The science of classification

Taxonomy Why?
of organism
There are millions of organisms in the

involve: world
Need system to classify and to give
Classification refers to
identity for all those species that have
organisms classified
been known and yet to be discovered
based on similarities historical relatioship among
lineages
Identification
process by which organism are
recognised and identified on Linnaeus
hierarchy

Nomenclature
naming organisms scientifically based on
binomial system Taxonomic/Linnaeus hierarchy

Carl Linnaeus
History - introduced first
taxonomic hierarchy
scheme

Each level consists of

taconomic rank/taxon
Taxon Formal grouping of organisms
Category
at any given level in Linnaeus
Level 1 Animalia hierarchy
Level 2 Chordata
Level 3 Mammalia
Level 4 Primates
Level 5 Homonidae
scientific name:
grouped
organism into
7 levels
Level 6 Homo
Genus Species
Level 7 Sapiens
@ Genus Species
Base of hierarchy.
Therefore, it is the basic unit of classification in
Linnaeus hierarchy.

Species can be defined as a group of organisms

Only animals of the same species
with close morphological and anatomical
can breed among themselves.
features where the organisms can interbreed
Animals
among themselves.
from different
Animals of the species cannotbut
same species breed.
of
different varieties can breed among
themselves.
 water enter through
ostia.
passes into the
spongocoel.
Flow out through
osculum

Porocytes
form pores
regulate diameter of pores by contacting

Mesohyl
- between inner & outer layer.
- Support by spicule (slender skeletal spikes)

Amoeboid cell in mesohyl secrete spicule

Collar cells known as

choanocytes
Single flagellum Suspension feeder
make up inner layer 
surrounded - food either digested
have collar surrounding the base
by collar of microvilli within collar cell
of flagellum
function: or transfered to
- creates water current that brings amoeboid
food and O2 and carries away CO2 cells for digestion
and other waste
Phylum Phylum Porifera Phylum Cnidaria

similarities multicellular

Diploblastic animal
- Body wall consists of 2 definite layer
- The outer protective layer is called epidermis
- The inner layer, endodermis/gastrodermis (functions in digestion).
- The mesoderm is absent

Between inner Mesohyl (gelatin-like layer) Mesoglea (jelly - like substance)

& outer cell
layers

Marine Mainly marine Mainly marine but few live in freshwater

shape Asymmetrical in shape - vary Radially symmetrical

:flat, cup, fan, ball

tissue Cells do not form true tissue

Specialized cell Porocytes Cnidocytes

● Form the pores (ostia) ● Stinging cell
● The contraction & relaxation of ● Mainly in epidermis on tentacles
porocytes regulate the diameter of ● WHY? to capture food
ostia.

magical cell Amoeboid cell Interstitial cell

● Develops into eggs and sperms cell ● Have ability to become any type of
(but they were produced at different cell in the animal eg. sperms, eggs
time)
● Transport food
● Secrete skeletal material (spicule)

Spongocoel (central cavity) Gastrovascular cavity @ enteron

● Cavity for digestion of food

Movement Larvae: swim (have flagella) Polyp : sessile (can’t move freely)
/ shapes(forms) Adult : sessile (attached to solid object) Has dorsal mouth surrounded by
tentacles eg. hydra sp.

Medusa : move freely

Mouth located in the lower
concave
Surface eg. Obelia sp

Reproduction Asexual : small fragment break from parent Hermaphrodite: both L/P reproductive
and rise to a new sponge system found in the same animal

Sexual: Hermaphrodite (same individual Dioecious - male reproductive organ in

produce both eggs and sperms) male animals & vice versa

Other special ● Choanocytes (collar bone)

● Bright in color
● Spicules
COELOM & SHAPE

Ceolom:
Cavity in the body​ where all important organs of the body are situated.

Type of ceolomate:

Primitive Acoelom Psedocoelom Coelom

NOT possess true Have true organs but do Have a ​false body cavity Posses ​true coelom
organs and are NOT have body cavity
considered primitive so
they do not possess
body cavity.

