MOMENTUM TRANSFER

MODULE 1

CHE 2211

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

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 MODULE 1: Introduction: Fluid Statics
At the end of the module, you should be able to:
1. Understand and explain the principles of fluid mechanics
2. Apply fluid flow phenomena in solving fluid mechanics problems

Introduction

Chemical Engineering is to be introduced as Reaction and Transport. Transport involves heat

transfer, mass transfer and momentum transfer.

Momentum transfer is also known as fluid mechanics which is one of the important unit
operations. Momentum transfer in a fluid involves the study of the motion of fluids and the
forces that produce these motions.

Classifications of Unit Operations

The principles of unit operations are fundamental to the field of chemical engineering.
Understanding the basic function of each unit operation is important in mass and energy
balances on the process. Unit Operations are those physical changes which are recurrent in
many chemical processes.

UNIT OPERATION DESCRIPTION

Fluid flow This concerns the principles that determine the flow or
transportation of any fluid from one point to another.

Heat transfer This unit operation deals with the principles that govern
accumulation and transfer of heat and energy from one
place to another.

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 Evaporation This is a special case of heat transfer which deals with the
evaporation of a volatile solvent such as water from a non-
volatile solute such as salt or any other material in solution.

Drying In this operation volatile liquids, usually water, are removed

from solid material.

Distillation This is an operation whereby components of a liquid mixture

are separated by boiling because of their differences in
vapor pressure.

Absorption In this process a component is removed from a gas stream

by treatment with a liquid

Membrane separation This process involves the separation of a solute from a fluid
by diffusion of this solute from a liquid or gas through a
semipermeable membrane barrier to another fluid.

Liquid – Liquid extraction In this case a solute in a liquid solution is removed by

contacting with another liquid solvent which is relatively
immiscible with the solution.

Adsorption In this process a component of a gas or a liquid stream is

removed and adsorbed by a solid adsorbent.

Liquid – solid leaching/ This involves treating a finely divided solid with a liquid that
extraction dissolves out and removes a solute contained in the solid.

Crystallization This concerns the removal of a solute such as salt from the
solution by precipitating the solute from the solution.

Mechanical – physical These involve separation of solids, liquids, or gases by

separations mechanical means, such as filtration, settling and size
reduction which are often classified as separate unit
operations.

Thermodynamics, process control and so on are key in Chemical Engineering. However, here
we will focus on one part of the transport phenomena i.e. momentum transfer.

The basic equations for the three transfers are similar. We will emphasize the similarities as we
go along. Also, we will allude to a bit of other disciplines in the examples as appropriate.

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 TERM DEFINITION

Fluid Mechanics Branch of physics which involves the study of fluids (liquids, gases,
and plasmas) and the forces on them. Branch of engineering
science that has to do with the behavior of fluids.

Fluid Statics or 1. The study of fluids at rest.

Hydrostatics 2. Treats fluids in the equilibrium state of no shear stress.
3. It offers physical explanations for many phenomena of
everyday life, such as why atmospheric pressure changes
with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the
surface of water is always flat and horizontal whatever the
shape of its container.

Fluid Dynamics 1. Concerned with fluids in motion or fluid flow

2. The study of the effect of forces on fluid motion

HYDRAULICS cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid
control circuitry (flowmeters, valves, nozzles), pumps, turbines,
hydropower, computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement,
river channel behavior and erosion.

AERODYNAMICS 1. the study of air and other gases in motion

2. concerned with studying the motion of air, particularly when
it interacts with a solid object, such as an airplane wing.
3. studies the movement of air and the way that objects (such
as airplanes or cars) move through air

HYDRODYNAMICS • the study of liquids in motion

• deals with the motion of fluids and the forces acting on solid
bodies immersed in fluids and in motion relative to them

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 Nature of a Fluid:
A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear
stress. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases, plasmas and, to
some extent, plastic solids. Further defined as substances that have zero shear modulus or a
substance which cannot resist any shear force applied to it. Coherent material whose parts
readily move past one another or a substance which offers little resistance to change in
shape. When there is a change in shape, layers of a fluid slide over one another and shear
forces act on the fluid until a new shape is attained. In a fluid, shear stress is a function of
strain rate.

An ideal fluid offers no resistance to change in shape. It is frictionless and incompressible. A

perfect gas is not an ideal fluid as it is compressible.

Real fluid: Fluid that have viscosity(μ > 0) and their motion known as viscous flow. All the fluids
in actual practice are real fluids.

Newtonian fluid - A real fluid in which the shear stress is directly proportional to rate of shear
strain (or velocity gradient).

Non-Newtonian fluid - A real fluid in which the shear stress is not proportional to the rate of
shear strain.

Incompressible fluid – a fluid whose density changes only slightly with moderate changes in
temperature and pressure.

Compressible fluid – a fluid that exhibits a significant change in its density even with
moderate changes in temperature and pressure.

