Abstract

This paper summarizes the arguments and counterarguments within the scientific discussion on

the issues of gastronomy and gastronomic tourism. Gastronomy is a great asset in tourism. It is

the part of culture and traditions of countries. Good cuisine is interesting for everybody, as they

all want to try good and tasty food. Many people travel just for gastronomic purposes. Food is

the essential need for human being, and it may become the main motivating factor for deciding

to travel. So the phenomena of gastronomy and its role in tourism are worth exploring.

The main purpose of the article was to analyze the role of gastronomy in tourism.

The methodological tool for the research was a survey, some hypotheses were derived, which

were analyzed via Crosstabulations with Pearson Chi-square testing.

The investigation of the topic and the results of the analysis state that gastronomy is the part of

culture and traditions of a country and also the art and culture of cooking. The research

empirically confirms and theoretically proves that many people prefer local cuisine of the

destination despite high prices and they evaluate the importance of good cuisine of the

destination very high. Also the overall satisfaction with the journey is influenced also by the

local cuisine of the destination.

The main conclusion is that gastronomy may promote tourism and countries which have

gastronomic heritage, should evaluate it and include it in touristic offers by making a

gastronomic brand of the region or country. Countries should have a gastronomic tourism

development plan. Gastronomic tourism should contribute to accomplishing of sustainable

1
development goals. It may be a driver force for advancing the economy, creating new jobs,

increasing the income of population who works in that sphere, etc. In order to meet the needs of

tourists, countries should carry out research to understand the consumer motivations and

behavior, and based on it to create gastronomic tourism product. Besides, educational

organizations should prepare high qualified professionals for the sphere, as the staff competence

has a great impact on service level, which in its turn influences customer satisfaction.

The results of the research can be useful for the state organs, private sector, also for researchers

of tourism sphere.

Keywords: gastronomy, culinary, tourism, culture, tradition, destination.

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 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

The global market is experiencing a wide range of transition in all areas ie. trade, travel,

education, culture, communication etc. This has resulted in a de-construction of all standard

methodologies and re-formation of new patterns of life styles. The recent trend is to experiment a

totally out of the box idea which is one of its kind and its creative abilities to explore the world.

This has led to a fresh outlook of everything which once upon a time could have been

unimaginable.

Gastronomy plays an important role in tourism development. Gastronomy is a part of culture, it

shows the traditions and values of nations. Tourists get to know the cuisines of different

countries while travelling. Sometimes gastronomy plays the decisive role in making a decision

about travelling. Also, it has a significant impact on the satisfaction of tourists from the overall

trip. So, the issues of gastronomy and tourism are very important and worth exploring in order to

develop a gastronomic brand and promote tourism.

This research is meant to presents to you, one such recent trend in the Food Industry which is

known as Food tourism. This is also referred to as Culinary Tourism and focuses specifically on

the study of various varieties of food available globally. It is obvious that to explore this variety

it becomes essential for the researcher to travel across the globe and discover the cuisines.

Hence, this involves extreme travelling and researching on the climatic conditions, cultural

importance, habitat prominence, natural resources and various other factors which influence the

emergence of these cuisines. Hence, the word gastronomy or Food Tourism has emerged

3
portraying the combination of Food & Tourism which has resulted the innovation of Food that

are not so prevalent but truly magnificent and deserve popularity.

In recent times, Food Tourism plays a vital role in the tourism industry as it is one of the major

factors for selecting a tourist destination. Eating out is most common for any tourist and more

importantly they would want to explore the local and traditional cuisine. The provides for such

information and gives a gist of the destinations as we rightly say food says much about the

people Food is also believed to be ranked next to the climate, accommodation, scenic attractions

etc. A food tourist may follow their favourite food truck from region to region, make a catalogue

of restaurants across the globe to visit in their lifetime, or plan an entire vacation Food tourism

does not mean that the tourist will only eat gourmet meals often, food tourists are in search of

authentic or new culinary experiences some may like to explore new restaurants, while others

may prefer street food. Food tourism is not about the type of food which a tourist eats it is about

the fact that when you go to a new place you try to find out new food experiences

The basic composition of a culinary tourism are five classes of activities which includes dining at

restaurants known for its local cuisines, purchasing local food products available only in that

region, tasting local beverages, dining at high quality restaurants, and dining at familiar chain

restaurants and franchises.

Gastronomic tourism belongs to unique experience and it has an increasingly important role in

case of Nigeria and Abuja in particular. This fact is supported by the international echo

According to the Lonely Planet (2015). A visit to Abuja Nigeria, is always a gastronomic

discovery and has become more of an adventure than ever."

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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Gastronomy promotes tourism and Nigeria with rich tourism heritage is yet to evaluate and take

advantage of this gold mine and includes it in her touristic offers by making a gastronomic brand

for the country. There is urgent need for Nigeria to development gastronomic tourism plan as a

means of accomplishing sustainable tourism development goals for the sector. Gastronomic

tourism has been considered a driver force for advancing the economy of nations. creating new

job opportunities and increasing the income of the population who in the tourism sector. And yet

the tourism master plan for the tourism sector in Nigeria omitted this gold mind.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The main aim of the research is to analyse the role of gastronomy in tourism. In achieving the

aim, the following objective shall be pursued

1. To evaluate the importance of gastronomy for the tourists.

2. To understand the benefits of gastronomy tourism to the hospitality industry of Abuja

FCT

3. To analyze the factors that would influence the sustainability of gastronomy food tourism

in Abuja FCT

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The aim of gastronomy tourism is to tutor and encourage food and wine fanatics while giving the

vacationer/ tourists a chance to explore the local area and learn about local food fashions

procedures and their food history. Tourists can do so by joining in a cultural immersion

experience at preferred destinations around the globe. Culinary tripping and tour plans should

5
include varied range of activities for research and innovation of local cooking, food sampling

and food fashions. It could also involve the study of various beverages that differ from region to

region or how they have evolved globally. Culinary travel encompasses of informative sessions

about past culinary experiences and detailed study of processes adopted by winery and brewery

experts, touring to restaurants and food manufacturing joints.

Such tripping also involves arranging of conferences and events with culinary experts or

professionals and authors of famous cook hooks and traditional food tastings. The study will be

of significant benefits to all tourism stakeholders and the academia.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

In achieving the set aim and objectives the following research questions are raised

1. Do you think gastronomy/food tourism play any role while deciding to travel?

2. Do you prefer local or international food during travel?

3. Do you think gastronomy tourism helps in creating employment opportunities?

4. Do you think occasional food businesses provide sufficient monetary gain?"

5. What do you think should be done to influence sustainable food tourism in Abuja FCT

1.6 HYPOTHESES

H0 Gastronomy has no influence on tourism and many people travel without gastronomic

motivation so it does not promote tourism

H1 Gastronomy has influence on tourism and many people travel with gastronomic motivation

so it promotes tourism

1.7 DEFINITION OF OPERATIONAL TERMS

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Gastronomy Tourism: is defined as the pursuit of unique and memorable eating and drinking

experiences. By combining travel with these edible experiences,

Culinary Tourism: Culinary tourism includes any tourism experience in which one learns

about appreciates, and comes food and drink that reflects the local, regional, or national

cuisine, hentage, culture, tradition or culinary techniques

Gastronomy Tourism: Travel in order to search for and enjoy prepared food and drink and

unique and memorable gastronomic experiences

Traditions: The way of life of a particular culture

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK

The literature review consists of two subsections. The first one elaborates on the three theoretical

foundations of strategic management used in the paper (RBV, ES, and PS) and their relationship

with hospitality, tourism and gastronomy literature. The second subsection provides a focused

review of the relevant literature on gastronomy.

2.1. Three Theoretical Foundations of Strategic Management and their Relationship with

Hospitality, Tourism and Gastronomy

2.1.1. Resource-Based View

The resource-based view assumes that organizations can gain a sustainable competitive

advantage by utilising resources that differ from those of their competitors (Grant, 1991; Barney,

1991). A considerable number of studies have discussed and adopted the RBV (Barney, 2001;

Peteraf, 1993; Wernerfelt, 1995; Barney et al., 2001; Acedo et al., 2006; Maurer et al., 2011).

RBV considers the unique resources and capabilities of firms that form their strategical

performance. According to the RBV, any difference in a businesses' performance is based mostly

on its unique resources and capabilities, not from the structural characteristics of the relevant

industry (Lee & King, 2006). The resources of firms may be physical capital resources, human

capital resources and organizational capital resources. This means that there are also intangible

resources of businesses such as values, knowledge, and beliefs (Rusko et al., 2013). In line with

Barney's (1991) research, Grant (1991) proposed a framework consisting of a five-step process

based on the beliefs of the resource-based approach: (i) identifying and classifying resources, (ii)

identifying capabilities, (iii) assessing the potential competitive advantage and appropriability of

8
the organisation, (iv) selecting strategies that will capitalise on the capabilities and resources of

the organisation in the pursuit of external opportunities, (v) the identification of resource gaps

and the upgrading of resources (Grant, 1991). Furthermore, Barney (1991) states that the firm

resources must be characterised by attributes such as valuable, rare, inimitable and non-

substitutable in order to create a sustainable competitive advantage.

