROL FOR THE TIME-LAPSE MOTION-PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY OF GEOLOGIC

PROCESSES

By ROBERT D. MILLER, ERNEST E. PARSHALL, and DWIGHT. R. CRANDELL, Denver, Colo.

A minute-to-minute, hour-to-hour, or day-to-day trolled timing device is that the battery drain is so
photographic record can be made of certain geologic negligible that the ·camera can be left unattended
processes by the use of a mechanically controlled for several months.
time-lapse motion-picture camera. Some of the proc- Unfortunately, the camera shutter. cannot be
esses ~hat are particularly suited for such a study tripped by a simple lever attached to a clock. In-
are glacier motion (Miller and Crandell, 1959), mass stead, provision~ must be made to (a) operate the
wasting (Crandell and Varnes, Art. 57), and erosion exposure meter circuit for only a short time in order
of streams and beaches. Time-lapse cameras having to prolong battery life, (b) protect the shutter from
an electronic interval-circuit and timer, operated by damage by.harsh tripping, and (c) reset the timing
a solenoid-type plunger, have been used to study mechanism to insure the proper interval ·between
stream braiding and stream flow ( Fahnesto~k, exposur~s .. , . ·

1959). A major advantage of a mechanically con- In order to accomplish these things, the shutter
/

to
...:--------
.
I
. . -.... ~

---
r-~-
..._

~\
~
t+::--

8~ ~\\
3600:1 reduction gear assembly

~r,~, oP':O' ~'"' ~ 010~ob• f~(f\

;.-·· A c·omplete gear assembly
- ne\\i_,u'o'"'9 . ,· I . I from a 1-RPM motor;· rotor rings removed

r
from high speed shaft. Mounted in a brass
Reset

~ ~ 9~ono\e \\J \ \
sPo9 (f\elef · shell, the inside diameter to clear gear assembly,
00 .,, ,lo'''e0 · outside diameter approximately 1.4 in. larger;

~
)( \oO~·· t>''"OeO,:;~~;z
0010'
,,eO \ I' 'I ' \

\_} I/:' ~-
I
v.: 00

II"-~ '0 I
gear assembly mounted on a round brass plate;
,:,(f\in9 c.o~-~~ o 2:' ·
t 6->Jo\1 o nO \oc.e ;--;......- '

~ ·~· Y~l I o,0' ~~·"'

diameter same as outside diameter of shell with
•. \10-.,~n's. ~ . ,o,,,o, - (', / -,
._-/)
~
0 I a shoulder to match inside diameter. Hole
'.os s feou'''o!'' .
- eof . n .. ,-<,'- -- I I ' ·center-bored in alinement with and as bearing
9\ fe>Jo\~~,o .. for Vs in. diameter slow speed shaft; back plate
.., '2A \IOufL, · : t··
~e o~ll'p\~- ~ I ::
ll I
: \f·,c.l'o"' ·• · (· is the same except drilled for bearing of small
~~" V"ll
'"' t·
I . '-...)---- : J )' . . high speed shaft. Gear case shell is of minimum 0
c: \e·P? ..• ,,c.nes '-.'\...
9 · c.fOS..,..
1\lfo>~~ ~~ul;fe\ef IO
·-:>If\ length to allow maximum projections of shafts ~
s-'oo1"
~~fou9oib9f~~.
. I thru forward and rear plates. Motor shaft 0
/ '-
~ c.lfc.u11 ,. . . ··-. ,.._ · turned down to approximately 'Is in. diameter, t""
I '"''""'" coupled to gear shaft with flexible radio 0
spaghetti-tubing. sn
.. . o'o'\e I\ I, Cam shaft, 14 in. diameter, drilled to receive
'Is in. shaft; drilled and tapped for set screws, >
\ 6->Jo\1 o~~~unl
IO sU' \ \ and mounted on slow speed shaft.
Oil filler hole and plug provided. Entire
t""
(f\o\ .. (f\0 1of \ rn
~ne 01ef
. .
.
\ feou'''o"'
assembly held together by flat, hard aluminum
plates and 3 equally spaced bolts.
c
~
36o?··f ,ose Seal gear case with liquid gasket material. <:
9eo ~

11i·~
~
f >..\\~........_ ~
~
rn
~
>
~
0
::r:
~
t.O
0)

--~~ ~

~~ .. ··
~-~/8,,
9W

Design and prototypes by E. E. Parshall

FIGURE 135.1.-Mechanical time-lapse control for motion-picture photography.

T ·-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-315
of the time-lapse camera is tripped by an arrange- position· of the tripping lever by means of the ad-
ment of cams and levers activated by a 6-volt elec- justable bolt on the activating lever. The pressure-
tric motor (fig. 135.1). Two 6-volt "hot-shot" bat- release bar is fastened to the tripping lever by an
teries in parallel provide power for both the motor adjustable coil spring that absorbs excessive move-
and a 6-volt magnetically wound, spring-operated au- ment of the activating lever. Detailed dimensions of
tomobile clock used as a timer. The clock is geared the activating mechanism are shown in figure 135.2
from the hour hand so that a shaft rotates once every (see p. B-316).
24 hours. A timing cam placed on this shaft ·can Two frame counters provide cross checks for co-
vary the range of the exposure interval in hours, ordinated operation of the acti~ating lever and
or a cam placed directly on the minute hand can camera shutter. One, a ratchet counter, is attached
vary the tripping interval in minutes. Projections by a metal strip and spring to the activating lever;
on the timing cam close a single-pole, double-throw the other, a rotary ·counter, is attached by a gear and
microswitch that .starts the electric motor. The friction spline to the shutter mechanism of the
motor drive shaft is attached to a gear reduction camera.
assembly taken from a 1-rpm motor. Snug-fitting The camera and timing mechanism are fastened
tubing is telescoped to couple the gear shaft to the to a magnesium plane table board. A protective
motor. Clamping is n.ot necessary if the fit is snug. aluminum cover with a slanted polished plate-glass
The motor must rotate at about 3,600 rmp in order window is bolted to the edges of the board. Sponge-
to be reduced in the gear box to slightly more than rubber gaskets keep the cover tight and dustproof;
1 rpm. Leading out of the gear assembly is a shaft the cover and plate can be fitted with latches for
to which are fixed an activating cam, a reset cam, padlocks.
and a cycle cam (fig. 135.1). As the activating cam Th~. planetable board is screwed and bolted to a
turns, it lifts the activating lever, to which are fast- planetable tripod head. The head is brazed to a
ened a tripping lever and a pressure-release bar. tube, the sides of which are cut out to permit access
The shape of the activating cam causes the acti- to wingnuts on the underside of the tripod head.
vating lever to rise slightly and to push the tripping The tube slips over a slightly smaller tube which
lever anq, in turn, the camera tripping lever toward · can be placed in the ground a.nd embedded in con-
the camera. This inward movement closes, the cam- crete. While the upper tube is raised, the camera
era's photoelectric cell circuit and operates a motor and planetable board can be adjusted to the desired
in the camera that opens or closes the camera lens viewing angle, and the wingnui:s tightened. When
opening in response to light conditions in front of the tube is lowered, the tripod head and wingnuts
it. ~ollowing closure of the photoelectric· cell .·cir- are within it and cannot be reached. A latch fa·stens
cuit .for about 10 seconds, the activating lever is the tubes together and a padlock prevents tampering.
raised further, pushing the .tripping lever upward The camera is operated by a spring-wound motor.
and t'ripping the camera shutter. Continued rota- The winding handle is extended in order to clear
tion ?f the' cam shaft lowers the activating lever and · the rotary frame counter attached to the camera.
turns the reset cam, which opens the clock micro- The spring motor wiil expose about 1,200 frames
after one full winding. We have fo~nd that. new
switch circuit and shuts off the electric motor. The
timing cam on the clock continues to turn· until the 6-volt batteries will run the elecb~ic .·motor in the
timing mechanism unit at least 4 months,. and prob-
microswitch lever .is released ; this Closes th.e reset
ably longer, exposing 2 frames e~ch day;
circuit and causes the cam shaft to rotate until the
cycle cam opens the adjacent microswitch and breaks REFERENCES
the circuit. The activating cam has ·now rotated Fahnestock, R.- K., 1959, Dynami~s of 'stream braiding as
180°. and is in position for the next exposure cycle. shown by means of time-lapse photography [abs.] :· Geol.
Damage to the shutter by excessive inward move- Soc. America Bull., v. 70, no. 12, p. 1599. .
Miller, R. D., and Crandell, D. R., 1959, Time-lapse motion-
ment during the operation of the photoele.ctric cell picture technique applied to the study o{ geological· proc-
circuit is prevented by adjustment of the upright esses: Scie~ce, v. 130, no. 3378, p. 795-796.
 t:d
I
Cl:l
1-'
~

Cycle
Timing
Reset

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Hole A~ ·1
1 11
1+--!7"----i '132
Hole Be> i
--i

e !;}
tzj
1-56 screw with locknut 0
t"i
\ 0
!;}
~

0
\
@ \
>
~
U2
e
~ ~
<
tzj
~
~
tzj
U2
tzj
>
~
0
~
~
c.o
en
~
Counter linkage requires some
overtravel (aosorbed by spring)

/
I

FIGURE 135.2.-Detail of activating and tripping mechanism of time-lapse control.

 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-317

136. LIQUID-LEVEL TILTMETER MEASURES UPLIFT PRODUCED BY HYDRAULIC FRACTURING

By FRANCIS S. RILEY, Sacramento, Calif.

Wo1·k done in coope1·ation with the U.S. Atomic Ene?'gy Commission

In September 1960 the Oak Ridge National Lab- 136.1), along lines approximately following the topo-
oratory conducted an experiment to test the feasi- _graphic contours. As much as 18 inches of cut and
bility of disposing of radioactive wastes by injecting · fill was required to provide level lines on which to
them into deep artificial fractures in nearly im- lay the hoses. The pots rested on concrete piers im-
permeable shale. The vehicle for the simulated bedded 5 to 7 feet in the ground.
wastes was a cement-bentonite grout, which was For each tiltmeter the data were analyzed by
pumped down an injection well into fractures cre- plotting a pair of curves showing water-level change
ated by the hydraulic-fracturing technique that- js with time in each of the pots. When the water levels
used to improve the yields of oil wells. were influenc~d only by temperature-induced volume
At the suggestion of Wallace de Laguna (written changes the curves remained parallel. Divergence
communication, 1960), geologist with the Oak Ridge from parallelism indicated tilting. Graphs of dif-
National Laboratory, three liquid-level tiltmeters of ferential uplift with time were obtained by plotting
the kind described by Riley and Davis (1960) were the differences between the two water-level curves.
used to detect land-surface uplift during the hy-
draulic fracturing and grout injection. GROUT INJECTION

INSTRUMENTATION
Two batches of grout were· injected into the Cam-
brian Conasauga shale, near Oak Ridge, Tenn.
The tiltmeter measures differential changes in
Around the injection site the shale on the average
elevation of the land surface, by reference' to a liquid
dips 20° southeast, but locally the beds are over-
surface that provides a level datum. This is accom-
turned (Wallace de Laguna, written communication,
plished by measuring water-level changes in two
1960).
identical cylindrical pots commonly set 100 to 200
The fractures were initiated by a high-pressure
feet apart, and connected by two hoses. One hose,
sand jet that was slowly rotated so as to erode a
filled with water, is connected to the bottom of each
horizontal slot through the well casing and cement
pot, permitting the water surfaces in the two pots
liner and a short distance into the surrounding
to seek a common level. The other hose connects the
shale. Before the grout was injected, fractures
air spaces above the water in the pots. Differential
uplift, or tilting, causes a decline of the water level were extended some distance away from the well
by pumping water at well-head pressures of 1,350
in the rising pot, and an equal rise of water level
to 2,500 psi. Pertinentllata on the injections (Wal-
in the other pot. In these basic principles the in-
strument is similar to the tiltmeters used by Eaton lace de Laguna, written communication~ 1961) are
· (1959), Green (Green and Hunt, 1960), and others summarized in the table on the following page.
in investigations of volcanic and tectonic tilting. It
differs from these instruments in that measurements N l
I l
I
in both pots are obtained indirectly from a centrally 100 200 FEET
located displacement device, consisting of a cylinder I I I

and micrometer-actuated piston connected at the

middle of the water hose. By using a relatively small --r"2o (average)
piston a magnification factor of about 20 is intro-
duced, thus making the smallest readable division
on the displacement micrometer (0.0001 inch) ~ lnjectionwell•
equivalent to a water-level change of approximately
0.000005 inch in the pots.
In the Oak Ridge test three tiltmeters were set up · FIGURE 136.1.-Sketch map of injection site showing layout of
~t different distances from the injection well (fig. tilt-meters along lines B, E, and F.
B-318 GEOLOGICAL ·suRVEY RESEARCH 1961

regional effect unrelated to the test and presumably

Injected fluid Injection
Depth of
------------ Total \\'ell-head rate due, at least in part, to earth tides. Minor tilting
Date injection volume pressure (gallons
(1960) (fe~t) Volume injected (pounds per per away from the well seems to have begun within 10 ~.
Composition percent (gallons) square inch) minute)
to 20 minutes after the start of grouting at 1100
hours, but the major effect, presumably representing
Sept. 3 934 Water 100.0 1,200 1,350-1,500 80
(irout: 91,567 1 '700-2 '000 125-156
139 1
the arrival of one or more grout sheets beneath the
Water 81.9 ···············
Cement
Bentonite
17.5
0.6
closer piers, was delayed 95 to 110 minutes. The
!I
10
694
694
\\'ater
Water
100.0
100.0
16;000
4,000
1 '700-2 ,500 2801
250
pronounced downward inflection (westward tilting)
········,·······
Grout:
Water 76.8
132 '770
...........
2,00,0-2,300
2081
?-280 of the F line at 1405 hours may represent passage
Cement
Bentonite
22.6
0.6
of the edge(s) of the grout sheet(s) beneath the
farther pier.
1 Average rate. When injection of the second batch of grout was
begun (fig. 136.2), all three tiltmeters indicated
OBSERVED UPLIFT almost immediate uplift of the closer piers, the most
The differential uplift between the tiltmeter pier distant of which was 243 feet from the injection
closer to the injection well and the one farther away well. This may have been due to the existence of
is plotted against time for each tiltmeter (figs. 136.2 one or more extensive fracture planes created by
and 136.3). On figure 136.3 the slight eastward injecting large quantities of water the day before.
tilting along the B and F lines before the start of The absence of strong downward inflections of the
the grout injection at 1100 hours apparently is a curves (fig. 136.2) in the early part of the experi-

~njecting water 1 Injecting grout,

~ I I
140 r-----------.-----------.------------.----------~------------~----------~--------~

..... 100
"'I
~
X
en
~
:I:
(.)
80
~
t:
::::i
a..
::>
....J
<( 60
i=
z
~
0::
~
u...
u...
0 40

20

0
0600 0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
TIME (E. S. T.)

FIGURE 136.2.-Graph showing uplift of closer piers relative to more distant piers, September 10, 1960.
 SHOH.T PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-319
@Injecting water Injecting grout\
I -· . _j
40~----------~--------~-----------.-----------.-----------.------~--~---------

················.. ·····

··········
0800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
TIME (E. S. T.)

FIGURE 136.3.-Graph showing uplift of closer pier.s relative to more distant piers, September 3, 1960.

ment suggests that the more distant piers on all REFERENCES

three lines also· may have started to rise almost Eaton, J. P., A portable water-tube tiltmeter: Seismol. Soc.
immediately, perhaps through the action of water America Bull., v. 49, no. 4, p. 301-316.
trapped in the fractures ahead of the advancing
Green, G. W., and Hunt, C. B., 1960, Observations of current
grout. tilting of the earth's surface in the Death Valley, Cali-
The observed tilting seems consistent with the fornia, area: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 400-B, art .
. asumption that the grout spread out as one or sev- 124, p. B275, B276.
eral thin, sill-like sheets moving through and gen- Riley, F. S., and Davis, S. N., 1960, A tiltmeter to measure
erating fractures that mostly tended to follow surface subsidence around a pumping artesian wel1
bedding planes. [abs.]: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 65, no. 5, p. 1637.

