Nervous System

● is your body's command center.

● it controls your movements, thoughts and automatic responses to the world
around you. It also controls other body systems and processes, such as
digestion, breathing and sexual development (puberty).

Functions
1. Sensory input:
- sensory receptors respond to stimuli
2. Integration
- brain and spinal cord process stimuli
3. Control of muscles and glands
4. Mental activity
- brain
5. Homeostasis

Main Divisions of Nervous System

● Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Brain and Spinal Cord
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- All neurons outside CNS

Neuron Characteristics
● Nerve cells
● Require oxygen and glucose
● Receive input, process input, produce a response
Neuron Structures
● Dendrite
- Receives stimulus from other neurons or sensory receptors
● Cell Body
- Processes stimulus
- Contains a nucleus
● Axon
- Transmits stimulus to a gland , muscle, organ, or other neuron

Myelin Sheath
● What is it?
- fatty , protective wrapping around axons
- Excellent insulator
● Nodes of Ranvier
- Gaps in myelin sheath where action potentials develop
● Saltatory conduction
- Jumping of action potentials
- Myelinated axons conduct action potentials more quickly (3-15
meters/sec) than unmyelinated due to Nodes of Ranvier
● Multiple sclerosis
- Disease of myelin sheath that causes loss of muscle function

Types of Neurons
● Multipolar
- Many dendrites and a single axon
- EX. CNS and most motor neurons
● Bipolar
- one dendrite and one axon
- EX. eye and Nasal Cavity
● Pseudo-unipolar
- One axon and no dendrites
- EX. Sensory neurons
Neuroglia Characteristics
● Supporting cells for neurons
● More numerous than neurons
● Can divide to produce more cells
● 5 types
1. Astrocytes
- Star-shaped
- Most abundant
- Form blood-brain barrier
- Provide structural support
2. Ependymal Cells
- Produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
- Some form choroid plexuses
3. Microglia
- Help remove bacteria and cell debris from CNS
- Protect CNS from infection
4. Oligodendrocytes
- Produce myelin sheath in CNS
- Enclose unmyelinated axons in the CNS
5. Schwann cells
- Produce myelin sheath in PNS
- Enclose unmyelinated axons in the PNS

Organization of Nervous Tissue

● Gray matter
- Collection of dendrites and cell bodies
● White matter
- Collection of axons and their myelin sheath
CNS PNS
Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells
Produce myelin sheath
Never tracts Nerves
Collection of axons
Nuclei Ganglion
Collection of cell bodies

Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways

Resting Membrane Potential
● Outside of cell is more + (Na+)
● Inside of cell is more - (K+)
● Leak ion channels
- Always open
- K+ channels
● Gated ion channels
- Closed until opened by specific signal
- Na+ channels

Action Potentials
● “Electricity” that cause depolarization and repolarization
● Change resting membrane potential by activating gated ion channels
● Local Current
- Movement of Na+ which causes inside of cell to be more positive
(depolarize)
● If enough Na+ enters then threshold is reached and more Na+ channels open
● Once threshold is reached all or none law applies
● Action potentials continue until Na+ channels close, K+ channels open, and
repolarization occurs
● Sodium/Potassium pump restores
Synapse
● What is it?
- Where an axon attaches to a muscle, gland, organ, or the neuron
- Involved with release of neurotransmitters
- EX. Neuromuscular junction

Reflexes
● What are they?
- Involuntary response to a stimulus
● Reflex are
- Path relex travels

Components of Reflex Arc

1. Sensory receptors
- Pick up stimulus
- In skin
2. Sensory (afferent) neurons
- Send stimulus to interneurons in spinal cord
3. Interneurons (Association) neuron
- Located in CNS and connect to motor neurons
- Process stimulus
4. Efferent (motor) neurons
- Send response to effector
5. Effector
- Muscle, gland, or organ
Neuronal Pathways
● Converging
- Two or more neurons synapse samee neuron
- Allows info to be transmitted in more than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway
● Diverging
- Axon from one neuron divides and synapse with more than one neuron
- Allows info to be transmitted in one neuronal pathway to diverge into 2
or more pathways

