Propeller Design Process

Do Ligtelijn
Maritime Research Institute Netherlands, Wageningen, The Netherlands

2 PRE-DESIGN ASPECTS
1 Introduction 1
2 Pre-Design Aspects 1 2.1 Wake
3 Technical Specification 2
4 Additional Requirements 3 The ship and the propeller are interacting. The ship hull
form determines how the velocity distribution of the water
5 Design Point(s) 5
inflow into the propeller is shaped, but on the other hand,
6 Design Process 9 the propeller influences the hull flow upstream of it. The
7 Final Geometry 14 distribution of velocities in front of the propeller is important
8 Conclusions 15 for cavitation and related issues, and to a certain extent also
Glossary 15 for efficiency. Since the ship hull form determines how the
References 15 wake looks like, it is useful to consult a propeller designer
when designing it. Not even the best propeller design can
fully compensate the consequences of a bad ship aft body
design.
1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 Stern frame
In this article, a description is provided of the main steps of
the process of designing a ship propeller. Important deci-
The stern frame design includes among others the propeller
sions are usually made in very early stages, even before the
tip–hull clearance. This is an important factor as it is
ship design is finished. Therefore, the interaction between
directly related to propeller-induced vibration excitation.
ship and propeller is addressed first. Next, the necessary
There are recommended minimum clearances, depending
input data for the propeller design are reviewed, both those
on propeller loading and ship type. The response of the ship
to be provided by the customer and those generated by
to propeller-induced vibration excitation determines what
the designer. The establishment of the propeller design
point(s) is discussed, and the actual design process is excitation level is acceptable. When a ship’s construction is
described. relatively rigid, a higher level of propeller-induced vibration
excitation can be accepted than when a ship’s construction
is relatively light. In the latter case, a larger clearance might
be needed.
Another aspect is the space there is in the stern frame to
accommodate the propeller. This, together with the afore-
Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
mentioned propeller-tip hull clearance and the smallest oper-
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ational draft of the ship, determines how large the propeller
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition)
diameter can be. The latter is important for the achievable
ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2 propulsion efficiency and the limitation of the power density
2 Marine

(power per unit of propeller disk area), important to limit 3.2 Applicable classification rules
vibration and noise excitation.
In view of cavitation-related issues, the propeller immer- A technical specification for a propeller design should
sion should be as large as possible, while it should also include under which Classification Society rules the
be avoided that a propeller operates too close to the water propeller should be designed. In addition, the specific
surface (air drawing) or even emerges partly from the water, class notation for the design at hand should be provided. It
when operating at low draft. Too frequent propeller emer- is particularly important to be informed about any Ice- or
gence when operating in a seaway has also to be avoided, Polar Class notation and about any Comfort Class notations.
both from efficiency and dynamic shaft load point of view.
3.3 Prime mover configuration
2.3 Prime mover and gearbox
The prime mover configuration needs to be described.
The choice of the main propulsion plant and gearbox (if Examples are diesel engine driving the propeller directly,
applicable) is another aspect of ship-and-propeller interac- diesel engine with gearbox (providing then also the gear
tion. This choice, together with the aforementioned hydro- ratio), diesel-electric drive configuration, steam- or gas
dynamic aspects, influences, for instance, the choice of the turbine with gearbox, number of engines per propeller shaft,
propeller diameter and rotation rate, and also the type of any power take-off (PTO) or power take-in (PTI) device, and
propeller that can be applied (like fixed pitch propeller (FPP) so on. The allowable operational performance envelope(s)
or controllable pitch propeller (CPP), steerable thrusters, of the prime mover(s) should be provided as well.
and so on). The rotation rate is an important factor in The direction of rotation of the propeller should also be
cavitation-related issues, in addition to being a factor in effi- specified. The usual terminology to indicate this is clock
ciency. There are practical limits of the propeller tip speed for wise (CW) or counter clock wise (CCW), as observed when
different applications, mainly in view of cavitation aspects. standing aft of the propeller, looking forward toward the
If not decided together between ship and propeller designer, ship’s bow. In case of twin shaft arrangements with propellers
suboptimum diameter and rotation rate or a wrong choice of rotating in opposite direction, it is customary to define the
propeller type may be the result. direction of rotation as inward or outward turning over
These are just some of the main aspects to be consid- the top.
ered before the propeller design process even starts. The When CPPs are applied, it should be clearly indicated if
mentioned topics are just meant to illustrate how important the engine(s) are to operate at constant rotational speed in
it is that the propeller designer is involved in an early stage any operational condition or not. If not, the envisaged way
of the design of the ship or that at least a propeller expert is of operation has to be indicated. Especially in case of more
involved in making various choices in the early ship design complex installations, like applying a PTO or PTI, the way
stage. of applying these (i.e., which part of the mission profile) has
to be provided.
Finally, the prime mover maximum power and rotational
3 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION speed have to be known, both the maximum continuous
rating (MCR) and the continuous service rating (CSR).
Ideally, a propeller designer works on the basis of a technical
specification, provided by the customer. In this section, a 3.4 Mission profile
review is given of information that is (or should) typically
be provided in such a technical specification. The expected mission profile should be specified. Often, this
is provided in terms of combinations of different ship speeds
3.1 Ship information or power settings, draughts, and estimated percentages of
time during which these occur. In case of twin screw ships,
This information consists of the following items: it is important to specify how often single shaft operation is
envisaged. In case of two engines on one shaft, it should be
• Type of ship. specified to what extent single engine operation is expected.
• Ship main dimensions, whereby draft and trim are espe- Engagement of PTO and PTI equipment (if any) also has
cially important. to be provided. For each of the conditions mentioned in
• Drawing of the stern frame, indicating among others the mission profile, any requirements regarding efficiency,
the shaft height, the shaft inclination, and the propeller cavitation, noise and vibration behavior, and so on should be
tip–hull clearance. specified.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Propeller Design Process 3

