A systematic quantitative review of volunteer management in

events

Author
Kim, E, Cuskelly, G

Published
2017

Journal Title
Event Management

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https://doi.org/10.3727/152599517X14809630271195

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A SYSTEMATIC QUANTITATIVE REVIEW

OF VOLUNTEER MANAGEMENT IN EVENTS

EUNJUNG KIM AND GRAHAM CUSKELLY

Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith Business School,

Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Southport, Queensland, Australia

Most event organizations rely on the commitment of volunteers to prepare for and stage events. An
attempt to understand factors that affect volunteers’ engagement and retention has received much
attention from a substantial number of published studies. This article provides a systematic quantita-
tive review of 71 original, peer-reviewed research articles published in English language academic
journals on volunteer management in events. The review examines the nature of the research,
methods, key concepts and theories, and types of research questions posed in studies associated with
volunteer management in events. Published studies on event volunteer management are geographi-
cally concentrated in several countries but published in 35 different journals across a range of fields.
Volunteer management in events has been the focus of rapidly increasing research attention in recent
years with almost two thirds of the articles included in the review published in the 6 years leading
to 2014. The majority of published research has not clearly articulated a theoretical framework and
most studies have used survey methods to collect data from volunteers at mega-sport events. It was
concluded that to advance knowledge of event volunteer management there is a need for increased
collaboration internationally between researchers. Moreover, it is essential to engage with relevant
theory in order to better understand and predict the effectiveness of volunteer management strategies
in recruiting, retaining, and building a sense of community among volunteers in events.

Key words: Volunteer management; Human resource management (HRM);

Volunteers; Events; Review

Introduction volunteer management research from not-for-profit

research (Allen & Bartle, 2014; Farrell, Johnston,
Volunteer management in events has emerged as & Twynam, 1998; Getz & Frisby, 1988; Nichols &
an increasingly important area of research endeavor Ojala, 2009; Wang & Wu, 2014). Event volunteer
and specialization that has drawn on a rich vein of management has developed as a subspecialization

Address correspondence to Eunjung Kim, Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith Business School,
Business G 27_Room 2.08, Parklands Drive, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Southport, Queensland 4222, Australia.
Tel: +61 7 5552 7671; E-mail: [email protected]

83

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 84 KIM AND CUSKELLY

of volunteer management because there are signifi- Therefore, the purpose of this review is to assess
cant differences between the management of vol- the nature and extent of peer-reviewed research
unteers in event settings compared to mainstream literature on event volunteer management by an
volunteer management. Because the majority of established systematic quantitative review tech-
events are at least fairly dependent on volunteer nique. A greater understanding of event volunteer
labor (Elstad, 2003), many event managers spend management is essential to develop a better under-
considerable resources on recruiting volunteers standing of recruitment practices and the commit-
compared to other managers. For example, a sur- ment, satisfaction, and retention of volunteers
vey in the UK assessed that 76% of the events in events (Allen & Bartle, 2014; Allen & Shaw,
sampled used volunteers (Rolfe, 1992; C. Ryan & 2009; Bang, Alexandris, & Ross, 2008; Bang &
Bates, 1995). At events that are almost completely Ross, 2009; Coyne & Coyne Sr., 2001; Dickson,
run by volunteers, it is important that the event Benson, Blackman, & Terwiel, 2013; Downward
develops over time a core group of volunteers that & Ralston, 2005; Fairley, Kellett, & Green, 2007;
have capability in running events. According to Giannoulakis, Wang, & Gray, 2007; Hallmann
Getz (1991), the management of volunteer efforts & Harms, 2012; Han, Quarterman, Strigas, &
for events is significantly different from manag- Ha, 2013; Khoo & Engelhorn, 2011; MacLean
ing continuing or permanent volunteer positions. & Hamm, 2007; Pauline & Pauline, 2009; Skille
In particular, he suggests that the management of & Hanstad, 2013; Skirstad & Hanstad, 2013;
short-term events needs to focus more on resource Twynam, Farrell, & Johnston, 2002; Williams,
acquirement (recruiting episodic volunteers) and Dossa, & Tompkins, 1995; Wollebæk, Skirstad, &
creating community support (to encourage those Hanstad, 2014).
within the community to volunteer).
To recruit and retain volunteers for short-term
Definition and Understanding of Key Terms
events, event organizations need to understand the
tenets of volunteer management in event settings. The event volunteer management research litera-
However, despite an increasing research interest ture reviewed in this article is defined by the inter-
in event volunteers to date there have been no section of events, volunteers, and human resource
systematic reviews of volunteer management in management (see Fig. 1), and each of these key
events that describe the current state of research. concepts is further explored below.