- kingdom Protista - Organs are packed in a - Their organs ​remain Their organs do ​not
- Phylum Porifera compact body. freely​ in their remain freely ​but is
- Phylum Cnidaria pseudocoelomic cavity. bounded by a tissue
- The spaces in between called ​peritoneum
their organs are filled
with tissue called
mesenchyma​.

- Mesenchyma tissue
contains many cells in
various developmental
stages which will finally
become connective
tissue (bones, blood,
cartilage etc in higher
animals).

P. Platyhelminthes P. Nematoda P. Annelida onwards

Phylum Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida.

Phylum Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida

(FLATWORM) (ROUNDWORM) (SEGMENTED WORM)

Class 1. Class Turbellaria Ascaris sp. 1. Polychaeta

Dugesia sp. Nereis sp

2. Class Trematoda 2. Oligochaeta

Fasciola sp. Pheretima sp.

3. Class Cestoda 3. Hirudinea

Taenia sp. Hirudo sp.

Body Flat & elongated 1. Like a cylinder Divided into segments.

- Each segment is
2. Tapering (meruncing) called a ​metamer
at both ends - Septum
separates the
metamer
- Each metamer is
SIMILAR

METAMERISM
( condition of
segmentation)

Shape Bilateral symmetrical Bilateral symmetrical

Coelom Acoelomate Pseudocoelomate Coelomate

(No coelom) (false coelom) (True coelom)
- Absorb digested food - Filled with
directly into the intestinal coelomic fluid.
wall then diffuse into the - Coelomic fluid
coelomic fluid and goes separates the
to the cells of the body. alimentary canal
from the body wall

Excretory Protonefridia Metanefridia Nefridia

organ (for excretion & (more advanced form)
osmoregulation)

True organ YES Divided into 3 PARTS

(First phylum to have true
organs) 1. Head region
(Prostomium)
- Contains brain
and sense organ

2. Segmented body
section

3. Posterior end
(Pygidium)
- Anus located

New segment formed in

front pygidium
 - Oldest segment is
next to head

Reproductio Hermaphrodite animal Dioecious.

n - Male can be
distinguished than the
females.
- Posterior end curled
and smaller in size
(MALE)

Alimentary ONLY 1 opening in the Complete alimentary

system alimentary canal i.e system from the mouth to Intestine, blood vessels
MOUTH the anus. and nerve cord
- The mouth has lips. - extends throughout the
whole length of the body.
Nervous Has a​ ​nervous system
system with ​primitive brain

Layers Triploblastic Body covered by a layer

- All body parts are ​ uticle
o​f c
derived from 3 layers
germ cell
1) Ectoderm
2) Mesoderm
3) Endoderm

- SOME species are free Phylum includes both

living 1. Free living
- SOME are parasites ● found in almost
all types of
habitat;
(fresh-water,
marine, in the soil
and in extreme
environments)

2. Parasitic animal
● Attack plants,
animals and man.

Special Have ​CHAETA

- ​Bristle-like
structure on the
body
Phylum Platyhelminthes

Class Turbellaria Trematoda Cestoda

Example Dugesia sp. (​ Planaria) Fasciola sp.​ (Flukes) Taenia sp.​ (Tapeworm)
REF: LIFE CYCLE REF: LIFE CYCLE

• ​Free-living ​animal Endoparasite Endoparasite

- In liver and bile ducts
• Simple brain, eyespot of animals such as
and other sensory Goat, cattle, Pig, Fish
organs in the head.
Adaptation as Has: 1. Body covered by a
endoparasite • Flapping ‘ears’ called 1.​ ​Ventral sucker layer of ​cuticle​.
auricles. - To adhere inside
the host 2. ​No alimentary canal.
• Digestive system - Food is absorbed
consists of a single 2. ​Oral sucker directly through
opening (mouth), a - To extra​ct food the body wall.
tube-like muscular
pharynx and a branched 3. Body covered by 3. Advanced
gastrovascular cavity. thick and resistant reproductive system.
cuticle
• Has ​ganglia​ which is - To withstand 4. Has ​hooks and
connected to the from being suckers
nervous system. dissolved by the - To attach to host.
host body fluids.