3.5 Hydrodynamic data When no model test or CFD results are available, the
ship speed used for the propeller design is often simply the
The key hydrodynamic data to make a propeller design are speed that the customer specifies, the source on which this is
as follows: based in many cases not being known. Alternatively, a speed
prediction can be made by means of a statistical method or be
• Ship speed. estimated by the propeller designer on the basis of experience
• Mean effective wake fraction (providing the effective with similar ships. Obviously, the ship speed obtained in this
mean inflow velocity into the propeller). way is less accurate than when based on model tests.
• Nominal wake distribution (distribution of the water If no effective wake fraction is provided, it can be esti-
velocities in a plane just in front of the propeller, deter- mated either by means of a statistical method (including
mined without operating propeller). some simple approximation formulas) or by using the wake
fraction of a similar ship for which a propeller design was
made in the past.
Basically these should be provided by the customer.
When the nominal wake distribution is not available, the
The traditional way of estimating these values is to derive
wake of a similar ship for which a propeller design was made
them from model tests. Ship speed and effective wake frac-
in the past can be used by way of approximation.
tion follow from a propulsion test with a so-called stock
It should be well realized that the determination of the
propeller model. A stock propeller model is a propeller
pitch of an FPP is depending on the ship speed and the
model that should resemble the to-be-made propeller design
effective wake fraction. Any uncertainty in those data will
in terms of diameter, pitch, blade area ratio, and number of
therefore lead directly to uncertainty in propeller pitch. The
blades. The nominal wake distribution follows from a test in
consequence might be that the propeller pitch has to be
which the ship model is towed at the desired speed, without modified after the initial sea trials of the ship. This requires
propeller. The velocity distribution in the propeller plane can often docking of the ship and a costly propeller modification.
then be measured. When considering hydrodynamic input data, the aforemen-
Both the effective and nominal wake can be estimated by tioned ship mission profile also has to be considered again.
means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques as In case of multiple design points ideally, the ship speed
well. An additional advantage of CFD is that it can be applied and wake data should be known for each of them. Espe-
directly to the full-scale ship, so that no scaling of the results cially for ships having a large difference between several
is needed, like when model test results are used. A reliable frequently occurring operational drafts (in particular valid for
absolute prediction of the ship speed is not yet quite within bulk carriers and tankers), it is important to have wake data
reach of CFD. for each draft.
Although the ship speed and wake data are essential Requirements related to hydrodynamic aspects may also
information for the propeller designer (without which the form part of the specification for the propeller design.
propeller designer simply has no starting point), they are in Customers may require guaranteed levels of, for example,
a large majority of cases not provided. Most ships are not propeller efficiency, bollard pull, cavitation inception speed,
model tested, and the application of CFD for this kind of and vibration and noise excitation levels. Often, a guarantee
daily design use is not yet common either. Usually only when against cavitation erosion is required as well.
a larger series of ships is involved or when it concerns large
capital intensive, or otherwise high risk ships, model tests are
performed. In such cases, the costs of model tests are small 3.6 Manufacturing tolerances
when related to the building costs of the ship(s), whereas by
means of model tests the risk for disappointing performance The technical specification should also include the required
of the ship or the propeller is reduced. Examples of ships for manufacturing tolerance class, usually referring to the ISO
which model tests are usually performed are large container 484/1 (1981) and ISO 484/2 (1981) standards. For naval
ships, cruise liners and ferries, LNG (liquefied natural gas) vessels, often more detailed and tighter tolerances are speci-
carriers, navy ships, and sometimes series of bulk carriers fied.
and tankers. Occasionally, other sea going cargo ships are
tested on model scale. However, vast numbers of smaller
cargo vessels (e.g., coasters), fishing ships, ships for inland 4 ADDITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
waterways, tugs, and many other vessels are never model
tested. Nevertheless, propeller designs have to be made for In addition to the requirements of the customer, propeller
those as well. designers and manufacturers have internal requirements that

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
4 Marine

have to be fulfilled. Those can vary for each specific designer of overhang (but also in general), the designer should check if
or manufacturer. the blade will not touch the hub at any possible pitch setting.
In case of CPP blades that are bolted to a blade carrier, the
blade root sections should fit between the bolt holes. This
4.1 Manufacturability and costs
holds not only for the blade root section itself but also for
sections more outward, since there must be room to insert and
An obvious requirement is to design the propeller in such
remove the bolts when mounting to or removing the blades
a way that it is cost effective and that it can be manufac-
from the hub.
tured in the factory of the envisaged manufacturer. This can
A critical geometrical requirement is that CPP blades
put limitations on aspects like propeller weight, diameter,
should be able to pass each other when reversing the pitch.
and number of blades (e.g., many manufacturers have only
CPP-hubs for four-bladed or maybe five-bladed propellers, This requirement limits the blade area ratio of CPPs to values
and seven-bladed propellers are a challenge for many of in the order of about 0.75–0.78, depending on the blade
them, either FPP or CPP). Factors that further play a role design details.
are, for example, available space in the factory, the capacity
of hoisting equipment and machines, foundry equipment, and
transportation possibilities.
4.4 Tip clearance of ducted propellers

