CHAPTER 19

THE ALMANACS

PURPOSE OF ALMANACS

1900. Introduction values to true.

The Air Almanac is intended primarily for air naviga-
Celestial navigation requires accurate predictions of the tors. In general, the information is similar to the Nautical
geographic positions of the celestial bodies observed. These Almanac, but is given to a precision of 1' of arc and 1 second
predictions are available from three almanacs published annu- of time, at intervals of 10 minutes (values for the sun and Ar-
ally by the United States Naval Observatory and H. M. ies are given to a precision of 0.1'). This publication is
Nautical Almanac Office, Royal Greenwich Observatory. suitable for ordinary navigation at sea, but may lack the pre-
The Astronomical Almanac precisely tabulates celestial cision of the Nautical Almanac, and provides GHA and
data for the exacting requirements found in several scientific declination for only the 57 commonly used navigation stars.
fields. Its precision is far greater than that required by celes- The Floppy Almanac is a computer software program
tial navigation. Even if the Astronomical Almanac is used for produced by the U.S. Naval Observatory which not only con-
celestial navigation, it will not necessarily result in more ac- tains ephemeris data, but also computes rising, setting, and
curate fixes due to the limitations of other aspects of the twilight problems; does sight planning given course and
celestial navigation process. speed (this function includes a computer-generated star find-
The Nautical Almanac contains the astronomical informa- er centered on the observer’s zenith); computes great circle
tion specifically needed by marine navigators. Information is and rumb line routes; computes compass error from celestial
tabulated to the nearest 0.1' of arc and 1 second of time. GHA observations; and does complete sight reduction solutions in-
and declination are available for the sun, moon, planets, and 173 cluding computer plotting and weighted analysis of the
stars, as well as corrections necessary to reduce the observed LOP’s. The Floppy Almanac is in DOS format.

FORMAT OF THE NAUTICAL AND AIR ALMANACS

1901. Nautical Almanac at UT 1200 of the middle day is listed at the top of the col-
umn. The UT of transit across the celestial meridian of
The major portion of the Nautical Almanac is devoted to Greenwich is listed as “Mer. Pass.”. The value for the first
hourly tabulations of Greenwich Hour Angle (GHA) and decli- point of Aries for the middle of the three days is listed to the
nation, to the nearest 0.1' of arc. On each set of facing pages, nearest 0.1' at the bottom of the Aries column. The time of
information is listed for three consecutive days. On the left-hand transit of the planets for the middle day is given to the nearest
page, successive columns list GHA of Aries ( ), and both whole minute, with SHA (at UT 0000 of the middle day) to
GHA and declination of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, fol- the nearest 0.1', below the list of stars. For the sun and moon,
lowed by the Sidereal Hour Angle (SHA) and declination of 57 the time of transit to the nearest whole minute is given for
stars. The GHA and declination of the sun and moon, and the each day. For the moon, both upper and lower transits are
horizontal parallax of the moon, are listed on the right-hand given. This information is tabulated below the rising, setting,
page. Where applicable, the quantities v and d are given to assist and twilight information. Also listed, are the equation of time
in interpolation. The quantity v is the difference between the ac- for 0h and 12h, and the age and phase of the moon. Equation
tual change of GHA in 1 hour and a constant value used in the of time is listed, without sign, to the nearest whole second.
interpolation tables, while d is the change in declination in 1 Age is given to the nearest whole day. Phase is given by
hour. Both v and d are listed to the nearest 0.1'. symbol.
To the right of the moon data is listed the Local Mean The main tabulation is preceded by a list of religious
Time (LMT) of sunrise, sunset, and beginning and ending of and civil holidays, phases of the Moon, a calendar, infor-
nautical and civil twilight for latitudes from 72°N to 60°S. mation on eclipses occurring during the year, and notes
The LMT of moonrise and moonset at the same latitudes is and a diagram giving information on the planets.
listed for each of the three days for which other information The main tabulation is followed by explanations and ex-
is given, and for the following day. Magnitude of each planet amples. Next are four pages of standard times (zone