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 UNIT 1 Barometric Equation and Hydrostatic Equilibrium
PRESSURE (P) - defined as “normal force per unit area”

Patm
P=F/A

But: F = m x a
(where a = g for a static fluid, i.e. external force is due
to gravity)

and m = V

and V = A h then, m =  A h

h Thus, P =  A h
A

therefore P = (g/gc)  h
Figure 1: Arrows show the force = pressure exerted by the fluid with a
exerted on the respected areas. Density and height
Pressure is normal force per unit area but Pbase = Pfluid + Patm

Pressure Concept:
1. Pressure is a basic property of static fluid.
2. Pressure exists at every point within a volume of fluid.
3. All pressure forces are normal to the surface on which they act.
4. The pressure at any point is independent of direction.

Ways of Expressing Pressure

TERM DEFINITION

Standard Pressure measured in a standard gravitational field (sea level)

atmosphere which is equivalent to 1 atmosphere.
Atmospheric Pressure obtained from a barometer, it is variable depending
pressure/ on the location . The atmospheric pressure vary with
Barometric pressure temperature and altitude above sea level. The pressure at
any point on the earth’s surface from the weight of the air
above it
Gauge pressure/ 1. Actual pressure exerted by a fluid. Gauge pressure is
Gage Pressure/ zero-referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is
Relative pressure equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric pressure.
Gage pressures are pressures above and below the
atmosphere.
2. The amount by which a pressure exceeds atmospheric
Absolute pressure Absolute pressure is zero-referenced against a perfect
vacuum, so it is equal to gauge pressure plus atmospheric

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 pressure. An absolute pressure measurement device will
never have a negative reading.
Differential pressure The difference in pressure between two points.

Vacuum pressure 1. Pressure below atmospheric pressure. Vacuum is a

space void of all pressure. Thus, if there is a vacuum
above the liquid in a close tank, a negative pressure
on the surface exits.
2. Amount by which pressure is less than atmospheric
Draft Pressure that is slightly below atmospheric pressure. Draft can
also be referred to the difference in pressure in the
combustion chamber area which results in the motion of the
flue gases and the air flow.
Perfect vacuum/ Zero absolute pressure ( P = 0 atm absolute = -14.7 psig). It is
Full Vacuum the lowest possible pressure attainable.
Static pressure/ Line Pressure exerted in a close system
pressure

NOTE: The term gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are used for high pressures (above 2
atm). For lower pressures (near 1 atm) gauge pressure is named as “head” while vacuum is
denoted as “draft”
Absolute pressure = Patm + Pgage
Absolute pressure = Patm – Pvacuum

Hydrostatic Equilibrium Principle:

In a stationary mass of a single static fluid, the pressure is constant in any cross section parallel
to the earth’s surface but varies from height to height.
Figure 2: Pressures in vessels of various shapes filled with the same fluid (same properties)

Reference
(datum)

p + dp
Area = S

dz
Fgravity

Fig 3: A column p
of a stationary fluid

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 F=0
Fupward pressure – Fdownward pressure – Fgravity = 0
Since:
F = pressure x area; Fgravity = gravitational acceleration x mass

Then: pS – ( p + dp ) S – (g/gc)SdZ = 0

dp + (g/gc) ) dZ = 0

For an incompressible fluid ( = constant ); between two definite heights Za and Zb

Patm
dp + (g/gc) ) dZ = 0

Head of a Fluid:
Pressures are given in many different sets of units, such psia, dyne/cm2 and newtons /m2,
however, a common method of expressing pressures is in terms of head of a particular fluid.
This height or head in meter or feet of the given fluid will exert the same pressure as the
pressures it represents.

In SI: In fps:
h (head) = P in meter of fluid h= P gc in ft of fluid
g g

Pressure Measuring Devices

A. LIQUID COLUMN GAUGES
1. Barometer

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 • A device that measures atmospheric pressure.
• A barometer consists of a clear, hollow tube with one end blocked off
• Principle of working: If one end is at zero absolute pressure then “h” indicates the
absolute pressure.
• Well type absolute pressure gauge.
• Its range is from zero absolute to atmospheric pressure.
• High vacuum are not measured.

2. Manometer
1. a. U-Tube Manometer

▪ Manometry refers to the measurement of pressure by comparison to the

hydraulic pressure produced by a column of liquid.
▪ With the help of manometer, we can measure comparatively high pressure
and negative pressure also.
▪ Manometers measure the unknown pressure by balancing against the
gravitational force of liquid heads.

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 A U-tube manometer is shown in the Figure above. The pressure Pa is exerted on
one arm of the U-tube and Pb on the other arm. Both pressures Pa and Pb could
be pressure taps from a fluid meter, or Pa could be a pressure tap and Pb the
atmospheric pressure. The top of the manometer is filled with liquid B, having a
density of  B and the bottom with a more dense fluid A, having a density of  A .
Liquid A is immiscible with B. Derive the relationship between Pa and Pb .