RBV has been widely utilized in the hospitality and tourism literature (Lee & King, 2006;

Massukado-Nakatani & Teixeira, 2009; Andreu et al., 2010; De Carlo & Dubini, 2010; Peters et

al., 2011; Rusko et al., 2013; Evans, 2016; Alonso, 2017b) including in the context of

gastronomy tourism (Horng &Tsai, 2012; Alonso & Bressan, 2016; Alonso, 2017a; Alonso et al.,

2018). For instance, Lee and King (2006) propose a conceptual model to find out the

components determining the competitiveness of the hot springs tourism sector in Taiwan by

applying the RBV and the theories of industry organization (IO). The authors suggest that

destination competitiveness can be achieved by the adaptation of strategies and policies which

are in cohesion with market opportunities via benefiting of the unique tourism features of the

destination. In this respect, three factors such as destination resources and attributes, destination

strategies, and destination environments are considered as main indicators of competitiveness

(Lee & King, 2006). Additionally, the exploratory study of Alonso (2017b) investigates the

components of tourism development in Uruguay by adopting the RBV view of businesses based

on the perspectives of tourism stakeholders. According to its qualitative results there are

opportunities in various aspects such as expanding international markets and developing

additional destination attributes to minimise the effects of seasonality in the destination. There

are also some challenges (e.g. dependency on neighbouring markets and marginal airline

connectivity) that hinder destination development (Alonso, 2017b). On the other hand, Peters et

9
al. (2011) investigate the difference between RBV and market-based view (MBV) of

stakeholders and the effects of these approaches on their perception of cultural tourism

development. The study finds strategic perspective differences between destinations in terms of

standardization, leadership, authenticity perception, and sustainability orientation. Furthermore,

RBV enables more sustainable strategies for resource use but requires strong management skills

and vision (Peters et al., 2011).

From the studies which integrate RBV and gastronomy, Alonso (2017a) aimed to reveal the most

significant resources, and issues among Spain’s Cava wineries through the lens of the resource-

based view of the firms. The attributes related to the RBV, such as valuable, rare, imperfect

imitable resources and non-substitutability emerged in the study (Alonso, 2017a). The findings

illustrate that to cope with the challenges (especially the decline of domestic Cava consumption)

and maximise opportunities, the participants of the study stressed the importance of benefiting

from the growing popularity of gastronomy and wine tourism. Moreover, the necessity of the

winery management's' strategic efforts to take advantages in the international wine consumer

markets is also stressed in the study (Alonso, 2017a). Another related study by Alonso & Kok

(2018) suggests a framework based on the RBV and the dynamic capabilities approach for

understanding a region’s attractiveness from an international perspective. The findings indicate

the value of synergies between countries in terms of transferring knowledge and exchanging

expertise that can help to provide opportunities for developing renewable resources. Thus, in the

end, the formation of valuable and rare resources that can contribute to a destination’s

attractiveness and competitive advantage (Alonso & Kok, 2018). In addition to the above-

mentioned studies, Alonso and Bressan (2016) adopts the RBV of the firm to explore the most

important resources among micro and small firms operating in Italy’s wine industry. According

10
to the study, the most important resources are knowledge, reputation, product quality, service

quality, territory/region, and managerial/staff capabilities (Alonso & Bressan, 2016). Finally,

Alonso et al. (2018) have used RBV to examine the potential of culinary tourism from the

perspective of restaurant operators in Lima (Peru) and develop a framework of culinary tourism.

The authors find that culinary neighbourhoods where local dishes are at the centre of culinary

experiences show the strength of current strategies raising the national cuisine to an international

level. Additionally, the growing popularity of Peruvian cuisine and the cocktails based on local

beverages (Pisco) and products (lime and other tropical fruits) represent the originality and

uniqueness of Peruvian cuisine (Alonso et al., 2018).

2.1.2. Emergent Strategy

Mintzberg (1978) defines strategy as a pattern in the form of current decisions, countering the

idea that a strategy is simply a plan. By distinguishing between two aspects of strategy, namely

intended and realized, Mintzberg claims that the combination of both aspects can lead to three

different situations. Thus, intended strategies are called ‘deliberate strategies’ when they are

realized, and ‘unrealized strategies’ when they fail, regardless of the reason. It is emphasised that

in order to bring about a deliberate strategy, three conditions must be met: (i) the strategic

intentions must be exact and fully expressed, (ii) all actors in the organization must be well

informed about the strategy, and (iii) the strategy must be protected from the effects of external

forces (i.e. environmental factors must be completely under control). However, it has also been

stated that these conditions do not exist, and thus a deliberate strategy cannot be implemented

perfectly. Emergent strategies, on the other hand, are unplanned strategies that are not intended

(Kopmann et al., 2017), and occurs as a result of decisions and actions taken and lessons

subsequently learned (Mintzberg, 1978).

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Although various studies (Mariani, 2007; Mirabeau & Maguire, 2014; McDermott & O'Connor,

2002; Downs et al., 2003; Bodwell & Chermack, 2010) related to emergent strategy approach

were conducted in the literature, only a few studies (Bourlakis & Bourlakis, 2001; Ottenbacher &

Harrington, 2013; Aydın, 2019) related to this approach exist in the hospitality, tourism and

gastronomy literature. For example, Bourlakis and Bourlakis (2001) investigated the strategic

approach followed by businesses that operate in the Greek food multiple retail sectors. The

findings stressed the significance of warehousing in multinational logistics operations and the

crucial role of logistics in strategies of multinational retailers (Bourlakis & Bourlakis, 2001).

Ottenbacher and Harrington (2013 explored the key issues in the strategic process of a culinary

tourism campaign in Germany. According to the results, there were six key areas related to the

success of culinary tourism: the strategy, stakeholders’ cooperation, leadership, promotion of

culinary profile, communication of quality, and enhancing tourists’ perceptions (Ottenbacher &

Harrington, 2013). Finally, Aydın (2019) revealed that no clear strategy was applied for

gastronomy within the framework of tourism in Cappadocia.

2.1.3. Positioning Strategy

Since it is found to be a component of competitive advantage (Porter, 1980), market positioning

strategy is considered as one of the most significant elements of management in terms of

providing long term advantages for businesses in order to be successful in the market

(Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2019). As the core element of positioning, differentiation must be

ensured for one or more of the qualities of products, such as durability, technical features, design

differences, or customer services (Porter, 1980). Businesses that adopt a differentiation strategy

expect customers to pay a price premium for differentiated features of a product. On the other

12
hand, customers expect the products they choose to meet their expectations and are willing to

pay a higher price for this (Porter, 1980).

Differentiation is generally linked to the development of services and products that offer

inimitable attributes that are valued by customers and provide better value than their competitors

(Porter, 1985). Porter (1980) identifies the following sources of differentiation: location, product

features, product mix, reputation, association between functions, and links with other businesses.

Barney (2002), who has examined differentiation-based competitive advantage from a resource-

based perspective, demonstrates, based on observations of firms’ behaviours, that there are five

characteristics of differentiation: product complexity, product customization, different

distribution channels, an emphasis on consumer marketing, and services and support. Achieving

such differentiation is dependent on managers’ efforts and creativity (Barney, 2002). It is clear

from the related literature that for a differentiation strategy to be successful, research and

development (R&D) and advertising are considered as a basic requirement (Porter, 1980; Barney

& Hesterley, 2006). While R&D will lead to innovation and uniqueness, promotion contributes

to the firm’s value (Gao & Hafsi, 2019). Moreover, it is emphasized that the main aim of product

differentiation is to build up a position that is seen as unique and creates a sense of value for

potential customers (Shoemaker et al., 2007).

Although the positioning strategy was initially applied to products, due to its popularity and

applicability it is considered as an important strategic approach for other areas including

hospitality and tourism (Li et al., 2015). Regarding hospitality and tourism literature, the

destination positioning has been mentioned by various studies especially in terms of comparing

the competitiveness of destinations (Crompton et al., 1992; Botha et al., 1999; Uysal et al., 2000;

Chen & Uysal 2002; Li et al., 2015; Claveria &Poluzzi, 2017; Evren & Kozak, 2018). Moreover,

13
there are also studies related to positioning strategy in the context of image (Gallarza et al., 2002)

and brand (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2019) in the hospitality and tourism literature.

The main point of positioning in the context of tourism destination marketing is to identify the

critical characteristics that travellers have in mind and reinforcing them (Chen & Uysal, 2002).

As there is tough competition between tourism destinations to attract tourists, positioning has

become a crucial strategy (Rojas-Mendez & Hine, 2017). Each destination has various attributes

that have the potential to attract tourists (Kim et al., 2005). Therefore, for effective positioning,

the differentiated characteristics which distinguish one destination from others would be

attractive attributes for potential travellers (Crompton et al., 1992). These characteristics should

be promoted properly as they are critical elements of marketing strategies to position the

destination (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2019).