Structure

STROBILA
- Shape like a tape
- Divided into segment
- Segment is called
PROGLOTID
- Neck forms new
proglotid by ​transverse
constrictions.

-​ ​Young​est proglotid
(​next to the neck​)
- ​Old​est proglotid
(​end of the strobila​)
Life cycle of Fasciola sp.

- Involve 2 host:
1. Primary host (goat/cattle)
2. Secondary host
(Lymnaea Truncatula)
3. Fasciola sp. that infect liver known as
LIVER FLUKES
4. 1 fasciola = 500k eggs
1 goat = 200 worm = 100M eggs
Why produce many eggs?
- To ensure the life cycle of
Fasciola can continue.
5. How to prevent the disease?
- Destroying the snail
- No secondary host
- Thus, life cycle can’t continue.

6. Adult worm ---> Lay eggs ---> 1st larvae (miracidium) ---> Sporocyst ---> 2nd larvae (Redia)

---> 3rd larvae (Cercaria) ---> Metacercaria ---> Adult worm

Life cycle of Taenia sp.

Human body

Sperm + egg ---> Zygotes (in proglotid) ----> Proglotid detached from strobila --->

External env.

Faeces ---> Proglotid break ---> Zygote releases ---> Attached to plant ---> Animal eat plant-->
* The ​zygotes will NOT hatch into tapeworm until​ it ​enters the intestine​ when it is eaten by a
host animal.

Host animal

Zygote hatch ---> Larvae (Oncosphere) ---> Intestinal wall, Blood system, Muscle --->
Encysted become larvae (cysticercus) ---> Human eat poorly cooked meat --->
* ​Cysticercus ​is ​oval ​in shaped with the​ scolex inverted inside.

Human body

human’s digestive juice dissolve the cyst ---> Cysticercus releases ---> Scolex emerged --->
Hooked to intestinal wall ---> Adult worm
Phylum Annelida
Class Polychaeta Oligochaeta Hirudinea (No chaetae)
(Many chaetae) (Less chaetae)

Example Nereis sp. (​ ​Cacing laut) Pheretima sp. Hirudo sp.​ (leech)
Lumbricus sp.
(earthworm)

Structure

(General Marine Terrestrial Why is Hirudinea still in

morphology) Dioecious​ ​animals hermaphrodite​, Phylum Annelida
Reproduction Living in the sea. Living in moist soil. although it has no
chaeta?
Head Distinct head No ​distinct head - Cause have
segmented body
Prostomium (head region)
is shaped like a cone

Sense organ Sense organs​ i.e eyes, No ​sense organ

antenna and palp ​found
in head

Chaeta Long bristles (chaetae) Body is covered by ​short

can be found at the fine bristles (chaetae)
parapodia​.

Each metamer has ​a pair

of appendages​ called
the ​parapodia​.

- Functions of parapodia
● Locomotion
● gaseous
exchange.
 Reproduction Nereis sp. (​ in the sea) Earthworm (on land)

1.​ Egg and sperm were 1. ​2 worms attached

released to the sea​ at together​ with sticky
the same time by female substance in ​opposite
and male respectively. direction.

2. Carried by ​water 2. Exchange of sperms

current. occurs.
How?
3. Egg and sperm meet Sperms of worm A
and ​fertilised move out from the vas
deferens through a
4. Eggs hatch into a larva pore and travel to the
called ​trochophore sperm receptacle of
worm B.
5. Grow to become ​adult​. Sperms of worm B enter
worm A in a similar
manner.

4. Worm separate.

5. When eggs are ripe,​ clitellum forms a cocoon

6. ​Cocoon moves towards the anterior​ of the

animal.

7. At ​genital pore​, the ​eggs move inside​ the cocoon.

8. At ​sperm receptacle​, the ​sperm ​moves out and

fertilizes ​the eggs.

9. The cocoon continues to move until it reaches the

anterior end outside the animal ​where both ends of
the ​cocoon will constrict (become narrower)​ to
become a ​capsule​.

10. When the fertilized ​eggs are ripe​, it h

​ atches out
into small worms.

*There is ​no larval stage​ in earthworm.