299
300 THE ALMANACS

descriptions). Star charts are next, followed by a list of 173 However, in the Air Almanac values are listed at intervals of 10
stars in order of increasing SHA. This list includes the stars minutes, to a precision of 0.1' for the sun and Aries, and to a pre-
given on the daily pages. It gives the SHA and declination- cision of 1' for the moon and the planets. Values are given for the
each month, and the magnitude. Stars are listed by Bayer’s sun, first point of Aries (GHA only), the three navigational plan-
name and also by popular name where applicable. Following ets most favorably located for observation, and the moon. The
the star list are the Polaris tables. These tables give the azi- magnitude of each planet listed is given at the top of its column,
muth and the corrections to be applied to the observed and the phase of the moon is given at the top of its column. Val-
altitude to find the latitude. ues for the first 12 hours of the day are given on the right-hand
Following the Polaris table is a section that gives for- page, and those for the second half of the day on the back. In ad-
mulas and examples for the entry of almanac data, the dition, each page has a table of the moon’s parallax in altitude,
calculations that reduce a sight, and a method of solution and below this the semidiameter of the sun, and both the semid-
for position, all for use with a calculator or microcomputer. iameter and age of the moon. Each daily page includes the LMT
This is followed by concise sight reduction tables, with in- of moonrise and moonset; and a difference column to find the
structions and examples, for use when a calculator or time of moonrise and moonset at any longitude.
traditional sight reduction tables are not available. Tabular Critical tables for interpolation for GHA are given on
precision of the concise tables is one minute of arc. the inside front cover, which also has an alphabetical listing
Next is a table for converting arc to time units. This is of the stars, with the number, magnitude, SHA, and decli-
followed by a 30-page table called “Increments and Correc- nation of each. The same interpolation table and star list are
tions,” used for interpolation of GHA and declination. This printed on a flap which follows the daily pages. This flap
table is printed on tinted paper, for quick location. Then also contains a star chart, a star index in order of decreasing
come tables for interpolating for times of rise, set, and twi- SHA, and a table for interpolation of the LMT of moonrise
light; followed by two indices of the 57 stars listed on the and moonset for longitude.
daily pages, one index in alphabetical order, and the other Following the flap are instructions for the use of the al-
in order of decreasing SHA. manac; a list of symbols and abbreviations in English,
Sextant altitude corrections are given at the front and French, and Spanish; a list of time differences between
back of the almanac. Tables for the sun, stars, and planets, Greenwich and other places; sky diagrams; a planet location
and a dip table, are given on the inside front cover and fac- diagram; star recognition diagrams for periscopic sextants;
ing page, with an additional correction for nonstandard sunrise, sunset, and civil twilight tables; rising, setting, and
temperature and atmospheric pressure on the following depression graphs; semiduration graphs of sunlight, twilight,
page. Tables for the moon, and an abbreviated dip table, are and moonlight in high latitudes; percentage of the moon illu-
given on the inside back cover and facing page. Corrections minated at 6 and 18 hours UT daily; a list of 173 stars by
for the sun, stars, and planets for altitudes greater than 10°, number and Bayer’s name (also popular name where there is
and the dip table, are repeated on one side of a loose book- one), giving the SHA and declination each month (to a preci-
mark. The star indices are repeated on the other side. sion of 0.1'), and the magnitude; tables for interpolation of
GHA sun and GHA ; a table for converting arc to time;
1902. Air Almanac a single Polaris correction table; an aircraft standard dome re-
fraction table; a refraction correction table; a Coriolis
As in the Nautical Almanac, the major portion of the Air Al- correction table; and on the inside back cover, a correction ta-
manac is devoted to a tabulation of GHA and declination. ble for dip of the horizon.

USING THE ALMANACS

1903. Entering Arguments Correction to time Correction to

signals longitude
The time used as an entering argument in the almanacs -0.7s to -0.9s 0.2' to east
is 12h + GHA of the mean sun and is denoted by UT. This
-0.6s to -0.3s 0.1' to east
scale may differ from the broadcast time signals by an
amount which, if ignored, will introduce an error of up to 0.2' -0.2s to +0.2s no correction
in longitude determined from astronomical observations. +0.3s to +0.6s 0.1' to west
The difference arises because the time argument depends on +0.7s to +0.9s 0.2' to west
the variable rate of rotation of the earth while the broadcast
time signals are now based on atomic time. Step adjustments
of exactly one second are made to the time signals as required
(primarily at 24h on December 31 and June 30) so that the Table 1903. Corrections to time.
 THE ALMANACS 301