137. A METHOD OF RECORDING AND REPRESENTING GEOLOGIC FEATURES FROM LARGE-DIAMETER

DRILL HOLES

By ELMER H. BALTZ and JAMES E. WEIR, JR., Albuquerque, N. Mex.

Wo1·k done in coopemt1:on with the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission

The Geological Survey is currently studying The drill holes were examined from a metal per-
ground-water conditions and disposal of radioactive sonnel cage (fig. 137.1) that was lowered and raised
waste in the vicinity of Los Alamos, N. Mex., in sup- by a powered crane. The cage is 2 feet in diameter
port of activities on the Los Alamos Scientific Lab- and is equipped with electric lights and a two-way
oratory. As part of this work the writers examined portable radio for communication with the surface.
the geologic features on the walls of large-diameter
Air circulation in the holes was maintained by an
holes drilled in the Bandelier tuff of Pleistocene
age. The holes, which were drilled with a bucket exhaust fan at the surface connected to a flexible
auger, ranged from 3 to 6 feet in diameter and from tube extending nearly to the bottom of the holes.
49 to 108 feet in depth. The methods and geological The writers decided that the geologic features
equipment described in this report were devised by exposed in the walls of the holes would be most easily
the writers for quickly recording and representing recorded and most useful if they were plotted on
features such as joints, cavities, and lithologic units. diagrams representing cores from the holes, rather
B-320. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

FIGURE 137.1.-Equipment used in recording geologic features in large-diameter drill holes. A, personnel cage; B, cardboard
tube with graph paper attached; C, sighting bar; D, arc scale with bubble level. Photo by Roy Stone.

than on flat diagrams representing the walls of the as a pendulum to the bottom of the hole. The tape
holes. For this purpose cardboard mailing tubes was used as the north reference on the wall of the
with outer diameters of 1.5, 2, and 3 inches were hole, and also for depth determinations. In some
used to correspond to drill holes with diameters of drill holes additional tapes were hung at the south,
3, 4, and 6 feet, respectively. Printed semitrans- east, and west points of the holes.
parent graph paper, ruled in inches and tenths of During the first "run" down the drill hole in the
inches, was fastened to the tubes with rubber cement personnel cage the wall of the hole was marked with
or drafting tape. The line on the tube diametrically carpenter's crayon at standard intervals of depth.
opposite the joint line of the paper was designated Measuring, recording, a,nd plotting of data usually
as north and was used as the reference from which were done bottom to top as the cage was raised. Most
all measured points were plotted. The north, south, of the work was done by a two-man crew; one geolo-
east, and west lines were marked on the graph paper, gist plotted on the graph paper of the tube, while the
and intervals of depth from the surface were marked other geologist measured and described geological
to scale. Scale is automatically determined by ratio features observed on the wall of the hole. A two-man
of the diameter of the tube to that of the hole. Thus, crew proved to be considerably more efficient than
if the tube is 3 inches in. diameter and the hole is 6 one man. In the 3- and 4-foot diameter holes, meas-
feet in diameter, the scales, both circumferential urements were made with a flexible 6-foot metal tape
and vertical, are automatically 1 inch equals 2 feet. -but this was impractical in the 6-foot diameter
A sighting bar (fig. 137.1) and a Brunton pocket holes because the distance to the wall from the cage
transit were used to determine the north and south suspended in the midd le of the hole was too great. A
points of the holes. Lower extensions of the metal graduated aluminum arc scale with a bubble level
leaves of the sighting bar fit into the hole; the (fig. 137.1) was built to measure circumferential dis-
leaves slide on the wooden bar and are adjustable tances in these larger holes. The curvilinear length
to fit holes of different diameters. The north and of the scale is 5 feet, and the radius of the arc is
south sides of the hole were determined by orienting 3 feet. To avoid confusion the observer gave all
the bar with the aid of a Brunton pocket transit. measurements to the plotter in terms of feet east
A steel tape, weighted at the end, was secured or west of the north line at each station within the
at the north point at the top of the hole and hung hole.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES·1-146 B-321

FIGURE 137.2.-Sketch of core diagram showing methods of determining strike and dip of joints.

The completed plot of geologic features is a three- graphically, or trigonometrically by means of a 3-

dimensional representation of a core of the rock point equation. Probably this method of three-di-
penetrated by the drill hole. Strike of bedding, joints, mensional representation ·is applicable to other geo-
veins, fissures, and other features may be obtained logic and engineering problems.
by orienting the tube on a flat piece of graph paper. The diagrams of the cores can be drafted and
Two points of equal depth on the geologic feature reproduced flat so that they can be rolled and held
are projected ·down the ruled lines of the tube to together by paper clips or tape. If a flat representa-
the graph paper (fig. 137.2). The strike is deter- tion of the wall of the hole is needed, the semitrans-
mined with a protractor from a line drawn through parent graph paper is simply turned over and a
the points on the flat paper. If a third point on the tracing is made of the reverse side. The latter form
featt.1re at a different depth is proje·cted down the of representation shows the wall of the hole as seen
tube to the flat paper, the dip can be determined. by a person inside the hole.
B-322 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH Hl61

ANALYTICAL AND PETROGRAPHIC METHODS

+

138. METHODS FOR DECOMPOSING SAMPLES OF SILICATE ROCK FRAGMENTS

By JOHN C. ANTWEILER, Denver, Colo.

Three procedures are given below for the decom- tion of reagents per gram of rock in most cases is
position of silicate rock samples that have been no greater than that required for a powdered sample.
neither crushed nor ground. In minor element analy- The final solution obtained by use of the three
ses, crushing, grinding, sieving, and splitting pro- decomposition procedures described is designed for
cedures can introduce the following types of inac- determination of uranium as uranyl nitrate. De-
curacies: (a) Errors of selective subtraction owing terminations of some minor elements are preferably
to loss of air-borne dust and spatter particles which · made from chloride or sulfate solutions. If such
may be greatly enriched in certain minor elements; determinations are contemplated, modification in the
(b) errors of addition from abrasion of grinding solution procedures after decomposition. is complete
equipment, exposure to atmospheric dust, and hand- can ·readily be made. For example, in the hydro-
ling; ( ~) chemical changes such as loss of sulfur fluoric acid procedure the dry fluorides can be con-
from sulfides and oxidation ·of iron or copper to a verted to sulfates by fuming with sulfuric acid, or
higher valence state; and (d) inhomogeneities they can be converted to chlorides by fuming with
caused by unequal distribution and segregation of perchloric acid followed by solution in hydrochloric
particles having different densities. Some of these acid.
errors can affect the accuracy of analyses for major
elements (Hillebrand and others, 1953, p. 811; Kolt- HYDROFLUORIC ACID PROCEDURE
hoff and Sandell, 1952, p. 242), but they may affect The decomposition of finely divided silicates by
the accuracy of analyses for minor and trace con- HF is an extremely vigorous reaction. It is usually
stituents much more. To minimize some of these moderated by water and one or more strong acids
·uncertainties, G. J. Neuerburg prompted the author such as HNOx, H:.!S0 4, HCl, or HCl04. On the other
to devise techniques for decomposition of 4-gram, or hand, the decomposition of rock chips by HF is a
larger, fragments of rock. Many profitable sugges- quiet reaction and other acids are preferably omitted.
tions were received from L. C. Peck during the work. For example, a 4-gram diabase chip was completely.
The procedures explained here lessen chances for decomposed in 6 hours by 75 ml HF; a similar chip
selective subtraction and addition caused by grind- was not entirely decomposed in 4 days by the same
ing; they fail to lessen most of the errors of chemical volume of HF plus an eql}al volume of HNOx.
change; they eliminate segregation and improper Place a weighed rock fragment in a vessel resistant
representation in a specific sample, but emphasize to HF, add 10 to 15 ml concentrated HF ( 48 percent
inhomogeneities in a series of samples. The pro- or stronger) for each gram of rock. Place a close-
cedures are useful for certain studies such as trace fitting cover over the vessel, and digest its contents
element distribut~on ; they are not intended to re- 24 hours at steam bath temperature C--85°C). After
place standard rock sampling and analytical pro- digestion remove the cover, stir occasionally, and
cedures. evaporate to dryness. Add for each gram of sample
Several standard methods for silicate decomposi- about 30 ml of 50 percent ( v /v) nitric acid; digest
tion will eventually decompose a 4-gram rock frag- the covered mixture, stirring occasionally, for 2
ment, but reagent and time requirements generally .hours at steam bath temperature, then evaporate to
are excessive. The hydrofluoric acid procedure and dryness. Again add nitric acid, and repeat the diges-
two fusion procedures described below readily de- tion and evaporation procedures. Dissolve the nit-
compose 4-gram fragments of rock in reasonable rates in 25 ml of 7lj:! percent (vI v) HN Ox per gram
time and require only moderate quantities of rea- of rock and filter. If any rock remains, repeat the
gents. The acid procedure has been used to decom- hydrofluoric acid decomposition procedure. If the
pose 50-gram and larger pieces of rock. Consump- residue consists only of zircon or other HF -insoluble
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-323
fine-grained minerals, fuse it with potassium pyro- yields a solution that is readily and quickly filtra-
1
sulfate or sodium carbonate by conventional silicate 1 ble (L. C. Peck, oral communication, 1957). Add
analytical. procedures. I 0.1 grams sodium nitrite to reduce manganese which
Decomposition of chip samples by HF is usually is often present in sufficient quantities to cause
preferable to decomposition by fluxes because (a) turbidity. Filter the solution and repeat the pro-
much larger samples can be handled and (b) greater cedure on any undissolved residue.
concentration of minor elements in the analytical One zirconium crucible will last for at least 150
solution is possible; only volatile reagents are added sodium peroxide fusions (D. W. Richardson, written
and silicon is removed as gaseous tetrafluoride. It communication, 1956). Iron crucibles may be used
is therefore sometimes possible to lower the limit for sodium peroxide fusions, but they introduce
of detection of minor elements, and to improve the considerable iron to the sample, and they are not
precision of their determination. generally suitable for re-use.
It is not always possible to use the HF procedure
because fluorine (which is probably never completely SODIUM CARBONATE-BORIC ACID PROCEDURE
removed) interferes in some analytical schemes; A carbonate-boric acid flux prepared as outlined
1
rocks, of course, cannot be analyzed for trace ·"' ?. below is more effective for silicate decomposition
ments that form volatile fluorides. than either sodium carbonate, or boric acid alone, or
Addition of boric acid after the evaporation of mechanical mixtures of borax or boric acid and sod-
HF somewhat facilitates conversion of fluorides to ium carbonate (L. C. Peck, oral communication,
nitrates through formation of volatile BF x· Excess 1957)'. Prepare the flux by melting 3 parts by
boron can subsequently be removed as methyl borate weight of sodium carbonate together with 1 part of
formed by the addition of methyl alcohol. boric acid. Break the cooled melt into pieces weigh-
Platinum, gold, polyethylene, and glassware lined ing 2 to 4 grams. Preheat the weighed rock sample
with commercial wrapping plastics (A. P. Marran- to· 650°C to remove water. After cooling, add to the
zino, written communication, 1961), can be used for crucible containing the rock sample about 4 grams
the HF decomposition. Plastic-lined containers are of flux for each gram of rock. Heat the crucible and
not suitable, however, for conversion of fluorides contents rapidly to 900°C, and maintain this temper-
to sulfates, perchlorates, or nitrates. ature for 111:! hours. If frothing occurs, lower the
temperature until frothing subsides. Dissolve the
SODIUM PEROXIDE FUSION PROCEDURE
cooled melt by digestion for 3 hours at steam bath
Sodium peroxide is a powerful rock disintegrator, temperature in 75 ml of 71/:! percent (v/v) HNOx. If
but at high temperature it also attacks most of the there is any turbidity or rock residue, filter the solu-
. materials used in the manufacture of laboratory tion, decompose the residue by standard analytical
crucibles. Platinum· and gold cannot be used, and procedures, and add the solution to the above filtrate.
nickel ·is far from satisfactory for rock fragment This fusion procedure is fast, economical, and
fusion. Zirconium, however, resists sodium peroxide effective on many kinds of rocks. Loss of samples
for prolonged periods of time at temperature of as through intumescence is its greatest shortcoming;
much as 900°C. constant attention during the fusion is necessary.
Weigh about 15 grams of sodium peroxide into a The method should be tested on each new rock type
zirconium crucible, place a rock fragment weighing before using· samples that cannot be replaced or
as much as 5 grams on top of the peroxide, and then duplicated. The interference of boron in some analy-
sprinkle in enough additional peroxide to cover the tical schemes is an important consideration before
sample completely. Cover the crucible and contents, using this procedure.
heat over an open burner, slowly at first, and finally All three of the foregoing .PrO<;edures have been
at red heat until the fragment is dissolved (usually successfully used to decompose rocks as different in
V2 to 1 hour). Carefully add water to the cooled melt composition as basalt and granites. Their application
in a covered beaker. After subsidence of the vigorous and usef1.1lness to diabasic rocks is reported by
reaction, dilute with enough water to make a volume Neuerburg and Granger (1960, p. 780-782). The
of 100 ml per gram of rock. Quickly add enough HF procedure usually is preferable to the others
concentrated nitric acid to yield a solution that has a unless the analyses are being made in the field, or
nitric acid strength of 7lj2 percent by volume. Rapid unless subsequent analytical procedures will be
addition of all the acid required eliminates efferves- hampered by the presence of fluorine. The sodium
cence, inhibits formation of gelatinous silica, and peroxide procedure is best in the field because it is
B-324 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

the fastest, and is less apt to cause difficulty through REFERENCES

intumescence. The sodium carbonate-boric acid pro- Hillebrand, W. F., Lundell, G. E. F., Bright, H. A., and Hoff-
cedure usually is preferable to sodium peroxide fu- man, J. 1., 1953, Applied inorganic analysis: New York, .'I
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1034 p.
sion in a laboratory because fusion conditions can
Kolthoff, I. M., and Sandell, E. M., 1952, Textbo9k of quantita-
be controlled to prevent intumescence, and complete tive inorganic analysis: New York, The Macmillan Co.,
decomposition is more likely to be obtained with the 759 p.
first fusion. Reagent pu-rification, which is essential Neuerburg, G. J., and Granger, H. C., 1960, A geochemical test
of diabase as an ore source for the uranium deposits of
in minor element analyses, is much simpler for the the Dripping Spring district, Arizona: Neues Jahrb.
HF method than jt is for the fusion methods. Mineralogie Abh., v. 94, Festband Ramdohr, p. 759-797:

~-

i39. FATIGUE IN SCINTILLATION COUNTING

By FRANCIS J. FLANAGAN, Washington, D. C.