Figure 1. Conceptual framework explaining the domain of volunteer management in

events.

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 85

Events that volunteer work is most effective when properly

managed. Based on the 37 countries studied, the
Event studies is an emerging academic field
Center for Civil Society Studies (2014) estimated
(Skirstad & Hanstad, 2013) that includes studies of
that 140 million people engage in volunteering in
a wide array of events, from local or regional events
a typical year and contribute US$400 billion to the
through to hallmark and mega-events, almost all of
global economy. The Center for Civil Society Stud-
which involve volunteers. Mega-events have been
ies remarked that if the world’s volunteers consti-
described as “short-term events with long-term val-
tuted a nation it would be the 8th largest country in
ues” (Roche, 1994, p. 1). This description points to
the world and the 7th largest economy in Europe.
the economic as well as political, social, and cul-
The contribution that volunteers make to the
tural motives that encourage cities and countries to
success of an event sees them recognized as an
bid for the rights to host high profile events such
important part of the event labor force (Kemp,
as world championships and the Olympic Games.
2002). The Olympic Games commonly utilizes
Roche (2000) further presented such happenings as
over 40,000 volunteers during any Games period
“large-scale events which have a dramatic charac-
(Cuskelly, Hoye, & Auld, 2006) and the 2014 FIFA
ter, mass popular appeal and international signifi-
World Cup in Brazil was expected to use 80,000
cance” (p. 1), highlighting the role that events can
volunteers (FIFA, 2012). Volunteering is benefi-
have in destination development and image build-
cial to events because volunteers can enhance the
ing. According to Getz (2008), events are an impor-
event experience for participants. For example, an
tant motivator for the development and marketing
event can be enjoyable because of the enthusiasm,
plans of most destinations. Mega-events have been
interest, and commitment of volunteers (Holmes &
analyzed in terms of their tourist attractiveness or
Smith, 2009), and the range of skills, knowledge,
developmental roles. Also, Ritchie (1984) discussed
and specific experience brought by volunteers can
a hallmark event as a major one-time or recurring
add value to a festival or event (Nichols & Ojala,
event of limited duration, developed mainly to
2009). Event volunteering can contribute to local
enhance the awareness, appeal, and effectiveness of
social and community involvement. For example,
a tourism destination. Similarly, local and regional
event volunteers from disadvantaged groups are
events have potential benefits that can be devel-
often encouraged to develop their skills through
oped in the local area such as the promotion of city
involvement in event volunteering schemes (Allen,
brand or identity, attracting increased population,
O’Toole, Harris, & McDonnell, 2005; Carlsen &
investment, or trade, and expansion of the visitor
Taylor, 2003). Understanding of volunteers’ moti-
economy. This article takes an inclusive approach
vation and their expectations has been shown to be
to identifying event studies literature. We acknowl-
instrumental to achieve high levels of volunteer sat-
edge that the event studies literature includes studies
isfaction (Barron & Rihova, 2011).
of events that vary enormously in terms of size and
In order to better understand volunteer motiva-
scale. However, because there has not been a sys-
tions, expectations, and satisfaction it is essential to
tematic review of the volunteer event management
distinguish among the types of volunteers in events
literature a restrictive approach to defining which
by how volunteers serve. A useful way to differenti-
types of events would be included in the review
ate types of volunteers is to examine length of ser-
would have unnecessarily restricted its scope.
vice. Common terms most used to describe length
of service of a volunteer are long term, short term,
and episodic (Connors, 2011). Long-term volun-
Volunteering
teers offer regularly occurring service to an orga-
The International Labor Organization (ILO, nization for an extended period of time without a
2011) defined volunteer work as “unpaid non- specified end date. Short-term volunteers provide
compulsory work; that is time individuals give regularly occurring service to an organization for
without pay to activities performed either through a limited amount of time. This type of volunteer
an organization or directly for those outside their is identified as an “occasional episodic volunteer”
own household” (p. 13). Further, the ILO argued or a volunteer who “provides service regularly for