difference between the time signals and UT, as used in the given, making interpolation unnecessary. Thus, it is always
almanacs, may not exceed 0.9s. If observations to a preci- important to take out the GHA and declination for the time
sion of better than 1s are required, corrections must be immediately before the time of observation.
obtained from coding in the signal, or from other sources. In the Air Almanac, GHA and the GHA and declina-
The correction may be applied to each of the times of ob- tion of the sun are tabulated to a precision of 0.1'. If these
servation. Alternatively, the longitude, when determined values are extracted with the tabular precision, the “Interpola-
from observations, may be corrected by the corresponding tion of GHA” table on the inside front cover (and flap) should
amount shown in Table 1903. not be used; use the “Interpolation of GHA Sun” and “Interpo-
The main contents of the almanacs consist of data from lation of GHA Aries’ tables, as appropriate. These tables are
which the GHA and the declination of all the bodies used found immediately preceding the Polaris Table.
for navigation can be obtained for any instant of UT. The
LHA can then be obtained with the formula: 1904. Finding GHA And Declination Of The Sun
LHA = GHA + east longitude.
LHA = GHA - west longitude. Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the
whole hour before the given GMT, unless the exact time is
For the sun, moon, and the four navigational planets, a whole hour, and take out the tabulated GHA and declina-
the GHA and declination are tabulated directly in the Nau- tion. Also record the d value given at the bottom of the
tical Almanac for each hour of GMT throughout the year; declination column. Next, enter the increments and correc-
in the Air Almanac, the values are tabulated for each whole tions table for the number of minutes of GMT. If there are
10 m of GMT. For the stars, the SHA is given, and the GHA seconds, use the next earlier whole minute. On the line cor-
is obtained from: responding to the seconds of GMT, extract the value from
GHA Star = GHA + SHA Star. the Sun-Planets column. Add this to the value of GHA from
the daily page. This is GHA of the sun. Next, enter the cor-
The SHA and declination of the stars change slowly rection table for the same minute with the d value and take
and may be regarded as constant over periods of several out the correction. Give this the sign of the d value and ap-
days or even months if lesser accuracy is required. The ply it to the declination from the daily page. This is the
SHA and declination of stars tabulated in the Air Almanac declination.
may be considered constant to a precision of 1.5' to 2' for The correction table for GHA of the Sun is based upo-
the period covered by each of the volumes providing the na rate of change of 15° per hour, the average rate during a
data for a whole year, with most data being closer to the year. At most times the rate differs slightly. The slight error
smaller value. GHA , or the GHA of the first point of is minimized by adjustment of the tabular values. The d val-
Aries (the vernal equinox), is tabulated for each hour in the ue is the amount that the declination changes between 1200
Nautical Almanac and for each whole 10m in the Air Alma- and 1300 on the middle day of the three shown.
nac. Permanent tables list the appropriate increments to the Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m
tabulated values of GHA and declination for the minutes preceding the given GMT, unless the time is itself a whole
and seconds of time. 10m, and extract the GHA. The declination is extracted
In the Nautical Almanac, the permanent table for incre- without interpolation from the same line as the tabulated
ments also includes corrections for v, the difference GHA or, in the case of planets, the top line of the block of
between the actual change of GHA in one hour and a con- six. If the values extracted are rounded to the nearest
stant value used in the interpolation tables; and d, the minute, next enter the “Interpolation of GHA” table on the
change in declination in one hour. inside front cover (and flap), using the “Sun, etc.” entry col-
In the Nautical Almanac, v is always positive unless a umn, and take out the value for the remaining minutes and
negative sign (-) is shown. This occurs only in the case of seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated val-
Venus. For the sun, the tabulated values of GHA have been ue, use the correction listed half a line above the entry time.
adjusted to reduce to a minimum the error caused by treat- Add this correction to the GHA taken from the daily page.
ing v as negligible; there is no v tabulated for the sun. This is GHA. No adjustment of declination is needed. If the
No sign is given for tabulated values of d, which is posi- values are extracted with a precision of 0.1', the table for in-
tive if declination is increasing, and negative if decreasing. The terpolating the GHA of the sun to a precision of 0.1' must
sign of a v or d value is also given to the related correction. be used. Again no adjustment of declination is needed.
In the Air Almanac, the tabular values of the GHA of
the moon are adjusted so that use of an interpolation table 1905. Finding GHA And Declination Of The Moon
based on a fixed rate of change gives rise to negligible er-
ror; no such adjustment is necessary for the sun and planets. Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the
The tabulated declination values, except for the sun, are whole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is itself
those for the middle of the interval between the time indi- a whole hour, and extract the tabulated GHA and declina-
cated and the next following time for which a value is tion. Record the corresponding v and d values tabulated on
302 THE ALMANACS