Wo'rk done in cooperation with the U.S. A totnic Ene'rgy Commission

When National Bureau of Standards radium 45 and 55 due to low counting rates) increase with
gamma-ray standards (Mann, 1956) were counted as decreasing energy and with increasing counting
reference points for normalizing data, variations rates. The relative error, however, decreases in
were noted in the counting rates. It was soon estab- most counting experiments with increasing counting
lished that the variations were due to photomulti- rates.
plier fatigue, and that radium from other sources To decide whether the variations in the counting
caused similar effects. Although many papers on rates were significant, a statistical technique was
photomultiplier fatigue have been published, neither selected in preference to some arbitrary percentage
the primary cause of the fatigue nor a method of loss or gain not to be exceeded. The Poisson distri-
avoiding it have been discussed. Caldwell and Turner bution, whose mean and variance are equal, is com-
(1954) suggest, however, that the effect may be due monly used in radioactivity counting. The initial
to the low-energy gamma radiation of the radium count in any channel can represent both the mean
series. and variance of an infinite number of observations
To determine the effect of gamma radiation a 2- if no changes take place in the counting conditions.
microgram ampoule of radium was· placed for 1 hour If changes do occur, as they do in the present study,
on a 2 inch by 2 inch crystal of sodium iodide coupled the variance for any channel can be calculated and
to a 6292 photomultiplier. The photomultiplier out- then compared with that expected if there were no
put was fed into a 100-channel analyzer whose gain change. The comparison is made by the statistic
was set so that the complete spectrum was taken x:!fdf (chi squared over degrees of freedom), which
in 55 channels. A 1-minute count was made during is equal to the computed variance divided by the
the first minute of each 1-minute interval for 1 initial count. The computed values of the statistic,
hour, the counts obtained being recorded on tape. together with the upper limits for the 95-percent
The initial counting rate for each channel is shown and the 99.95-percent probability level, are shown
in figure 139.1, and the losses for each channel in in figure 139.3.
1 hour, expressed as percent of the first count in The computed statistic for only 8 of the channels
the channel, in figure 139.2. is below the allowable limit for the 95-percent level,
Losses occur in all channels except 53, and these and hence the computed variances are not signifi-
losses (except for irregularities between channels cantly greater than the Poisson variances. The
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-325
losses and emit the low-energy gammas proposed

~
100.000 by Caldwell and Turner (1954) as a possible cause
of photomultiplier fatigue. If the effect is due to.
these gammas, it should be noticeable when counting
I a radium-DEF solution, since Pb 210 is a source of
10,000
low-energy gammas. One milliliter of a DEF solu-
tion was counted, but no loss was noted for this
aliquot, which ·counted about 10,000 cpm under the
UJQl
same conditions that yielded 4,000 cpm for the 0.1
~--
ct~ microgram of radium. The main solution from
o:::·e which this aliquot was taken was then counted with
(.!).._
ZQl
-o.
I-III
similar results. These low-energy gammas, there-
z-
::>c: fore, cannot be the sole cause of fatigue.
o::s
u.§.

1000

500.

100
300

10 20 30 40 50
CHANNEL NUMBER

FIGURI<~ 139.1.-Initial counting rate per channel.

statistic for 30 of the 43 channels exceeds the allow-

able value at the 99.95-percent level. This plot, 10

like the one for counting-rate losses, shows that the

most significant variations in counting rates occur
in the low-energy part of the spectrum. 2
X /df (12) _
_____ 0 999 =2.90
l ______ t __ _
CHARACTER OF THE SOURCES X 2/df (12) _
0 95 =1.75

Of the gamma sources used in preliminary tests

-----,------ ------

in this investigation ( Co 60 , Cs 137 , and radium solu-

tions) only the radium sources cause significant

0.5 L_____L,_ _l___ji_~-J._---=~_l_-~_1----;f;:.:---'----'

10 20 30 40 50
CHANNEL NUMBER

FIGURE 139.3.-Variation of counting rate per channel.

On reexamining the character of the sources used,

one sees that each was contained in glass and emits
beta radiation, but that the radium solutions emit
the large·st number. The question then arises
whether bremsstrahlung, resulting from the inter-
action of the beta-rays with glass, could be respon-
sible:Jor the fatigue. .

BREMSSTRAHLUNG FROM BETA PARTICLES

10 20 30 40 50
CHANNEL NUMBER Two "gamma-free" beta-ray sources were avail-
FIGURE 139.2.-Counting rate loss per channel. able for testing this hypothesis. When a two-ounce
B-326 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

glass jar containing nickel sulfate recrystallized Co6° source taped to a crystal yielded 130,000 counts
with Ni 63 (E,B = 0.063 ·Mev) was counted with a in 16 seconds. The crystal was then exposed to white
crystal coupled to a 6342 photomultiplier, a loss of X-rays with a peak at about 10 Kev for ten seconds.
0. 7 percent of the initial counting rate of 268,000 When the X-ray source was removed and the cobalt
cpm was obtained. When a Tl 204 source in the counted imm~diatdy, it yielded 63,700 counts-a
original bottle shipped from Oak Ridge National loss in counting rate of 51 percent. After 15 minutes
Laboratory was placed on the same crystal-tube the photomultiplier had recovered so much that the
combination, it lost 11.4 percent of its original loss in counting rate was only 12 percent.
counting rate (350,000 cpm) in one hour. The same · The hypothesis ascribing fatigue to bremsstrah-
bottle, at a different time, lost 26 percent in one hour lung therefore appears tenable, and since brems-
with the 6342 photomultiplier, and gained 9 and 12 strahlung and X-rays are similar, it is consistent
percent with a 6292 and 5819, respectively. Cathey with the observation of Marshall and others (1947)
(1958) attributes gains and losses for different that "the presence of fatigue is a serious defect" in
photomultipliers to the amount of cesium on the the use of photomultipliers as X-ray detectors.
dynodes.
From these experiments it may be inferred that
As a further test, one ml of an uncalibrated Co. 60
the photomultiplier fatigue may be primarily caused
source was placed in a vial and counted, using the
same 6,342 photomultiplier; this gave 360,000 cpm by bremsstrahlung resulting from the interaction
with no noticeable loss in an hour. An aliquot of of beta particles with the glass ampoules.
a solution of Tl 204 , a pure beta emitter, was added
REFERENCES
to the cobalt source in the vial. This addition in-
creased the activity of the source by 35,000 cpm, Caldwell, R. L., and Turner, S. E., 1954, Gain variation of
and this mixed source lost 0.8 percent of its total photomultiplier tubes: Nucleonics, v. 12, no. 12, p. 47-48.
counting rate in one hour. When a second equal Cathey, L., 1958, Fatigue in photomultipliers, in Scintillation
. Counter Symposium, 6th Washington, 1958, Proc: I R E
aliquot of the thallium was added, the source lost
Trans on Nuclear Sci., v. NS-5, no. 3, p. 109-114.
2.3 percent in one hour. Another equal aliquot of
Mann, W. B., 1956, The preparation and maintenance of
the thallium source, dried on cellophane and placed standards of radioactivity: Internat. Jour. Applied Radia-
on the same crystal, yielded 12,000 cpm with no tion and Isotopes, v. 1, p. 3-23.
noticeable loss. Marshall, F. H., Coltman, J. W., and Hunter, L. P., 1947, The
If bremsstrahlung _can cause fatigue, .X-rays photomultiplier X-ray detector: Rev. Sci. Instruments,
should have similar .effects. A solid uncalibrated . v. 18, p. 504-513.

140. A SIMPLIFIED METHOD OF CONCENTRATING AND PREPARING CARBONATE SHELLS FOR 0' AGE
DETERMINWATIONS

By THOMAS C. NICHOLS, JR., Denver, Colo.

· Because handpicking of carbonate shells from a shell material, cleaning the shell material. All rea-
field sa~ple is laborious and time consuming, a gents and containers coming in contact with the
simpler method of concentrating and preparing these shells must be free of contaminating carbon.
shells. for C14 age determinations was developed
using already existing equipment .and reagents of FEASIBILiTY OF REMOVING SHELLS FROM SAMPLE
the U.S. Geological Survey Laboratory at Denver. The feasibility of removing shells from a sample
Three steps are. involved: determining the feasibility depends upon the size and condition of the shells
o.f rempving shell material from., the. sample matrix, and also the condition, texture, and composition of
.dis-aggregating_ the sample and co~centrating the the matrix. It is difficult and tedious to process
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-327
shells smaller than 420 microns-but if necessary, a Light-mineral impurities such as gypsum will separ-
modified procedure will reclaim some of the smaller ate with the shells, but these .can be eliminated by
ones. The matrix must be reasonably free of ferru- elutriating a second time, and readjusting the air
ginous, siliceous, and carbonate cementing materials. stream velocity. Fractionation of shell material from
These materials, if present in large quantities, are the minus 40-mesh fractions by air elutriation is
difficult to remove without destroying the shells. The impractical because of the static electricity gener-
size and sorting of the matrix are of concern only ated. This problem is overcome if distilled water
in actual separation techniques. is used as an elutriating medium.

SEPARATING SHELLS FROM MATRIX CLEANING SHELL MATERIAL FOR 0 1~ DETERMINATIONS

The sample is presoaked for 16 hours in a 3.5 per- The concentrated shell material from the different
cent solution of sodium polyphosphate in distilled fractions can now be added together and more closely
water to disperse the clays and other fine materials scrutinized for impurities. There will probably still
., which tend to cement the matrix together. These be clay imprisoned within the shells, and possibly
dispersed fine materials are discarded first by wet some secondary lime encrustations on the outer
screening the sample through a U.S. Standard No. surfaces. At this point, the shells should be gently
200 screen. The disaggregated portion remaining fractured, but not pulverized, in a mortar with a
on the screen is dried and passed through a U.S. pestle. The shells are placed in a beaker and allowed
Standard No. 40 screen, thus concentrating the to soak in 3.5 percent solution of sodium polyphos-
larger shells with the coarse fraction of the sample. phate in distilled water for 1 to 2 hours; then they
The -40-mesh fraction is set aside in a closed are processed in an ultrasonic transducer for about
container for possible further processing. The +40-: 15 minutes or until the shells appear to be clean.
mesh fraction is now examined for sorting of grains The ultrasonic transducer is very effective in break-
rather than sorting for shells and shell fragments. ing up clays and secondary encrustations ordinarily
Most of the shells and shell fragments are in the immune to other treatment. Very fragile shells must
same size range as the accompanying sand grains be treated sparingly in the ultrasonic transducer as
and cannot be isolated by screening, but there they tend to disintegrate. After this .treatment,
are usually some large shells which can be isolated. repeated washing and decanting with distilled water
Therefore, the +40-mesh fraction is sized with will remove impurities present as suspended fines.
appropriate screens to isolate the larger shells and The clean shells remaining in the beaker are covered
to divide the remaining portion into well-sorted with a watch glass and allowed to dry slowly under
fractions containing. the smaller shells and shell a heat lamp. The dry shells are suitable for a C14
fragments. At this point, there might be a sufficient age determination.
quantity of isolated shells for age determination. There will be many problems peculiar to indL-
If not, it is necessary to isolate shell material from vidual'samples. The above procedure·is meant to be
the finer of the +40-mesh fractions. a general outline ·and can be revised to ·meet the
By taking advantage of their shapes and rela- demands of any individual sample.
tively light densities, shells and shell fragments
can be rapidly and completely separated from the REFERENC~
heavier more equidimensional sand grains by air Frost, I. C., 1959, An elutriating tube for the specific gravity
elutriation. A large elutriation apparatus similar separation of minerals: Am. Mineralogist, v. 44, p. 886-
to that described by Frost (1959, p. 886) is effective. 890.
~

'··

·. '
B-328 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

141. COLORIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF IRON IN SMALL SAMPLES OF SPHALERITE

By LEONARD SHAPIRO and MARTHA S. TOULMIN, Washington, D. C.

The increased use of the "sphalerite geothermom- 5. Concentrated nitric acid. Contained in a dropping
eter~' (Kullerud, 1953, and Barton and Kullerud, bottle.
1958) that correlates the temperature of forma- 6. Zinc chloride solution. Dilute 210 mg of ZnCl:! to
tion of the sphalerite with the amount of iron sub- 100 ml in a volumetric flask.
stituting for zinc in the crystal structure, has de-
veloped a need for a sjmple, rapid, and reliable PREPARATION OF STANDARDS
procedure for determining the amount of iron -in To a series of 22 X 175 mm test tubes add: 0.0,
sphalerite. Because natural sphalerite is commonly 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9, and 1.1 ml of the standard
fine grained and/ or compositionally zoned, the analy- iron solution with a graduated pipette. Add 6.7
-·
tical method used should be suitable for small sam- ml of zinc chloride solution, 3 drops of concentrated
ples, preferably single small fragments. The method hydrochloric acid, and 10 to 20 mg. Tiron to each
described here has been utilized to trace changes tube. With a graduate add- 20 ml of the buffer
in composition from the center to the margin of solution to each tube, and add water to make the
zoned sphalerite crystals. volumes equal to 30 ml. Invert to mix. The re-
A method adapted _(Yoe and Jones, 1944) to meet sulting solutions correspond to 0.0, 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7,
these requirements is based on the use of disodium- 0.9, and 1.1 percent iron when a 10 mg sample is
1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfonate (Tiron). It is used, and are stable for a few days.
a simple but flexible procedure, being suitable for
visual estimation for greatest simplicity, or mea- PROCEDURE
surement in a photometer for increased accuracy. 1. Crush a small crystal- of sphalerite with a mortar and
Samples from 0.6 to 30 mg have been used, and iron pestle.
contents ranging from 0.1 to about 20 percent have 2. Weigh 10 mg of the sample and transfer to a dry test tube.
been determined. The. procedure is described for 3. Add about 6 drops of concentrated nitric acid and 6 drops
of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
a 10 mg sample for the range 0 to 1.1 percent iron. 4. Evaporate to dryness over a Bunsen burner, then heat
Smaller size sample may be used if necessary, and with the full flame of the burner for 10 to 20 seconds.
small aliquots of solutions may be used where iron 5. Allow to cool for several minutes.
concentrations are high. 6. Add 3 drops of hydrochloric acid and wet the bottom of
the test tube by rotation, then arld 1.1 ml of water.
The sphalerite is decomposed with aqua regia in . 7 _ Add 10 to 15 mg of Tiron powder.
a test tube, heated to drive off oxides of nitrogen 8 . Add 20 ml of buffer solution and water to 30 ml. Mix by
and sulfur that may have be.~n formed, and the re-:-· inversion.
maining salts taken back into solution with hydr:o-, 9. Compare with the set of standards. A visual comparison
chloric acid. Tiron and a buffer are added, and t~e can be made to obtain a value to the nearest 0.1 percent,
or better results can be obtained by comparison in a
purp]e color produced is ·compared with a set of photometer at a wave length of 550,u.
standard iron solutions;- ~either visually or in a
The procedure may be modified by using smaller
photometer :using a wave le_ngth of 550f-t.
~amples or by dilution of the sample after step 6
·,·
REAGENTS
and use of a portion of the diluted. solution. If
single fragments of 0.5 to 2 mg are used, it may
1. Standard iron solution. Dissolve 121 mg FeCI~ be necessary to repeat steps 3 and 4 to obtain com-
•6H:!O in water containing a few ml of hydro- plete decomposition.
chloric acid ahd dilute to 250 ml in a volumetric
flask. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
2. Buffer solution. Dilute 80 g of ammonium acetate Accuracy and precision of the procedure were
and 30 ml of acetate acid to 2 liters. studied using 1 to 2 mg of five synthetic sphalerites
3. Tiron. · Pure powdered disodium-1,2-dihydroxy- of known composition. The samples were analyzed
benzene-3,5-disulfonate. at four different times to provide reproducibility
(
4. Concentrated hydrochloric acid. Contained in a data, and the averages obtained were compared
dropping bottle. with the known iron content. The samples also
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-329

TABLE 1.-Dete?··minat·ions of pe?·cent i1·on in synthetic

chance variations such as weighing errors can be re-
sphale1·ite duced by replic:ation, or the use of larger samples.
Manganese, sometimes present in significant
Proposed colorimetric amounts, was found to introduce no error up to 10
method Conventionnl
Snmplc Average Known eerie
content titration percent manganese. Copper present in amounts
greater than those found in natural sphalerites also
55.''''''''' 4.5 5.0 -1.9 5.0 -1.9 ... i .. . i had no effect .
56 .. '' .. '''' i .8 9.2 8.6 !l.-1 8.i 8.6 8.5
59 ....... '.' 2.4 2.5 2.8 2.2 2.5 2.6 2.6 The ability to use very small samples, especially
l()J. ......... 15.1 15.9 20.7 17.4 li .3 17.7 17.6
10!1. ......... 13.8 12.3 13.1 13.3 13 .I H.-I J-1.2 small single fragments, plus the simplicity of the
procedure, provide a useful tool for determination _
of the iron content of sphalerite. The method is
were analyzed by C. A. Kinser with a conventional
readily adaptable to use in the field.
eerie sulfate titration procedure as an additional
basis of comparison. The results are shown in REFERENCES
table 1.
Barton, P. B., Jr., and Kullerud, Gunnar, 1958, The FeS-
Samples of approximately 1 to 2 mg were weighed ZnS-S system: Carnegie Inst. Washington, Ann. Rept.
directly into the decomposition test tubes. Such Director, Geophys. Lab., Paper 1289, p. 227-229.
weighings may be expected to have an accuracy of Kullerud, Gunnar, 1953, The FeS-ZnS system, a geological
about 10 percent. The replication of results shows thermometer: Norsk geol. tidsskr., v. 32, no. 2-4, p.
a spread of about 10 percent from the known iron 61-147.
Y oe, J. H., and Jones, L. A., 1944, Colorimetric determination
concentration, but deviations of the averages from of iron with disodium-1,2-dihydroxybenzene-3,5-disulfon-
the known are generally better, indicating that ate: Anal. Chemistry, v. 16, p. 111-115.