Spinal Cord
● Extends from foramen magnum to 2nd lumbar vertebrae
● Protected by vertebral column
● Spinal nerves allow movement
● If damaged paralysis can occur

Gray and White in Spinal Cord

● Gray Matter
- Center of spinal cord
- Looks like letter H or a butterfly
● White Matter
- Outside of spinal cord
- Contains myelinated fiber

White Matter in Spinal Cord

● Contains 3 column dorsal, ventral, lateral columns
● Ascending tracts
- Axons that conduct action potential toward brain
● Descending tracts
- Axons that conduct action potential away from brain
Gray Matter in Spinal Cord
● Posterior Horns
- Contain axons which synapse with interneurons
● Anterior Horns
- Contain somatic neurons
● Lateral Horns
- Contain autonomic neurons
● Central Canal
- Fluid filled space in center of cord

Spinal Nerves
● Arise along spinal cord from union of dorsal roots and ventral roots
● Contain axon sensory and somatic neurons
● Located between vertebrae
● Categorized by region of vertebral column from which it emerges (C for
Cervical)
● 31 pairs
● Organized in 3 plexuses

Cervical Plexus
● Spinal nerves C1-4
● Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and neck
● Contains phrenic nerve which innervates diaphragm

Brachial Plexus
● Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
● Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand

Lumbosacral Plexus
● Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
● Supply nerves lower limbs
Cerebrospinal Fluid
● Fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord
● Provides a protective cushion around the CNS
● Produced in choroid plexus of brain

Brainstem
● Components
1. Medulla oblongata
- Location
Continuous with spinal cord
- Function
Regulates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, hiccuping, coughing, sneezing, balance
- Other
Pyramids - involved in conscious control of skeletal muscle
2. Pons
- Location
Above medulla, bridge between cerebrum and cerebellum
- Function
breathing, chewing, salivation, swallowing
3. Midbrain
- Location
Above pons
- Function
Coordinated eye movement, pupil diameter, turning head
toward noise
 4. Reticular Formation
- Location
Scattered throughout brainstem
- Function
Regulates cyclical motor function, respiration, walking,
chewing, arousing and maintaining consciousness, regulates
sleep-wake cycle

Diencephalon
● Located between the brainstem and cerebrum
● Components:
1. Thalamus
- Characteristics
Largest portion of diencephalon
- Function
Influences moods and detects pain
2. Epithalamus
- Location
Above thalamus
- Function
Emotional and visceral response to odors
3. Hypothalamus
- Location
Below thalamus
- Characteristics
Controls pituitary gland and is connected to it by
infundibulum
- Function
Controls homeostasis, body temperature, thirst, hunger,
fear, rage, sexual emotions
Cerebrum Characteristics
● Largest portion of brain
● Divisions:
- Right Hemisphere
- Left Hemisphere
- Separated by longitudinal fissure
● Lobes
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal

Cerebrum Components
● Cerebral Cortex
- Location
Surface of cerebrum, composed of gray matter
- Function
Controls thinking, communicating, remembering, understanding,
and initiates involuntary movements
● Gyri
- Folds on cerebral cortex that increase surface area
● Sulci
- Shallow indentations
● Fissure
- Deep indentations
● Left Hemisphere
- Controls right side of body
- Responsible for math, analytic, and speech
● Right Hemisphere
- Controls left side of body
- Responsible for music, art, abstract ideas
● Corpus Callosum
- Connection between 2 hemispheres
Lobes of Brain
● Frontal Lobe
- Location: Front
- Function: controls voluntary motor functions, aggression, moods,
smell
● Parietal Lobe
- Location: Top
- Function: evaluates sensory input such as touch, pain, pressure,
temperature, taste
● Occipital Lobe
- Location: Back
- Function: Vision
● Temporal Lobe
- Location: Sides
- Function: Hearing, Smell, Memory

Cerebellum
➢ Location:
- Below Cerebrum
➢ Characteristics
- Means little brain
- Cortex is composed of gyri, sulci, gray matter
➢ Functions:
- Controls balance
- Muscle tone
- Coordination of fine motor movement