4.2 Capacity of hubs of CPPs For ducted propellers obviously, the propeller diameter
should be a little less than the inner diameter of the nozzle.
For CPPs, the propeller designer has to take into account For FPPs, this is rather straight forward, but for CPPs, it must
that CPP hubs have limitations regarding the capacity of be checked if the propeller blade has sufficient clearance
the blade actuating mechanism and the hub stress levels. to the inner side of the nozzle for the entire range of pitch
The blade actuating mechanism should be able to handle the settings. In addition, an allowance should be provided to lift
highest blade spindle torque that can occur during the ship’s the blades from the hub in case they need to be replaced or
service in any condition. When the propeller design is made repaired. Since this requirement contradicts the requirement
by the manufacturer, it can be assumed that blade spindle of having the clearance between blade tip and nozzle as
torque and hub stresses will be acceptable. However, when small as possible (in view of maximum performance), the
the propeller design is made by a third party, this designer design may be made such that lifting is only possible when
has to co-operate with the envisaged manufacturer in order the blades are set at some specific (off-design) pitch.
to make sure that the blade design is acceptable with respect Often, nozzles have a stainless steel ring of certain width
to the hub capabilities. halfway the nozzle length to minimize the risk for cavitation
erosion of the nozzle. For the propeller designer, this implies
4.3 Matching blades with the hub that the blade rake and skew have to be selected such that the
blade tip is positioned at the same location as the stainless
There are a few obvious requirements that are related to the steel ring. Regardless of the position of the stainless steel
blade geometry, which however do cause serious issues when ring, in general, it should be avoided that the propeller tip
not fulfilled. For instance, the blade should fit on the hub. For extends out of the parallel part of the inner nozzle contour,
an FPP, this means that the blade root section should fit within as this leads to an underperforming duct-propeller system.
the envisaged hub length, still leaving additional space to
accommodate fairing radii at the leading- and trailing edges,
as well as leaving space for a rope cutter on the leading
edge side. Furthermore, the blade thickness at the blade root 4.5 Blade thickness criteria
should have a certain relation to the wall thickness of the hub
in view of casting requirements. In addition to the blade thickness requirements of the Clas-
For CPPs, it is naturally required that the blade fits on sification Societies, propeller designers may have their own
the blade foot. Similar to FPPs, this includes taking care strength criteria, based on particular knowledge and experi-
of space for fairing radii as well. For CPPs of high power ence. These can lead either to thinner or thicker blades than
density, it can be necessary to apply some overhang though. required by Class. In case the designed blade is thinner than
Usually, overhang is only applied on the trailing edge side, required by Class the designer has to seek special approval
but overhang on both sides sometimes occurs as well. In case of the Classification Society.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Propeller Design Process 5

4.6 Cavitation erosion and hull-pressure condition. For both situations, it is essential to know the oper-
fluctuations ational envelope (in terms of power and RPM) of the prime
mover. In case of an FPP, the prime mover is in most cases a
Even if not explicitly required by the customer, propeller diesel engine or an electric motor.
designers should avoid that erosive types of cavitation occur When judging whether the pitch of an FPP complies with
in any operational condition that is specified by the customer, the operational power-RPM envelope of the engine, it is
or can be expected to occur, based on common sense. Simi- customary to use a propeller load curve, in practice often
larly, in many cases, customers do not specify requirements referred to as the so-called propeller law, as an approximation
for levels of propeller-induced hull-pressure fluctuations. In of the relationship between power and RPM of the propeller.
such cases, the propeller designer has to decide what level is This “propeller law” can be explained as follows. The perfor-
acceptable for the specific type of ship and construction he is mance of a propeller is usually expressed in nondimensional
dealing with. terms. A diagram that shows these in undisturbed inflow is
called an open water diagram, as shown in Figure 1.
The nondimensional values used in Figure 1 are defined as
5 DESIGN POINT(S)
KT = T∕𝜌n2 D4
The determination of the propeller design point(s) is different
KQ = Q∕𝜌n2 D5
for FPPs and CPPs. Therefore, these will be discussed sepa-
rately. J = V∕nD
𝜂0 ∶ open water efficiency = JKT ∕2πKQ
5.1 Fixed pitch propellers (FPPs)
Here, T is the propeller thrust, Q the propeller torque, n
5.1.1 Pitch of FPPs the propeller rotational speed, V the advance velocity, D the
One of the most difficult parts of an FPP design is to deter- propeller diameter, and 𝜌 the density of water.
mine the mean pitch. Two situations can be distinguished: Using these coefficients, the power can be expressed as
a propeller that operates only in free running condition and
a propeller that also operates in towing or even bollard pull P = 2πQn = 2π(KQ 𝜌n2 D5 )n = (2πKQ 𝜌D5 )n3

0.8

0.7

ETA0
0.6

10 KQ
0.5
KT, 10 KQ, ETA0

0.4 KT

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
J

Figure 1. Example of an open water diagram.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
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6 Marine

In other words: for a fixed value of the torque coefficient which the service margin (SM) and/or light running margin
KQ , the power can be expressed as (LRM) were introduced.

P = constant ⋅ n3 5.1.2 Service margin (SM) and light running margin

(LRM)
This cubic relationship between power and RPM repre- If the pitch of a FPP would be selected such that the propeller
sents what is often called the propeller law. In a diagram curve in light condition goes through the point of MCR
in which power is plotted against RPM, the propeller law power at 100% RPM of a diesel engine envelope, it would
shows as a cubic curve, like, for example, in Figure 2. The not be possible to operate at full power as soon as the
level of the KQ curve in the open water diagram (Figure 1) is propeller loading increases because the propeller curve then
determined by the propeller pitch. The pitch is therefore an intersects one of the limiting engine curves at lower power
essential parameter in the process of matching the propeller than MCR.
with the prime mover. Especially in adverse weather, and also for instance to keep
When at constant pitch the propeller becomes more heavily time schedules under all circumstances, it is desirable to have
loaded, like when operating in adverse weather, increased full power available. Therefore, it is customary to design
ship hull resistance due to fouling and aging or due to FPPs for a diesel engine with a SM, which is equivalent to the
increased wave making resistance at higher ship speeds, so-called light running margin, or LRM. Although the SM
operating at a larger draft, in shallow water or when towing, and LRM have the same effect (defining a margin between
the operational point of the propeller shifts to lower J-values propeller load curves), the SM is a margin in terms of (effec-
(hence to higher KQ -values) in the open water diagram. tive) power at constant ship speed, whereas the LRM is a
When the KQ -value increases (Figure 1), the “propeller law” margin in RPM at constant (engine) power. These margins
curve shifts to lower RPMs in the power-RPM diagram are meant to provide a safe margin for an increase in propeller
(Figure 2, i.e., higher power required at the same RPM). loading (shift of the propeller load curve to lower RPMs) due
The mean propeller pitch (and thus KQ ) has to be selected to hull and propeller fouling with time and to adverse weather
carefully in order to match with the engine characteristics conditions. For diesel engines, it is good practice to select the
in all these kinds of operational conditions. Therefore, the pitch such that for a representative condition as specified by
relative position of operating lines has to be specified, for the SM, the operating line goes through the MCR point of