142. INDIRECT SEMIAUTOMATIC DETERMINATION OF ALUMINA WITH EDTA

By J. I. DINNIN and C. A. KINSER, Washington, D. C.

In the course of investigating the application of tested in this laboratory have been unsatisfactory.
EDTA ( disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate dihy- Indirect titration with cupric sulfate using Pyroca-
drate) titrations to the determination of alumina in techol Violet as indicator (Suk and Malat, 1956)
geological materials, a new indirect titration system gives excellent results with pure aluminum s'olutions.
has been developed. B~cause of the uncertainty of The system is extremely susceptible to changes in
most of the methods available for alumina it is the chemical environment however, and its use must
useful to have auxiliary procedures, as different in be rigorously restricted. In titrations performed
nature as possible, by which to check results. in pyridine-acetate buffered solutions, the presence
The new method involves the addition of a con- of moderate concentrations of phosphate or sulfate
trolled excess of EDT A and titration of the excess prevent the formation of an end point; perchlorate
with ferric chloride solution using Tiron ( disodium or chloride have significant effects on the location
1,2-dihydroxybenzene 3,5-disulfonic acid) as an of the end point. Indirect titrations with ferric
indicator. The Tiron-ferric chloride titration system chloride using salicylic acid (Milner and Woodhead,
has been used for the direct determination of iron .1954) or sulfosalicylic acid (Patrovsky and Huka,
(Haberli, 1954) and the indirect determination of 1957) as indicators give indistinct end points under
zirconium (Manning, Meyer, and White, 1955) but the conditions of the tests.
as far as is known it has not previously been used The Tiron-ferric chloride titration system is less
for the determination of alumina. subject to interferences than the Pyrocatechol Violet-
Other EDTA titration systems for aluminum cupric sulfate system and appears to have several
B-330 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

advantages over other methods proposed for the STANDARDIZATION PROCEDURE AND CALCULATION
determination of alumina with EDTA. The reaction Titrate three solutions containing ( 1) 0 mg, (2)
appears to be stoichiometric, the solution does not 1.00 mg, and (3) 2.00 mg of alumina by the same
have to be boiled, and the end point is very sharp. procedure used for the samples. The titer of solution
The sharpness of the end point can be ascribed in (1) furnishes the base value for 10.00 ml of EDTA
part to the use of elevated temperatures, but the solution. Subtract titer (2) from titer (1); this is
use of an automatic colorimetric recording titrator the equivalent titer for 1.00 mg of alumina. Sub-
is also a major contributing factor. tract titer ( 3) from titer ( 1) ; this is the equivalent
The recording colorimetric titrator used in this titer for 2.00 mg of alumina. Calculate the titration
investigation is similar to one described by Shapiro factor by dividing the mg of alumina in solutions (2)
and Brannock (1955) but differs in several features. and (3) by their respective equivalent titers.
The titrating ~olution is fed by a motor-driven Subtract the titers of each of the sample solutions
syringe rather than by gravity. The light beam from from the titer of solution ( 1). The net titer repre-
a. tungsten lamp, after being collimated by a plano- sents the EDTA complexed by alumina in each
convex lens, passes through the sample solution, solution.
then through a narrow band interference filter with Calculate the percent AbOH as follows :
a transmission peak at 620 mu; it is detected by a
titration factor X net titer X 100
barrier layer photocell. The output from the photo-
cell is fed through a voltage dividing potentiometer
percent - · =·
ALQ.~
mg samp1e
to a recorder. A low value resistance in series with
DISCUSSION
the voltage divider is electrically removed from
the circuit by the same switch that starts the syringe The intermediate stability constant of the alumi-
drive motor. This effectively increases the input num-EDTA complex (log K=16.1) allows the use
to the recorder by a small increment, causing a of a rather low pH (3.7) for the titration. This
fiducial mark from which to measure the duration precludes interference by elements such as the alka-
of the titration. lies and alkaline earths, which are complexed at
The recording titrator affords a higher sensitivity high pH only. However, this still leaves a major
than can be attained by visual titration. The effects portion of the elements in the periodic table free
of minor changes in titration conditions, not dis- to interfere by consuming EDT A. These elements
cernible by visual titration, can readily be ascer- must be separated if they are present in significant
tained by the titrator. The precision of the motor- concentration.
driven syringe, based on weight of solution delivered Among the anions, perchlorate interferes with
during varying distances of chart travel, was better the end point. Its effect in moderate concentration
than one part in two thousand. however, can be overcome by the addition of sodium
sulfate. Phosphates must be absent.
REAGENTS FOR TITRATION OF ALUMINA The method has thus far been applied to the
Alumina standard solution: 1.00 mg Al~ba per ml in 2 percent
determination of alumina. in chromite and chrome
hydrochloric acid. . ore. A mercury cathode electrolysis was. used to
EDTA solution: 0.0100 M. separate chromium, iron, and nickel; a cupferron
Phenolphthalein solution: 0.1 percent in ethyl alcohol. separation was used to separate titanium and vanad-
Ammonia solution: 1 + 1 (v + v). ium when· present in significant concentrations.
Acetate buffer: 140 g sodium acetate and 60 ml acetic acid Excess cupferron had to be destroyed completely
(cone.) per liter.
with su,lfuric and nitric acids before proceeding
Tiron solution: 2 percent in water.
Ferric chloride solution: 0.2 mg iron per ml in water. with the titration. The results given by the titration
procedure were in good agreement with results ob-
PROCEDURE tained by a colorimetric procedure. Good agreement·
In a 400 ml beaker, treat a sample solution containing no with the certified analyses was obtained in the
more than 2.0 mg alumina as follows: analysis of standard samples of chrome ore.
. Add 10.00 ml EDTA solution. Using several drops phe-
nolphthalein solution as indicator, adjust the pH of the solu- REFERENCES
tion to alkaline (pink) with ammonia. Add 25 ml of acetate
buffer, 1 ml of Tiron solution, and sufficient hot water (80°- Haberli, E., 1954, A method for the titrimetric. determination'
90°C) to make a total volume of 300 ml. Titrate excess EDTA of iron in blood by means of complexon: Experientia, v.'
with ferric chloride solution. 10, p. 34-35.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-331
Manning, D. L., Meyer, A. S., Jr., and White, J. C., 1955, The XXI. Volumetric determination of iron, aluminum, and
compleximetric titration of zirconium based on the use of titanium in silicates: Coli. Czechoslov. Chem. ·commun.,
ferric iron as the titrant and Tiron as the indicator: U.S. v. 22, p. 37-42.
Atomic Energy Commission ORNL-1950, 15 p. Shapiro, L., and Brannock, W. W., 1955, Automatic photo-
Milner, G. W. C., and Woodhead, J. L., 1954, The volumetric metric titrations of calcium and magnesium in carbonate
determination of aluminum in non-ferrous alloys: An- rocks: Anal. Chemistry, v. 45, p. 725-728.
alyst, v. 79, p. 363-367. Suk, V., and Malat, M., 1956, Pyrocatechol Violet; indicator
Patrovsky, V., and Huka, M., 1957, Complexometric titration for the EDT A titration: Chemist-Analyst, v. 45, p. 61-62.

143. DETERMINATION OF COPPER IN PLANT ASH WITH NEO-CUPROINE

By CLAUDE HUFFMAN, JR., and DWIGHT L. SKINNER, Denver, Colo.

Smith and McCurdy (1952) first investigated Sodium hydroxide solution. 40 percent (w/v) in water.
neo-cuproine (2,9-dimethyl-1, 10-phenanthroline) Standard copper solution. Stock solution 1 ml = 0.~ mg Cu.
Dissolve 0.3929 g of clear unffloresced crystals of
as a new and more specific chelating reagent for CuSo,·5H~O in water, add 10 ml of hydrochloric acid and
copper. Neo-cuproine reacts with a cuprous copper dilute one liter. Dilute solution 1 ml = 0.005 mg Cu.
solution buffered with acetic acid to form a yellow- Dilute 50 ml of the stock solution to one liter with water.
orange chelate extractable with water-immiscible Absorption cells, matched, 1 em.
alcohols at pH 7 or less. Since Smith and McCurdy's Beckman D. U. spectrophotometer.
report, many applications of neo-cuproine to de-
PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
terminations of copper in diverse materials have
been made, for example, for copper in uranium ores Dry and grind the plant material. Ash off 10
(Skinner and Goss, oral communication), for copper. g of the ground vegetation at 550°C in a tared
in germanium and silicon (Luke and Campbell, porcelain dish. Calculate the ash content. Thor-
1953), for copper in steels (Gahler, 1954), and for oughly mix the ash and reserve for analysis.
copper in titanium ore (Andrew and others, 1957).
PROCEDURE
Thus the neo-cuproine reagent has become increas-
ingly popular for the determination of copper in Accurately weigh about 100 mg of plant ash and
complex materials because of its unique specificity, transfer to a test tube (16 by 150 mm). Add 5 ml
stability, and sensitivity with copper. The method (1-1-4) hydrochloric acid and boil for one minute.
described here is an application of neo-cuproine to Filter the solution through a retentive 9 em filter
the determination of copper in plant ash. In develop- paper into a 60 ml separatory funnel. Wash the
ing this method analyses were made of plant samples residue four times with demineralized water. Add
collected by F. J. Kleinhampl and field party from 5 ml of 3 percent sodium citrate solution to the
the following areas: Circle Cliffs, Garfield County, filtered solution to complex the iron, then add 5 ml of
Utah; Grants district, McKinley County, N. Mex.; 20 percent sodium acetate solution. Mix thoroughly.
and Elk Ridge, San Juan County, Utah. Add 5 ml of freshly prepared one percent hydroxyla-
mine sulfate solution to reduce the cupric ion; adjust
REAGENTS AND EQUIPMENT the solution to pH 5 with approximately 10 drops
Neo-cuproine solution. 1.085 g neo-cuproine is dissolved in of 40 percent sodium hydroxide solution, and mix
333 ml ethyl alcohol and diluted to 500 ml with water. again. Add 4 ml of neo-cuproine solution and mix
Sodium citrate solution. 3 percent (w/v) solution in water. the contents of the funnel again. Add 10.0 ml of
Sodium acetate solution. 20 percent (w /v) solution in water. n-hexyl alcohol, stopper the separatory funnel and
n-hexyl alcohol, Eastman practical grade. This reagent can
be reused after recovery by distillation.
shake for 30 seconds. Allow the solution to stand
Hydroxylamine sulfate solution: 1 percent (w /v) solution in for 5 minutes until the two immiscible solutions
water, freshly prepared. separate. Drain the aqueous layer and discard.
B-332 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

Draw off a portion of the n-hexyl alcohol into a 1-cm TABLE 2.-Comparison of copper values dete·rmined by the
cell and measure the absorbance with the spectro- neo-cuproine ·method and the biquinoline method
[Analysts: neo-cuproine method, Claude Huffman, Jr.; biquinoline method,
photometer at 454p., using a reagent blank carried J. H. McCarthy]
through the entire procedure as a reference.
Copper in ash (ppm)
Ash
STANDARDIZATION ::lample (percent)
Neo-cuproine Biquinoline Difference
Portions of the standard. solution containing 1,
3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40 micrograms copper and one 2:~6762 .......... . 8.6 15 15 none
reference solution (reagent blank) were carried 2:3676:3 .......... . -J..8 /.:') 80 -5
2:.36764 .......... . 5.7 :~o 25 +5
through the entire procedure to establish a working 2:36765 .......... . 6.0 65 55 +IO
curve. A plot of data from the standards above 2:36766 .......... . 5. 1 :)0 2.5 +5
2:36767 .......... . 2.H uo 80 +10
gives a satisfactory working range of 10 to 400
parts per million copper based on a 100-milligram Average ................... . 51 -1-7 6
sample of plant ash.
cause the concentration of both elements is well
REMARKS
below the interference levels established by the
The neo-cuproine reagent is unique because it above authors.
is specific for copper (Smith and McCurdy, 1952). The precision of the determination of copper by
T.he absence of interference by 56 metal ions at the the method described was calculated. from paired
50-microgram level was. shown by Luke and Camp- data (Youden, 1951, p. 17) using replicated deter-
bell (1953). Tests for interference from 15 mg minations on 82 samples of plan.t ash. The standard
amounts of iron (III), aluminum, chromium· (III), deviation of the determination is 9.6 ppm copper.
manganese (II), molybdenum (VI), and vanadium The 82 samples used in the precision study consisted
(IV), showed that they could be tolerated except of branch tips from 35 juniper, 38 pinon pine, and 9
for the chromium. Only about 2 mg of chromium ponderosa pine·. A summary of the 82 samples is
can be tolerated (Andrew and others, 1957). The shown in table 1.
interference from anions can be significant because Table 2 compares the neo-cuproine method and
they form a tighter complex with copper than does the biquinoline method for the determination of
neo-cuproine. Gahler (1954) has shown that trace copper in six plant ash samples. The agreement be-
amounts of cyanide, sulfide, and large amounts of tween methods is about the. same as the standard
phosphate must be removed to prevent their serious deviation of the determination.
interference. No interference from chromium or
REFERENCES
phosphate occurs in the analysis of plant ash be-
Andrew, J. F. Goulstone, A. B., and Deacutis, A. A., 1957,
Spectrophotometric determination of copper in titanium:
TABLE 1.-Swwmm·y of 82 plant samples used in the p1·eci-sion
· Anal. Chemistry, v. 29, p. 750-753.
study
Gahler, A. R., 1954, Colorimetric determination of copper with
Copper (ppm)
neo-cuproine: Anal. .Chemistry, v. 26, p. 577-578.
Number Average
of ash Luke, C. L., and Campbell, M. E., 1953, Determination of
Plant species samples (percent) Range Average impurities in germanium and silicon: Anal. Chemistry,
v. 25, p. 1588-1593.
.Junipel' ................. :~5 5.:3 15-120 60 Smith, G. F., and McCurdy, W. H., 1952, 2,9-dimethyl-1,10-
phenanthroline, n~w ·specific in spectrophotometric de-
Pinon pine .............. :~8 :~. :3 50-200 125 termination of copper: Anal. Chemistry, v. 24, p. 371-373.
Ponclel'osa pine ..... ~) :).0 65-150 108 Youden, W. J., 1951, Statistical methods for chemists: New
York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., p. 125.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-33'3

144. DIRECT-READING SPECTROMETRIC TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING MAJOR CONSTITUENTS IN

NATURAL WATER

By JOSEPH HAFFTY and A. W. HELZ, Washington, D. C.

Methods used by the Geological Survey for deter- J. I. Dinnin made flame-photometric determinations
mining major cations and silica in natural water for calcium and sodium in the water samples tested.
entail in most instances five separate determinations The procedure .3onsists of mixing 9 parts by
employing titrimetric, spectrophotometric, and 1000 r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
flame-photometric procedures. The use of optical
emission spectrography with multiplier phototubes
to measure the radiant energy of the spectral lines
can quickly establish the concentrations of the major
constituents in one operation. The procedure ·is
simple in that no complicated preparation of sample 100
or standards is necessary. It is designed to deter- (/)
(.!)
mine the elements and compounds listed on table z
Ci
1 in the ranges of concentration indicated. A specto- <(
lJJ
a:
graphic-residue method for determining minor ...J
<(

elements in waters has been described previously Ci

(Hatfty, 1960). 10
Potassium was not incJuded in the list of elements
determined because a red-sensitive tube for measur-
ing the very sensitive 7800 A (Angstrom units) line
was not available. However, the writers feel that
no difficulty would be encountered if this element
were to be determined, as the behavior of potassium
in the spark is analogous to that of sodium. The
present work was exploratory, and was done on a
spectrometer set up specifically for the analysis of 1000r----------------------.

major elements of rocks rather than natural waters.