Within the context of gastronomy, some studies related to strategic positioning have been

conducted (Frochot, 2003; Gianezini et al., 2012; Klinger et al., 2019). For instance, Gianezini et

al. (2012) investigated food industries that adopt differentiation strategies and indicated that

successful organizations focused on differentiation of packaging, brand, and price (Klinger et al.,

2019). Frochot (2003) identified the different food images that may be used by tourism

advertisers in their promotional material to find out how different food images can be used for

destinations’ positioning strategies. Findings illustrate that the food image of the country is based

on local products/dishes, natural/raw products, and vine and vineyards. Chefs, restaurants, and

food producers also contribute to the image. Furthermore, that the study finds that positioning

strategies related to the food image chosen by the regions are not very strong (Frochot, 2003). A

recent study by Klinger et al. (2019) investigates the influence of managers’ strategic orientation

on decision-making related to differentiation and the impact of these two factors on the

14
performance of the wine businesses in Brazil. The results indicate that a positive relationship

between differentiation and prospector (organizational strategic behaviour that focus on products

and on development of technologies) orientation. Further, analyst firm positioning was

associated negatively with the differentiation of winery firms. Finally, differentiation has a

positive relationship with company performance (Klinger et al., 2019).

As it is evident, the three strategic approaches have been widely used in strategic management,

hospitality, and tourism literature. Although these approaches were separately implemented in

hospitality, tourism and gastronomy literature, no study has applied them together. In the context

of the strategic role of gastronomy in destinations, it may be useful to reveal a conceptual

strategic model that utilises all three approaches.

2.2. Review of the Relevant Literature on Gastronomy

2.2.1. The Importance of Gastronomy in Tourism Destinations

Unlike other travel activities, eating is essential for visitors to a destination as it is a primary need

(Kumar, 2019). Thus, travellers always have a budget for food and beverages. In this respect,

tourists visiting a destination have a high likelihood of encountering the local cuisine or local

food of that destination. Moreover, as it is the outcome of social, natural and cultural factors of

regions and reflects the local culture in the form of unique gastronomic values (Gordin et al.,

2016), gastronomy is a significant factor that is portraying the culture of destinations (Kim et al.,

2009; Hillel et al., 2013). Thus, this aspect of gastronomy is attracting tourists who are motivated

to learn about different cultures through local food and beverages (Kumar, 2019). Moreover,

local food is a crucial attraction for tourists and a significant factor for the tourist experience

(Henderson, 2009).

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As an element of cultural tourism, gastronomy offers new tastes and flavours of local cultures

which also provide learning opportunities for visitors (Widjaja et al., 2020). Tourists having a

strong desire for local food may search for novel gastronomic experiences, while tourists

experiencing local food are likely to have a memorable experience which may positively affect

their satisfaction, revisit intention and word of mouth (Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Björk &

Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2014). Furthermore, tourism destinations may have a strong image that

includes their unique cuisine and cultural values (Hall & Mitchell, 2007).

Additionally, through destination’s cultural heritage, gastronomy tourism has a significant role in

satisfying and leading memorable experiences to travellers (Hjalager and Richards, 2002;

Balderas-Cejudo et al., 2019). Thus, providing a memorable experience will result in a

sustainable competitive advantage (Widjaja et al., 2020). This attractive potential of gastronomy

tourism has become an important strategic element in terms of the tourism and hospitality sector.

Therefore, tourism destinations use increasingly their gastronomic resources to differentiate from

their competitors (Kumar, 2019).

2.2.2. Gastronomic Identity

Gastronomic identity emerges where two factors meet, namely the environment (climate and

geography) and culture (religion, history, ethnic diversity, traditions, values, and beliefs). It

encompasses the flavours, recipes, materials, techniques, and manners that belong to a specific

region (Harrington, 2005). To create and provide a gastronomic identity, Fox (2007) suggests

approaches such as differentiation, aestheticization, authentication, symbolization, and

rejuvenation. This is considered a beneficial framework for presenting a destination’s

gastronomic identity (Chang & Mak, 2018). Differentiation means using gastronomic products to

16
create or emphasise the cultural difference. Aestheticization involves offering gastronomic

products in a way that engages tourists' minds and taste buds and interacts with their lifestyles,

personal feelings, and social status. The third approach, authentication, should be aimed at

fulfilling the authenticity needs of tourists. Symbolization means to attribute cultural values to

ingredients, meals, menus, and gastronomic processes typical to the destination; this helps in the

creation of gastronomic symbols. The final approach, rejuvenation, refers to the reactivation of

local culinary customs or heritage by returning to traditional methods of food preparation (Chang

& Mak, 2018).The existence of a gastronomic identity may affect both on creating a sense of

place and bringing together different cultures (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Tourists can

participate in authentic local food activities, and these experiences then have the potential to

spread through word-of-mouth (Andersson & Mossberg, 2017). Capital theory supports this by

emphasizing that consumers’ experiences and understanding of cultural practices can come up in

conversations with others (Shenoy, 2005). In summary, given that a great many people want to

experience authentic food (Sims, 2009), a gastronomic identity is considered a unique source of

authenticity for tourism destinations.

2.2.3. Tourist Behaviour and Motivation Related to Gastronomy

Gastronomic identity and gastronomic tourism products only account for the supply side of this

issue. There is also the demand side and from this perspective, tourist behaviour and tourist

motivation that are associated with gastronomy are important issues. Accordingly, tourist

typologies that relate to these subjects need to be examined. For example, Fields (2002) divides

tourists’ food-related motives into four groups: cultural, interpersonal, physical, and status and

prestige. Kim et al. (2009) describe authentic experience and learning or knowledge as subsets of

cultural motivation. In their study, motivational factors such as escape from the routine, an

17
exciting experience, health concerns, an authentic experience, togetherness, gaining knowledge,

the physical environment, prestige, and sensory appeal are identified as aspects of local food

consumption. Santa Cruz et al. (2019) focuses on the gastronomic experiences of tourists who

visit the city of Oruro (Bolivia) and find that travellers can be segmented as survivors, enjoyers,

and experiencers according to their gastronomic experiences. The study further suggests that

these experiences are closely related to the relationship of gastronomy to the local culture (Santa

Cruz et al., 2019).

It is obvious from the literature that there are various studies related to the motivations and

typologies of tourists towards gastronomy (e.g. Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Fields 2002; Ignatov &

Smith, 2006; Hjalager, 2004; Boyne et al., 2003; Özdemir & Seyitoğlu, 2017; Björk &

Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016). Some of these studies (Hjalager, 2004; Boyne et al., 2003; Özdemir

& Seyitoğlu, 2017; Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016) clearly define gastronomy tourist

typologies and focus on tourists' behaviours related to gastronomy in destinations. As this study

aims to understand the strategic role of gastronomy in tourism destinations, these studies are

chosen to better understand the tourist’s behaviour related to gastronomy in destinations. First,

according to the gastronomy tourist typology suggested by Hjalager (2004), tourists can be

categorised as recreational, diversionary, experiential and existential in terms of their food

preferences. Diversionary and recreational travellers prefer familiar food; consequently, their

motivations towards local foodstuffs are weak and food is not a peak experience for these types

of tourists. On the other hand, existential and experiential tourists have stronger motivations

towards food. For them, food is seen as a peak experience that they may gain whilst on their

travels. Another gastronomy tourist typology, suggested by Boyne et al. (2003), is based on

tourists’ information searches. In this typology, for Type 1 tourists, food is an important part of

18
their total touristic experience. They search for food-related information when travelling to a

destination. Type 2 tourists are not active searchers when it comes to food but when they

encounter food-related information, they are sometimes interested in it. Type 3 and 4 tourists,

meanwhile, do not search for food-related information at all. Nevertheless, Type 3 tourists are

sometimes passive observers and may take part in food-related activities when they encounter

them. Another significant gastronomy tourist typology is suggested by Özdemir and Seyitoğlu

(2017): authenticity seekers, moderates, and comfort seekers according to gastronomical quests

of tourists in destinations. While local food is significant when travelling for authenticity

seekers, comfort seekers consume familiar food in familiar environments. Moderates may

consume local food in destinations, but they are not actively searching for local foodstuff.

Finally, Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, (2016) defined tourists as experiencers, enjoyers and

survivors in relation to their behaviours towards gastronomy. For the experiencers food and food

related activities are essentials. Enjoyers also consider gastronomy as significant aspect in their

vacation experience but their main target is not gastronomy-related to activities. As the last, for

the survivors, the local food of a destination only means to resolve their physiological needs

(Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016).

In terms of tourists’ perspectives, one can conclude from these classifications that the

significance of food experiences as part of the total tourist experience depends on tourists’

interest in foodstuffs and local gastronomy. Quan and Wang (2004) develop a conceptual model

that explains the tourism experience in two different aspects named as the peak and supportive

experiences depending on whether they are the main motivation or not. Considering local food in

destinations, when local food consumption is the main motivation for tourists it is becoming

peak experience. However, if food is accepted as an everyday activity or just a need, it is a

19
supportive experience. The authors emphasize that food is the main component of the tourist

experience when it is also the main motivational factor. In such cases, the consumption of local

food can provide memorable and enjoyable experiences for tourists (Quan & Wang, 2004).