110
5% LRM
MCR
100

90
CSR point
80
% Power

70
Propeller load
curve in service
60
Propeller load
curve at trials
50

40

30

20
75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
% RPM

Figure 2. Schematic of an operational envelope of a diesel engine, showing different options of propeller design points.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
 Propeller Design Process 7

the engine (max power at 100% RPM). For other types of well, for instance, such that full power can be developed in
prime movers, like electro motors or gas and steam turbines bollard condition and towing condition, therewith compro-
different approaches can be followed. Which SM to apply mising only the maximum ship speed. It is noted that for
always is a matter of choice of the ship owner. ducted propellers KQ -curves, plotted against J, are rather flat
For a more comprehensive treatment of the matching between J = 0 and roughly J = 0.2–0.3. When the pitch of a
process between propeller and engine, reference is made to ducted propeller is selected for bollard pull, it will usually
Klein Woud and Stapersma (2002). still be possible to have full power available when towing (or
It is clear from Figure 2 that in a light condition full (MCR) dredging, etc.) as well.
power may not be attained since maximum engine RPM is
reached first. Therefore, in most cases, it is allowed to run 5.1.5 FPP operational aspects
engines temporarily at overspeed, that is, to run at more than
100% of the nominal RPM. Applying the “propeller law,” An advantage of applying a FPP is that as long as the ship
a 5% LRM could mean about 15% engine power “defect”: resistance various roughly with the ship speed squared, the
(1.05)3 equals about 1.15. Similarly, a 3% LRM means a propeller loading remains close to constant. Translated in
possible engine power defect of about 9%. This principle is nondimensional terms: the FPP will remain at about the
schematically illustrated in Figure 2. same KT and KQ for the greater part of the operational ship
speed range. This implies (Figure 1) that the efficiency of
an FPP remains on the same level, also when, for example,
5.1.3 Engine margin (EM)
sailing at reduced power. The amount of cavitation decreases
It is usually advised to run diesel engines during normal with increasing cavitation number, and the cavitation number
service conditions at CSR, rather than running for longer increases with the square of the propeller RPM.
periods of time at MCR. The CSR power should be provided The cavitation number relates the vapor pressure to the
in the technical specification of the engine manufacturer and ambient pressure and a characteristic velocity. When dealing
usually amounts to 85% or 90% of the MCR. This power with propellers, the characteristic velocity is usually related
margin is also referred to as engine margin (EM) and of to the rotational speed πnD and that cavitation number is
course is an essentially different concept and serves another called 𝜎 n :
purpose than LRM or SM: the LRM or SM is required for 𝜎n = (p0 − pv )∕(nD)2
selecting the pitch of the propeller while the EM is necessary
to select the power of the engine. where p0 is the ambient pressure, pv the vapor pressure, n the
propeller rotational speed, and D the propeller diameter.
The factor π is usually not included, but sometimes it is. A
5.1.4 FPP pitch for multiple design conditions
high 𝜎 n (i.e., high ambient pressure or low RPM) means less
In case of multiple design conditions of a FPP, choices have cavitation. For instance, a propeller of a deeply submerged
to be made regarding the propeller design pitch. This situa- submarine will not cavitate at all.
tion occurs for instance for tugs (bollard pull mode, towing Sailing at reduced power with constant pitch means
at low speed, and free running condition) and similarly for reducing power by means of RPM reduction. Hence, cavi-
fishing ships, supply vessels, dredgers, and so on. If the tation of FPPs will reduce and eventually even disappear
pitch is selected to have full power available at bollard pull when the power is reduced, with all positive consequences
(zero ship speed) condition, the selected pitch will be low. for vibration and noise as well.
When such a low pitch propeller is then operating in free
running condition, the propeller curve shifts to the right in 5.2 Controllable pitch propellers (CPPs)
the RPM-power diagram (KQ is lower in free running condi-
tion than at zero ship speed, see Figure 1). The consequence Due to the possibility to adapt the propeller blade pitch to the
is that the propeller curve intersects the maximum RPM limit circumstances, the determination of the design point(s) for a
at a rather reduced power, so that full power cannot be devel- CPP is done different from that of a FPP. For a CPP, two
oped in free running condition. This option is also referred different regimes can be distinguished: operation at constant
to as defensive matching. The other extreme is to select the RPM throughout or operation in the so-called combinator
pitch such that full power can be used in free running condi- mode. A combinator is a control regime in which combina-
tion. When a propeller with this high pitch is operated at zero tions of power, pitch, and RPM are programmed in a certain
speed, the propeller curve will intersect the torque limit at way, to be agreed with the customer. It is essential for the CPP
reduced power. This option is also referred to as aggressive propeller designer to know what kind of operational mode
matching. Of course, a compromise pitch can be selected as will be applied.

Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering, online © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This article is © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781118476406.emoe061
Also published in the Encyclopedia of Maritime and Offshore Engineering (print edition) ISBN: 978-1-118-47635-2
8 Marine

5.2.1 CPP in constant RPM mode at lower pitch than design pitch tends to reduce. Operating
for longer periods of time at maximum RPM and reduced
In constant RPM mode, the propulsive power is controlled pitch likely leads to increased fuel consumption (Ligtelijn,
entirely by the propeller pitch. The CPP runs at maximum 2010). In Figure 3, this situation is illustrated (the example
RPM all the time, from zero thrust till full thrust. This mode
is derived from Wageningen C-series data). In addition, the
is often selected when a PTO device is mounted on the shaft.
cavitation behavior deteriorates as well when reducing pitch
The PTO then generates electric power for the ship so that no
at full RPM. Due to the constantly high rotation rate, the
auxiliary engine has to be used for that. The PTO power can,
cavitation number remains low under all conditions, which
for example, be used for dredging pumps, firefighting pumps,
is unfavorable for the cavitation behavior.
the hotel load, or whatever other on board installation needs
When a blade is rotated to lower pitch at full RPM, at a
electrical power. At low ship speeds, the PTO can be used
during maneuvering to supply power to the bow thruster(s), certain point parts of the blade start to operate at negative
or for winches, fishing gear, and so on. Many PTO devices inflow angles, especially when the outer part of the blade has
require the shaft to rotate at a constant speed in order to been designed with reduced load to avoid too high vibra-
maintain a fixed alternating current (AC) frequency for the tion excitation in design condition. This causes the outer
board net. Another reason to select constant RPM operation part of the blade to generate opposite thrust, hence further
is that the operational envelope of the diesel engine is so reducing efficiency, and cavitation on the pressure side of
narrow that it is simply impossible to combine it with either the blade. This sometimes leads to blade erosion (if operated
an FPP or a CPP at constant pitch. in such condition for longer periods of time), but anyway
An advantage of constant RPM mode is that changes in to increased noise and vibration levels if the blades have
power demand can be made fast, as it takes typically periods not been properly designed to cope with this situation. If
of the order of seconds to change the blade pitch, depending known before starting the propeller design that a ship will
on the amount of change. This enables very flexible oper- operate for significant periods of time at reduced pitch and
ation, which is especially useful during maneuvering situa- full RPM, the designer can try to design a compromise blade
tions. A drawback is that the efficiency of a CPP operating that behaves free of erosion, noise, and vibration issues in

0.7000
Efficiency for CPP design pitch, full
power, and for 60% of full power for
design pitch and reduced RPM
0.6000
Efficiency at 60% power
full RPM and reduced
pitch
0.5000
10 KQ, ETA0

0.4000

10 KQ at design pitch
0.3000

10 KQ reduced pitch

0.2000 10 KQ at 60% power and full RPM 10 KQ design pitch

0.1000

0.0000
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
J

Figure 3. Efficiency comparison at full power and 60% of full power for constant RPM and for constant pitch. (Reproduced from Ligtelijn
(2010). © Do Ligtelijn, 2010.)

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 Propeller Design Process 9

part load conditions, while still having a reasonable perfor- 6 DESIGN PROCESS
mance in design condition as well. It goes without saying
that in such a case the performance in design condition will 6.1 Main parameters
not be as good as it could be without having to consider the
“off-design” conditions. In practice, the lower power limit to When all required information discussed in the previous
enable still a reasonable compromise design is about 50–60% sections is there, the design work can start. Often, the
of the design power. In such a case, it is a good strategy to main propeller parameters like propeller type, diameter, and
select the design pitch somewhere in between the lowest and number of blades are already fixed by the technical specifi-
the highest design power. In this way, the deviation from cation. In case there is still design freedom, the diameter (or
design pitch is limited in both the low and the high power propeller RPM) and the number of blades have to be selected.
design conditions.
For ducted CPPs, the situation is somewhat different in this 6.1.1 Diameter
respect, since blade designs usually have higher tip loadings,
and the effective inflow velocity into the propeller remains The optimum propeller diameter (when RPM is fixed) can be
determined using the results of model test measurements of
reasonably of the same order of magnitude over a wider range
systematic propeller series. Similarly, when the diameter is
of conditions. On the other hand, the efficiency of a ducted
fixed, such series can be used to find the optimum RPM. It is
CPP will reduce at lower pitch settings and full RPM because
noted that the optimum diameter and RPM are different for
the gap between the blade tip and the inner surface of the duct
different blade numbers (see the following paragraph).
might increase (depending on the blade tip shape) when the Examples of series are the Wageningen B-series and
blades rotate to a different pitch setting. Parts of the blade tip Ka-series (Kuiper, 1992), the Taylor series (Taylor, 1998),
may even extent outside of the parallel part of the inner duct the Gawn series (Gawn, 1953), the (M)AU series (Yazaki,
surface at off-design pitch settings. 1962), and the SSPA series (Lindgren, 1961; Lindgren and
In combinator mode, the designer can, in consultation with Bjärne, 1967). Most of the above-mentioned series refer to
the ship owner, decide on the best design points. From both FP propellers. Recently, specific CP propeller series have
efficiency and cavitation point of view, it is best to operate been developed (Dang et al., 2013), which include blade
the CPP as much as possible at design pitch. The combinator spindle torque values, in addition to the usual propulsive
control strategy could then for instance be to operate only at performance data.
constant RPM at low power during maneuvering.
One of the reasons for having a CPP, while operating it as 6.1.2 Blade number
much as possible as an FPP, is having two engines on one
shaft (and having only one operational) or operating a twin The selection of the blade number is related to several
screw vessel on one shaft only (or a combination of those). aspects:
The case of operating on one shaft when operating at
constant RPM leads for a CPP to operating at reduced pitch: • Propulsive efficiency
the power for that propeller remains the same, but the ship • Cavitation and related aspects like:
speed will reduce. If using an FPP or a CPP at constant – Erosion
pitch in this situation, the propeller would operate at lower – Hull-pressure fluctuations
RPM. When reducing pitch and keeping the RPM constant, – (broad band) Noise
the propeller efficiency will decrease, and cavitation (and
In addition to the direct propeller-related aspects, also the
noise and vibration issues) might get worse. When operating
interaction of the ship and the propeller is to be considered
at constant pitch, the efficiency will hardly change, and
(e.g., any relevant resonance frequencies of (parts of) the
cavitation, noise, and vibrations will reduce or disappear, due ship structure). When selecting a specific blade number of
to a higher cavitation number. the propeller, all these aspects are to be considered and a
In case of operating on one engine of a shaft with two compromise choice has to be made. In the following, the
engines, the propeller will operate at the same RPM as with possible presence of a nozzle is neglected since this will not
two engines but at half the power and lower ship speed. change the principle of blade number selection.
Hence, the propeller pitch has to be reduced, which would
of course be impossible when an FPP is used. As mentioned 6.1.2.1 Propulsive efficiency. In general, the highest
earlier, the efficiency and cavitation (vibrations and noise) propulsive efficiency is obtained when an as large as
behavior might be comprised in this operation mode. possible propeller diameter is used in combination with an