Using point 2 and point 3 as our reference since both points lie on the same liquid
level
P2 = P3

Pa +  B
g
(Z + R ) = Pb +  B g Z +  A g R
gc gc gc

R −  B (Z + R )
g g g
Pa − Pb =  B Z + A
gc gc gc
g g
Pa − Pb =  A R − B R
gc gc

b. Inclined Manometer - this is often used for the measurement of small

pressure differentials accurately.
• Used to measure very small pressure differences or changes
• It is slant manometer. The angle of measuring leg is usually about 10⁰.
• Inclination is done to improve the sensitivity.
• It measures more accurately than the vertical tube type manometer.

Pressure Pressure
PA P
B

Derivation of Inclined Manometer Equation:

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 P1 = P2

INCLINED MANOMETER
EQUATION

1. Differential Manometer (Multiplying Gauge)

In this device, the end of a U-tube are connected
to two enlarge chambers. The manometer
contains two liquids B and C which are immiscible
and whose densities are as nearly equal as
possible. The closer the densities of the two
liquids, the more sensitive is the manometer.

Pa – Pb = ( R – Ro) [ A – B + (a/A) B – (a/A) C ]

Where: R = actual reading

Ro = reading when Pa = Pb

B. MECHANICAL PRESSURE GAUGES

1. BOURDON TUBE
2. BELLOWS AND CAPSULES
Mechanical gauges has mechanical parts that move in response to applied pressure.
Example: BOURDON TUBE pressure gauge or BOURDON TUBE

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 C. PNEUMATIC PRESSURE CELLS
1. Pneumatic controller
2. Pneumatic transmitters

D. ELECTRONIC PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
Example No. 1
A manometer, as shown in the Figure above is used to measure the head or pressure drop
across a flow meter. The heavier fluid is mercury with a density of 13.6 g/cm 3 and the top
fluid is water, with a density of 1.00 g/cm3. The reading on the manometer is Rm = 32.7 cm.
Calculate the pressure difference in N/m2.
g
Given:  Hg = 13.6
cm 3
g
 H 2O = 1.00 3
cm
Rm = 32.7 cm
Required: P
g g
Solution: P = Pa − Pb =  A R − B R
gc gc

P =  Hg
g
gc
R −  H 2O
g
gc
R=
g
gc
(
 Hg −  H 2O Rm )

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  N 
13,600 3 − 1,000 3 (0.327 m)
kg kg 
P =  9.81
 kg  m m 
P = 40,419.1620 N / m 2

Example No. 2
A manometer is used to measure the pressure in
a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85
and the manometer column height is 55 cm as
shown in Figure 2. If the local atmospheric
pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute
pressure within the tank

Figure 2
Given: Refer to Figure 2
Required: Pabs
g
Solution: Pabs = Patm + Pg = Patm +  h
gc
kg  N
+ (0.85)1,000 3  9.81 (0.55 m)
N 
Pabs = 96,000
 m 
2
m kg 
Pabs = 100,586.1750 N / m 2

Example No. 3
Figure 3 shows a tank within a tank, each
containing air. Pressure gage A is located
inside tank B and reads 1.4 bar. The U-tube
manometer connected to tank B contains
mercury. Using data on the diagram,
determine the absolute pressures inside tank
A and tank B, each in bar. The atmospheric
pressure surrounding tank B is 101 kPa. The
acceleration of gravity is g = 9.81 m/s2
Figure 3
Given: Refer to Figure 3
Required: Pabs in tank A and tank B
g
Solution: Pabs B = Patm + Pg = Patm +  h
gc

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  kg  N  1.01325 bar
Pabs B = 101,000 2 + 13,590 3  9.81 (0.2 m ) 
N 
 m  m  kg   101,325 N / m
2

Pabs B = 1.2766 bar

Note: treat Pabs B as the local atmospheric pressure of A
Pabs A = Pabs B + Pg A = 1.2766 bar + 1.4 bar
Pabs A = 2.6766 bar

Example No. 4
At 27 oC the reading on a manometer filled with mercury is 60.5 cm. The local acceleration
of gravity is 9.784 m/s2. To what pressure does this height of mercury correspond? Density
of mercury = 13.53 g/cm3.
g
Given: Rm = 60.5 cm g = 9.784 m / s 2  Hg = 13.53
cm 3
Required: P
kg  N
h = 13,530 3  9.81 (0.605 m)
g 
Solution: Pg = 
gc  m  kg 
Pg = 80,088.3996 Pa
Note: assume local atmospheric pressure to be 101,325 Pa (1 atm)
Pabs = Patm + Pg = 101,325 Pa + 80,088.3996 Pa
Pabs = 181,413.3996 Pa