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 86 KIM AND CUSKELLY

short periods of time” (Macduff, 1999, p. 188). short-term involvement of event volunteers HRM
Episodic volunteers provide infrequently occurring allows the event organizations to better prepare
service to an organization, typically for a single- for the particular needs of volunteers. Therefore,
day or multiday event. Because episodic volunteers there have been consistent calls for researchers to
participate in volunteering during a short period, understand the HRM practices in the field of vol-
supervision of episodic volunteers tends be differ- unteer resource management (Safrit, Schmiesing,
ent from that associated with continuous/long-term Gliem, & Gliem, 2005). Volunteer management
volunteers (Macduff, 1999). To attract episodic in events has examined various aspects affect-
volunteers, event volunteer managers may need to ing commitment, retention, and recruitment, but a
use human resource management processes such comprehensive assessment of research on this topic
as recruitment, screening, supervision, training, is lacking.
recognition, and evaluation that are different to
processes used to manage volunteers involved in
Research Objectives and Methods
longer-term or continuous assignments (Macduff,
1999). The present study is focused on episodic A systematic quantitative literature review was
volunteer management in events. implemented using a methodology that has been
used in various reviews (Petticrew, 2001). It uses
an explicit and reproducible approach to arrange
Human Resource Management
the literature in relation to subject, location, and
Human resource management (HRM) involves research technique (Pickering, Grignon, Steven,
specific practices such as recruitment, selection, Guitart, & Byrne, 2014). Articles are searched and
appraisal, rewards, measurement, training and devel­ categorized through a structured search process
opment, communications, and work design (Beatty, using relevant keywords to identify the existing
Huselid, & Schneier, 2003). Although HRM prac- literature (Pickering & Byrne, 2014). The identi-
tices are widely variable (Keenoy, 1999), HRM is fied literature is then examined against a series of
essentially how to recruit, develop, and motivate inclusion standards leading to a collection of arti-
people (Cuskelly, Taylor, Hoye, & Darcy, 2006). cles that represent a research topic (Pickering et al.,
However, managing event volunteers is funda- 2014). Articles are then quantified to provide the
mentally different to managing volunteers in orga- “scope, depth, and breadth of research” (Pickering
nization settings (Australian Sports Commission, & Byrne, 2014, p. 6) on the topic in question and
2000). Events deal with a different set of volunteer the reproducible, reliable assessments of the cur-
management challenges because of their tempo- rent status of a field of research (Roy, Pickering,
rary or irregular nature, compared to managing & Byrne, 2012). The results of quantitative assess-
long-term volunteers. The difference is due to the ment are the geographical spread of the literature,
short-term nature of the commitment of event vol- the spread of the literature by year, the types of
unteers (Australian Sports Commission, 2000). As questions researched, the methods used, and the
such, few event organizations have a formal system types of research results obtained.
of HRM and many do very little planning or tend The article reviews the research literature on volun-
to depend on informal systems (Australian Sports teer management in events and explores the follow-
Commission, 2000). In the context of event vol- ing questions: (1) Who has conducted the research?
unteer management, HRM is concerned with the (2) Where and when was it published? (3) What was
demand and supply of volunteer labor. The purpose the geographical location of events studied and the
of HRM is to ensure that “a predetermined num- affiliation of the authors? (4) What methods were
ber of employees with the correct skills are avail- used? (5) What key concepts, constructs, and theo-
able at a specified time in the future” (Deb, 2009, ries underpinned the research? (6)  What types of
p. 178). The benefits of HRM include more effec- research questions were examined?
tive and efficient use of volunteers in specific posi- Original, peer-reviewed research articles pub-
tions, and better performing and potentially more lished in English language scholarly journals on
satisfied event volunteers. In addition, given the the topic of volunteer management in events were