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10 Marine

as low as possible rotational speed, an as small as possible requirements. From this point of view, the blade number of
number of blades with the smallest possible blade area. CPPs should not be selected too high. Alternatively, a larger
For a given RPM, the optimum diameter decreases with hub diameter has to be selected, which is not favorable for
the increase in the number of blades. For example, for a efficiency. The most common blade number of CPPs is four.
five-bladed propeller, it is smaller than for a four bladed
propeller. When propellers with different blade numbers are 6.1.2.3 Hull-pressure fluctuations. The hull-pressure
compared at their respective optimum diameters at equal fluctuations on the ship induced by the propeller consist of
rotational speed, the open water efficiency of propellers with two parts: a noncavitating part and a cavitating part.
low blade numbers will be more favorable than with higher The noncavitating hull-pressure fluctuations originate from
blade numbers. The corresponding difference in total propul- the thickness of the blade and the number of blades (Holden,
sive efficiency is usually reduced significantly as a result of 1979). A larger number of blades leads to lower noncavi-
the increase in hull efficiency due to the smaller diameter tating hull-pressure fluctuations.
(because the effective wake fraction increases with reducing The contribution of cavitation to the hull-pressure fluctua-
diameter). In most cases, the difference in total efficiency is tions depends on a number of parameters. One of the main
about half of the difference in open water efficiency. parameters is the thrust per blade. For the same total thrust of
Sometimes, the diameter is so-called restricted, meaning the propeller, a higher number of blades will tend to induce
that there is no possibility to select the optimum diameter at lower hull-pressure fluctuations. This effect may partly be
a given RPM. This can be due to limitations of the propeller cancelled by an increase in specific thrust loading (more cavi-
weight or moment of inertia or, for example, due to a limited tation) when a smaller diameter is applied for the propeller
draft or insufficient room in the stern frame. Then, a propeller with a higher blade number. On the other hand, a smaller
with a higher blade number can be used without too much diameter leads to a larger propeller tip–hull clearance, which
loss of efficiency; since then, the optimum diameter of the is favorable for hull-pressure fluctuations.
propeller with a higher number of blades can be selected The above-mentioned considerations are mainly valid for
and the additional advantage of a higher hull efficiency is blade frequency and twice blade frequency contributions.
obtained. The effect of tip vortex cavitation is mainly felt at higher
The optimum rotation rate of a propeller with higher blade frequencies.
number will be lower than the optimum rotation rate of a Concluding, a higher number of blades tends to result in
propeller with lower blade number when the diameter is lower hull-pressure fluctuations, although the final outcome
kept constant. However, this might lead to an increase in also depends on differences in clearance, rotational speed,
the dimensions of the hub and the shafting (due to increased and diameter.
torque) and therefore also their weight.
In conclusion, it can be said that the propulsive efficiency 6.1.2.4 Broadband noise. An important cause of the
is best when a low blade number can be applied, which broadband noise of the propeller is a cavitating tip vortex.
is only possible when there is sufficient room to apply the This tip vortex is closely related to the radial loading distri-
appropriate propeller diameter and the rotational speed can bution. The loading per blade is less for a propeller with
be chosen to be close to optimum. In other cases, a careful more blades. Therefore, the tip vortex will be weaker and
comparison has to be made, and it may then happen that a the level of the broadband noise will be lower.
propeller with a higher blade number is a better alternative.
6.1.2.5 Propeller–ship interaction. The excitation of the
6.1.2.2 Cavitation. As regards the selection of the ship’s hull by the propeller can become a problem if the
number of blades in relation to the risk for erosion, it can in hull and/or parts of the superstructure (like a deckhouse)
general be said that it makes no difference for FPPs, because are excited at a natural frequency. The excitation frequency
the blade area ratio can be freely chosen. However, for of the propeller is determined by the blade number and the
CPPs, it is noted that propellers with higher blade numbers RPM. If it is too close to a natural frequency of the ship’s hull
are more critical when propeller loadings are high (i.e., a or a part of the superstructure, changing the blade number is
high power per unit propeller disc area). This is due to the used to change the excitation frequency. More information
aforementioned restrictions in sectional chord length, which on the assessment of natural frequencies in the preliminary
are governed by the boundary condition that the blades must design stage can, for instance, be found in Johannessen and
be able to pass each other when reversing pitch. Especially Skaar (1980).
in the blade root region, the risk for erosive cavitation may A ship may have a double wake peak, for instance, caused
then increase, as the sections there may become relatively by a skeg or a sole piece. In addition to the wake peak that is
thick and short, the thickness being determined by strength usually present at the 12 o’clock position, there can be also