Sensory Functions
● CNS constantly receives sensory input
● We are unaware of most sensory input
● Sensory input is vital of our survival and normal functions
Ascending Tracts
● What are they?
- Pathways in brain and spinal cord
- Transmit information via action potentials from periphery to brain
- Each tract has a limited type of sensory input (temperature, touch,
pain, etc.)
- Tracts are named that indicated origin and termination
- Made of 2-3 neurons in sequence

Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex

● Primary Sensory Areas:
- Where ascending tracts project
- Where sensations are perceived
● Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex:
- General sensory area
- In parietal lobe
- Sensory input such as pain, pressure, temperature

Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

● Primary Motor Cortex
- Frontal lobe
- Control voluntary motor movement
● Premotor Area
- Frontal lobe
- Where motor functions are organized before initiation
● Prefrontal Area
- Motivation and foresight to plan and initiate movement

Descending Tracts
● Project from upper motor neurons in cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons
in spinal cord and brainstem
● Control different types of movements
Basal Nuclei
● Group of functionally related nuclei
● plan , organize, coordinate motor movement and posture
● Corpus striatum
- Deep in cerebrum
● Substantia nigra
- In midbrain

Speech
● Mainly in left hemisphere
● Sensory speech (Wernicke’s area)
- Parietal lobe
- Where words are heard and comprehended
● Motor speech (Bronca’s area)
- Frontal lobe
- Where words are formulated

Brain Waves and Consciousness

● Used to diagnose and determine treatment for brain disorders
● Electroencephalogram (EEG)
- Electrodes plated on scalp to record brain’s electrical activity
● Alpha Waves
- Person is awake in quiet state
● Beta Waves
- Intense mental activity
● Delta Waves
- Deep sleep
● Theta Waves
- In children
Memory
● Encoding
- Brief retention of sensory input received by brain while something is
scanned, evaluated, and acted up
- Also called sensory memory
- In temporal lobe
- Lasts less than a second
● Consolidated
- Data that has been encoded
- Temporal lobe
- Short term memory
● Storage
- Long term memory
- Few minutes or permanently (depends on retrieval)
● Retrieval
- How often information is used

Types of Memory
● Short-term Memory
- Information is retained for a few seconds or minutes
- Bits of information (usually 7)
● Long-term Memory
- Can last for a few minutes or permanently
● Episodic Memory
- Places or events
● Learning
- Utilizing past memories
Meninges
● What are they?
- Protective wrapping around brain and spinal cord
● Meningitis
- Infection of meninges (bacterial or viral)
● Epidural Space
- In vertebral column between dura and vertebra
- Injection site for epidural anesthesia
● Spinal block and Spinal tap
- In subarachnoid space where cerebrospinal fluid can be removed or
anesthetic inject
- Numbs spinal nerves

Types of Meninges
● Dura Mater
- Superficial
- Thickest layer
● Arachnoid Mater
- 2nd layer
● Pia Mater
- 3rd layer
- Surface of brain
● Subarachnoid Space
- Where cerebrospinal fluid sits

Ventricles
● What are they?
- Cavities in CNS that contain fluid
● Fourth Ventricle
- Base of cerebellum
- Continuous with central canal of spinal cord
Cranial Nerves
● 12 pair of cranial nerves
● Named by Roman numerals
● 2 categories of functions : Sensory and Motor

Peripheral Nervous System

● Consists of all neurons outside brain and spinal cord
● Collects input from different sources, relays input to CNS, and perform action

Division of Peripheral Nervous System

1. Afferent (Sensory)
- Collects input from periphery and sends it to CNS
2. Efferent (Motor)
- Carries processed input from CNS to effector

Divisions of Efferent (Motor)

1. Autonomic
- Response is automatic (involuntary)
- Controls smooth and cardiac muscles and glands
2. Somatic
- Response is voluntary
- Controls skeletal muscles
Divisions of Autonomic
1. Sympathetic
- Activated during times of stress
- Part of fight or flight response
- Prepares you for physical activity by:
- ↑HR
- ↑BP
- ↑BR
- sending more blood to skeletal muscles
- inhibiting digestive tract
2. Parasympathetic
- “Housekeeper”
- Activated under normal conditions
- Involved in digestion, urine production, and dilation/constriction of
pupils, etc.