According to this model, Table 1 summarises and compares the above-mentioned tourist types

and the role of food in their overall experiences.

Table 1. Gastronomy Tourist Typologies and their Experiences

The Role of Food in Overall

Experience

Group 1 Group 2 Group 3

Peak

Food is not a main Supporting experience experience

motivation and not

important

Hjalager, 2004 Recreational Diversionary Experiential Existential

Boyne et al., 2003 Type 4 Type 3 Type 2 Type 1

20
 Özdemir and Comfort seekers Moderates Authenticity

Seyitoğlu, 2017 seekers

Björk and Survivors Enjoyers Experiencers

Kauppinen-

Räisänen, 2016

The significance of gastronomy as a motivation for tourists is obvious in many tourism

destinations (Lopez-Guzman et al., 2018; Agyeiwaah et al., 2019; Medina-Viruel et al., 2019),

and in many destinations such as Hong Kong, Australia, Canada, South Africa and France the

gastronomic experience is sometimes more important than other attractions (Agyeiwaah et al.,

2019). Moreover, gastronomy tourism may enable positive destination experience and image

(Quan & Wang, 2004; Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Lopez-Guzman et al., 2018)

According to these concepts, definitions, and explanations, one can conclude that by integrating

strategy and gastronomy, tourism destinations may obtain a competitive advantage. Therefore,

with the help of this review of the extant literature, a conceptual model is proposed in the present

study that explains the strategic role of gastronomy in destinations through making connections

between concepts from the disciplines of strategic management and gastronomy.

3. The Proposed Conceptual Model: Strategic Role of Gastronomy in Destinations

21
In order to understand the strategic role of gastronomy in destinations, there is a need to evaluate

whether gastronomy is a strategic resource for a destination; if gastronomy is a strategic

resource, what kind of process will help it form a strategy? The conceptual model presented in

Figure 1 is based on the concepts and theories in the relevant literature (strategy and gastronomy)

and is a response to this need. According to the model, a gastronomic identity is a strategic

resource for a destination. A strategy that sets a destination apart from its competitors could be

formed through the presentation of gastronomic tourism products that are created using this

resource (gastronomic identity). This strategy is at least initially the result of an organic process

rather than a planned approach. However, in time, the process can be transformed into a

deliberate strategy when it is realized that a strategy based on gastronomy is already developing.

Destination managers or stakeholders can therefore engage in planned actions to develop and

implement a differentiation strategy based on gastronomy.

3.1. Resource based view (strategic resource - gastronomic identity)

According to the RBV, to be considered strategic, resources need to be valuable, unique,

inimitable, and non-substitutable (Barney, 1991). Only a strategic resource that has all these

qualities can help achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. Gastronomic identity is accepted

as an original resource of destinations that is valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable

(Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Uzut (2016)’s empirical findings, from a study carried out

with tourism stakeholders in Istanbul, support this view.

The gastronomic identity of a destination is the main element influencing tourists who have a

strong motivation for gastronomy (Kim et al., 2009) and those whose food-related consumption

plays an important role in tourism experiences (Quan & Wang, 2004). However, a gastronomic
22
identity cannot be directly experienced by tourists because of its intangible components and the

limited availability of existing tangible components. Therefore, destinations need gastronomic

tourism products that are produced based on a gastronomic identity (Nebioğlu, 2016).

Gastronomic tourism products may include local food and beverages, innovative recipes that use

local ingredients, agricultural practices, regional production techniques, local restaurants,

festivals, food or wine routes, farms, and food-related museums, etc. (Smith&Xiao, 2008).

However, a strategic process is required for the development of these products and their

presentation to relevant tourist markets. One of the most important stages of this process is the

discovery of a gastronomic identity.

Horng and Tsai (2012), in their study of the relationship between gastronomy and destination

competitiveness, identified the determination of gastronomic tourism resources and their

effective use as the first key factor in the success of a destination. The actors in a destination who

may discover a gastronomic identity include tourists, entrepreneurs, and researchers. Tourists

traveling for a unique gastronomic experience may be the main explorers of the gastronomic

values of a destination (Hjalager, 2004). On the other hand, researchers working on the

gastronomic values of a region may also be effective in the discovery of a gastronomic identity.

Meanwhile, entrepreneurs can realize the value of the unique gastronomy of a destination by

recognizing the interest of tourists and researchers, enabling them to foresee the potential

economic benefits of a gastronomic identity.

3.2. Emergent strategic process (development of gastronomic tourism products)

23
The process of developing gastronomic tourism products may be considered as an autonomous

strategic initiative (Mirabeau & Maguire, 2014). According to Mirabeau and Maguire (2014), in

a business, entrepreneurs try to generate solutions or innovations by evaluating the opportunities

they see; this may also help with the development of a strategy for the business as a pattern

emerges over time. A similar process can also be observed at the destination level, with products

based on a gastronomic identity, whose value has been identified by discoverers (entrepreneurs,

researchers or tourists) playing a key role in the development of this process. At this stage,

discoverers will not only appreciate the value of a gastronomic identity but also develop

gastronomic tourism products and implement cooperation opportunities with stakeholders. In

addition, they will begin to engage in efforts such as the production and marketing of

gastronomic tourism products. Although these efforts may be deliberate, at the destination level,

it is apparent that this process is not actually a deliberate strategic planning approach. Rather, as

Mintzberg (1978) clearly states, it is a strategic process known as an “emergent strategy” which

is initially unintended and occurs as a result of decisions and actions taken and lessons

subsequently learned.

The findings of the conceptual and empirical studies in the literature support this view, that

concerning gastronomy, an emergent strategic process is more likely to happen at the destination

level. For example, Hjalager (2002) conceptualized the development logic of gastronomic

tourism in four stages, hierarchically listed as local, horizontal, vertical and diagonal. In the first

stage, the "local stage", gastronomic products are introduced into promotional materials, while

the improvement and protection of the quality of these products is the next stage, known as the

"horizontal stage". In the third, “vertical stage”, gastronomic products are combined with other

tourism products, and other new products are developed. The last stage, "diagonal development",

24
refers to the possibility of marketing gastronomic knowledge. The whole process begins with

tourists’ interest in local gastronomic products and continues as increasingly complex

relationships between entrepreneurs are developed. This conceptual definition points to a pattern

that is shaped by decisions and actions taken in response to developments at each stage (mostly

tourist demand and competition), rather than by deliberate actions based on a long-term plan.

More concrete evidence that this process is an emerging strategic process rather than a planned

approach can be found in empirical studies. Ottenbacher and Harrington (2013) support this

statement by providing a qualitative study of the development of gastronomy tourism at a

destination in Germany. The results of the study show that due to the absence of a deliberate

strategy at the beginning and the lack of stakeholder management and leadership at the

destination, a planned strategy could not be implemented; rather, a strategy emerged with

initiatives taken to take advantage of the potential benefits of gastronomy for the destination.

Similar findings were obtained by a study of tourism stakeholders in Cappadocia (Aydın, 2019).

According to this research, local gastronomic tourism products such as local restaurants and wine

tasting have emerged in response to tourist demand through the individual initiatives of local

entrepreneurs following the predicted gastronomic potential of the region. The results also show

that an emergent strategy is more convenient for Cappadocia because of the lack of a clear

strategy (Aydın, 2019).

3.3. Positioning strategy-differentiation

It is important for destination managers to position their destinations to attract potential visitors.

For tourism destinations, positioning is a process which starts with determining the rivals and

creating or offering a unique feature that is not found in other destinations in tourists’ mind (Kim

et al., 2005). Unique attributes of destinations are considered as the most significant components

25
for effective positioning that make difference from rivals (Rodríguez-Molina et al., 2019). A

unique strategic position is an indicator of the decision making of consumers and encourages the

implementation of strategies. Additionally, strategic position based on unique features leads to a

differentiated value which is essential for consumers and advantages in terms of competition

with rivals (Klinger et al., 2019). With the help of positioning strategy, a destination may

differentiate its products or services in comparison with its rivals, to provide a unique experience

(Klinger et al., 2019).

Providing a unique gastronomic identity and, hence, generate a positive destination image will

help to attract the attention of target visitors in tourism destinations. Therefore, the destination

will be able to use its gastronomic identity as a strategic resource to achieve a differentiated

position in the tourism market. In fact, the strategic role of gastronomy in terms of the

destination is embodied at this stage. Accordingly, gastronomy can either play a complementary

role or it can transform the destination into a gastronomic tourism destination. In the case of the

former, while gastronomy is not the main reason for tourists to visit the destination, it may

nevertheless influence the selection of the destination, the pleasure of the tourism experience,

and tourists’ revisit intentions. On the other hand, when a destination becomes a gastronomic

destination, experiencing local food and culture may be the main purpose of traveling to the

destination. However, in both cases, the destination differentiates itself with the unique features

of its gastronomy. A

study that supports this view examined the use of food in promotional material at two different

destinations, Hong Kong and Turkey (Okumus et al., 2007). The study found that food was seen

26
as the main component of destination competitiveness in Hong Kong, and the destination

positioned itself as an international destination for gastronomy. On the other hand, although

Turkey has a unique and rich local cuisine, it makes less use of food in its marketing. Thus,

gastronomy is seen as a complementary component.