Standard solutions were prepared as follows: Cal-
cium carbonate was dissolved in dilute nitric acid;
sodium and potassium were added as the chlorides;
magnesium added as the oxide was dissolved by
addition of sulfuric acid; and silica was introduced
by boiling commercial silica gel in distilled water,
filtering, diluting the filtrate slightly and reboiling
for a total time of four hours. All of the above
substances, except silica gel, were of "specpure"
grade. R. 0. Fournier prepared the silica solution,
and Leonard Shapiro and J. J. Rowe analyzed it.

TABLE 1.-Spect?"Wnt lines and concent?·ation 1·anges

Wavelength Concentration range

Element or com pound (A) (parts per million)

Calcium ............ 0 0 . . . . . • • 0 :317!) 0:3:3 :3 to :~16

Sodium ... 0 0 0. 0 0. 0. 0. 0 0 0 0 0 0. 0 0 5889095 1 to :316
:\'[ agncsium .... 0 • 0 0 • 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 0 2802070 00 a to 100 CONCENTRATION IN ORIGINAL SOLUTION, IN PARTS PER MILLION
Silic:a ... 0 •• 0. 0 0 .• 0 0 •. 0. 0 0 0 0 0. 0 2881.58 :3 to :310 6
Lithium ... 0. 0 0 0. 0. 0. 0 0 •. 0 0. 0. :32:32 061 Rcfercnec line
:\'fcrcury ..... 0 0 •. 0. 0 0 . 0 0 0. 0 . 0 0 5460.74 Monitor line FIGURE 144.1.-Working curves used for obtaining concentra-
tions of major constituents in natural water.
B-334 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

volume. of water sample with 1 part of a lithium 940. A 3-mm spark gap is maintained between an
solution, prepared by dissolving lithium carbonate upper pointed graphite electrode 14-inch in diameter
in dilute nitric acid. Lithium is used as the reference and a lower graphite disk, Vi-inch in diameter, which
element, and in the final mixture it is equivalent to is partly immersed in the sample and rotated at a
1 gram per liter. The mixture is then poured into speed of 10 rpm.
a porcelain boat and excited directly using the ro- Sparse comparative data with chemical and flame-
tating disk method. The standards are treated in. photometric methods indicate that acceptable agree-
the same way as the unknown samples. The radiant ment has been obtained for the elements determined
energy is measured by multiplier phototubes placed in the lower range of concf'mtrations. However, the
in back of slits so located as to select lines of wave- calcium line seems to be enhanced in higher con-
lengths indicated in table 1. The output of the centrations (about 35 ppl(l and higher). The work-
multiplier phototubes activate amplifiers which ing curve for sodium shows that self-reversal of
record the intensity of light on the tubes. The length the 5890A line takes place, but acceptable agree-
of a "run" is determined by the output of the photo- ment with flame-photometric results was realized
tube for lithium. The response is adjusted to give in the range 2 to 10 ppm. ·Good comparisons were
a 60-second run by setting the de (direct current) obtained for magnesium in the range 2 to 25 ppm
supply voltage for the "lithium" multiplier photo- and silica in the range 3 to 30 ppm.
tube. The analytical range for the elements sought Dilution of the sample may solve the difficulties
is subsequently adjusted by setting the correspond- indicated above for calcium and sodium. However,
ing de supply voltages. Working curves are con- this requires additional operations that defeat the
structed from the standard solutions by plotting purpose of the procedure. Further work may dis-
parts per million of the element or compound versus close that there are more suitable additives to the
the dial readings on log-log paper. Examples of solutions, or that a selection of other spectral lines
such curves are shown on figure 144.1. The concen- is necessary to determine accurately the concentra-
trations of the elements in the unknown samples tions of these elements. Our experience indicates
are read from the working curves. that within a few minutes the procedure will pro-
The excitation source is a low-voltage under- vide determinations of the major constituents in
damped repetitive discharge. having a sparklike natural waters.
character. The circuit parameters of a satisfactory
unit used for this work are: capacitance, 14 micro- REFERENCE
farads;. inductance, residual; resistance, residual; Haffty, Joseph, 1960 Residue method for common minor ele-
discharge-point control, 30°; and output voltage, ments: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply Paper 1540-A.

145. HAPID QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF QUARTZ AND TOTAL IRON IN SILICATE ROCKS BY X-RAY
DIFFRACTION

By D. B. TATLOCK, Menlo Park, Calif.

The relationships between diffraction, absorption, rr.odal analysis by microscopic examination. No

fluorescence, and density allow for rapid and rea- attempt .is made in this short paper to present de-
sonably accurate quantitative estimates of quartz tails of instrumentation or of sample preparation.
and total iron in most holocrystalline silicate rocks, The reproducibility of quartz peak heights in
both fresh and altered, from X-ray diffraction pat- quantitative diffraction work has been well demon-
terns of whole-rock powders. Diffraction analysis strated by many investigators (Klug and Alexander,
has proved indispensable in the study of crypto- 1954, and Weiskirchner, 1960). Only a few (Black,
crystalline metasomatized rocks not amenable to 1953, and v. Engelhardt and Haussiihl, 1960), how-
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-335
copper radiation affects appreciable differences in
background. The greater the iron content of a
whole-rock powder, the greater the background in-
~ 70 tensity of its diffraction pattern. This relation-
~
:I ship allows for an estimation of the total iron
(/)
1-
in a sample by reading the background at a given
z angle 20 after the diffraction unit has been cali-
w 60
u brated. In figure 145.2 the total iron, calculated
u:u..
w
0 from chef11ical analyses of metasomatized rhyolitic
()
and andesitic rocks and Franciscan graywackes,
6 so Matrix less (Fe203+Fe O)
f= 0 0 has been plotted against background intensities at
0..
CD 0 0 the 4.26A quartz line as· recorded on diffraction
0:
0 a 0
(/) patterns of splits of the chemically analyzed powders.
~ 40
(/)
The background intensity is the average of mea-
QUARTZ
(/)
< surements on both sides of the selected line (Carl,
~
1947). Such a curve can easily be extended for
CALC-ALK CALC-ALK DACITE LATITE ANDESITE NORMAL rapid and reasonably accurate analysis of low-
RHYOLITE TRACHYTE THOLEIITIC
BASALT grade iron ores by preparing mixtures of quartz and
hematite or magnetite; accuracy is within 10 per-
FIGURE 145.1.-Mass absorption coefficients of matrices of
average igneous rocks with and without ( Fe~Oa + FeO)
cent of the amount of iron present in concentrations
and exclusive of normative quartz. greater than 20 percent.
Referring again to figure 145.1, the slightly
ever, have applied diffraction to modal analysis of strongly absorptive character of the matrix com-
the common silicate rocks on a mass production ponent (less iron) in mafic rocks relative to felsic
basis, owing to the seemingly adverse effects of rocks, and its consequent depressant effect on quartz
absorption and fluorescence. In comparing diffrac-
tion patterns of quartz-bearing whole-rock powders 26
ranging from felsic to mafic in composition, absorp-
tion effects are present that usually prevent a direct
comparison of the quartz peak heights (Leroux, 24

Lennox, and Kay, 1953). Specifically, when a mix-

ture contains both a weak and a strong absorber, iD
C\1
22
peaks of the weakly absorbing component appear Co
c::i
weaker, and those of the strongly absorbing com- ~
<
ponent stronger, than expected from a linear rela- 1.0
C\1 20
tionship for each component (Klug and Alexander, .,f
1-
1953, p. 411). In determining the quartz content <
~ 18
of a whole-rock powder, the powder rp.ay be regarded u;
zw
as consisting of just two components, the quartz, 1-
and the sum of the other minerals which may be ~
Q 16
designated the matrix. Figure 145.1 shows that the z
::>
mass absorption coefficients of the matrix por~ion 0
0:
(.!)
of average igneous rocks (Nockolds, 1954), exclusiv~ X:
() 14
<
of the iron oxides and normative quartz, are nearly CD

constant, ranging from 43 for rhyolite to 48 for

basalt. Wit.h iron oxides included in the matrix, 12
I
however, the mass absorption coefficients range from I
I

49 for rhyolite to 74 for basalt. Hence, iron is shown

10
to be the element chiefly responsible for appreciable 0 2 3 4 5 6
differences in absorption in the matrix component TOTAL IRON-WEIGHT PERCENT

of the common silicate rocks.

FIGURE 145.2.-Total iron, calculated from chemically an--
Iron, also, is the only relatively abundant com- alyzed rocks, plotted against background intensity of
mon rock-forming element whose fluorescence under 20.8 o 28 ( CuKa; nickel filter).
B-336 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

iD
N
Co 70
0
~
<( 60

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
QUARTZ,WEIGHT PERCENT QUARTZ.WEIGHT PERCENT

FIGURE 145.3.-Peak height curves and corresponding back- FIGURE 145.4.-Peak height and background curve-set, with
ground curves for quartz mixed with materials having interpolation curves, for determining weight percent of
different mass absorption coefficients resulting chiefly quartz in silicate matrices containing 0 to 72.4 percent
from differences in iron content. Construction of inter- iron.
polation curve is illustrated.

peak intensities, is roughly compensated by density the absorptive strength of the matrix which has
differences in quartz '(2.65) and total matrix (basalt the effect of depressing the peak height curve. Using
2.97). This is because of the greater volume percent .this relationship, the quartz content of a rock-
(and hence, greater percent of the surface exposed powder can be determined from any combination
to radiation) of quartz relative to its weight percent
when mixed with a denser material. This density-
absorption compensation permits an almost direct
comparison of quartz peak intensities regardless
of the matrix-except for the effects of iron. •
To compensate for the absorption and fluorescence
effects of iron when analyzing for quartz, four peak ••
•
height curves and their corresponding background 50 • •
curves were established from prepared powders of
w
> •• ••
• •
f=
<(
quartz mixed, in order of increasing absorptive ~
0::
strengths, with (a) natural pinite (muscovite), Q 40
z
(b) biotite-actinolite greenstone, (c) chlorite, and N' •
f-
0::
••
(d) magnetite; the letters correspond with the curve- <(
:::>
0
sets in figure 145.3. The curves are based on the 30
diffraction intensity of copper radiation from the •
Micro- and cryptocrystalline rocks
(100) plane of quartz (Weiskirchner, 1960) and 0
the background intensity in the immediate vicinity Granitic rocks
20
of the same line ( 4.26A or 20.8°20) at a scanning
speed of 2° 20 per minute. Slower scanning speeds
may be used, but with only slightly better accuracy.
Differences in the mass absorption coefficients of 20 30 40 50 60
QUARTZ,X-RAY MODAL
matrices have been shown to be chiefly a function
FIGURE 145.5.-Weight percent of quartz determined from
of iron content, and iron content is expressed by
diffraction patterns of splits of 32 chemically analyzed
background intensity. As iron content increases, samples plotted against normative quartz. Scanning
background intensity increases, and so, too, does speed: 2°20 per minute.
 SHORT PAPERS IN THE GEOLOGIC AND HYDROLOGIC SCIENCES, ARTICLES 1-146 B-337
of peak height (above background) and background against quartz determined from diffraction patterns
(above base line) by interpolating between estab- of splits of the chemically analyzed powders (fig.
lished sets of peak height and background curves. 145.5). The standard deviation of the modal quartz
The greater the mass absorption coefficient of the from the normative quartz is 2.2 percent.
matrix (as a function of iron, and expressed by Similar curves have been established for deter-
background) the greater the quartz content for a mining amounts of feldspar, muscovite, andalusite,
given peak height. For example, in. figure 145.3, pyrophyllite, and chlorite, but in general these are
at a peak height above background of 40, the quartz applicable only to rocks of a given type from a
content of a· powder having the absorption char- given area. Curves for quartz and total iron, how-
acteristics of curve-set (a) would be 35 percent, of ever, appear to work well with almost all the com-
curve-set (b) 43 percent, of curve-set (c) 51 percent, mon holocrystalline silicate rocks, both fresh and
and of curve-set (d) 58 percent. This relationship altered, regardless of rock type or source area, and
establishes a so-called interpolation curve, the con- they can be readily established for use with any
struction of which is illustrated in figure 145.3. A recent model diffractometer.
series of interpolation curves is shown in figure
145.4, in conjunction with a peak height and back- REFERENCES
ground curve-set. Actually, any one of the sets of Black, R. H., 1953, Analysis of bauxite exploration samples by
curves in figure 145.3 showir1g peak height and X-ray diffraction: Anal. Chemistry, v. 25, p. 743-748.
corresponding backg.rouYid intensity could be used Carl, H. F., 1947, Quantitative mineral analysis with a record-
ing X-ray diffraction spectrometer: Am. Mineralogist, v.
in conjunction with the interpolation curves in pre- 32, p. 508-517.
paring figure 145.4 .. To illustrate how the weight Engelhardt, W. von, and Haussiihl, S., 1960, Rontgen-
percent of quartz is determined from figure 145.4, graphische Phasenanalyse grobcrystalliner Gesteine:
assume a peak height above background of 50 and a Chern. Erde, v. 20, no. 3, p. 155-161.
background of 20; both are read in the same units Klug, H. P., and Alexander, L. E., 1954, X-ray diffraction
procedures for polycrystalline and amorphous materials:
on the ordinate scale. By following the dotted lines,
New York, John Wiley and Sons, 716 p.
the quartz content for this combination of diffrac- Leroux, Jean, Lennox, D. H., and Kay, Kingsley, 1953, Direct
tion and background intensities is shown to be 53 quantitative X-ray analysis by diffraction-absorption tech-
percent. nique: Anal. Chemistry, v. 25, p. 740-743.
To substantiate the reliability of the curves Nockolds, S. R., 1954, Average chemical compositions of some
established with prepared powder mixtures, the nor- igneous rocks: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 65, p. 1007-
1032.
mative quartz values of 5 granitic rocks and 27 meta-
Weiskirchner, W., 1960, Untersuchungen zur quantitativen
somatized rhyolitic and andesitic rocks, with iron Bestimmung der Phasen mit Hilfe von Rontgenstrahlen:
contents ranging from 0.2 to 6.2 percent, were plotted Soc. mineralog. italiana, v. 16, p. 363-378.

146. THE KOBERG-DAUM WIND-DIRECTION AND WIND-VELOCITY RECORDER

By G. E. KOBERG and C. R. DAUM, Denver, Colo.