the same line, and determine the sign of the d value. The v the mean rate of the sun, 15° per hour. The v value is the dif-
value of the moon is always positive (+) and is not marked ference between 15° and the change of GHA of the planet
in the almanac. Next, enter the increments and corrections between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day of the three
table for the minutes of GMT, and on the line for the sec- shown. The d value is the amount the declination changes
onds of GMT, take the GHA correction from the moon between 1200 and 1300 on the middle day. Venus is the
column. Then, enter the correction table for the same only body listed which ever has a negative v value.
minute with the v value, and extract the correction. Add Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m
both of these corrections to the GHA from the daily page. before the given GMT, unless this time is a whole 10m, and
This is GHA of the moon. Then, enter the same correction extract the tabulated GHA and declination, without interpo-
table with the d value and extract the correction. Give this lation. The tabulated declination is correct for the time 30m
correction the sign of the d value and apply it to the decli- later than tabulated, so interpolation during the hour follow-
nation from the daily page. This is declination. ing tabulation is not needed for most purposes. Next, enter
The correction table for GHA of the moon is based the “Interpolation of GHA” table on the inside front cover,
upon the minimum rate at which the moon’s GHA increas- using the “sun, etc.” column, and take out the value for the
es, 14°19.0' per hour. The v correction adjusts for the remaining minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time
actual rate. The v value is the difference between the min- is an exact tabulated value, use the correction half a line
imum rate and the actual rate during the hour following above the entry time. Add this correction to the GHA from
the tabulated time. The d value is the amount that the dec- the daily page to find the GHA at the given time. No adjust-
lination changes during the hour following the tabulated ment of declination is needed.
time.
Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m 1907. Finding GHA And Declination Of A Star
next preceding the given GMT, unless this time is a whole
10m, and extract the tabulated GHA and the declination If the GHA and declination of each navigational star were
without interpolation. Next, enter the “Interpolation of tabulated separately, the almanacs would be several times their
GHA” table on the inside front cover, using the “moon” en- present size. But since the sidereal hour angle and the declina-
try column, and extract the value for the remaining minutes tion are nearly constant over several days (to the nearest 0.1')
and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact tabulated or months (to the nearest 1'), separate tabulations are not need-
value, use the correction given half a line above the entry ed. Instead, the GHA of the first point of Aries, from which
time. Add this correction to the GHA taken from the daily SHA is measured, is tabulated on the daily pages, and a single
page to find the GHA at the given time. No adjustment of listing of SHA and declination is given for each double page of
declination is needed. the Nautical Almanac, and for an entire volume of the Air Al-
The declination given in the table is correct for the time manac. Finding the GHA is similar to finding the GHA
5 minutes later than tabulated, so that it can be used for the 10- of the sun, moon, and planets.
minute interval without interpolation, to an accuracy to meet Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the
most requirements. Declination changes much more slowly whole hour before the given GMT, unless this time is a whole
than GHA. If greater accuracy is needed, it can be obtained by hour, and extract the tabulated GHA of Aries. Also record the
interpolation, remembering to allow for the 5 minutes. tabulated SHA and declination of the star from the listing on
the left-hand daily page. Next, enter the increments and correc-
1906. Finding GHA And Declination Of A Planet tions table for the minutes of GMT, and, on the line for the
seconds of GMT, extract the GHA correction from the Aries
Nautical Almanac: Enter the daily page table with the column. Add this correction and the SHA of the star to the
whole hour before the given GMT, unless the time is a whole GHA on the daily page to find the GHA of the star at the
hour, and extract the tabulated GHA and declination. Record given time. No adjustment of declination is needed.
the v value given at the bottom of each of these columns. Next, The SHA and declination of 173 stars, including Po-
enter the increments and corrections table for the minutes of laris and the 57 listed on the daily pages, are given for
GMT, and on the line for the seconds of GMT, take the GHA the middle of each month. For a star not listed on the dai-
correction from the sun-planets column. Next, enter the cor- ly pages, this is the only almanac source of this
rection table with the v value and extract the correction, giving information. Interpolation in this table is not necessary
it the sign of the v value. Add the first correction to the GHA for ordinary purposes of navigation, but is sometimes
from the daily page, and apply the second correction in accor- needed for precise results.
dance with its sign. This is GHA. Then enter the correction Air Almanac: Enter the daily page with the whole 10m
table for the same minute with the d value, and extract the cor- before the given GMT, unless this is a whole 10m, and ex-
rection. Give this correction the sign of the d value, and apply tract the tabulated GHA . Next, enter the “Interpolation
it to the declination from the daily page to find the declination of GHA” table on the inside front cover, using the “Sun,
at the given time. etc.” entry column, and extract the value for the remaining
The correction table for GHA of planets is based upon minutes and seconds of GMT. If the entry time is an exact
 THE ALMANACS 303