Example No. 5
A simple U-tube manometer is installed across an orifice meter. The manometer is filled
with mercury (sp.gr.= 13.6), and the liquid above the mercury is carbon tetrachloride
(sp.gr.= 1.6). The manometer reads 200 mm. What is the pressure difference over the
manometer in newtons per square meter?
Given: 𝑅𝑚 = 0.02 𝑚 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔 = 13.6 𝑆𝐺𝐶𝐶𝑙4 = 1.6
Required: 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏
𝑔
Solution: 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑔 𝑅𝑚 (𝜌𝑎 − 𝜌𝑏 )
𝑐
9.81𝑚⁄ 2 𝑘𝑔
𝑠
𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑘𝑔.𝑚 (0.2 𝑚)(13.6 − 1.6)(1000 𝑚3 )
1 2
𝑁.𝑠
𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝑏 = 23,544 𝑁⁄ 2
𝑚

Example No. 6

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 A glass U-tube open to the atmosphere at both ends is shown in
the figure. If the U-tube contains water and oil as shown,
determine the specific gravity of the oil.

Given: Refer to the figure

Required: 𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙
Solution: 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑃1 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑃2 =
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑖𝑙 −
𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 (0.35 𝑚)
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝐻2 𝑂 (0.30 𝑚)
𝑔 𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙(0.35 𝑚) = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂(0.30 𝑚)
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
(𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 ) (1000 𝑚3 ) (0.35 𝑚) = (𝑆𝐺𝐻2 𝑂 ) (1000 𝑚3 ) (0.30 𝑚)
0.30
𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.35
𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 0.8571

Example No. 7
A differential manometer is
attached to two tanks as shown
below. Calculate the pressure
difference between chamber A and
chamber B.

Given: Refer to the figure

Required: 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵

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 Solution: 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑃1 =
𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 −
𝐻𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑃2 = 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐶𝐶𝑙4 − 𝐻𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝑆𝐴𝐸 30 𝑜𝑖𝑙 (1.1 𝑚) + 𝑃𝐻𝑔 (0.3 𝑚)
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑃𝐶𝐶𝑙4 (0.8 𝑚)
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑃𝐴 + 𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔(0.3 𝑚) + 𝑔 𝜌𝑆𝐴𝐸 30 𝑜𝑖𝑙(1.1 𝑚) = 𝑃𝐵 + 𝑔 𝜌𝐶𝐶𝑙4 (0.8 𝑚)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑔
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑔 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 [𝑆𝐺𝐶𝐶𝑙4(0.8) − 𝑆𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑙(1.1) − 𝑆𝐺𝐻𝑔(0.3) ]
𝑐
9.81 𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = 1 (1000 𝑚3 )[1.6(0.8) − 0.89(1.1) − 13.6(0.3)]
𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 = −37,071.99 𝑃𝑎 (𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑃𝐵 > 𝑃𝐴

Example No. 8
In the figure below, fluid 1 is oil (S.G. = 0.87) and fluid 2 is glycerine (S.G. = 1.26) at 20C. If
Pa = 98 kPa, determine the pressure at point A.

Given: Refer to the figure

Required: 𝑃𝐴
Solution:
Assumption: All pressure are towards point A. If the flow pressure toward A is going
downwards then the magnitude will be positive (+) and if it is going upwards, the
magnitude will be negative (-).
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 (32 𝑐𝑚) − 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 (10 𝑐𝑚)
𝑔 𝑔
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑔 𝜌𝑔𝑙𝑦𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑒 (0.32 𝑚) − 𝑔 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 (0.10 𝑚)
𝑐 𝑐
9.81 9.81
𝑃𝐴 = 98,000 𝑃𝑎 + 1 (1.26𝑥1000)(0.32) − (0.87𝑥1000)(0.10)
1
𝑃𝐴 = 101,101.922 𝑃𝑎

Example No. 9
For the figure given below, determine the pressure at point A in lbf/ft2.

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 Given: Refer to the figure
Required: 𝑃𝐴
Solution:
Assumption: All pressure are towards point A. If the flow pressure toward A is going
downwards then the magnitude will be positive (+) and if it is going upwards, the
magnitude will be negative (-).
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑃𝐻2 𝑂 (5 𝑖𝑛) + 𝑃𝐻𝑔 (10 𝑖𝑛) − 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑙 (6 𝑖𝑛)
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎 − 𝑔 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 (5 𝑖𝑛) + 𝑔 𝜌𝐻𝑔 (10 𝑖𝑛) − 𝑔 𝜌𝑜𝑖𝑙 (6 𝑖𝑛)
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑙𝑏𝑓 144 𝑖𝑛2 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 5
𝑃𝐴 = (14.7 𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 ) − 32.174 (62.32 𝑓𝑡 3 ) (12 𝑓𝑡) +
1 𝑓𝑡 2
32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 10 32.174 𝑙𝑏𝑚 6
(13.6𝑥62.32 𝑓𝑡 3 ) (12 𝑓𝑡) − 32.174 (0.85𝑥62.32 𝑓𝑡 3 ) (12 𝑓𝑡)
32.174
𝑃𝐴 = 2,769.3473 𝑝𝑠𝑓

Example No. 10
The pressure at the top of a tank of jet fuel is 180.6 kN/m2. The depth of the liquid in the
tank is 6.4 m. The density of the fuel is 825 kg/m3. Calculate the head of the liquid in meter
which corresponds to the absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank.