The conventional instruments for recording wind vane. If wind direction is sampled once each minute,
direction generally require four event markers or the desirable chart speed to insure legibility of the
pens to record wind directions to 8 points of the record is 3 inches per hour.
compass, although one type of commercially avail- The Koberg-Daum wind-direction and wind-veloc-
able recorder has a single pen. Some recorders use ity recorder uses a single pen to record wind· direc-
electrically controlled event markers which tick at tion to 8 points of the compass, and for an 8-inch
regular intervals of time, and the marker that makes circular chart a chart speed of one revolution per
the tick is selected by a switch attached to the wind week generally is suitable. The recorder, including
B-3'38 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1961

anemometer, costs about $350 to make, which is conducting material. If the wind direction should
much less than the cost of most commercially avail- fluctuate rap~dly, for example between southwest
able instruments. Other advantages are portability and northwest, three directions will be recorded,
and ease of installation. All of these features make namely southwest, west, and northwest.
this an instrument to be used in preference to the A noteworthy feature of this recorder is that
conventional recording system. during the tr~nsition from one segment to the next,
The Koberg-Daum recorder has a variable radius a trace is not recorded because a switching device
cam on the vertical shaft supporting the wind vane, shuts off the marking device during transition.
so that the angular position of the cam is controlled This feature prevents the recording of an unintelli-
by the vane. The variable radius cam is divided gible trace during periods of rapidly fluctuating
into 8 segments, each representing 40 degrees of wind direction. ·
the compass with 5 degree transition zones between The speed of the wind is recorded on the margin
segments. Each segment has a different radius. of the chart by an ink pen. Individual ticks are
The transition zone is provided so that a roller usually distinguishable if the event marker is regu-
pressed against the cam by a spring and held in lated to record every 10 miles of wind.
place by an arm can move from one segment to the Koberg-Daum recorders now being used have a
next with minimum friction. The variable-radius spring-wound 8-day clock to turn the circular chart.
cam, through a suitable mechanical linkage, posi- The torque needed to overcome the friction created
tions a stylus on a circular chart so that the distance by the marking devices on the chart is, so slight that
from the center of the chart indicates the wind di- very little trouble is experienced from clock stop-
rection. The stylus uses an electric arcing system page. The drain on the batteries that supply power
to burn a series of small holes in the surface of the for the marking device is negligible.
chart paper, thus providing a legible trace. The A patent application has been made for the
chart paper is made specifically for this purpose; Koberg-Daum recorder, with all rights reserved
one side being impregnated with an electrically for the Government.
 SUBJECT INDEX

!_Numbers refer to articles; finding Jist of article page numbers follows author index]

A Article Article
Brfachiopoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska.......... 101 Colorado-Continued
Article Bulk density, measurement by gamma-ray DeBeque, stratigraphy ............................ 61
Abnormal bedding, sandstone and shale...... 49 absorption 134 Front Range, mineral deposits................ I, 2
Age determinations. Sec 1Jarticular method. Gunnison County, paleobotany.............. 96
Alabama, Birmingham area, structural c Gunnison River, geomorphology............ 60
geology .......................................... 43 Lake City, geomorphology........................ 57
Calcium,
Tnllapossa River, hydrology.................... 42 Leadville district, geomorphology and
in limestone 126
Alnska, Kandik River, paleontology glacial geology ............................ 56
in soils ..................................................... .. 22
nnd stratigrnphy ........................ 90 paleontology ................................................ 99
in surface water........................................ .. 84
Kuiu Island, paleontology and Piceance Creek basin, stratigraphy...... 61
California, Coast Ranges, stratigraphy 78
strntigraphy ............ ....... ......... 101 Powderhorn district, mineralogy............ 21
Death Valley, climate ............................. .. 79
Nntion .River, vnleontology and Prairie Divide, mineral deposits ........... .
Deep Spring Lake, mineralogy .............. 83
str·ntigruphy !10 Red Mountain area, geochemical
Furnace Creek at:ea, mine.·alogy ........... . 129
Pr·incc of Wulcs Jslnnd, puleontology investigations ............................ 58
Long Valley, geophysical
and stratigruphy ...................... 101 investigations ---------~------------·------- 106 Roberts Tunnel, engineering geology.... 131
Alluvial fana, compaction................................ 77 Mojave Desert, structural geology.......... 82 Unaweep Canyon, geomorphology........ 60
tectonic shmiflcancc ................................ 75 paleontology ................................................ 100 Uravan, mineralogy .................................. 125
Alluvium, copper deposits benenth................ 133 Palo Alto, hydrology ................................. 22, 76 Sec alBa Colorado Plateau.
heavy-minernl studies .............................. 118 Sacramento Valley, stratigraphy_........... 78 Colorado Plateau, geochemical
Alteration, hydrothermal, cluy minerals .... 91 ~an Francisco Peninsula, hydrology______ 84 investigations .............................. 122, 123
greiaen 92 San Joaquin Valley, geomorphology.... 75 paleobotany .................................................. 55
i r·on or·cs................................................ 35 hydrology ...................................... 24-26, 77 stratigr_aphy ................................................ 54
r·elntion to mctuls in Iithosols ................... 5R Sierra Valley, geophysical See also S1Jecific StateR.
supergene, iron orcs................................. 35 investigations .............................. 107 Co)orimetric method, determination of iron
Alumina, determination of with EDTA...... 142 southern California batholith, in sphalerite ................................ 141
Alunite, Pu~rto Rico......................................... 91 geochemical investigations ...... 108 (olumbia River basalt, barrier reservoirs.... 88
Anulog, clcctr·ic, of liquid flow......................... 28 Canyon Diablo meteorite, analysis................ 112 tompaction, of aquifers ........................... 23, 25, 26
A ndersonite, synthesis ...................... ............... 113 Carbonatites, radioactive and rare-earth recorder ...................................................... .. 24
Anthozoa, Pennsylvanian, Alaska.. .............. 101 minerals ........................................ 121 Conductivity bridge, direct-reading............ .. 29
Appalachians, fracture systems..................... 43 Carboniferous. See Mississippian; Copper,. deposits beneath alluvium................ 133
Triassic dikes .............................. ............... 41 Pennsylvanian. in plant ash.................................................. 143
See alBO BJ)(JcificJ Stat.cs. Carbon-14 age determinations, carbonate 58
in soils
Archeology, use in Recent str-athnaphy........ 81 shells .......................................... :. 140
peat Corals, Devonian, Alaska................................ 90
usc of desert varnish in dating................ 80 65
Carolina Piedmont, Paleozoic history.......... 45 Permian, Colorado .................................... 99
Arizona, Bisbee quadrangle, stratigraphy.. 53
Fort A nache Indian .Reservation, soil- Cation exchange, in soils.................................. 22 Silurian, Alaska ........................................ 90
moisture studies ........................ 98 Catskill formation, unconformity.................. 38 Cordierite, beryllium content.......................... 109
Pima mining district, geochemical Cephalopoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska............ .101 Cretaceous, Alaska, east-centraL.................... 90
prosnecting .................................. 1.33 Chalcopyrite, germanium content.................. 110 Arizona, Mural HilL................................. 53
Soc alBo Colorado Plateau. X-ray diffraction studies.......................... 114 California, Coast Ranges............................ 78
Aroostook limestone, age.................................. . 30 Channels. See 'streams. Sacramento Valley ............................ 78
. Arsenic, in soils.................................................. 58 Chinle formation, cross-strata, origin............ 54 Idaho, Clark Fork........................................ 67
Ash, \'olcanic. Sec Volcanic ash. Chloride, in surface water................................ 84
Montana,' Clark Fork.................................. 67
Chlorine, in silicic volcanic glass.................... 111
Puerto Rico, east-centraL.......................... 92
B Clausthalite, X-ray diffraction studies.......... 114
eastern .................................................. 91
Huritc r·epluccment, ·Fornminifera ............... 94 Clay minerals, effect on compaction ............. 77
north-central ........................................ 93
· Hasnlt, ground-water barriers....................... 88 hydrothermal alterations ........................ 91
Tennessee, Highland Rim.......................... 40
petrology, Hawaii ...................................... 89 Olive Hill clay bed, Kentucky................ 120
Utah, Spanish Valley.................................. 72
Beach sands, ground water.............................. 85 preferred orientation ................................ 116
Wyoming, Black Hills................................ 66
Belt series, Idaho-Montana.............................. 67 Climax stock,· Nevada, age relations............ 73
Coal, pH of mine water.................................. 87 Crinoidea, Pennsylvania, Alaska...................... 101
Beryllium, in cordierite.................................... 109
Coal balls, Kentucky.......................................... 95 Cross-strata, origin ..... ..... .............................. 54
Bicarbonate, in surface water........................ 84.
Coamo formation, ash-flow deposits.............. 93 Crustal deformation, California, Long
Bioherms, Mississippian, Kentucky.............. 89
Coffinite, paragenesis ...................................... 2 Valley ............ ............................ 106
Ordovician, Nevada .................................. 97
Collapse structures, Ogallala formation, Idaho, Snake River Plain .... ................. 105
Bliss sandstone, stratigraphic relations...... 51
New Mexico ................................ 52 Yellowstone National Park .... ............... 104
Doggy shale, abnormal bedding...................... 49
Spanish Valley, Utah................................ 72
Borate minerals, Furnace Creek area, D
Yellowstone Plateau ................................ 104
California .................................... 129 Colorado, Arkansas Valley, geomorphology
Brachionoda, Pennsylvanian, Alaska........... 101 Depressions, closed............................................ 52
and glacial geology.................... 56
Brazil, Serra de Jacobina, urani\Jm ............. 4 thaw 65
Badger Wash, hydrology.......................... 59
Bremsstrahlung .................................................. 139 Desert varnish, origin ........................................ 80
Colorado River, geomorphology.............. 60

B-339
B-340 INDEX

Article Article Article

Devonian, New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap Glacial drift, ground water in._______________________ 17 I ron, in pia nts ·------------------------------------------- ·--------- 119
quadrangle------------------------------------ 51 prospecting for deposits unaer --------------- 117 in silicate rocks·----------------------------------------- 145
Pennsylvania, Anthracite· reg:ion____________ 38 Glacial lakes, Bonneville____________________________________ 69 in soils ------------------------------------------------------------ 119
Diamictite, Fossil basin, Wyoming ________________ . 62 Western United States _________ ---------------- 47 in sphalerite ------------------------------------------------ 141
Dikes, Triassic, Appalachian region._____________ 41 Glacial streams, competence______________________________ 87 St. Lawrence County, N. ¥. ____________________ . 35
Drill core, measurement of bulk density ........ , 134 Glaciers, mass budget--------------------------------------- 86 Irrigation, Sevier Valley, Utah________________________ 18
Drill holes, recording geologic features in.... 137 runoff characteristics --------------------------------
Dry Union formation, geologic history~-------·- 56 time-lapse photography in study of------- 135 J
Dune sands, ground water in............................ 85 Gold, in quartzite-conglomerate, origin_______ 4
Grantsite, description ---------------------------------------- 125 Jointing, Birmingham, Ala., red iron-ore
E Graptolites, Ordovician, Maine________________________ 30 district ---------------------------------------- .. 43
Grasslands, indicator of soil moisture .......... 76, 98 Jurassic, Cal.fornia, Coast Ranges________________ 78
Earthflqws, movement........................................ 57 Gravel, glacial lakes ---------------------------------------- 69 Saclamento Valley ---------------------------- 78
Earthquakes, caused by nuclear explosions.. 103 Gravity studies, California, Long Valley____ 106 Colora< o Plateau ---------------------------------------- 55
EDT A, determination of alumina-------·----------- 142 Idaho, Snake River Plain ------------------------ 105 New Mexico, northwestern·---------------------
El Paso formation, stratigraphic relations.... 51 Sierra Valley ______ ------------------------------ 107 Utah, Spanish Valley________________________________ 72
Elasticity, aquifers -------------------------------------------- 23 Yellowstone National Park -------------------- 104
rock salt and potash ore______________________________ 102 Green River formation, tongues ______________________ 62, 63 K
Electronprobe analysis·------------------------------------ 112 Greisen, petrology _----------·------------------------------- 92
Enargite, germanium content__________________________ 110 Ground water, Arizona, Fort Apache--------- 22, 98 Kandik formation, paleontology and
Engineering geology See State names. barrier reservoirs __________ :___________________________ 88 stratigraphy -------------------------------- 90
Erosion, control -------------------------------------------------- 14, 59 Kansas, Cimarron River, geomorphology______ 48
basalt aquifers ------------------------------------------ 88
effects of microclimate on·-----------------------·- 16 beach-deposit aquifers----------------------------- 85 Kaolinite, Puerto Rico ..--------------------·--------------- 91
laboratory analysis--------------------·----------------- 14 California, Palo Alto __________ ------------ _____ 22, 76 Kentucky, Bear Branch, paleobotany and
streambank ------------------------------------ ------------ 14 San Joaquin Valley--------------------------- 24-26 paleontology -------------------------------- 95
time-lapse photography in study of________ 135 compaction of aquifers _________ ;_____ ·------------ 23-26 Beaver Creek, geochemical
Evanston formation, age____________________________________ 64 investigations ------------------------------ 119
conductivity bridge --------------------------------,--- 29
Evaporation, reservoir -------------------------------------- 50 constituents, determination of________________ 144 economic geology ---------------------------------------- 120
Evapotranspiration, control of losses----------- 18 Jackson Purchase area, paleontology____ 94
dune-sand aquifers -------------·---------------------- 85
measurement ----------------------------------------·-------- 21 evapotranspiration losses ______ ----------------- 18, 21 Le~is Creek, paleobotany and

flow and infiltration----------------------------------- 28 paleontology -------------------------------- 95

F Shock Branch, paleobotany and
fluctuations in wells--------------------------------- 46
Faults and faulting, Birmingham, Ala., red Georgia, Dawson County__________________________ 46 paleontology ------------------------ ·------- 95
glacial drift- aquifers ------------------------------ 17 south-central, stratigraphy·--------------------- 39
iron-ore district ------------·------------- 43
Koberg-Daum wind-direction and wind-
block mosaic, Clark Fork area, Idaho- Nebraska, Fairmont -------------------------------- 21
Ohio, northeastern ------------ ·----·----- ----------- 17 velocity recorder -------------------------- 146
Montana --------------------------------·------- 67
Mojave Desert, Calif ..... ----·------------------------, 82 Oregon, Columbia River area ---------------- 85, 88 L
Uinta fault, Utah. _______________ ----------------------- 132 Pacific Northwest ---------------------------·85, 88, 128
Flood plains, formation------------------------------------- 48 Pennsylvania, anthracite fields------------- 37 Lakes, Pleistocene, Western United States. 47, 69
Floods. See Surface water. pumping tests, analysis______________________________ 20 Lakota formation, folding·---------------------.---------- 66
Fluorine, in silicic volcanic glass____________________ 111 quality ----------------------------------------------------29, 84, 144 Landslides, cause ---------------------------------------------- 132
Folding, Black Hills, Wyo,________________________________ 66 rad ioacti vi ty ------------------------------------------------ 128 Slumgullion earthflow, Colorado ---------- 57
Foraminifera, Early Cretaceous, Alaska...... 90 specific conductance --------------------------------·- 29 time-lapse photography in study of.·_______ 135
Paleocene, Kentucky ---------------------------------- 94 specific yield ------------------------------------------------ 19, 20 Land subsidence, by compaction -----------------2-26, 77
Pennsylvanian, Alaska------------------------------ 101 storage ---------------------------------------------------------- 19, 25 Lead, in soils·----------------------·------------·------;·____________ 58
replacement --------------------------------------------·----- 94 tidal fluctuations of levels in wells__________ 46 Lead-alpha age determination ...........:........... 45, 73
Fort Payne formation, reefs____________________________ 39 Utah, Sevier Valley____________________________________ 18 Lithosols, relation of metals content,to
Fracturing, hydraulic ---------------------------------------- 136 alteration -·--------·--------------------·----·- 58
Franciscan formation, specific gravity__________ 78 H Lo~ell formation, stratigraphic relations-·- 53