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 87

included in the review. Peer-reviewed research arti- the number of perspectives (e.g., organizational,
cles were identified and retrieved through a key- individual or both) in each article were coded and
word search of electronic databases that extended recorded. The type of data collected was classified
to Google Scholar, ProQuest, Scopus, Science as quantitative, qualitative, or both. Key concepts
Direct, Sage, as well as the authors’ university and constructs (e.g., motivation, human resource
library between May and December 2014. Year of management processes) and theories (e.g., theory
publication was not restricted. Key words used for of planned behavior, self-determination theory,
the searches were “volunteer and management” social exchange theory) were also coded and
and a combination of the following terms; “event,” recorded. Finally, the research questions by vari-
“sport,” “motivation,” “commitment,” “intention,” ables and concepts affecting event volunteer man-
“retention,” “participation,” “volunteer,” “organiza- agement were classified under types of research
tion,” “recruitment,” “volunteering,” and “engage- questions (e.g., cause and effect, relationship bet­
ment.” However, peer-reviewed research articles ween variables, difference between groups, and
with words such as “non-profit organization not in prediction).
events” (e.g., Red Cross, social services, training We did not give a weight to specific studies as
and education, disaster and humanitarian aid) were research has been conducted across diverse fields.
excluded. Also excluded were articles that focused The database of research articles was analyzed to
on sport volunteers where the research setting was identify categories, patterns, and trends in the event
not events (e.g., sport clubs, sport for development, volunteer management research literature.
sport leadership, and coaching). Research reports,
conference proceedings, books, and book chapters
Results
were also excluded from the review. Many peer-
reviewed research articles were cited in subse- After deletion of duplicates, a total of 71 peer-
quently published research articles. Therefore, the reviewed research articles on volunteer manage-
reference lists of published peer-reviewed research ment in events published between 1988 and 2014
articles were also checked to ensure that a compre- were included in the systematic review. Analysis
hensive list of event volunteer management peer- of the reviewed articles is reported in terms of:
reviewed research publications was constructed. (1) the scope of the research (world region, year
Information from each peer-reviewed research published, and field of publication); (2) research
article examining volunteer management in events methods used; (3) theoretical basis of the research;
was identified, retrieved, recorded, and coded in a (4) conceptualization and measurement of main
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The coded informa- constructs; and (5) types of research questions.
tion included: author, author country affiliation,
journal title, year of publication, field, country
Scope of the Research
where research was conducted, methods used in
the research (e.g., data collection methods, type of The research was conducted by 157 authors
data, type of sample, organizational perspective or across 14 different countries. Most articles were
individual perspective or both), key concepts, con- from data collected at events in the US (17.8 %),
structs, and theories, as well as research questions. Canada (15.1 %), Australia (15.1 %), UK (12.3 %),
Discussions between the two authors were used to and Norway (9.6 %) (see Table 1). In total, 60%
develop coding categories and to ensure validity of the events researched were hosted in the US,
and consistency in the classification process. Canada, Australia, and the UK. There were com-
The reported data collection methods in each paratively few peer-reviewed research papers that
of  the research articles were coded and classi- collected data from Greece (5.5 %), Korea (5.5 %),
fied as survey, interview, focus group, participant China (5.5 %), Switzerland (2.7 %), and New Zea-
observation, observation, and analysis of pre­ land (2.7 %). Iran, Germany, Egypt, and South
existing (secondary) data. The source of data (e.g., Africa were the subject of event volunteer man-
participants, interviewee, organizer), the number agement in four one-off peer-reviewed articles. Of
and types of samples involved in each article, and the 157 authors of event volunteer management