tabulated value, use the correction given half a line above the GHA from the daily page and the two values taken from
the entry time. From the tabulation at the left side of the the inside front cover to find the GHA at the given time. No
same page, extract the SHA and declination of the star. Add adjustment of declination is needed.

RISING, SETTING, AND TWILIGHT

1908. Rising, Setting, And Twilight 1909. Finding Times Of Sunrise And Sunset

In both Air and Nautical Almanacs, the times of sunrise, To find the time of sunrise or sunset in the Nautical Al-
sunset, moonrise, moonset, and twilight information, at var- manac, enter the table on the daily page, and extract the
ious latitudes between 72°N and 60°S, is listed to the nearest LMT for the latitude next smaller than your own (unless it
whole minute. By definition, rising or setting occurs when is exactly the same). Apply a correction from Table I on al-
the upper limb of the body is on the visible horizon, assum- manac page xxxii to interpolate for altitude, determining
ing standard refraction for zero height of eye. Because of the sign by inspection. Then convert LMT to ZT using the
variations in refraction and height of eye, computation to a difference of longitude between the local and zone
greater precision than 1 minute of time is not justified. meridians.
In high latitudes, some of the phenomena do not occur For the Air Almanac, the procedure is the same as for
during certain periods. Symbols are used in the almanacs to the Nautical Almanac, except that the LMT is taken from
indicate: the tables of sunrise and sunset instead of from the daily
page, and the latitude correction is by linear interpolation.
1. Sun or moon does not set, but remains continuously The tabulated times are for the Greenwich meridian.
above the horizon, indicated by an open rectangle. Except in high latitudes near the time of the equinoxes, the
2. Sun or moon does not rise, but remains continuous- time of sunrise and sunset varies so little from day to day
ly below the horizon, indicated by a solid rectangle. that no interpolation is needed for longitude. In high lati-
3. Twilight lasts all night, indicated by 4 slashes (////). tudes interpolation is not always possible. Between two
tabulated entries, the sun may in fact cease to set. In this
The Nautical Almanac makes no provision for finding case, the time of rising and setting is greatly influenced by
the times of rising, setting, or twilight in polar regions. The small variations in refraction and changes in height of eye.
Air Almanac has graphs for this purpose.
In the Nautical Almanac, sunrise, sunset, and twilight 1910. Twilight
tables are given only once for the middle of the three days
on each page opening. For navigational purposes this infor- Morning twilight ends at sunrise, and evening twilight
mation can be used for all three days. Both almanacs have begins at sunset. The time of the darker limit can be found
moonrise and moonset tables for each day. from the almanacs. The time of the darker limits of both
The tabulations are in LMT. On the zone meridian, this civil and nautical twilights (center of the sun 6° and 12°, re-
is the zone time (ZT). For every 15' of longitude the observ- spectively, below the celestial horizon) is given in the
er’s position differs from the zone meridian, the zone time Nautical Almanac. The Air Almanac provides tabulations
of the phenomena differs by 1m, being later if the observer of civil twilight from 60°S to 72°N. The brightness of the
is west of the zone meridian, and earlier if east of the zone sky at any given depression of the sun below the horizon
meridian. The LMT of the phenomena varies with latitude may vary considerably from day to day, depending upon
of the observer, declination of the body, and hour angle of the amount of cloudiness, haze, and other atmospheric con-
the body relative to the mean sun. ditions. In general, the most effective period for observing
The UT of the phenomenon is found from LMT by the stars and planets occurs when the center of the sun is be-
formula: tween about 3° and 9° below the celestial horizon. Hence,
the darker limit of civil twilight occurs at about the mid-
UT = LMT + W Longitude point of this period. At the darker limit of nautical twilight,
UT = LMT - E Longitude. the horizon is generally too dark for good observations.
At the darker limit of astronomical twilight (center of
To use this formula, convert the longitude to time using the sun 18° below the celestial horizon), full night has set
the table on page i or by computation, and add or subtract in. The time of this twilight is given in the Astronomical Al-
as indicated. Apply the zone description (ZD) to find the manac. Its approximate value can be determined by
zone time of the phenomena. extrapolation in the Nautical Almanac, noting that the dura-
Sunrise and sunset are also tabulated in the tide tables tion of the different kinds of twilight is not proportional to
(from 76°N to 60°S). the number of degrees of depression at the darker limit.
304 THE ALMANACS