As predicted by the strategic management literature, an emerging strategy may become a

deliberate strategy over time (Mintzberg, 1985). The relationship between gastronomy and

destination competitiveness can be seen in geographical marking and marketing studies.

Geographical marking aims to highlight and preserve the uniqueness of local gastronomic

products and show that destination management understands the value of gastronomy for tourism

and the need for actions to be taken in this respect. Whether it is a complementary or main

component in destination marketing, the use of gastronomy should be conscious. Both ways may

require different marketing approaches for tourists with different gastronomic motivation,

because different tourists’ types mean different expectations from destinations. For example,

gastronomy can be positioned as a complementary component in destination marketing. In this

respect, for tourists in group 2 (see Table 1), who are ‘diversionary’, ‘experiential’, ‘Type 2’,

‘Type 3’, ‘moderates’ and enjoyers, gastronomic attributes can be supporting experience (see

Table 1), because, these tourists have lower motivation towards foodstuff and thus, they may

probably prefer familiar food. Moreover, these tourist types are not an active searcher for local

food in destinations. However, they may be involved in food-related activities when they

encounter and like them. Therefore, the marketing approaches should consider that these tourists

are not the main target for gastronomic tourism destinations but with the help of other attributes

of destinations they may be involved with the local food to some degree.

27
On the other side, the second option (gastronomic tourism destination) can be explained using

the tourists with high motivation for experiencing local food and beverages in group 3 (see Table

1) who are ‘existentialist tourists’, ‘Type 1’, ‘authenticity seekers’ and ‘experiencers’. These

types of tourists will have a different perspective on destinations with gastronomic tourism

products based on a gastronomic identity. When a destination is marketed as a gastronomic

destination, gastronomic attributes likely to be peak experience for gastronomy tourists which

may lead to a memorable experience, because gastronomic tourism destination provides a

connection with local culture (Hjalager & Richards, 2002). Moreover, memorable gastronomic

experiences in such destinations will help tourists develop an emotional connection with the

destination and create a sense of place (Tsai, 2016). A memorable experience is a multi-

dimensional term that includes elements such as locality, hedonism, refreshment, happiness,

meaningfulness, knowledge, novelty, involvement, and participation. In addition, these

experiences are usually remembered long after the event(s) (Kim et al., 2012). Therefore,

experiencing local culture through local food of destination based on gastronomic identity is an

important component of the memorable moment (Morgan and Xu, 2009) for gastronomic

tourism destinations. This is empirically supported in Chandralal and Valenzuela’s (2013) study,

which shows that participants’ memories are strongly linked with local food experiences in

foreign destinations.

Gastronomic tourism destinations have a strong image that includes their unique cuisine and

cultural values (Hall & Mitchell, 2007). The related literature shows that it is possible to create a

positive food image to develop and strengthen a sense of place, as tourists identify a certain

destination with a certain gastronomic identity (Karim & Chi 2010). Thus, tourists will tend

28
towards choosing destinations that have a sense of place and a food image (Chi et al., 2013). On

the other hand, creating a positive food image may be possible with effective marketing

techniques (Rand et al., 2003). First, a good knowledge of local cuisine and local culture is

needed to generate a strong image (Horng & Tsai, 2010). Reflections on these views in practice

are seen more clearly in studies on the promotional materials of destinations. Destinations can

provide information on local food culture, local restaurants, recipes, and menus in their

promotional materials (Beer et al., 2002). Thus, it will be possible to influence the destination

choice of tourists through promotional materials and websites. The content of destination

websites, in particular, is important for the promotion of destinations’ local food as they can help

shape the culinary image of a destination (Horng & Tsai, 2010). On the other hand, destination

branding that is closely related to the image has been identified as a way to communicate a

destinations’ unique identity by differentiating destinations from their rivals (Rojas-Mendez &

Hine, 2017). Furthermore, destination branding contributes to the differential destination image

which has a key role in the creation of destination positioning (Pike & Ryan, 2004).

The importance of promotional materials for creating a destination’s food image is also

highlighted in the literature. For instance, Frochot’s (2003) study of the promotional materials of

19 destinations in France revealed how local cuisine and gastronomy items (e.g. cheese,

restaurant dishes, local products, and wine) were used as part of France’s international tourism

promotion strategy. Another study by Okumus et al. (2013) examined the promotional materials

of the four Caribbean islands, and found that the extent of the representation of food in both text

and images vary depending on the adopted marketing strategy.

29
Finally, regardless of the role of gastronomy in destinations (complementary or gastronomic

tourism destination), factors such as gastronomic image, gastronomic brand, promoting, and

marketing activities are crucial. The only difference between the two roles is the following: if a

destination position itself as a gastronomic tourism destination, the gastronomic image, and

gastronomic brand should be stronger in order to compete with other gastronomic destinations.

Accordingly, promoting and marketing activities should be more efficient and mainly targeted

toward the tourists who have a stronger motivation for gastronomy (e.g. existentialist, Type 1,

and authenticity seekers).

In summary, the conceptual model describes a strategic process that starts with a gastronomic

identity as a strategic resource through to the development of gastronomic tourism products. In

this process, gastronomy, which takes the form of a type of differentiation strategy with the

potential to be turned into a deliberate marketing strategy, plays an important role in the

competitiveness of a destination.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.4 Concept of Gastronomy

The word gastronomy is derived from the words "geo" and "gnomos" (which mean stomach and

knowledge or law in Greek) Another word is culinary, which mean dishes, food, food

preparation techniques (Kivela & Crotts, 2006), Culinary is a Latin word "culina means Kitchen

or cooking) (Montarini & Maniais, 2009) and it refers to ingredients, foods that we prepared,

beverages, production process (Horng & Tsai, 2010), Gastronomy is not only about food but also

about beverages (anche Comizares & Lopes-Guzman, 2012)

30
It was Long (2004) who first used the term "almary tourism in 1998 so express the idea of

experiencing other cultures through food and wine, Wall (2002) defines culinaria" and

gastronomy tourism as "travel in order to search for and enjoy prepared food and drink and

unique and memorable gastronomic experiences Food and cuisine are an integral part of the

culture of communities and destinations and tourists want to related branch of art and science

that has a direct relation with chemistry, literature, biology, geology, history, music, philosophy,

psychology, sociology, medicine, nutrition, and agriculture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006)

Boyne, Williams, and Hall (2002) state that the "inter linkages between tourism and food Rany

and Henderson (2009) presents three research lines around the relationship between (tourtum and

gastronomy food as a tourism product, the marketing of food to tourists and food Hourians as an

instruments if destination and general development.

Takkan (2007) considered that a pleasant eating experience is one of our main physiological

needs at all times Henderson (2000) and Alonso (2010) stated that food and tourism share a

very close relationship with access to good food, being a critical tourism resource. A region's

local foods can be a motivating factor among tourists seeking unique and authentic experiences

and it is during these events that tourists are exposed to their host's cultures (Plummer et al. 2005

cited in Alonso, 2010).

As the motivation of the tourist revolves around food, experiencing new tastes, and exploring the

history or culture, it becomes gastronomic tourism (Hall and Sharples, 2003; cf. Chaney &

Ryan, 2012).

31
Thus, food is an essential prerequisite that all tourists eat when travelling and for some good

food can be a draw and primary motivator (Henderson, 2009).

Food had become recognized as:

1. A part of the local culture, which tourists consume;

2. A part of tourist promotion:

3. A potential component of local agricultural and economic development;

A regional factor that is affected by the consumption patterns and perceived preferences of the

tourists (Hall and Mitchel, 2001; Misiura, 2006 in Tikkanen, 2007).

Gastronomic tourism includes visiting food producers, food and beverage festivals, restaurants

and special places related to some special foods together with tasting a special dish, observing its

production and preparation processes or eating a special dish from the hands of a very famous

chef as well as seeing how a certain dish is being prepared (Hall et al. 2003; Hall & Mitchell,

2005).

McKercher et al (2008) have segmented the market into three subgroups. The first group travels

to a destination especially for gastronomic reasons who try to experience local food Most of their

activities during their stay are related to gastronomy. According to the second group, food is

important but not that much. It has an important role but gastronomic issues do not direct the

holiday decisions. The last group has a continuum from less gastronomic activities to none.

For Shenoy (2005) there are only three types of gastronomy tourists. The first group is culinary

tourists for whom food has an important role and they have a special interest in food-related

32
activities during their holiday. The experiential tourists try local food but are not interested in

much as the culinary tourists. The third group is general tourists group who are totally the

opposite of the culinary tourists in terms of gastronomic interests.

According to a study by Kivela and Crotts (2009) gastronomy is considered as a modern cultural

resource and thus, it satisfies all the conventional requirements of cultural tourism products.