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 88 KIM AND CUSKELLY

Table 1 in the volume of research publications the period

Distribution of Peer-Reviewed Research Articles covered by this review (1988 to 2014) was divided
Examining Volunteer Management in Events by Study into four approximately equal time periods (three
Location and Country of Author (Based on Author
of 7 years and one of 6 years). There was a signifi-
Affiliation)
cant acceleration in event volunteer management
Study Locations Authors research publications from the first period (1988
Country [Frequency (%)]a [Frequency (%)]a to 1994) with one publication to the second pub-
United States 13 (17.8) 31 (19.7) lication period (1995 to 2001) during which seven
Canada 11 (15.1) 25 (15.9) research articles were published. The number of
Australia 11 (15.1) 23 (14.6) articles more than doubled to 18 research articles in
United Kingdom 9 (12.3) 27 (17.1)
Norway 7 (9.6) 12 (7.6) the third 7-year period (2002 to 2008). From 2009,
Greece 4 (5.5) 8 (5.1) the number of published research articles more
Korea 4 (5.5) 6 (3.8) than doubled again to a total of 45 articles published
China 4 (5.5) 3 (1.9)
Switzerland 2 (2.7) 6 (3.8) over a 6-year period (2009 to 2014). The field of
New Zealand 2 (2.7) 5 (3.2) event volunteer management research developed
Iran 1 (1.4) 3 (1.9) slowly in the first 14 years but accelerated rapidly
Germany 1 (1.4) 2 (1.3)
Egypt 1 (1.4) 2 (1.3) in the fourth time period (2009 to 2014). As a
South Africa 1 (1.4) 1 (0.6) proportion of the total research articles reviewed,
Kuwait – 1 (0.6) 11.3 % were published between 1988 and 2001
Malaysia – 1 (0.6)
Taiwan – 1 (0.6)
compared to 88.7% published from 2002 to 2014.
Not specified 2 (2.7) – Almost two thirds of the event volunteer man­
Total 73b 157 agement research articles reviewed (63.3 %) were
a
Does not add to 100% due to rounding. published in the 6 years from 2009 to 2014.
b
Total > 71. One article by Dickson, Benson, and Terwiel Reflecting the various interests in volunteer
(2014) and one article by Kemp (2002) examined volunteer management in events, research articles were pub-
management in events in two different countries.
lished in 35 different journals across a wide range
of fields (see Table 2). These included journals in
peer-reviewed research articles, at the time of their event (30.9  %), sport (22.5 %), leisure (18.3 %),
publication, 19.7% were affiliated with institutions nonprofit and volunteering (7.0 %), and tourism
in the US. In total, 67% of author affiliations were (5.6 %). Other fields were represented but their
with the US, Canada, Australia, and the UK. Other comparative contributions have been less preva-
authors’ affiliations at the time of publication were lent. The journals that have published the largest
UK (17.1 %), Canada (15.9 %), Australia (14.6 %), proportion of event volunteer management research
Norway (7.6 %), Greece (5.1 %), Korea (3.8 %), articles were Event Management (18.3 %), Man-
Switzerland (3.8 %), and New Zealand (3.2 %). aging Leisure (9.8 %), Sport Management Review
There were three authors each with affiliations (7.0 %), and Leisure/Loisir (7.0 %).
with China and Iran, two authors each from Ger-
many and Egypt, and one each from South Africa,
Research Methods and Sampling
Kuwait, Malaysia, and Taiwan.
The 71 research articles included in the systematic A range of methods have been used to research
review are represented in a cumulative frequency volunteer management in events (see Table 3).
distribution chart (see Fig. 2). The mean number A total of 91 methods were identified in the 71 pub-
of articles published annually during the 27-year lished articles, with a number of articles using more
period of this review is 2.63. The first published than one method. Most researchers used a quanti-
article was authored by Getz and Frisby (1988) tative (71.8 %) rather than a qualitative approach
and evaluated management effectiveness in com- (18.3 %). Seven of the 71 published articles (less
munity run festivals. There was a 7-year gap until than 10%) used a mixed-methods approach. The
the next published event volunteer management most widely reported method was by survey
article by Williams et al. (1995). To identify trends (69.2 %), which included online, onsite, and postal.

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 89

Figure 2. Cumulative frequency of journal articles examining volunteer management in events by year published.