G Halloysi te, Puerto Rico·------------------------------------- 91

M
Hawaii, petrology ---------------------------------------------- 89
Galena, X-ray diffraction studies.___________________ 114 Heavy-mineral studies, alluvium·------------------- 118 Madison group, mineralogy.............................. 126
Gamma-ray absorption, bulk density of Hematite, Adirondack Mountains, N. Y,______ 35 Madera limestone, uranium ..·-----·--·------------------ 3
drill core ---------------------------------------- 134 Highlandcroft plutonic series, Magnesium, in limestone ............. --·-------·-·----·-· 126
Gastropoda, Permian, Alaska__________________________ 101 radioactivity ------------------------------ 32 in soils -------·-------------------------·-·······-·---···-··----· 22
Northwestern United States----------- 100 Hydrology. See Ground water; Surface in surface water-----------------------------·---------- 84
Geochemical investigations. See 11articular water; and State names. Magnetite, Front Range, Colo......................... 1
method and State names. Hydrothermal alteration. See Alteration. St. Lawrence County, N. ~----------------------- 35
Geochemical prospecting, copper deposits Maine, Aroostook County, geochemical
beneath alluvium ------------------------ 133 investigations .............................. 117
hydrogeochemical anomalies -------------------- 124 paleontology and stratigraphy........ 30
Idaho, Clark Fork area, structural geology_ .67
molybdenum ____ ------------------------------------------- 117
Columbia River area, hydrology______________ 88 Malta grav~l. geologic history........................ 56
Geochronology. See particular method. Manganese oxi·de minerals, Montana ---------- 127
Geomorphology, aggradation of channels___ 15 glacial Lake Bonneville----------------------------- 69
Glenns Ferry, geomorphology ---------------- 17 Mapping techniques, large-diameter drill
alluvia,! fans ------------------------------------------------ 75 holes .............................................. 137
petrology and stratigraphy.___________ 70
channel dimensions ---·-------------------------------- 13 Massachusetts, Boston, stratigraphy.............. 34
drainage basins-------------------------------------------- 16 Hagerman, petrology· and stratigraphy 70
Meltwater, characteristics .............................. 7
Lemhi Range, glacial geolQgy__________________ 68
slopes ---------------:-------------------------------------------~ 16 Meteorite, Canyon Diablo •. electronprobe
See also State names. pal eon to logy ------------------·-----------------------------99, 100 analysis of .................................... 112
Geophysical investigations, seismograms of Pocatello, glacial geology____________________________ 69 Michaud gravel, definition................................ 69
nuclear explosion and after- Snake River Plain, geomorphology________ 71 Mkroclimate, effect on erosion ...................... ,. 16
shocks -------------------------------------------- 103 geophysical investigations---------------- 105 Mineralogy. See particular mineral name
See also 1mrticular method and State Yellowstone area, geophysical and State names.
names. investigations ------------------------------ 104 Mississippian, Kentucky, south-central ....... 39
Georgia, hydrology ---------------------------------------------- 46 Infiltration, calculation by electric analog____ 28 New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap
Germanium, in enargite and other copper Insoluble residues, in limestone--------------------- 126 quadrangle 51
sulfide minerals---------------------------- 110 Iowa, Council Bluffs, engineering geology____ 130 Pennsylvania, Anthracite region ......... .. 38
 INDEX B-341
Article Article Article
Molybdenum,. in ~facial drift.......................... 117 Urnphalotrochus, occurrence, Northwestern Precambrian, Colorado, Front Range............ 1
in ground water-------------------------------------------- 133 United States .............................. 100 Idaho, Clark Fork........................................ 67

ii~ :~i~~~-::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 1:~

Ordovician, Maine, Aroostook County............ 30 Montana, Clark Fork.................................. 67
New Mexico, Mockingbird Gap New York, Adirondacks............................ 35
Montanu, Clark Fork area, structural quadrangle ...................:.............. 51 Precipitation, effect on composition of sur-
geology ------------------------------------------ 67 Nevada, southern ···············-----····---------------- 97 face water .................................... 84
Livingston, mineralogy .......................... 126 Oregon, Columbia River area, hydrology ____ 8, 85, 88 in correlation of runoff data................... 9, 42
Northern Rocky Mountains, glaciology. paleontology -------·------------------·--------------------- 1 00 Prospecting, See Geochemical prospecting.
paleontology ........................................ 99 Puerto Rico, Caguas, petrology .................... 92
p Ciales quadrangle, stratigraphy.............. 93
Philipsburg, mineral deposits.................. 127
Shonkin Sag laccolith, geochemical eastern, .economic geology------------------...... 91
Pacific Northwest, hydrologic trends.............. 8
investigations .............................. 108 Pulse repetition frequency method, meas-
uranium and radium in ground
Yellowstone area, geophysical urement of stream velocities.... 27
investigations .............................. 104 water ···········--------------------------------- 128 Pumping tests, analysis of................................ 20
Paleoclimatology, Wyoming ..... :...................... 65
MontoyR dolomite, stratigraphic relations.... 51 Pyrite, temperature of formation ........".........
Paleobotany, Cretaceous, Wyoming.............. 64
Morita formation, stratigraphic relations.... 53 Pyrrhotite, temperature of formation ---------
Jurassic, Colorado Plateau....................... 55
Morrison formation, folding........................... 66 Pyrophyllite, Puerto Rico.................................. 91
uranium ........................................................ 123 Paleocene, Colorado ················-------------------- 96
Mural limestone, lower member........................ 53 Pennsylvanian, Kentucky ------------------------ 95 Q
Tertiary, Colorado ------------------------------------·· 96
N Triassic, Colorado Plateau........................ 55 Quartz, rapid estimates by X-ray
Paleontology, Cretaceous, Alaska ----------------- 90 diffraction .................................... 145
Narrows ash layer, Idaho................................. 70 Wyoming ----------------····--------,----------------- 64 Quaternary, California, Mojave Desert........ 82
Nebraska, Fairmont, hydrology........................ 21 Mississippian, Kentucky .................... ..... 39 Colorado, Arkansas Valley........................ 56
Omaha, engineering geology.................... 130 Ordovician, Maine······-------------------------------- 30 Lead viii e ................................................. 56
Neo-cuproine, determination of copper........ 143 Nevada ····························--------------------·- 97 Idaho, Snake River Plain.......................... 71
Nevada, Aysees Peak, stratigraphy................ 97 Pennsylvanian, Alaska, southeastern... 101 Western United States.............................. 81
Cortez quadrangle, geochemical Kentucky --------------------------------·········--·-- 95 See also Pleistocene; Recent.
investigations .............................. 124 Permian, Northern Rocky Mountains... 99
Egan range, petrology................................ 74 Northwestern United States............. 100 R
Ely, petrology ............................ :................. 74 Tertiary, Kentucky ------------------------------------ 94
Fourmile Canyon, geochemical Radioactive minerals. See 1mrticular min-
Paleozoic, Carolina Piedmont.......................... 45
investigations ............................. 124 eral name.
Patterned ground, Beartooth Mountains,
Meiklejohn Peak, stratigraphy................ 97 Radioactive wastes, disposal, injection into
Wyo. -----------·--------············-------------- 65
Nevada Test Site, petrology .. .'................... 73 shale .............................................. 136
Glenns Ferry, Idaho.................................... 71
Oak Spring, stratigraphy.......................... 97 Radium, in ground water.................................. 128
Peat, coal balls ..... .... ...................................... 95
paleontology ................................................ 100 Rare earths, in igneous rocks ......................... 121 ·
permafrost and thaw depressions......... 65
New England, hydrology.................................... 33 Recent, Southwestern United States............ 80
Pelecypods, Early Cretaceous, Alaska............ 90
New Hampshire, geochemical Pennsylvania, Anthracite region, historical Western United States---------------------------·- 81
petrology ................................................... 31, 32 Reefs, Mississippian, Kentucky..................... 39
geology -----------------------------------------· 38 Replacement deposits, iron ore........................ 35
investigations ............................ 108 hydrology ---------------------··-------------------···· 37
New Hampshire plutonic series, Reservoirs, evaporation and seepage.............. 50
Pennsylvanian, Alaska, southeastern............ 101
radioactivity -------------------------------- 32 structural barrier ...................................... 88
Kentucky, eastern ---------------···-------------------- 95
New Mexico, Caballo Mountains, Rhabdite, in meteorites................................... 112
New Mexico, northwestern........................ 3
stratigraphy ------------------------------·- 51 Rhenium, in plants.............................................. 122
Mockingbird Gap quadrangle.......... 51
economic geology ···················------------------- 3 Rhyolite, petrology............................................. 74
Oklahoma, McAlester district------------------- 49
Fra Cristobal Mountains, stratigraphy.. 51 Ribbon rock, age............................................... 30
Lea County, stratigraphy ........................ - 52 Permafrost, in peat ------------------------------------------ 65 Rocky Mountains. See Specific Staf.es.
Permian, Nevada, Nevada Test Site............. 73
Los Alamos, mapping techniques......... 137
Grants, mineralogy .................................... 125 New Mexico, northwestern........................ 3 s
Mockingbird Gap quadr~ngle, Northern Rocky Mountains...................... 99
Saline minerals, elasticity................................ 102
stratigraphy --------··---------------------- 51 Northwestern United States................... 100
Petrofabric study, clay-mineral orientation 116 zoning ---------------------------------------------------------- 83
northwestern, mineral deposits................ 3 Salt, rock, elastic constants............................. 102
structural geology.............................. 3 Peters Gulch ash layer, Idaho.......................... 70 Salt anticlines, collapse structures................ 72
Oscura Mountains, stratigraphy............. 51 Petrology. See State names. San Andres limestone, uranium ..................... .
San Andres Mountains, stratigraphy... 51 Photography, time-lapse, mechanical Sand, ground water......................................... 85
See also Colorado Plateau. Savanna sandstone, abnormal bedding.......... 49
control ------------------------------------------ 135
New York, Adirondack Mountains, mineral Sawtooth peat deposit, permafrost............... 65
Photomultiplier fatigue ------------------·---------------- 139
deposits ·················-------------·····-····- 35 Sborgite, origin -------------------------------------------------- 129
Pitchblende, paragenesis ---------------------------------- 2
East Homer, hydrology·····--------·--------·---- Sch;eibersite, in meteorites .......·................... 112
Oneida Lake, seiches .................... ~:............ 36 Plants, copper in·-----------------,----------------------------- , 143
Scintillation countinl(, fatigue........................ 139
St. Lawrence County, mineral deposits 35 indicator of soil moisture ........................ 76, 98
Seepage, reservoir .............................................. 50
Newark group, dikes.......................................... 41 iron in ------------------------------------------------------------ 119
Seiches, characteristics ------------------------------------ 36
Niobium, in igneous rocks ·----------------: ......... 108, 121 rhenium in zoning of saline minerals_ 122 Seismic ·waves, frequency content................... 103
Nitrate, in surface water.................................. 84 Playas --·----------·.····-------------------·----------------------········ 83 Shearing, relation to metals in lithosols...... 58
North Carolina, High Rock quadrangle, Pleistocene, Idaho, Glenns Ferry...................... 70 Silica.te rocks, decomposition of samples..... 138
mineralogy··---··········--------------------- 118 Hagerman ------------------------·------------------- 70 rapid estimates of quartz and iron........ 145
piedmont, historical geOlogy.................... ·45 Lemhi Range ---------------------------------------- 68 Sodium, in surface water................................. 84
Nuclear explosions, seismograms.................... 103 Pocatello ------------------------------------------------ 69 Soils, cation exchange........................................ 22
Massachusetts, Boston .:.............. :............. 34 erodibility .................................................... 14
0 ion distribution ············-------------------------------- 22
Western United States.............................. 47
Ogalla formation, closed depressions.............. 52 iron content --------------···· ·------------·---------------- 119
Wyoming -----------------------------------··················- 65
metals distribution ------------------------------------ 58
Ohio, glacial geology .......................................... · 17 Pleistocene lakes, extent in Western United
moisture, relation to vegetation ................ 76, 98
hydrology ------···········---------------··--················ 9, 17 States ········------------------------------------ 47 mounds ------------------------:................................. 71
Ohio Creek conglomerate, fossil flora ............ · 96 Pocono formation, unconformity.................. 38 texture, response of vegetation to......... 76
Oklahoma, McAlester district, stratigraphy 49 Pogonip group, bioherms.................................. 97 water movement in...................................... 22
Olive Hill clay bed, mineralogy........................ 120 stratigraphic relations ·----------------------------- 73 South Carolina, piedmont, historical geology 45
Oliverian plutonic series, radioactivity.......... 32 Potash, elastic constants.................................. 102 Waccamaw River, hydrology.................... 44
B-342 INDEX

Article Article Article

South Dakota, paleontology______________________________ 100 Surface water-Continued Utah, Flaming Gorge, engineering geology__ 132
Specific conductance, conductivity bridge.... 29 tidal streams, measurement of Moab anticline, stratigraphy ____ _'_____________ 72
Specific gravity, sandstone______________________________ 78 velocity ---------------------------------------- 27 paleontology ------------------------------------------------ 100
Spectrography, determination of major con- water-temperature distribution______ 44 Sevier Valley, hydrology__________________________ 18
stituents in natural water........ 144 ultrasonic method for measuring Spanish Valley, stratigraphy____________________ 72
Sphalerite, germanium content._____________________ 110 veloCity ---------------------------------------- 27 Temple Mountain, paleobotany_____________ 55
iron content .... ---------------------------------------------- 141 Virginia, Alexandria . ____ ------------------------ 5 Uinta fault, landslides________________________________ 132
temperature of formation__________________________ 1 Washington ------------------------------------------------ 7, 86 Uinta Mounta-ins, structural geology____ 132
unit-cell measurements ---------------------------- 115 Northern Cascade Mountains See also Colorado Plateau.
X-ray diffraction studies............................ 114 South Cascade Glacier...................... 86
Stilleite, X-ray diffraction studies--------:-------- 114 White River ............. ---------------------------- 87 v
Stone pavements, origin__________________________________ 71 Wyoming, Fremont County _______ _-___________ _ 87
Storage of water. See Reservoirs; Surface Vanadium, Colorado and New Mexico____________ 125
water. T Vegetation. See Plants . .
Stratigraphy. See ages, names of units, Volcanic ash, as stratigraphic marker........ 70
and State names. Tennessee, Highland Rim, stratigraphy______ 40 chlorine and· fluorine content..________________ 111
western, Mississippi embayment
Streamflow, analysis ------------------------------------------ 10 origin ------------------------------------------------------------ 93
glaciers -------------------------------------------•------------ 7, 8, 87 syncline ---------------------------------------- 40 Volcanic glass, chlorine and fluorine content 111
Tertiary, Colorado, Arkansas Valley____________ 56 Volcanism, California, Long Valley______________ 106
measurement------------------------------------------------- 27
precipitation, effe~t ------------------------------------ 9 De Beque ---------------------------------------------- 61 Idaho, Snake River Plain ----------------------- 105
trends in, Pacific Northwest.................... 8 Gunnison County ------------------------------ 96 Yellowstone National Park ______________ _____ 104
Streams, capture ------------------------------------------------ 60 Leadville --------------------------------------------- 56 Volcanoes, Hualalai, Hawaii..___________________________ 89
channels, aggradation -------------------------------- 15 Idaho, Glenns Ferry__________________________________ 70
dimensions --------------------------------------13, 15, 48 Hagerman -------------------------------------------- 70
w
effect of rainfall and rock type on.......... 84 Kentucky, Jackson Purchase area.......... 94
erosion of banks____________________________________________ 14 Wasatch formation, diamictite facies 62
Montana, Philipsburg ----------------------------- 127 tongues ------------------ ------------------------------------- 63
flood-plain formation -------------------------------- 48 tripartition ________'_______ :__________________________________ 61
Nevada, Ely ------------------------------------------------ 74
glacial, competence ---------------------------------- 87
New Mexico, High Plains ..... :.... -------------- 52 Washington, Columbia River area,
Structural geology. See Faults and Fault-
ing; Folding; Jointing; and Pacific Northwest -------------------------------------- 88 hydrology -------------------------------------- 88
Puerto Rico, east-centraL________________________ 92 Northern Cascade Mountains,
State names.
eastern ______:___________________________________________ 91 glaciology -------------------------------------- 7, 86
Subsidence. See Land subsidence.
Sulfate, in surface water ................................ .. 84 Utah, Spanish Valley---------------------------------- 72 South Cascade Glacier, glaciology--------- 7, 86
Wyoming, Fort Hill------------------------------····- 63 White River, sedimentation____________________ 87
Sulfides, temperature of formation, Pre-
Fossil basin ______________ :_________________________ 62 Water-level fluctuations. See Ground water.
cambrian rocks -------------------------···
Sundance formation, folding ___________________________ _ 66 western __________ -------------------------------------- · 64 Weathering, sborgite from colemanite and
Surface water, Texas, Honey Creek basin, hydrology·__________ 50 priceite ------------------------------------------ 129
Alabama, Tallapoosa River .................... .. 42 Thorium, in igneous rocks ........................ 31, 32, 121 White Mountain plutonic-volcanic series,
ratio to uranium .. -------------------------------------'- 31 geochemical investigations· _____ : 108
artificial storage, effect on peak flow .. ..
Tidal fluctuations, water wells in radioactivity ____________________________________ _.____ ::..... 31
basins, effect of microclimate on devel-
crystalline rocks ------------------------ 46 w·ind direction and velocity recorder.. ,__________ , 146
opment ------------------------------------------ 16
relation to peak flows---------------------··· 33 Tidal streams. See Surface water Wyoming, Beartooth Mountains,
California, San Francisco Peninsula ...... 84 Tiltmeter, liquid-level _____________________________ :.'..... . 186 geomorphology_ ---------------------------- 65
Black Hills, st~u~tural grology________________ 66
Colorado, Badger Wash _____ ~-------------------- 59 Tin, in soils ----------------------------------------------:---------- 58
flood control, effect on aggradation _____ __ Todilto limestone, uranium ____________________________ __ Cheyenne River basin, geomorphology.. 16
15
floods, relations between basins ............. . Transducers, measurement of stream Fort Hill, stratigraphy.............................. 63
33
velocities ---------------- _____________ :,______ · 27 Fossil ·basin, stratigraphy.: .... ----------------- 62
suburban areas -------------------------,----------
flow in artificially roughened channels_ 12 Triassic, Appalachian region ............... :.......... 41' paleontology ------------------------------------------,-----99, 100
geochemical investigations---------------------- 83, 84 Colorado Plateau -------------------------------------- 54, 55 · western, stratigraphy --------~----------------------- 64
Nevada, Nevada Test Site·-----------'----'----- 73 Wind River basin, geomorphology__________ 15
low-flow frequency analysis .. ·----------------- 10
Utah, Spanish Valley________________________________ 72 Yellowstone area, geophysical . '
Maryland, Bethesda area ------------------------ 5
minimum flow, relation to rainfalL...... 42 Tuff, welded -------------------------------------------------------- 7 4, 93 investig!lt!ons ------------------~---;------- 104
Montana, Northern Rocky Mountains. Tungsten, in soils--------------------------------------------- 58
Tunnels, relation of supports to geology____ 131
x·
Nevada, Fourmile Canyon........................ 124
New England area.................................... 33 Tuscalossa gravel, stratigraphic relations.. 40 X-ray diffraction ·studies,,. chalcopyrite........ 114
New York, East Homer----------------~---------- clausthalite -------------"----------''------------------------ 114
Oneida Lake --------------------··---------- 36
u determination of cell .edges··-------------------114, 115
Ohio, Coshocton -------------------~--------------·····- 9 Ult.rasonic method, measurement of stream galena ---------------------------------------------.--------------- 114
Oregon, Columbia River__________________________ 8 velocities _________________ :: ___________ :_______ 27 sborgite -------------------------------------------------------- 129
peak flow, effect of artificial storage ... · · silicate rocks ------------------------------''------'----------- 145
Unit-cell measurements, relation to como
precipitation, relation to runoff............ 9, 42 position __-_______ :___________________ _-_~______ 1i4, 115 sphalerite --------------------------------------------'-------114, 115
quality --------------·--------------------------------~----29', 84, 144 stilleite _______________________________ _-___ , __________ ;:_,________ 114
sphalerite ---------------------------------------------------- 115
rainfall and rock type, effect O"n Uraninite __________________________________ _._________________________ 2, 4 X-ray diffractometer, clay minerals ...... ,......... 116
quality -----------------------~---------------_'__ 84 Uranium, andersonite, synthetic--------------------- 113
Xenoliths, nodules in basalt ------------------------- . 89
runoff, glacial ----------------------------:............... 7, 86
carbonate rocks, New Mexico ............... :.. ·3 y
relation to· precipitation.................. 9, 42
in fossil wood, Colorado Plateau.............. 55
stu'dies -------------------------------------------------- 59 in ground water.. .................... :.____________________ 128 Yellowstone National Park, ·geophysical
seiches -------------------------------------------:______________ 36
in igneous rocks---------------------------~----------- 31, 32 investigations ------------------·------"--- · . 104
South Carolina, Waccamaw River........ 44
in quartz-conglomerate, origin ..:...... .'.... 4
stage-fall-discharge ratings, modified ·
ratio to thorium ___________ :_____________________: ________ , 31
z
conveyance slope ------------~-,-------- 11
storage, effect on peak flows . vein deposits ---------------------------------------------- : 2 Zeolite replacement, Foraminifera _____, ________ :_ 94
6