Given:
Required: ℎ𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
Solution: 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (6.4 𝑚)
𝑔
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑔 𝜌𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 (6.4 𝑚)
𝑐
9.81 𝑘𝑔
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 180,600 𝑃𝑎 + (825 (6.4 𝑚))
1 𝑚3

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 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 232,396.8 𝑃𝑎
𝑔
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑔 (𝜌𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 )(ℎ𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 )
𝑐
𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
ℎ𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 𝑔
(𝜌 )
𝑔𝑐 𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
232,396.8 𝑃𝑎
ℎ𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 9.81 𝑘𝑔
(825 3 )
1 𝑚
ℎ𝑗𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 = 28.7149 𝑚

Exercise Problems (UNIT 1):

1. An open tank (Patm = 14.7 psi) contains 10 feet of water covered with 2 feet of oil ( sp.gr.
= 0.86). Find the pressure at the interface and at the bottom of the tank.
2. Calculate the pressure in psia at the bottom of an 8 – ft spherical tank filled with oil.
The top of the tank is vented to the atmosphere having a pressure of 14.72 psia. The
density of the oil is 0.922 g/cm3.
The system in the figure below is at 20C. If the atmospheric pressure is 101.33 kPa and the
absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 237 kPa, what is the specific gravity of fluid
X? (Specific gravity of the oil = 0.89). ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑙 = 1 𝑚 : ℎ𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 2 𝑚 : ℎ𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑥 = 3 𝑚 : ℎ𝐻𝑔 = 0.5 𝑚

4. The fuel gage for a gasoline tank in a car reads proportional to the bottom gage
pressure as in figure 2 above. If the tank is 30 cm deep and accidentally contains 2
cm of water in addition to the gasoline, how many centimeters of air remain at the top
when the gage erroneously reads “full”? Use specific weight of gasoline = 6670 N/m3 ;
specific weight of air = 11.8 N/m3

5. Determine the pressure difference between pipes A and B for the differential
manometer shown below.

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 BAROMETRIC EQUATION
BAROMETRIC EQUATION is a formula that is used to model how the pressure (or
density) of the air changes with altitude.

ΣF = 0
F𝑈𝑃𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 − 𝐹𝐷𝑂𝑊𝑁𝑊𝐴𝑅𝐷 𝑃𝑅𝐸𝑆𝑆𝑈𝑅𝐸 − 𝐹𝐺𝑅𝐴𝑉𝐼𝑇𝑌 = 0
𝐹 = (𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)(𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎)
𝑝𝑆 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑃)𝑆 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑔
𝑝𝑆 − (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑃)𝑆 − 𝜌𝑆𝑑𝑍 ( ) = 0
𝑔𝑐
𝑔
𝑑𝑃 + ( ) 𝜌𝑑𝑍 = 0
𝑔𝑐
For an ideal gas:
𝑚
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑊

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 𝑃𝑀𝑊
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
Substituting on the hydraulic equation:
𝑑𝑃 𝑔
+ 𝜌=0
𝑑𝑍 𝑔𝑐

A) Isothermal condition (T=constant)

𝑑𝑃 𝑔
=− 𝜌
𝑑𝑍 𝑔𝑐
𝑔
𝑑𝑃 = − 𝜌𝑑𝑍
𝑔𝑐
𝑔
𝑑𝑃 = − 𝜌𝑑𝑍
𝑔𝑐
𝑃𝑀𝑊 𝑔
𝑑𝑃 = − ( ) ( ) 𝑑𝑍
𝑅𝑇 𝑔𝑐
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊 𝑔
= −( ) ( ) 𝑑𝑍
𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑔𝑐
𝑃2 𝑍2
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊 𝑔
∫ = −( ) ( ) ∫ 𝑑𝑍
𝑃1 𝑃 𝑅𝑇 𝑔𝑐 𝑍1
𝑃2 𝑀𝑊 𝑔
[−( )( )(𝑍 −𝑍 )]
= 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 𝑔𝑐 2 1
𝑃1
B) Non-Isothermal condition
At the Troposphere: Z = 0 - 36000 ft
(Temperature of the air drops off linearly with Z)
𝑑𝑇
= −𝐵
𝑑𝑍
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑂 − 𝐵𝑍
B Lapse rate – rate at which atmospheric temperature decreases with
an increase in altitude (change in temperature per unit length)