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 Propeller Design Process 11

a wake peak in the 6 o’clock position. On a propeller with methods to check performance (efficiency, bollard pull, etc.),
an even number of blades, this can give rise to high thrust cavitation and hull-pressure fluctuations. This analysis also
variations because simultaneously two blades pass a wake includes the blade thrust and torque variations during a
peak. The varying thrust can give rise to vibrations in the propeller revolution (especially important when the wake
hull and/or the superstructure, which are excited through the distribution is not favorable). These variations are impor-
shaft and the thrust block. If the propeller has an odd number tant for assessing for example fatigue. In this part of the
of blades, the blades will not pass the two wake peaks at process also the blade spindle torque of CPPs is calculated,
the same time, and subsequently, the thrust will vary less. and checked against the capacity of the actuating mechanism.
Therefore, the excitation on the ship through the shaft will When designing a ducted propeller an estimate is made of
be lower. the additional velocity caused by the duct. This is commonly
Another aspect to be checked is the combination of a done by a combined use of results of ducted propeller stan-
certain number of blades and certain properties of diesel dard series and momentum theory. This additional velocity
engines, like the number of cylinders and the ignition is then added to the inflow velocity without duct. The design
frequency. Sometimes, this aspect is decisive for the choice is then further treated as were it an open propeller. Basically
of the blade number. this is wrong, but it is necessary to do it like this, since calcu-
lation methods to analyze propeller and duct together and run
fast have not reached sufficient maturity yet. Nevertheless
6.2 Design and analysis
most experienced designers are capable of designing good
ducted propellers in this way.
In Figure 4, the typical sequence of the design process is
Next, the propeller blade strength is checked. As a
shown. In most cases, the entire process consists of hydro-
minimum the blade thickness is checked against classi-
dynamic and strength computations. Sometimes, a check of
fication rules, but usually finite element methods (FEM)
the design is requested by means of model testing. In the
are used as well. The FEM calculated stress levels can be
following paragraphs, some of the steps are described in
checked against the strength and fatigue properties of the
more detail.
material the blade will be made of.
In the case of Ice Class propellers special rules and
6.2.1 Generation of initial geometry requirements for strength calculations apply, which include
FEM calculations and fatigue assessment (TRAFI, 2010) for
The actual design process starts when all the aforemen- Finnish-Swedish Ice Class and (IACS, 2011) for Polar Class.
tioned aspects have resulted in fixed operational conditions, Most Classification Societies have included these in their
propeller main parameters, and requirements. The common own rules.
way of working is to start with some blade geometry, analyze The hydrodynamic- and strength analysis should basically
it, and modify it in a couple of cycles (automated or by hand) be done for each of the important conditions of the mission
until the design fulfils all requirements, of which several are profile. In addition to these, strength calculations should be
contradicting each other. The generation of an initial geom- done for a crash stop condition. For Ice Class propellers the
etry can be done in several ways. There are design programs conditions are specified by the Rules.
that generate an initial geometry, given the basic input data After having made this analysis for the initial blade geom-
and boundary conditions, but one can also start with the etry it is usually found that modifications or fine tuning
geometry of a successful existing design for a similar case. of the geometry is needed. The hydrodynamic computation
For CPPs, the geometries of the Wageningen C- and D-series methods used in this stage are potential flow methods, which
propellers (Dang, Boom van den, and Ligtelijn, 2013) can run fast (therewith enabling to explore several design vari-
be used as initial geometries, as these are realistic practical ations quickly), and are based on analyzing the flow at a
designs. Propeller optimization methods can be used as well number of cylindrical blade sections. For a detailed descrip-
(Kinnas et al., 1998), or more recently (Foeth, 2013). Joint tion of the methods reference is made to the article on
optimization of efficiency and vibration excitation level or Hydrodynamics Analysis Methods.
cavitation extent or other combinations of goal functions are The cylindrical blade sections are aerofoil shaped. A defi-
being introduced as well. nition sketch is provided in Figure 5. By varying the section
parameters chord length, thickness and camber and their
6.2.2 Analysis chord wise distributions the pressure distribution on the
section can be influenced, which is important to control for
The initial- and possibly following blade design variants example cavitation. Other parameters that can be varied by
are analyzed by means of hydrodynamic computational the designer are the radial distributions of the section chord

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12 Marine

External data and requirements Internal requirements

Ship and engine data
Wake
Design point(s)
Mission profile
Performance-and other requirements

Generate initial blade

geometry

Hydrodynamic analysis
Performance
Cavitation
Hull-pressure
fluctutations
Spindle torque and blade
actuating forces (if CPP)

Strength analysis
Class rules
Blade strength
Hub strength

Geometry checks
Blade passing
Fit on hub or blade
foot
CPP blade bolts
Overhang
Clearance in nozzle

N
Ok?

N Model test
required?

Test results N
ok?

Y
End

Figure 4. Typical propeller design and analysis sequence.

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 Propeller Design Process 13

Camber
Max. thickness

Leading
edge Trailing
edge

Chord
length

Figure 5. Definitions of blade section dimensions. (Reproduced from Ligtelijn (2010). © Do Ligtelijn, 2010.)

Blade root section Reference

point of blade
root section
and propeller (Pitch angle
reference ϕ of section
Propeller plane line at radius r)
plane of rotation

Rake, generator

Total
Axial displacement
Intersection of generator line
Skew-induced and plane at radius r
Axial displacement
ew
Sk
Forward
Blade section
starboard
at radius r
Plane containing shaft axis
rθs and propeller reference line
Intersection of
blade reference line (locus
of blade section reference θs = Skew angle
points) and plane at radius r

Figure 6. ITTC definition of rake and skew of a cylindrical blade section. (Reproduced from ITTC (1999). © ITTC, 1999.)

length, thickness and camber, but also the radial distribution Skew is the parameter by means of which noise and vibra-
of pitch, rake, and skew. Definitions of these parameters are tion excitation can be influenced. The basic idea is that skew
provided in ITTC (1999), from which Figures 6 and 7 have causes a more gentle passage of the blade through a high
been reproduced. wake area. It has been found that skew is indeed very effec-
This part of the design process is actually the most complex tive to reduce hull-pressure fluctuations at blade passage
and creative one. One has to balance propulsive perfor- frequency. However, too much skew may cause increased
mance with cavitation, noise and vibration requirements levels of hull-pressure fluctuations and (broadband) noise
whilst changing some parameter may be favorable for one (Ligtelijn, 2007), due the generation of leading edge vortices.
of these aspects, but compromise others. Here, only a few For cavitation and related issues as well as for efficiency it
will be highlighted, being related to skew, blade thickness is favorable to apply slender section profiles, that is having
and radial loading distribution. More extensive explanations a low thickness/chord length ratio. Often the thickness is
about making compromises in selecting design parameters simply following from strength requirements and cannot
are provided in, for example, Ligtelijn (2007, 2010), in which be reduced. In the case of CPPs, the chord length may be
also references for further reading can be found. restricted as well because of the requirement that the blades