More precise determination of the time at which the center make the corrected time fall between the times for the two
of the sun is any given number of degrees below the celes- dates between which interpolation is being made. This is
tial horizon can be determined by a large-scale diagram on nearly always positive (+) in west longitude and negative (-)
the plane of the celestial meridian, or by computation. Du- in east longitude. Convert the corrected LMT to ZT.
ration of twilight in latitudes higher than 65°N is given in a To find the time of moonrise or moonset by the Air Al-
graph in the Air Almanac. manac for the given date, determine LMT for the observer’s
In both Nautical and Air Almanacs, the method of find- latitude at the Greenwich meridian in the same manner as
ing the darker limit of twilight is the same as that for sunrise with the Nautical Almanac, except that linear interpolation
and sunset. is made directly from the main tables, since no interpolation
Sometimes in high latitudes the sun does not rise but table is provided. Extract, also, the value from the “Diff.”
twilight occurs. This is indicated in the Air Almanac by a column to the right of the moonrise and moonset column,
solid black rectangle symbol in the sunrise and sunset col- interpolating if necessary. This “Diff.” is one-fourth of one-
umn. To find the time of beginning of morning twilight, half of the daily difference. The error introduced by this ap-
subtract half the duration of twilight as obtained from the proximation is generally not more than a few minutes,
duration of twilight graph from the time of meridian transit although it increases with latitude. Using this difference,
of the sun; and for the time of ending of evening twilight, and the longitude, enter the “Interpolation of Moonrise,
add it to the time of meridian transit. The LMT of meridian Moonset” table on flap F4 of the Air Almanac and extract
transit never differs by more than 16.4m (approximately) the correction. The Air Almanac recommends taking the
from 1200. The actual time on any date can be determined correction from this table without interpolation. The results
from the almanac. thus obtained are sufficiently accurate for ordinary purpos-
es of navigation. If greater accuracy is desired, the
1911. Moonrise And Moonset correction can be taken by interpolation. However, since
the “Diff.” itself is an approximation, the Nautical Almanac
Finding the time of moonrise and moonset is similar to or computation should be used if accuracy is a consider-
finding the time of sunrise and sunset, with one important ation. Apply the correction to the LMT of moonrise or
difference. Because of the moon’s rapid change of declina- moonset at the Greenwich meridian on the given date to
tion, and its fast eastward motion relative to the sun, the find the LMT at the position of the observer. The correction
time of moonrise and moonset varies considerably from is positive (+) for west longitude, and negative (-) for east
day to day. These changes of position on the celestial longitude, unless the “Diff.” on the daily page is preceded
sphere are continuous, as moonrise and moonset occur suc- by the negative sign (-), when the correction is negative (-)
cessively at various longitudes around the earth. Therefore, for west longitude, and positive (+) for east longitude. If the
the change in time is distributed over all longitudes. For time is near midnight, record the date at each step, as in the
precise results, it would be necessary to compute the time Nautical Almanac solution.
of the phenomena at any given place by lengthy complex As with the sun, there are times in high latitudes when in-
calculation. For ordinary purposes of navigation, however, terpolation is inaccurate or impossible. At such periods, the
it is sufficiently accurate to interpolate between consecutive times of the phenomena themselves are uncertain, but an ap-
moonrises or moonsets at the Greenwich meridian. Since proximate answer can be obtained by the moonlight graph in
apparent motion of the moon is westward, relative to an ob- the Air Almanac, or by computation. With the moon, this con-
server on the earth, interpolation in west longitude is dition occurs when the moon rises or sets at one latitude, but
between the phenomenon on the given date and the follow- not at the next higher tabulated latitude, as with the sun. It also
ing one. In east longitude it is between the phenomenon on occurs when the moon rises or sets on one day, but not on the
the given date and the preceding one. preceding or following day. This latter condition is indicated in
To find the time of moonrise or moonset in the Nautical the Air Almanac by the symbol * in the “Diff.” column.
Almanac, enter the daily-page table with latitude, and extract Because of the eastward revolution of the moon around
the LMT for the tabulated latitude next smaller than the ob- the earth, there is one day each synodical month (29 1/2
server’s latitude (unless this is an exact tabulated value). days) when the moon does not rise, and one day when it does
Apply a correction from table I of almanac page xxxii to in- not set. These occur near last quarter and first quarter, re-
terpolate for latitude, determining the sign of the correction spectively. Since this day is not the same at all latitudes or at
by inspection. Repeat this procedure for the day following all longitudes, the time of moonrise or moonset found from
the given date, if in west longitude; or for the day preceding, the almanac may occasionally be the preceding or succeed-
if in east longitude. Using the difference between these two ing one to that desired. When interpolating near midnight,
times, and the longitude, enter table II of the almanac on the caution will prevent an error.
same page and take out the correction. Apply this correction The effect of the revolution of the moon around the
to the LMT of moonrise or moonset at the Greenwich merid- earth is to cause the moon to rise or set later from day to day.
ian on the given date to find the LMT at the position of the The daily retardation due to this effect does not differ greatly
observer. The sign to be given the correction is such as to from 50m. However, the change in declination of the moon
 THE ALMANACS 305