Standard T0 = 150C
values B = 0.0065 K/m

Accounting for the Lapse Rate

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 𝑃2 𝑍2
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑍
∫ = −( )( )∫
𝑃1 𝑃 𝑅 𝑔𝑐 𝑍1 𝑇
𝑃2 𝑍2
𝑑𝑃 𝑀𝑊 𝑔 𝑑𝑍
∫ = −( )( )∫
𝑃1 𝑃 𝑅 𝑔𝑐 𝑍1 𝑇𝑂 − 𝐵𝑍
𝑃2 𝑀𝑊 𝑔 𝑇𝑂 − 𝐵𝑍
𝑙𝑛 = ( ) ( ) 𝑙𝑛 ( )
𝑃1 𝑅 𝑔𝑐 𝑇𝑂
𝑃2 𝑔 𝑀𝑊 𝑇 −𝐵𝑍
[( )( )𝑙𝑛( 𝑂 )]
= 𝑒 𝑔𝑐 𝑅 𝑇𝑂
𝑃1
𝑔 𝑀𝑊
𝑃2 𝐵𝑍 (𝑔𝑐 )( 𝑅𝐵 )
= [1 − ]
𝑃1 𝑇𝑜

Example No. 11
A temperature of the earth’s atmosphere drops about 5oC for every 1000 m of elevation
above the earth surface. If the air temperature at ground level is 15oC and the pressure is
760 mmHg, at what elevation is the pressure be at 380 mmHg? Assume that the air
behaves as an ideal gas.

Given:
Required: 𝑍
Solution:
𝑔 𝑀𝑊
𝑃2 𝐵𝑍 (𝑔𝑐 )( 𝑅𝐵 )
= [1 − ]
𝑃1 𝑇𝑜
𝑘𝑔
9.81 𝑁 29 ⁄𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
( )( )
380 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 (0.005)𝑍 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 −𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝐾 101325 𝑃𝑎
(0.08205 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾 )(0.005𝑚)( 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 )
= [1 − ]
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 288
𝑧 = 5548.03 𝑚

Example No. 12
How much error would be introduced in the answer from example # 11, if the equation
for the hydrostatic equilibrium were used, with the density evaluated at 0OC and an
arithmetic average pressure?

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 Given:
Required: 𝑍 and % error compared with the answer in problem # 11
Solution:
𝑔
𝑃𝑏 − 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌(𝑍𝑎 − 𝑍𝑏 )
𝑔𝑐
𝑃𝑀𝑊
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
280+760
𝑃= = 570 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
2
𝑇 = 0 + 273 = 273 𝐾
570 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑘𝑔
( 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 )(29𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙)
760 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝜌= 𝑚3 −𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.08205 )(273 𝐾)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙−𝐾
𝑘𝑔
𝜌 = 0.9710
𝑚3
101325 𝑃𝑎 9.81 𝑁 𝑘𝑔
(380 − 760)𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 ( ) = (0.9710 3) (−𝑍)
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 1 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑍 = 5318.6129 𝑚
5548.03−5318.6129
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 5548.03
𝑥 100
% 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 4.1351%

Example No. 13
Earth’s atmospheric condition vary somewhat. On a certain day, the sea level temperature is
45F and the sea level pressure is 28.9 inHg. An airplane overhead registers a temperature of 23F
and a pressure of 12 psi, estimate the plane’s altitude in feet.

Given:
Required: 𝑍, 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡

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 Solution:
23 ℉ − 45℉ = −𝐵𝑍
22 ℉ 22 °𝑅
𝐵= 𝑍 = 𝑍
𝑔 𝑀𝑊
𝑃𝑏 𝐵𝑍 (𝑔𝑐 )( 𝑅𝐵 )
= [1 − ]
𝑃𝑎 𝑇𝑜

𝑔 𝑀𝑊 𝑙𝑏𝑓 29 𝑙𝑏𝑚⁄𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙
(𝑔 ) ( 𝑅𝐵 ) = 1 𝑙𝑏𝑚 [ 𝑝𝑠𝑖−𝑓𝑡3 144 𝑖𝑛2 22 °𝑅
]
𝑐 (10.73 )( )( )
𝑙𝑏𝑚𝑜𝑙−°𝑅 1 𝑓𝑡 𝑍
𝑔 𝑀𝑊 29 (𝑍)
(𝑔 ) ( 𝑅𝐵 ) = [(10.73)(144)(22)]
𝑐
29(𝑍)
22(𝑍) (10.73)(144)(22)
12 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝑍
𝑙𝑛 [ 14.7 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ] = 𝑙𝑛 [1 − ]
28.9 𝑖𝑛𝐻𝑔( ) 505 °𝑅
29.92 𝑖𝑛𝐻𝑔
−0.168255286 29 (𝑍)
= (10.73)(144)(22)
−0.04454177562
𝑍 = 4427.800942 𝑓𝑡

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 UNIT 2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium in a Centrifugal Field
Liquid-liquid separations in which the liquids are immiscible but finely dispersed as in an
emulsion are common operations in the food industry, among others. An example is the
dairy industry, in which the emulsion of milk is separated into skim milk and cream. In these
liquid-liquid separations, the position of the outlet overflow weir in the centrifuge is very
important, not only in controlling the volumetric holdup V in the centrifuge but also in
determining whether a separation is actually made.

