The Human
The Human
Overview: Human
Sensory memories
Long-term memory
Fixed Fixed
legs: 4 breed of: DOG
type: sheepdog
Default
diet: carniverous Default
sound: bark size: 65 cm
Variable Variable
size: colour
colour
Models of LTM - Scripts
• Frames extend semantic nets to include structured,
hierarchical information. They represent knowledge
items in a way which makes explicit the relative
importance of each piece of information.
IF dog is growling
THEN run away
3 main activities related to
LTM
1. storage of information
2. forgetting
3. information retrieval
LTM - Storage of information
• Rehearsal
– information moves from STM to LTM
• If the total learning time is increased, information
is remembered better (total time hypothesis).
• However, the learning time should be well spread
(distribution of practice effect).
• But repetition alone is not enough: information
should be meaningful and familiar, so it can be
related to existing structures and more easily
incorporated into memory.
LTM – 2 Main Theories of
Forgetting
1. Decay
– information is lost gradually but very slowly
2. Interference
• if we acquire new information, it causes the loss of old
information:retroactive interference
• E.g change telephone numbers, learning your new
number makes it more difficult to remember your old
number
• older information interferes with the newly acquired
information: proactive inhibition
– E.g English speaking person may have difficulty in learning Spanish
so may not forget at all memory is selective …
2.recognition
– information gives knowledge that it has been seen
before
– less complex than recall - information is cue
The Computer
Introduction
12-37pm
sensors
and devices
everywhere
text entry devices
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Q W E R T Y U I O P
A S D F G H J K L
Z X C V B N M , .
SPACE
alternative keyboard layouts
Alphabetic
- keys arranged in alphabetic order
- does not improve typing performance.
Dvorak
– common letters under dominant
fingers
– biased towards right hand
– common combinations of letters
alternate between hands
– 10-15% improvement in speed
and reduction in fatigue
– But - large social base of QWERTY
typists produce market pressures
not to change
special keyboards
• Improving rapidly
• Problems with
– external noise interfering
– imprecision of pronunciation
– large vocabularies
– different speakers
Numeric keypads
mouse, touchpad
trackballs, joysticks etc.
touch screens, tablets
eyegaze, cursors
the Mouse
• Handheld pointing device
– very common
– easy to use
• Two characteristics
– planar movement
– buttons
(usually from 1 to 3 buttons on top, used for
making a selection, indicating an option, or to
initiate drawing etc.)
How does it work?
Two methods for detecting motion
• Mechanical
– Ball on underside of mouse turns as mouse is moved
– Rotates orthogonal potentiometers
– Can be used on almost any flat surface
• Optical
– light emitting diode on underside of mouse
– may use special grid-like pad or just on desk
– less susceptible to dust and dirt
– detects fluctuating alterations in reflected light intensity
to calculate relative motion in (x, z) plane
Even by foot …
Thumbwheels …
• (in 2 dimensions) offer less usability because
they can only manipulate the horizontal and
vertical movement of the cursor
Joystick and keyboard nipple
Joystick
– indirect
pressure of stick = velocity of
movement
– buttons for selection
on top or on front like a trigger
– often used for computer games
aircraft controls and 3D navigation
Keyboard nipple
– for laptop computers
– miniature joystick in the middle of
the keyboard
Touch-sensitive screen
• Detect the presence of finger or stylus on the screen.
• Advantages:
– fast, and requires no specialised pointer
– good for menu selection
– suitable for use in hostile environment: clean and safe from
damage.
Disadvantages:
• finger can mark screen
• imprecise (finger is a fairly blunt
instrument!)
• difficult to select small regions or
perform accurate drawing
• lifting arm can be tiring
Stylus Pen
Stylus Pen
– small pen-like pointer to draw directly on screen
– may use touch sensitive surface or magnetic detection
Digitizing tablet
• very accurate
- used for digitizing maps
Eyegaze Technology
electron beam
electron gun
focussing and
deflection
phosphor-
coated screen
Health hints …
video walls – lots of small screens together plasma – usually wide screen
situated displays
positioning in 3D space
moving and grasping
seeing 3D (helmets and caves)
positioning in 3D space
yaw
roll
pitch
3D displays
• desktop VR
– ordinary screen, mouse or keyboard
control
– perspective and motion give 3D effect
• seeing in 3D
– use stereoscopic vision
– VR helmets
– screen plus shuttered specs, etc.
• analogue representations:
– dials, gauges, lights, etc.
• digital displays:
– small LCD screens, LED lights, etc.
• head-up displays
– found in aircraft cockpits
– show most important controls
… depending on context
Analogue Representations
gauges
multi-function
control
large buttons
clear dials
tiny buttons
Environment and bio-sensing
print technology
fonts, page description, WYSIWYG
scanning, OCR
Printing
Pitch
– fixed-pitch – every character has the same width
e.g. Courier
– variable-pitched – some characters wider
e.g. Times Roman – compare the ‘i’ and the “m”
Serif or Sans-serif
– sans-serif – square-ended strokes
e.g. Helvetica
– serif – with splayed ends (such as)
e.g. Times Roman or Palatino
Readability of text
• lowercase
– easy to read shape of words
• UPPERCASE
– better for individual letters and non-words
e.g. flight numbers: BA793 vs. ba793
• serif fonts
– helps your eye on long lines of printed text
– but sans serif often better on screen
Screen and page
• Images:
– many storage formats :
(PostScript, GIFF, JPEG, TIFF, PICT, etc.)
– plus different compression techniques
(to reduce their storage requirements)
• Audio/Video
– again lots of formats :
(QuickTime, MPEG, WAV, etc.)
– compression even more important
– also ‘streaming’ formats for network delivery
methods of access