Their research showed that motivation to travel for gastronomic reasons is a valid construct for

the purposes of market segmentation

Besides, gastronomy has a very big role in the way that visitors experience the destination, and

therefore, travellers would like to return to the same place to savor its unique gastronomy,

Another research for exploring food tourist desires and intentions to consume local cuisine was

done in six restaurants in the South-Eastern USA among 430 tourists and the results showed that

positive emotions and self-identity had the strongest influences on desire; besides, the frequency

of past behaviour had the strongest influence on intentions to consume local cuisine (Levitt, et al.

2017)

A recent study by Stone et al (2017) was carried out to identify elements leading to memorable

food, drink, or culinary experiences while traveling. Qualitative analysis based on a survey of

1000 tourists in four countries found five general elements which lead to memorable food travel

experiences food or drink consumed, location or setting, companions, the occasion, and touristic

elements

33
Another research was done in Taiwan by Lin. Pearson and Cai (2011) which suggested that food

may be used as a form of destination brand identity and may become a powerful factor in

building a destination brand.

2.2 Generation-theory and tourism

This approach is popular in the field of tourism marketing and research, not only from academic

but also from practical point of view. From academic point of view, the survey of the travel

behaviours is in the focus point, with analysing the questions of further consumers' behaviour

approaches. One of these approaches is the life cycle theory and its adoption to consumer

behaviour (Lepisto 1985), which refers to that fact, that as one gets older and reaches different

stage of life, the consumption patterns change as well. "Researchers have also argued that this

theory can be applied to explain travel behaviour. One of the first applications of this theory to

leisure and tourism was by Rapaport and Rapaport (1975), who used the family life cycle theory

to discuss the changing context of leisure activities over a person's family life" (Chen &

Shoemaker 2014, 60). Further aspect to be analysed is the so called continuity theory assuming

that the basic psychological characteristic (attitudes, main patterns of behaviour and

consumptions) are unchangeable during the life cycles. Longitudinal researches made

considering tourism behaviour shows that the main motivations and destination choice change

only in some measures during ten years (Shoemaker 2000).

According to Chen and Shoemaker (2014) the generation-theory is widely used in tourism

particularly to understand the attitudes and motivation of different generations (Generation Z

X, Y as well as Baby Boomers, Silent Generation or Lucky Few).

34
Regarding the travel habits of the different generations the followings can be seen in Figure |

Another research was done in Taiwan by Lin. Pearson and Cai (2011) which suggested that food

may be used as a form of destination brand identity and may become a powerful factor in

building a destination brand

Trying new

Source AARP 2014

The older generation travels more in a good health than some decades ago. After reaching the

age of 60 years the seniors lay the emphasis on their health and from this perspective a relatively

homogenous group can be named (Huang and Pet- rick 2010). The so called Silent Generation

(bom before 1929) prefers mainly being with their families, with less activity and more care

about health issues. The Lucky Few (1929-1945) search for cultural activities and the community

plays an important role during travelling. The Baby Boomers (1943-1960) are really active, so

they prefer active holidays as well, and search for intellectual challenges, new experiences, they

are particularly interested in spirituality, but all their decisions are taken in a price-sensitive way.

35
The members of Generation X (1961-1981) are on the peak of their carrier and they travel

particularly with their families or for business purposes. The first motivation for them to travel is

to be with their families; there is a strong emphasis on multi-generation travel, and life cycle

effect, which means that the age of the kids have a great emphasis on their travel decisions

Furthermore, they search for new experiences and cultural travels as well as discounted packages

(Huang & Petrick 2010.)

In the case of Generation Y (boom between 1982- 2002 according to Pendergast 2010) the

advanced usage of technology and the real experience connected to globalization as travelling

studying abroad can be named as mutual life experience. From this point of view, this

Generation has great practice and high expectations regarding the travel gadgets. Further on they

continuously search for new things: "This need to live for the moment and search for hedonism

does, however, prove challenging in that it indicates that Gen Y more than most generational

cohorts are constantly seeking the next big thing" (Leask et al. 2013:20). The good price value is

crucial for them, so they are conscious costumers who make thorough research, particularly

online before making decisions (Benckendorff et al. 2010). They search for authentic

experiences with "cool services, which are unique, and have interesting character (Sziva &

Zoltay 2016).

Regarding Generation 2 (boom after 2010 according to Benckendorff et al. (2010), but according

to Pál et al. (2013) should be identified as "starting date") their motivation for exploring should

be highlighted. Travelling alone means becoming adults for them and that is one of their reasons

for travelling. They are even more conscious open and economical than their Generation Y

36
mates. Technology is also even more important for them, as well as they are named to be

explorers and search for slow travel (Ting 2016)

2.3 Role of Gastronomy in Tourism

According to UNWTO (2020), Gastronomy is about much more than food. It reflects the culture,

heritage, traditions and sense of community of different peoples. It is a way of promoting

understanding among different cultures, and of bringing people and traditions closer together.

Gastronomy tourism is also emerging as an important protector of cultural heritage, and the

sector helps create opportunities, including jobs, most notably in rural destinations. Several

destinations are getting ready to restart tourism through adaptation of gastronomic tourism.

Which are shown on the pictures below

Plate 1 African cuisine

Nigeria. Algeria, Zambia. Cote d'Ivoire Uganda, and others African commies present resistible

recipes of local dishes Across Africa, gastronomy so can be used to d economic growth and

create jobs, including in rural communities, and help protect and promo

cultural heritage

Plate 2 American cuisine

37
Latin American and Caribbean combine refreshing bites with slow-cooked traditional dishes,

offering a cuisine full of touches that never cease to surprise tourists taste buds. A major

component of history, tradition and identity, gastronomy has also become a major motivation to

visit this region.

Plate 3 Asian cuisine

The largest continent in the world offers delicacies for all types of palates. Sweet, sour or spicy, a

wide range of mouth-watering flavours is on the table. Gastronomy tourism has a unique ability

to contribute to the growth of sustainable tourism in Asia and the Pacific.

Plate4 European Cuisine

From the best known Mediterranean dishes to the cuisine of Eastern Europe, the gastronomy of

this region is blends together past and present, tradition and creativity. The diversity and cultural

richness of European cuisine has become a leading element in attracting visitors, and gastronomy

tourism is helping destinations diversify their sectors and promote rural development.

Conclusion

The three theoretical foundations of strategic management, namely Resource-based view,

Emergent Strategy and Positioning Strategy, and concepts from the field of gastronomy, such as

gastronomic identity, tourist behaviours (motivation, experience, consumption), a sense of place,

and food image were all employed to explain the strategic role of gastronomy destinations.

According to the suggested model, which consists of three main components (the source,

process, and form of a strategy), gastronomic identity is considered a strategic resource for

38
destinations. Depending on the gastronomic identity, a differentiation strategy can be formed in a

destination that involves the presentation of gastronomic products developed and offered by

discoverers (entrepreneurs, researchers and tourists) to the relevant markets. This strategy is the

result of an emergent, rather than deliberate, strategic process. However, when destination

managers or stakeholders see that a gastronomy-based strategy has emerged, such a strategy can

also be transformed into a deliberate strategy.

The proposed model provides a conceptual framework for understanding the strategic role of

gastronomy in destinations, whilst also helping to develop some suggestions for destination

managers. These proposals can be thought of in terms of two main axes: enabling the emergence

of strategies and turning emerging strategies into deliberate strategies.

This study has some useful practical implications which may beneficial for destination managers,

stakeholders, and entrepreneurs. From a practical perspective this study provides a better

understanding of strategic role of gastronomy in destinations. Moreover, for a strategy to emerge,

the cultural and geographical factors that make a gastronomic identity unique must be well

understood by destination stakeholders. The way to do this is through research and training. At

the same time, it is important to imagine possible gastronomic tourism products that might be

developed based on gastronomic identity. It may be useful, therefore, to enable those

stakeholders with ideas for new gastronomic tourism products to develop them, including

through providing financial support if necessary. For the strategy to become deliberate, it is

essential to establish and protect quality standards by ensuring that stakeholders are organized

and cooperative. A local food standard that reflects the culinary traditions (food products,

39
ingredients, cooking methods) of the destination might be used as a tool to support the

gastronomic identity of the destination brand. Furthermore, the destination management

organization needs to promote this gastronomic identity in a systematic way in its marketing

channels – destination website, social media, travel fairs, brochures, etc. Celebrity chefs can be

actively involved in promoting the gastronomic destination (Demirkol & Cifci, 2020), while food

souvenirs bought during the trip can serve as tangible reminders about the destination

(Suhartanto et al, 2018). The activities of destination management organisations, however, needs

to be supported by the marketing efforts of private service providers as well because they would

be the ones who would practically create and deliver the gastronomic tourism products and

would serve the tourists. In that context, it is crucial to understand the expectations of different

tourist types to know their needs and satisfy them (Coughlan & Saayman, 2018). This may be

beneficial not only in terms of tourists' revisit intentions and positive recommendations, but also

in avoiding tourists’ disappointment if inappropriate market segments have been targeted or their

expectations and requirements were not addressed by the service providers. Therefore, whether a

destination positions itself as a gastronomic destination or take a complementary gastronomic

role, the tourist typologies should be considered in order to have more efficient promoting and

marketing efforts.