may increase or decrease this effect. This effect increases number of hours between moonrise and meridian transit or
with latitude, and in extreme conditions it may be greater between meridian transit and moonset. The dot scale near
than the effect due to revolution of the moon. Hence, the in- the top of the graph indicates the LMT of meridian transit,
terval between successive moonrises or moonsets is more each dot representing one hour. The phase symbols indicate
erratic in high latitudes than in low latitudes. When the two the date on which the principal moon phases occur, the
effects act in the same direction, daily differences can be open circle indicating full moon and the dark circle indicat-
quite large. When they act in opposite directions, they are ing new moon. If the intersection of the vertical dateline
small, and when the effect due to change in declination is and the horizontal latitude line falls in the “moon above ho-
larger than that due to revolution, the moon sets earlier on rizon” or “moon below horizon” area, the moon remains
succeeding days. This condition is reflected in the Air Alma- above or below the horizon, respectively, for the entire 24
nac by a negative “Diff.” If this happens near the last quarter hours of the day.
or first quarter, two moonrises or moonsets might occur on If approximations of the times of moonrise and moon-
the same day, one a few minutes after the day begins, and the set are sufficient, the semiduration of moonlight is taken for
other a few minutes before it ends, as on June 19, where two the time of meridian passage and can be used without ad-
times are listed in the same space. justment. When as estimated time of rise falls on the
Interpolation for longitude is always made between preceding day, that phenomenon may be recalculated using
consecutive moonrises or moonsets, regardless of the days the meridian passage and semiduration for the day follow-
on which they fall. ing. When an estimated time of set falls on the following
Beyond the northern limits of the almanacs the values day, that phenomenon may be recalculated using meridian
can be obtained from a series of graphs given near the back passage and semiduration for the preceding day. For more
of the Air Almanac. For high latitudes, graphs are used in- accurate results (seldom justified), the times on the required
stead of tables because graphs give a clearer picture of date and the adjacent date (the following date in W longi-
conditions, which may change radically with relatively lit- tude and the preceding date in E longitude) should be
tle change in position or date. Under these conditions determined, and an interpolation made for longitude, as in
interpolation to practical precision is simpler by graph than any latitude, since the intervals given are for the Greenwich
by table. In those parts of the graph which are difficult to meridian.
read, the times of the phenomena’s occurrence are uncer- Sunlight, twilight, and moonlight graphs are not given
tain, being altered considerably by a relatively small change for south latitudes. Beyond latitude 65°S, the northern
in refraction or height of eye. hemisphere graphs can be used for determining the semidu-
On all of these graphs, any given latitude is represented ration or duration, by using the vertical dateline for a day
by a horizontal line and any given date by a vertical line. At when the declination has the same numerical value but op-
the intersection of these two lines the duration is read from posite sign. The time of meridian transit and the phase of
the curves, interpolating by eye between curves. the moon are determined as explained above, using the cor-