The Beginnings of Reproduction on Land of Annelids

● Scientists believe​ all annelids originally are from the sea.​ Polychaetes (Nereis sp.) from
the beginning and until now live in the sea.
● The ​Oligochaetes (earthworms) have adapted to live on land​. It has changed to b ​ ecome
hermaphrodite.
Advantages of hermaphrodite:
1. Not having to seek for a male or female to mate. ​Any two animals meeting together can
mate.
2. No water current to aid​ in meeting of sperms and eggs.
3. The oligochaetes ​evolved a primitive form of reproduction​ for the eggs and the sperm to
meet through the ​formation of the cocoon.
Phylum Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata

Phylum Mollusca Arthropoda Echinodermata

Class 1. ​Gastropoda 1. ​Insecta 1. ​Asteroidea

- Achatina sp. - Periplaneta sp. - Asterias sp.
- Lymnaea sp.(snail) (cockroach) (Starfish)

2. ​Bivalvia
- Mytilus
sp.(kupang) 2. ​Ophiuroidea
- Anadara (kerang) - Ophioneresis sp.
2. ​Arachnida
(Brittle Stars)
- Centruroides sp.
(scorpion)
3. ​Echinoidea
- Spider
- Echinus sp.
(sea urchins)

4. ​Holothuroidea
- Holothuria sp.
(sea-cucumber)

3. ​Polyplacophora
- Chiton sp

3. ​Crustaceae
- Cancer sp. (crab)
- Macrobanchium
sp. (prawn)

4. ​Cephalopoda
- Loligo sp.
- Sepia sp. 4. ​Diplopoda
- Octopus sp (squid) - Lulus sp(millipede)
 5. ​Chilopoda 6. ​Merostomata
5. Scaphopoda - Scolopendra sp. - Limulus sp.
- Dentalium sp. (centipede) (horseshoe crab)

- ​Second largest​ phylum. Largest phylum ​in All species are ​marine​.
kingdom Animalia.
- ​SOFT,
UNSEGMENTED, HAVE
COELOM

Animal Consists of animals with * only echinodermata

shape many different shapes Adults - radially symmetrical,​ the number of radial
parts is five or multiples of five (except seacucumber)
Larvae - bilaterally symmetrical.

Important Wholly or partly enclosed Exoskeleton - ​Spiny skin

feature in a ​calcium carbonate - Not have internal
shell​ ​secreted by a soft skeleton - ​Calcium carbonate
mantle covering the body. skeleton

- some not have shells

(C. ​Cepalophoda​)
● Have​ internal
shell

Outer Soft mantle *only Arthropoda

covering Cuticle
- Made of ​chitin​, a tough material
- This covering does ​not cover the animal
entirely​ but instead is ​divided into segments.

Segments:
- are ​joined together by a flexible membrane
 which become the ​‘joints' ​of the animal.

Most obvious external Function of Feature​:

features: exoskeleton:
1. Body has a ​system of
1. Mantle 1. As a ​skeleton ​of the canals containing liquid
2. Foot animal ​to give support called the​ ​water-vascular
3. Head (except in for the body. system.
bivalves) - This system is
4. Mantle cavity. 2. ​Waterproof associated with the
tube feet system
Digestive consists of: 3. ​Prevents loss of water which plays an
tract from the animal. important role in
1. Mouth movement of the
2. Oral cavity 4. ​Protects ​the animal animal.
3. Esophagus from injury​ i.e. breakage *the only phylum with this
4. Stomach or from effects of harmful
5. Large digestive chemical materials. 2. Advanced blood
gland and circulatory system;
intestine. 5. ​Sites of attachments
of muscles​ for the 3. Excretory organs are
Oral cavity: movement of various absent.
- Contains types of joints.
chitinized teeth, 4. Movement is ​slow ​and
called the ​radula 6. ​Can be modified to some sessile​. eg.
(to bite, tear, and become ​various organs sealillies.
scrape various of the animal with regards
food materials). to movement, sensory, 5. Able to ​regenerate
reproduction, feeding and broken parts.
protection of the animal.

Excretion metanefridia

Respiration: i) ctenidia/gills (in water)

ii) lungs (on land).