In the figure 30.2-3, a tubular-bowl centrifuge is shown in which the centrifuge is separating
two liquid phases, one a heavy liquid with density ρH, kg/m3 and the second a light liquid
with density ρL, kg/m3. The distances shown are as follows: r1 is the radius to the surface of
the light liquid layer, r2 is the radius to the liquid-liquid interface, and r4 is the radius to the
surface of the heavy liquid downstream.

To locate the interface, a balance must be made of the pressures in the two layers. The
force on the fluid at distance r is by the equation,
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑟𝜔2 (𝑒𝑞𝑛 1)
The differential force across a thickness dr is
𝑑𝐹𝑐 = 𝑑𝑚𝑟𝜔2 (𝑒𝑞𝑛 2)
But,
𝑑𝑚 = [(2𝜋𝑟𝑏)𝑑𝑟]𝜌 (𝑒𝑞𝑛 3)
Where b is the height of the bowl in m and (2πrb)dr is the volume of fluid. By simplifying and
substituting the eqn 3 into eqn 2 and dividing both sides by the area A=2πrb,
𝑑𝐹𝑐
𝑑𝑃 = = 𝜔2 𝜌𝑟𝑑𝑟 (𝑒𝑞𝑛 4)
𝐴
Where P is pressure in N/m2 (lbf/ft2).

Integrating the eqn 4 between m r1 and r2,

𝜌𝜔2 2
𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = (𝑟2 − 𝑟12 )
2

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 UNIT 3 Continuous gravity decanter
A gravity decanter is used for a continuous separation of two immiscible liquids of differing
densities. The feed mixture enters at one end of the separator; the two liquids flow slowly
through the vessel, separate into two layers, and discharge through overflow lines at the
end of the separator.

Provided the overflow lines are so large that the frictional resistance to the flow of the
liquids is negligible, and provided they discharge at the same pressure as that in the gas
space above the liquid in the vessel, the performance of the decanter can be analyzed
by the principles of fluid statics.

𝑃1 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘

𝑃2 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (ℎ𝐵) + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴1 )
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴2 )
𝑃1 = 𝑃2
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (ℎ𝐵 ) + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴1 ) = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴2 )
𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (ℎ𝐵) + 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴1 ) = 𝑃𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴2 )
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (ℎ𝐵 ) + 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴1 ) = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴2 )
𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐 𝑔𝑐
𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (ℎ𝐵 ) + 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴1 ) = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (ℎ𝐴2 )
The size of the decanter is established by the time required for separation, which in turn
depends on the difference between the densities of the two liquids and on the viscosity of
the continuous phase. Provided the liquids are clean and do not form emulsions, the
separation time may be estimated from the empirical equation:
100𝜇
𝑡=
𝜌𝐴 − 𝜌𝐵
Where: t = separation time, hr
ρA, ρB = densitied of liquids A and B, kg/m3
μ = viscosity of the continuous phase, cP

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 Example No. 1
A vertical cylindrical settler separator is to be designed for separating a mixture flowing at 20.0
m3/hr and containing equal volumes of a light petroleum liquid (875 kg/m 3) and a dilute solution
of wash water (1050 kg/m3). Laboratory experiments indicate a settling time of 15 min is needed
to adequately separate the two phases. For design purposes, use a 25-min settling time and
calculate the size of the vessel needed, the liquid levels of the light and heavy liquids in the vessel,
the height ZA2 of the heavy liquid overflow. Assume that the ends of the vessel are approximately
flat, that the vessel diameter equals its height, and that one-third of the volume is vapor space
vented to the atmosphere.

Given:
Required: 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 , 𝑍𝐴1 , 𝑍𝐴2 , 𝑍𝐵
Solution: 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑥 𝑥 𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑚3 1 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 20 ℎ𝑟 𝑥 25 min 𝑥 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥 = 8.3333 𝑚3

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 2
3
8.3333 𝑚3
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 2
3
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 12.5 𝑚3

𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝐴𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑥 𝐻𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙

𝜋𝐷 2
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 4
𝑥 𝐻𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑙
𝜋𝐷 2
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 4 𝑥 𝐷
𝜋𝐷 3
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 4
𝜋𝐷 3
12.5 𝑚3 = 4
𝐷 = 2.5154 𝑚

𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑥
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 =
2