Although there is a significant body of literature on the relationship between gastronomy and

tourism (Rand et al., 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Hall & Mitchell, 2007; Karim

& Chi, 2010; Chaney & Ryan, 2012; Leng & Badarulzaman, 2014; Jiménez Beltrán et al., 2016;

Chang & Mak, 2018; Medina-Viruel et al., 2019; Santa Cruz et al., 2019; Agyeiwaah et al.,

2019; Widjaja et al., 2020), not much research has dealt with the question of what is the strategic

role of gastronomy in tourism destinations. Especially the study which has benefited three

40
strategic approaches (resource-based view, emergent strategy, and positioning strategy) to

investigate the strategic role of gastronomy in destinations remains underexplored in the

literature. The proposed model in this study aims to contribute to the literature and fill this gap.

It is necessary to mention some of the limitations of the present study. First, due to its conceptual

nature, the present study lacks empirical findings. Related findings, from conceptual and

empirical studies in the strategic management and gastronomy literature, have been used to

overcome this deficiency. However, further research is required to test the model presented here.

The theoretical basis of this study consists of three approaches that belong to the discipline of

strategic management, namely the resource-based approach, emergent strategy, and positioning

strategy. Therefore, the model is largely limited to the foundational beliefs of these approaches.

In practice, the gastronomy-tourism relationship is sometimes deliberately developed with a

planned approach; models based on a strategic planning approach may, therefore, be needed. In

this context, the process of creating a gastronomic destination brand value can be considered

within the scope of planned marketing strategies. Future research may also be focused on the

strategic role of a single initiative like a local restaurant that is contributing to a destination in

terms of attracting tourists to a destination via its unique gastronomy

41
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This chapter shall deal with the research approaches and strategies chosen and how data would

be collected and analyzed to find the answers to research questions. The reliability and validity

of collected data also would be discussed.

3.1 Research Design

Quantitative and qualitative research method shall be employed in obtaining data from both local

and international tourists, in selected hotels in Abuja. Firstly, with main focus of reaching young

42
people, who are the main target segment of the traveling populace, secondly to ask tourists from

the most tourist generating countries (such as United Kingdom, Germany. France. United States

among others about Nigeria (Abuja). The research would be taken by first using a face-to-face

survey of a questionnaire using languages with the help of an interpreter in other languages in

selected hotels in Abuja.

3.2 Population

For this study, the population shall consist of over two hundred (200) local and foreign tourists to

Abuja Nigeria Capital city who are lodge and documented in the selected hotels in Abuja.

3.3 Sample and Sampling Technique

Respondents for this study shall be drawn using a simple random sampling in selecting guests

who lodged in the selected hotels while a purposive sample technique would be adopted in

selecting hotels used for the study.

Therefore, the sample size would be determine using Kothari's formula as follow

Where:

N-size of population p=

sample proportion of

successes n= size of sample

q=1~p

z=the value of the standard variate at a given confidence level

43
-acceptable error (the precision)

3.4 Data Sources

Both primary and secondary data sources shall be employed in this study, Primary data shall be

obtain from guests on their perception on role gastronomy play in travel decision, on which food

they prefer during their trips, and on what they think would influence sustainable food tourism in

Nigeria. Data would be collected through questionnaire constructed in open and close ended

format. Secondary data would be obtained from different sources which are relevant with the

study. Therefore, journals, books, publication and internet

3.5 Data collection Instrument

Data would be obtained through questionnaire constructed in open and close ended format

3.6 Validity of Instrument

Efforts would be made by the researcher to meet the stor design in line with the research

objectives, research literally shall be obtained from other scholars about the set objectives The

validity of t shall be improved through a conduct of a pilot study which shall be conducted on the

are not part of this study. Great care shall be taken to aid misunderstanding, ambiguity, offense

or bias as the goal of the questionnaire was to establish a clear communication with the guest to

ensure the questionnaire measured what the researcher intended to my put and correction from

expert would be seek to help to improve the validity of the instrument.

3.7 Reliability of Instrument

44
Reliability simply refers to whether a research study may be replicated Bearden of (2011)

The following measures was used to improve both validity and reliability of the questionnaire,

1. A pilot study will be conduct to provide a learning point in improving the reliability of

the instrument. A larger sample size would be used to provide more accurate results. All

questions included in the questionnaire would be deriving directly from the objectives of

this study.

2. A larger sample size was use to provide more accurate results.

3. All questions included in the questionnaire was use to derive directly from objectives of

the study

4. Each question to be asked was fulfill a specific objective.

5. All questions would be made easy, short, and straightforward to cater for different levels

of intellectual capacities among the participants

3.8 Method of data Analysis

After collecting data through questionnaire, the following steps would be followed in analysing

the data. Primarily, responses of the questionnaire will be entered into SPSS version 24 after

coding. Then, descriptive and inferential statistics values such as frequency. percentage, mean,

standard deviation would be computed to analysis the relationship of the independent variables

with the dependent variable. Descriptive statistics will be used for the demographic

characteristics of respondents. Quality chi-square analysis would be used to analysis the role of

gastronomy to tourism and also to evaluate tourist's food preference among others.

45
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

46
 4.1 INTRODUCTION

Gastronomy plays an important role in tourism development. Gastronomy is a part of culture; it

shows the traditions and values of nations. Tourists get to know the cuisines of different

countries while travelling. Sometimes gastronomy plays the decisive role in making a decision

about travelling. Also it has a significant impact on the satisfaction of tourists from the overall

trip. So the issues of gastronomy and tourism are very important and worth exploring in order to

develop a gastronomic brand and promote tourism.

The purpose of the article was to study the contribution of gastronomy in tourism. Besides

exploring some literature issues, an analysis was done to evaluate the importance of gastronomy

for tourists, their food preference, etc.

4.2. DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.2.1 Gender of Respondents

Table 4.1 Gender Distribution of Respondents

Options Frequency Percentage (%)

Female 40 37.5%

Male 60 62.5%

Total 100 100 %

Source: Researcher’s Survey, 2023.

47
The table depicts that 40 (35%) of the respondents were female while 60(65%) of the

respondents were male. This indicates that about 1/3 of the responses generated from the

participants came from male

4.2.2 Marital status of Respondents

Table 4.2

Options Frequency Percent

Single 10 66.75%

married 40 30%

Divorced 13 3.25%

Widow 20

Widower 17

Total 100 100

Researcher’s Survey, 2023

Respondents were further required to indicate their marital status. This will enable the

researcher to determine the contribution of gastronomy in tourism. The responses generated

are represented in the table above.

4.2.3 Educational Status of Respondents

Table 4.3

NCE/OND/HND 30 7.5%

48
Graduate 50 75%

Post Graduate 20 17.5%

Total 100 100%

Researcher’s Survey 2023

Respondents were required to indicate their Educational status. NCE/OND/HND which has a

respondent of 30 representing 7.3%, Graduate which has the larger population with 50

respondents represented 75%, and lastly Post-Graduate with the population of 20 respondents

with 17.5% The responses generated are represented in the table above

Gastronomy/food play a role why deciding to travel?

Table 4.2.5

Options Frequency Percentage (%)

Strongly agree 52 51%

Agree 20 30.75%

Undecided 8 11.24%

Disagree 5 5%

Strongly Disagree 3 2%

Total 100 100

Researcher’s Survey, 2023

49
From Table 4.3.1 above it shows that 51% which amounts to 52 responses strongly agree that

gastronomy plays an very big role in making decision on touring , while 30% which amount to

20 of the respondents expressed their agreement on the assertion. However, those that remained

undecided in their view stood at 11.24% of the entire responses. 5% of the respondents disagreed

and 2% strongly disagreed on the assertion. It can be observed that, majority of the respondents

(80%) agreed that gastronomy play a major deciding role in tourism.

Local for food is more preferable while on tour than international food

Table 4.2.6

Options Frequency Percentage (%)

Strongly agree 31 31.25 %

Agree 38 38.5 %

Undecided 21 22.25%

Disagree 7 5.5 %

Strongly Disagree 3 2.5%

Total 100 100

Researcher’s Survey, 2023

Table above indicates 31.25% of the total responses strongly agreed that local food is very

important in choosing tourist destination, while 154 responses representing 38.5% of the total

responses agree on the assertion. However, 22.25% of the total responses remain undecided in

their view. More so, 10 respondents representing 2.5% of the survey strongly disagree on the

assertion while 5.5% disagrees.

50
Gastronomy tourism helps in creating employment opportunities.

Table 4.2.7

Options Frequency Percentage (%)

Strongly agree 48 48.75%

Agree 37 37.5 %

Undecided 7 6.25 %

Disagree 6 6. %

Strongly agree 2 1.25%

Total 100 100

Researcher’s Survey, 2023

From the table above, 48.75% which translates to 48 responses strongly agree on the assertion

that Tourism helps to create employment. 37.5% agree on this assertion, however, 6.25%

representing 25 respondents are undecided in their opinion, while a total of 1.25% of the

respondents strongly disagree on the assertion. A total of 25 respondents accounting for 6.25% of

the total responses disagree with the assertion.