~;::~ ~~~:~tyCr:e~a~-~~~=:::~::::·::::;:::::: Uraniuin deposits;- classificati-on· of Zfnc, in soils ______________________________________, ___ ,___ ;___ , __ ,__ 58
27
50 elements 123 Zircon, lead-alpha age determination .. :... :,_~ 45, 73
 INDEX B-343

AUTHOR INDEX

Article Article Article

Adler, Isidore ...................................................... 112 Hill, D. P. .......... ... ............................................ 105 Powers, H. A-. ..................................................... 70, 111
Anlweiler, J. C................................................... 138 Hilpert, L. S....................................................... 3 Prinz, W. C. ....................................................... 127
A •·ndt, H. H......................................................... 38 Hosterman, J. W. ............................................. 120 Puffett, W. P........................................................ 72
Houser, F. N....................................................... 73
Bnchmnn, G. 0................................................... 51 Huff, L. C. ........................................................... 133 Ratzlaff, K. W. ................................................... 22
Bnldwin, H. L., Jr ........................................... 104, 105 Huffman, Claude, Jr........................................... 143 Richter, D. H....................................................... 89
Bnltz, E. H........................................................... 137 Hunt, A. P. .......................................................... 81 Riggs, H. C ........................................................ 10, 42
Bnrker, F. B......................................................... 128 Hunt, C. B ........................................................... 79-81 Riley, F. S............................................................. 136
Bn•·ton, P. B., Jr............................................... 114 Roberts, A. E....................................................... 126
Bell, Henry, 11!.................................................. 45 Irwin, W. P. ....................................................... 78 Robinson, C. S. ................................................... 131
Benson, M. A....................................................... 33 Izett, G. A........................................................... 66 Robinson, T. W................................................... 79
Ber1·y, W. B. N................................................... 30 Rose, H. J., Jr..................................................... 45
Benyhill, H. L., Jr........................................... 93 Jackson, W. H ................................................ 102, 107 Ross, D. R............................................................. 113
Bethke, P. M....................................................... 114 ,Jenkins, Lillie .................................................... 108 Ross, R. J., Jr................................................... 97
B•·nbb, E. E......................................................... 90 Jobin, D. A......................................................... 67 Rubey, W. W ...................................................... 62, 64
Brndley, W. A..................................................... 134 Jones, B. F........................................................... 83 Ruppel, E. T....................................................... 68
B•·nnson, F. A ..................................................... 76:98
131-ight, M. J., Jr................................................ 117 Kaye, C. A............................................................. 34 Schneider, W. J ................................................. ..
Buddington, A. F............................................... 35 Kennon, F. W. ................................................... 50 Schopf, J. M......................................................... 95
Bull, W. 13 ........................................................... 75, 77 King, Elizabeth .................................................. 67 Schumm, S. A ...................................................... 13, 48
Bunker, C. M....................................................... 134 King, N. J. ........................................................... 15 Scott, R. A............................................................. 55
Butler, A. P., J1·. ............................................... 31 King, P. B............................................................... 41 .Scott, R. C............................................................. 128
Kinser, C. A. ....................................................... 142 Shapiro, Leonard ................................................ 141
Cnnney, F. C...................................................... 117 Koberg, G. E......................................................... 146 Sharp, W. N. ....................................................... 2
Cn1·penter, C. H.,................................................. 18 Koloseus, H. J. ................................................... 12 Shawe, D. R........................................................... 74
Cn1-r, W. J........................................................... 69 Shawe, F. R ..... ,................................................... 107
Cn•·te•·. R. W....................................................... 5 Lambert, T. W................................................... 94 Shen, John ............................................................ 36
Cnttermole, J. M................................................. 39 Landis, E. R. .................. .................................... 53 Simons, W. D....................................................... 8
Cooley, E .. F......................................................... 109 Simpson, T. A ....................................................... 37, 43
Leonard, B. F..................................................... 35
Co•·nwull, H. R................................................... 97 Sims, P. K............................................................. 1, 2
Leppanen, 0. E. ................................................. 21
Crnndell, D. n .....................................................57, 135 Lewis, R. Q......................................................... 39
Skinner, D. L....................................................... 143
Culler, R. C........................................................ 98 Sohn, I. G............................................................... 94
Lichty, R. W. ..................................................... 48
Stallman, R. W ............................................... 19, 20, 28
Lindberg, M. L. ................................................. 125
Dnum, C. R ......................................................... 29, 146 Stern, T. W. ......................................................... 45
Lofgren, B. E..................................................... 24
Dnvidinn, Jucob .................................................. 12, 33 Stewart, J. H ............................_........................ 54
Lohman, S. W .................................................... 23, 60
Dibblee, T. W., J1·............................................. 82 Stewart, J. W....................................................... 46
Lusby, G. C......................................................... 59
Diment, W. H..................................................... 103 Stewart, S. W. ..................................................... 103
Lyons, J. B ............... :.......................................... 32
Dinnin, J. I........................................................ 142 Stromquist, A. A................................................. 118
Dodson, C. L....................................................... 72 Stuart, W. T......................................................... 37
MeA !lister, J. F. ............................................... 129
Donnell, J. R ................................................... :...... 61 McQueen, I. S ........................................... 14, 29, 76, 98
Douglnss, R. C.................................................... 101 Tangborn, W. V................................................... 7
Malde, H. E ......................................................... 70, 71
Duncnn, Helen .................................................. 99 Tatlock, D. B......................................................... 145
Mapel, W. J......................................................... 66
Dut1·o, J. T., Jr................................................... 101 Taylor, A. R......................................................... 39
Marcher, M. V..................................................... 40
Dwo•·nik, E. J..................................................... 112 Thaden, R. E....................................................... 39
Marranzino, A. P ............................................. 124, ~33
El'ickson, U. L. .................................................. 124 Theobald, P. K., Jr............................................. 58
Meade, R. H............................................................ 116
Thompson, C. E ..................................-................ 58
Meier, M. F......................................................... 7, 86 Toulmin, M. S....................................................... 141
Fnhnestock, R. K............................................... 87 Meyrowitz, Robert .......................................... 113, 125
Feth, J. H ............................................................. 47, 84 Toulmin, Priestley, 3d........................................ 1
Miesch, A. T. ....................................................... 123 Tracey, J. I., Jr ................................................... 62, 64
Flnnngnn, F. J................................................... 139 Miller, R. D ....................................................... 130, 135
Fleischer, Michael .............................................. 110 Trexler, J. P ..:.................................................. ---- 38
Miller, R. E. ....................................................... 26
Trimble:' D. E....................................................... 69
Miller, R. F ..................................................... 22, 76, 98
Gnskill, D. L....................................................... 96 Mitchell, W. D..................................................... 6 Tweto, Ogden ...................................................... 56
Gottfried, Dnvid ................................................ 108 Murata, K. J....................................................... 89
'G•·itnn, W. C...................................................... 11 Myers, A. T ..:...................................................... 122 Varnes, D. J......................................................... 57
G•·itlltts, W. R..................................................... 109
Gl'imnldi, F. S..................................................... 108 Neuman, R. B. .......... ........................................ 30 Wagener, F. W................................................... 44
Newcomb, R. C................................................... 88 Wahlstrom, E. E .....................:........................... 131
Hnclley, R. F ............. :......................................... 16 Nichols, T. C., Jr.............................................. 140 Ward, F. N........................................................... 117
Hnffty, Joseph .................................................... 144 Norris, S. E......................................................... 17 Warner, L. A....................................................... 131
Hnit. M. H., J1·. ................................................. 68 Warrick, R. E..................................................... 102
Hull, W. E........................................................... 115 Oborn, E. T......................................................... 119
Weeks, A. D........................................................... 125
Hnmilton, J. C..................................................... 122 Olson, J. C............................................................. 121
Oriel, S. S ............................................................. 62-64 Weir, G. W........................................................... 72
Hnmpton, E. R................................................... 85 Weir, J. E., Jr..................................................... 137
Overstreet, W. C................................................. 45
Jiunscn, \V. R..................................................... 132 White, A. M......................................................... 118
Hnn·ison, ,J. E..................................................... 67 White, G. W......................................................... 17
Pakiser, L. C-................................. :.................. 104-107
Hnvens. J·. S......................................................... 52 Parshall, E. E.................................................... 135 White, M. G........................................................... 4
Hayes. P. T ..................................................~------ 53 Patterson, S. H.................................................. 120 Wires, H. 0........................................................... 27
l{ed.lund, D. -C ............................. ~ ...-.,.................· 121 Pavlides, Louis .................................................... 30 Wood, G. H., Jr................................................... 38
Helz, A. W........................................................... 144 Pierce, W. G. ..................................................... 65
Hendricks, T. A................................................... 49 Pillmore, C. L ................................................... .. 66 Yochelson, E. L................................................... 100
Herrick, S. M....................................................... 94 Poland, J. F ......................................................... 25 Young, E. J........................................................... 2
Hildebl'llnd, F. A ............................................... 91, 92 Poole, F. G ........................................................... 73 Young, R. A......................................................... 18
B-344 INDEX

FINDING LIST OF ARTICLE PAGE NUMBERS

Article Page .4rticle Page A1·ticle Page Article Page Article Page Article Page
1................ B-1 26 .............. B-54 51._ __________ B-'119 76 ----------- B-184 101. ___________ B-239 126 ____________ B-294
2 ________________ 3 27 ... ___________ 58 52 ____________ 123 77 ____________ 187 102 ............ 241 296
127 ········-··-
5 28 .............. 60 53 ............ 125 78 ____________ 189 103 ............ 243 128 ............ 298
3------···-···---
4 ................ 8 29 ______________ 63 5-L .......... 127 79 ____________ 192 104 ............ 246 129............ 299
5 ................ 9 30 .............. 65 55 ............ 130 80 ............ 194 105 ............ 248 130 ----------- 301
6 ................ 12 31 .............. 67 56 ............ 133 81... _________ 195 106 ____________ 250 131.. __________ 303
7 ________________ 57 ____________ 82 ____________ 107 ____________ 132 ........ ,... 306
14 32 .............. 69 136 197 254
8 ................ 17 33 .............. 71 58 ____________ 139 83 ____________ 199 108 ............ 256 133 ............ 308
9 ________________ 59 ____________ 84 ____________ 134 ......., .... 310
20 34 .............. 73 141 202 109 ............ 259
10..... ___________ 21 35 .............. 76 60 ----------- 144 85 ____________ 204 110 ............ 259 135 ____________ . 313
11 ________________ 23 36 .............. 80 61 ____________ 147 86 ............ 206 111 ............ 261 136 ............ 317
12._______________ 37 ______________ 82 62 ............ 149 211 319
25 87 ............ 112 ............ 263 137 ··-·---·--··
13 ................ 26 38 .............. 84 63. ___________ 151 88 ____________ 213 113 ............ 266 138 ____________ 322
14 ________________ 28 39 ______________ 88 64 ............ 153 89 ____________ 215 114..__________ 266 139 ............ 324
15 ................ 29 40 .............. 90 65 ----------- 154 90. ___________ 218 115 ............ 271 140 ----------- 326
16 ....... _________ 32 41. _____________ 93 66 ........... 156 91............ 219 116 ____________ 273 141 ----------- 328
17. _______________ 42. _____________ 96 67 ..... _______ 142 ............ 329
34 159 92 ............ 222 117 ··---------- 276
18 ________________ 43. _____________ 98 68 ____________ 93 ____________ 143 ----------- 331
36 163 224 118............ 278
19 ________________ 44 ______________ . 100 69 ____________ 94 ____________ 227 279 144 ____________ 333
39 164 119 ............
20 ................ 41 45 ______________ 103 167 95 ............ 228 120 ----------- 280 145 ............ 334
70 -··--------
21. _______________ 46 ______________ 71 ____________ 96 ____________ 121 .. __________ ~;37
43 107 170 230 283 146 ............
22 ________________ 47 ______________ 72 .... ________ 97 ...... ______ 122 ____________
45 110 173 231 286
23 ________________ 48 ______________ 112 73 ____________ 98 ____________ 233 123 ____________
47 176 289
24. _______________ 49 49 ______________ 114 74. ___________ 99 ____________ 235 124 ____________ 291
178
25. _______________ 52 50 ______________ 117 75 ----------- 182 100 ____________ 237 125 ____ _. ______ 293

-tr U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1961 0-596423