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 8.3333 𝑚3
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 2
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵 = 4.16665 𝑚3
𝜋𝐷 2
𝑉𝐴 = 4
𝑥 𝑍𝐴1
𝜋(2.5154 𝑚)2
4.16665 𝑚3 = 4
𝑥 𝑍𝐴1
4(4.16665 𝑚3 )
𝑍𝐴1 = 𝜋(2.5154 𝑚3 )2
𝑍𝐴1 = 0.8385 𝑚

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
𝑍𝐵 = 𝑍𝐴1 = 0.8385 𝑚

𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐵 (𝑍𝐵 ) + 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (𝑍𝐴1 ) = 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝐴 (𝑍𝐴2 )

𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
(875 𝑚3 ) (0.8385 𝑚) + (1050 𝑚3 ) (0.8385 𝑚) = (1050 𝑚3 ) (𝑍𝐴2 )
𝑍𝐴2 = 1.53725 𝑚

Example No. 2
What should be the volume of the separator for separating 1600 kg/hr chlorobenzene from 2100
kg/hr of wash liquid having a densities of 1109 kg/m3 and 1020 kg/m3 respectively? The wash liquid
is to be the continuous phase; its viscosity is the same as that of water at the operating
temperature of 35oC. (Note: 10% allowance of the total volume of the tank should be considered
for the vapor.)

Given:
Required: 𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
100𝜇
Solution: 𝑡=𝜌
𝐴 −𝜌𝐵
100(0.723 𝑐𝑃)
𝑡= 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
1109 3 −1020 3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑡 = 0.8124 ℎ𝑟

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 𝑚̇𝐴
𝑉𝐴 = 𝜌𝐴
𝑥𝑡
𝑘𝑔
1600
ℎ𝑟
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 0.8124 ℎ𝑟
1109 3
𝑚
𝑉𝐴 = 1.1721 𝑚3

𝑚̇𝐵
𝑉𝐵 = 𝜌𝐵
𝑥𝑡
𝑘𝑔
2100
ℎ𝑟
𝑉𝐵 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑥 0.8124 ℎ𝑟
1020 3
𝑚
𝑉𝐵 = 1.6726 𝑚3

𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵 + 𝑉𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 1.1721 𝑚3 + 1.6726 𝑚3 + 0.1𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑉𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 3.1607 𝑚3

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 UNIT 4 Centrifugal decanter
When the difference between the densities of the liquids is small, the force of gravity may
be too weak to separate the liquids in a reasonable time. The separation may then be
accomplished in a liquid-liquid centrifuge.

Applying the equation from hydrostatic equilibrium in centrifugal field and equating the
pressure exerted by the light phase of thickness r2-r1 to the pressure exerted by the heavy
phase of thickness r2-r4 at the liquid-liquid interface at r2,
𝜌𝐻 𝜔2 2 𝜌𝐿 𝜔2 2
(𝑟2 − 𝑟42 ) = (𝑟2 − 𝑟12 )
2 2
Solving for r2, the interface position,
𝜌𝐻 𝑟42 − 𝜌𝐿 𝑟12
𝑟2 = √
𝜌𝐻 − 𝜌𝐿

The interface at r2 must be located at a radius smaller than r3 in figure 30.2-3.

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 Example No. 1
The liquids describe from example problem # 2 in Unit 3, are to be separated in tubular centrifugal
bowl with an inside diameter of 150 mm, rotating at 8,000 rpm. The free liquid surface inside the
bowl is 40 mm from the axis of rotation. If the centrifuge bowl is to contain equal volumes of the
two liquids, what should be the radial distance, from the rotational to the top of the overflow dam
for the heavy liquid?

Given:
Required: 𝑟4 , 𝑚𝑚
𝐷
Solution: 𝑅=
2
150 𝑚𝑚
𝑅= 2
𝑅 = 75 𝑚𝑚

𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵
𝜋𝑅 2 𝑏 − 𝜋𝑟22 𝑏 = 𝜋𝑟22 𝑏 − 𝜋𝑟12 𝑏
𝑅 2 − 𝑟22 = 𝑟22 − 𝑟12
𝑅2 +𝑟12
𝑟2 = √
2
(75)2 +(40)2
𝑟2 = √
2
𝑟2 = 60.1041 𝑚𝑚

𝜌𝐻 𝑟42 −𝜌𝐿 𝑟12

𝑟2 = √
𝜌𝐻 −𝜌𝐿
𝑟22 (𝜌𝐻 −𝜌𝐿 )+𝜌𝐿 𝑟12
𝑟4 = √
𝜌𝐻
𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑔
(60.1041 𝑚𝑚)2 (1109 3 −1020 3 )+(1020 3 )(40 𝑚𝑚)2
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑟4 = √ 𝑘𝑔
1109 3
𝑚

𝑟4 = 41.9703 𝑚𝑚

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 Module/Unit Assessment: Module 1 Evaluative Assessment
Graded Quiz # 1
To be posted on Google Classroom or any LMS Software to be preferred for the whole
class.

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