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14 Marine

Propeller reference line

and generator line

Blade reference line

(locus of blade section
reference points)
Projected blade
outline

Trailing edge θs

r
Leading edge

Propeller hub
Reference point of root section
Starboard
Down

Shaft axis

Note: The skew angle, θs, shown at radius r is less than zero

Figure 7. ITTC definition general propeller blade aspects. (Reproduced from ITTC (1999). © ITTC, 1999.)

have to be able to pass each other when reversing pitch, or design sufficient margin should be included to ensure the
have to fit within the diameter of the blade foot (overhang is envisaged behavior of the real propeller. Similarly, when
usually only applied if there is no other option). assessing propeller strength, it is safer to use the design thick-
The radial loading distribution is basically determined by ness minus the manufacturing tolerance.
the selection of the combined radial distributions of pitch and Propellers are usually manufactured according to ISO
camber. High loading at the tip is favorable for efficiency 484/1 (1981), ISO 484/2 (1981), and ISO 486 (1982).
(Dyne, 1994), but counterproductive for reducing noise and Tighter tolerances are nowadays possible, due to numer-
vibration excitation. ically controlled (NC) production methods. Reference
When the design is ready, an additional check can be done is made to the article on Propeller Manufacture and
by either model testing or a CFD calculation. Both have their Tolerances for further details.
pros and cons. In model tests, all relevant phenomena can be
observed or measured, but scale effects can be an issue. CFD
can be applied to the full-scale propeller directly but is in 7 FINAL GEOMETRY
particular still limited in predicting all aspects of cavitation.
Finally, it is noted that in particular the cavitation behavior When the blade design is finished, the final geometry, as it
sometimes depends on very subtle changes of section thick- will be submitted to the factory, has to be generated. This
ness, camber, leading edge, and tip shape. The manufac- implies adding a few details that have not been considered in
turing accuracy of propellers might not always be sufficient the hydrodynamic design. Examples are adding fairings of
to assure that such details can be manufactured. In addition, the blade toward the hub or blade foot, defining the exact tip
in real life, the propeller might be fouled by marine growth geometry, and adding an antisinging edge (if specified by in-
or slightly damaged by hitting floating debris, so in the blade or external requirements).

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 Propeller Design Process 15

Traditionally, the final geometry is submitted in the form fluctuations CFD codes are not yet commonly used in the
of a drawing. It has become common meanwhile to make a daily propeller design process.
three-dimensional computer aided design (CAD) model of
the propeller, which can be used directly in NC-controlled
production processes, both on model scale and on full scale
GLOSSARY
(see also the article on Propeller Manufacture and Toler-
ances). The 3D CAD model is also very useful to make final Cavitation Formation of vapor in low pressure areas
checks, by CFD methods. of equipment operating in water.
Controllable Ship propeller of which the pitch setting
pitch of the blades can be controlled during
8 CONCLUSIONS propeller operation.
(CPP)
In the early stages of ship design often important decisions
CPP combina- Controllable pitch propeller of which the
that influence the propeller design are made. This concerns
tory transmitted power is controlled by a
for instance the choice of the (type of) main propulsion
operation combination of blade pitch and rate of
plant, gearbox ratio, shape of the ship’s aft body (this deter-
revolutions.
mines the wake), stern frame (is related to the maximum
CPP constant Controllable pitch propeller that operates
possible propeller diameter), and so on. Ideally, propeller
RPM at a constant rate of revolutions for
design experts should be involved in making decisions in this
operation any power setting.
stage, in order to establish the most favorable starting points
Fixed pitch Ship propeller of which the blades are
for the propeller design.
propeller fixed to a hub.
A technical specification for a propeller design should
Hull-pressure Pressure fluctuations on a ship’s hull,
include at least relevant details of the prime mover plant and
fluctuations caused by variations in pressure due to
gearbox (if any), the class notation, the ship’s mission profile,
an operating propeller.
the ship speed(s), and wake data. It is in particular for FPPs
Propeller Design of a ship propeller.
essential to provide accurate predictions of the ship speed
design
and the mean wake fraction, as these determine directly the
Propeller Strength of a ship propeller.
propeller mean pitch (and thus RPM).
strength
Matching of FPPs with engine characteristics should be
done carefully and preferably be agreed with the yard or ship
operator.
In addition to external requirements, several internal prac- REFERENCES
tical requirements of propeller manufacturers have to be
considered. This concerns for instance issues related to the Dang, J., Boom van den, H.J.J., and Ligtelijn, J.T. (2013) The
capacity of the factory (propeller weight limits, space limits, Wageningen C- and D-Series Propellers. 12th FAST Conference,
etc.), as well as issues related to matching the blades with the Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
hub and matching the blades with a duct (if any). An impor- Dyne, G. (1994) On the efficiency of a propeller in uniform flow.
tant aspect for CPPs is that the blades should be able to pass Transaction RINA, 136, 105–129. (London, UK)
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the constant RPM mode has certain operational advantages, performance. Transactions RINA, 95, 157–193.
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Research, 7 (1), 15–26.
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are applied, as these run fast and are therefore very suitable to
IACS, www.iacs.org.uk/.
be applied in the design loop to optimize the propeller. FEM
ISO 484/1 (1981) Shipbuilding – ship screw propellers – manu-
also form part of the design loop to calculate the propeller facturing tolerances – part 1: propellers of diameter greater than
strength, as these also run fast. CFD codes are usually applied 2,50 m.
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accuracy of the prediction of the propeller propulsive perfor- turing tolerances – part 2: propellers of diameter between 0,80 and
mance. For the prediction of cavitation and hull-pressure 2,50 m inclusive.

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16 Marine

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