The “Semiduration of Sunlight” graph gives the num- rect date. Between latitudes 60°S and 65°S, the solution is
ber of hours between sunrise and meridian transit or made by interpolation between the tables and the graphs.
between meridian transit and sunset. The dot scale near the Other methods of solution of these phenomena are
top of the graph indicates the LMT of meridian transit, the available. The Tide Tables tabulate sunrise and sunset from
time represented by the minute dot nearest the vertical date- latitude 76°N to 60°S. Semiduration or duration can be de-
line being used. If the intersection occurs in the area marked termined graphically using a diagram on the plane of the
“sun above horizon,” the sun does not set; and if in the area celestial meridian, or by computation. When computation is
marked “sun below horizon,” the sun does not rise. used, solution is made for the meridian angle at which the
The “Duration of Twilight” graph gives the number of required negative altitude occurs. The meridian angle ex-
hours between the beginning of morning civil twilight (cen- pressed in time units is the semiduration in the case of
ter of sun 6° below the horizon) and sunrise, or between sunrise, sunset, moonrise, and moonset; and the semidura-
sunset and the end of evening civil twilight. If the sun does tion of the combined sunlight and twilight, or the time from
not rise, but twilight occurs, the time taken from the graph meridian transit at which morning twilight begins or
is half the total length of the single twilight period, or the evening twilight ends. For sunrise and sunset the altitude
number of hours from beginning of morning twilight to used is (-)50'. Allowance for height of eye can be made by
LAN, or from LAN to end of evening twilight. If the inter- algebraically subtracting (numerically adding) the dip cor-
section occurs in the area marked “continuous twilight or rection from this altitude. The altitude used for twilight is (-
sunlight,” the center of the sun does not move more than 6° )6°, (-)12°, or (-)18° for civil, nautical, or astronomical twi-
below the horizon, and if in the area marked “no twilight light, respectively. The altitude used for moonrise and
nor sunlight,” the sun remains more than 6° below the hori- moonset is -34' - SD + HP, where SD is semidiameter and
zon throughout the entire day. HP is horizontal parallax, from the daily pages of the Nau-
The “Semiduration of Moonlight” graph gives the tical Almanac.
306 THE ALMANACS

1912. Rising, Setting, And Twilight On A Moving Craft time indicated in the second solution can be used for a
third solution. If desired, this process can be repeated until
Instructions to this point relate to a fixed position on the same answer is obtained from two consecutive solu-
the earth. Aboard a moving craft the problem is compli- tions. However, it is generally sufficient to alter the first
cated somewhat by the fact that time of occurrence solution by 1m for each 15' of longitude that the position
depends upon position of the craft, which itself depends of the craft differs from that used in the solution, adding if
on the time. At ship speeds, it is generally sufficiently ac- west of the estimated position, and subtracting if east of it.
curate to make an approximate mental solution and use the In applying this rule, use both longitudes to the nearest
position of the vessel at this time to make a more accurate 15'. The first solution is the first estimate; the second so-
solution. If greater accuracy is required, the position at the lution is the second estimate.