Occasional food business provide sufficient monetary gain.

Table 4.2.8

Options Frequency Percentage (%)

51
Strongly agree 57 57.75%

Agree 34 33.5%

Undecided 1 1%

Disagree 5 4.75%

Strongly agree 3 3%

Total 100 100

Researcher Survey, 2023

The Table above shows that 57.75% which amounts to 231 responses strongly agreed that

occasional food business could provide sufficient gain, while 33.5% of the respondents agreed.

However, those that remained undecided in their view stood at 1% of the entire responses. 4.75%

of the respondent disagrees with this assertion while 3% strongly disagree.

Do you agree that the government has done more to support tourism in Abuja

Table 4.2.9

Options Frequency Percentage

Strongly Agree (SA 12 12.5%

Agree (A 5 5%

Undecided (UD 48 48.75%

Disagree (D - -

Strongly Disagree (SD 45 44.25%

Research Survey, 2023

52
The table above shows that 12.5% which amount to 12 respondents strongly agree that the

government has done much in promoting tourism in Abuja, while 5% of the respondents agree.

48.75% were undecided, 45.25% disagree with the assertion while 48.75% undecided that the

government has done much investment to help boost tourism in Abuja.

4.3 Test of Hypotheses

Having presented, analyzed and interpreted the data generated, the test of the hypotheses that

guided the study is carried out using the Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient.

4.3.1 Hypothesis One:

H1: Gastronomy has influence on tourism.

H0: Gastronomy has no influence on tourism.

Computed correlation coefficient based on Table 4.2.5 and 4.2.6

Variable    X2 Y2

Strongly Agree (SA) 40 20 800 41,616 15,625

Agree (A) 39 9 351 15,129 23,716

Undecided (UD 11 6 66 2,025 7,921

Disagree (D) 5 37 185 400 484

Strongly Disagree 5 28 140 64 100

(SD)

Total () 100 100 48,967 59,234 47,846

Source: Research Survey 2021.

n ( xy )−( x)( y)
r= 2
√ {n X −¿ ¿

53
 5 ( 800 )−(100)(100)
r=
√ {5(59,234 )−160,00 }{5( 47,846)−160,000 }

244,835−160 , 000
r=
√ {296,170−160,000}{239,230−160,000}

84,835
r=
√ {136,170 }{79,230}

84,835
r=
√ 10 , 788,749,100
84,835
=0.8167∨81.67
103,868.90

Decision Rule: Since the correlation coefficient is greater than 1 (0.8167 or 81.67), we reject the

null hypothesis (Ho) and accept the alternate hypothesis (H1) that gastronomy has influence on

tourism

Decision Rule: The correlation Coefficient is 0.58 or 58.22, indicating that the is a strong

correlation relationship between gastronomy and tourism in Abuja. We therefore, reject the null

hypothesis that there is no significant relationship between gastronomy in Abuja.

4.4 Discussions of findings

Findings from research question one which seeks to verify if gastronomy/food play any role

while deciding to travel 51% which amounts to 51 responses strongly agree that gastronomy has a

great influence in deciding a tourism destination, while 30.75% which amount to 30 of the

respondents expressed their agreement on the assertion. However, those that remained undecided

in their view stood at 11.25% of the entire responses. 5% of the respondents disagreed and 2%

strongly disagreed on the assertion.

54
 It can be observed that, majority of the respondents (80%) agreed that local food is more

preferable while on tour 31.25% of the total responses strongly agree that food is a deciding

factor when it comes to tourism, while 38 responses representing 38.5% of the total responses

agree on the assertion. However, 22.25% of the total responses remain undecided in their view.

More so, 10 respondents representing 2.5% of the survey strongly disagree on the assertion while

5.5% disagrees.

From the analysis of findings above it became glaring that to a very large proportion agreed the

gastronomy tourism has help in creating employment opportunity. This was obvious in most

tourist site visit you could find restaurant and bar close by even hotels and guest house are sited

within a few parameter of the tourist site.

A very high percentage of 57% of the respondents agreed that occasional food business could

actually provide sufficient monetary gain. 45% of the respondent, disagreed that the government

has not done enough investment into tourism

55
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1SUMMARY

The contribution of gastronomy to tourism is the subject of this research. As a result, these

factors were used to construct the study questions, goals, and hypotheses. The research also

focuses on selected hotels in Abuja.

The research goes on to analyze the literature on the concepts and meaning of the gastronomy, as

well as its contribution to tourism, as well as actual investigations on tourist choice of tourism

destination.

The study employed a survey mixed research technique approach, in which a questionnaire was

used to obtain firsthand data from respondents in the field, and the replies were measured using

quantitative and qualitative terms. The selected hotels, the management and guests make up the

study's population.

56
Using the basic random sampling approach, a sample size of 120 was selected, 120

questionnaires were distributed, and 100 questionnaires were returned. Simple percentage and

simple mean scores were used to analyze the data.

5.2CONCLUSION

Gastronomy really plays an important role in tourism. Many people choose destination

because of its local cuisine (for example many people want to try famous cuisines of

Spain, Italy, etc., or participate in famous food and beverage festivals, etc.). Even if

tourists do not travel with the main gastronomic purposes, however they consume local

cuisine. For many people gastronomy is the part of culture and traditions of a place and

nation, and they get acquainted with them via cuisine. Many people consider gastronomy

as an art of cooking, as various methods of cooking have a great impact on the taste of

food. Our analyses showed that good cuisine of the destination is very important for

people, and many of them prefer local cuisine of destination while travelling. Moreover,

the relationship between prices and importance showed that people consume local cuisine

despite high prices, and for many people the price is no matter as they prefer high quality

food.

The analysis also showed that the cuisine of the destination has an impact on satisfaction

level. If people do not like the food, they will be less satisfied. The more liked cuisines

were the famous ones, however less know also are interesting for tourists and many

people travel to discover new places, new cultures, new cuisines, and new traditions.

Thus, we may conclude that gastronomic tourism is a prosperous type of tourism.

Gastronomy may promote tourism, so for every country and nation it is important to

57
evaluate their national gastronomic traditions and make touristic packages based on it,

creating the gastronomic brand of a destination and presenting it as a part of their culture.

Countries should have a gastronomic tourism development plan which will introduce the

gastronomic map of the country. Gastronomic tourism may contribute to the

accomplishment of sustainable development goals. Gastronomic tourism is a driving

force for developing the economy, creating new jobs, increasing the income of population

who works in that sphere, etc.

5.3 RECOMMEDATION

1. In order to meet the needs of tourists, countries should carry out research to

understand the consumer motivations and behavior, and based on it to create

gastronomic tourism product.

2. Besides, educational organizations should prepare high qualified professionals for

the sphere, as the staff competence has a great impact on service level, which in

its turn influences customer satisfaction. Thus, a comprehensive work is needed in

many spheres to promote gastronomy tourism of countries.

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Dear Respondents

I am a student of National Institute for Hospitality and Tourism Abuja, studying PGD in

Hospitality management and tourism Abuja). I will appreciate it if you will assist me in

filling the questionnaire to enable me complete the research work.

I promise to keep and treat all the information you provided confidential.

Yours faithfully

Angela Okechukwu Okwor

62
 QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUCTION
SECTION A: Personal Data of Respondents
Please tick [√] from the list of options what represents your opinion.

1.Marital Status
(a) Single [ ]
(b) Married [ ]
(c) Divorced [ ]
(d) Widow [ ]
(e) Widower [ ]
2.Sex
(a) Male [ ]
(b) Female [ ]

3. Academic Qualification of respondents

(a) Postgraduate [ ]
(b) Graduate [. ]
(C) NCE/OND/HND [. ]

4. Organizational Status
(a)Academic Staffs [ ]
(b)Admin Staffs [ ]
(c)Students [ ]

SECTION B:
1, Do you think gastronomy/food play any role why deciding to travel?
a. Strongly agree ( )
b. Agree ( )
c. Undecided ( )
d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )

2. Local food is more preferable to international food during traveling?

a. Strongly agree ( )

b. Agree ( )
c. Undecided ( )
63
 d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )
3. Gastronomy has created employment and business opportunities.

a. Strongly agree ( )

b. Agree ( )

c. Undecided ( )
d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )

4.do you agree that occasional food business provide sufficient monetary gain?

a) Strongly agree ( )
b) Agree ( )
c) Undecided ( )
d) Disagree ( )
e) Strongly disagree ( )

5.Do you agree that the FCTA has done enough to sustaining food tourism in Abuja.

a. Strongly agree ( )
b. Agree ( )
c. Undecided ( )
d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )

6.Gastronomy has no influence on tourism

a. Strongly agree ( )
b. Agree ( )
c. Undecided ( )
d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )

7. Gastronomy has influence on tourism and many people travel with gastronomic motivation

a. Strongly agree ( )

64
b. Agree ( )
c. Undecided ( )
d. Disagree ( )
e. Strongly disagree ( )

65