Other methods were interview (15.3 %), focus to assess whether differences existed between the
group (6.5 %), participant observation (3.2  %), perceptions of volunteers and management prac-
and observation (2.1  %). Three articles analyzed tices of the organization. Most articles collected
pre­existing (secondary) data. A large proportion data from an individual volunteer perspective
of data collection occurred around the staging (84.5 %). Data were mainly sourced from volun-
of a targeted event (n = 56). The most frequently teers through surveys and interviews, although
researched events were sport events (n = 48), many there was one article that included data from orga-
of which were classified as mega-events (n = 42). nizers. Ten articles focused on both individual and
Fourteen event organizations involving volunteers organizational perspectives (see Table 3).
were sampled and students from three universities
were also sampled. Because eight articles did not
Theoretical Base
provide sufficient details to decipher their sam-
pling, the total number of samples is not reported. Where possible the theories underpinning each of
Perspective takes into account that different the reviewed research articles were identified and
levels of analysis exist (Wicker & Hallmann, coded. In this section, we used the terms “cited”
2013). For example, individuals are nested within and “applied.” Cited means that a study mentioned
organizations—school children within schools, a theoretical framework but there was no evidence
players within teams (Todd, Crook, & Barilla, that the research tested the cited theory. Applied
2005). Studies in the field of volunteer manage- means that a study was based on a specifically
ment in events see event volunteers nested within identified theory that informed the direction and
event organizations. Because different perspec- research design of the article as well as being evi-
tives can lead to different findings (Bolman & dent in the results and discussion.
Deal, 1991), articles examined the individual Theories related to volunteer management in
perspective, organizational perspective, or both events were cited 36 times in 28 research articles

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 90 KIM AND CUSKELLY

Table 2
Field and Journal Distribution of the 71 Research Papers on Volunteer Management in Events Reviewed in This Study
Field/Journal Titles Journal Frequency Field Frequency (%)a

Event (6) 22 (30.9)

Event Management 13
Festival Management & Event Tourism 3
International Journal of Event and Festival Management 3
Journal of Convention & Event Tourism 1
International Journal of Event Management Research 1
Journal of Venue and Event Management 1
Sport (7) 16 (22.5)
Sport Management Review 5
European Sport Management Quarterly 3
Journal of Sport Management 3
Sport in Society 2
International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing 1
International Journal of Sport Management 1
The International Journal of Sport and Society 1
Leisure (3) 13 (18.3)
Managing Leisure 7
Leisure/Loisir 5
Society and Leisure 1
Nonprofit and Volunteering (4) 5 (7.0)
Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations 2
Australian journal on volunteering 1
International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing 1
Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly 1
Tourism (4) 4 (5.6)
Journal of Travel Research 1
Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research 1
Tourismos: An international multidisciplinary journal of tourism 1
Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development 1
Sociology (2) 2 (2.8)
International Review for the Sociology of Sport 1
World Journal of Social Sciences 1
Hospitality (1) 1 (1.4)
International Journal of Hospitality Management 1
Human Resource (1) 1 (1.4)
Human Resource Development International 1
Other (7) 7 (9.8)
Journal of European Industrial Training 1
WASET International Science Index 1
Urban Studies 1
Team Performance Management 1
ICHPER--SD Journal of Research in Health, Physical Education, 1
Recreation, Sport & Dance
Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events 1
Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly 1
Total 71 71
a
Does not add to 100% due to rounding.

and applied 15 times in 9 research articles. Sev- Ajzen, 1975) were the most frequently referred
eral articles discussed more than one theory (see to, and were either cited or applied in six articles.
Table  4). More than half of the research articles Self-determination theory (R. M. Ryan & Deci,
reviewed (60.5 %) neither cited nor applied an 2000) was cited in five articles, with only one
identifiable theory. The theories of planned behav- study applying the theory. Four research articles
ior and reasoned action (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & cited social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Homans,

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 91

Table 3
Research Methods Used, Samples, and Perspectives in the 71
Research Articles on Volunteer Management in Events Examined in
This Study
Category Frequency

Methods used
Detail of the methods 91a
Online survey 21
Onsite survey 20
Interview 14
Survey by postal mail 12
Survey (method not specified) 10
Focus group 6
Participant observation 3
Observation 2
Other (analysis of preexisting/secondary data) 3
Type of data 71
Quantitative 51
Qualitative 13
Both (mixed methods) 7
Samplesb
Type of eventsc 56e
Sport events 48
Cultural events 5
Business events 3
Scale of eventsd 56e
Mega-events 42
Hallmark events 12
Local events 2
Event organization 14
University 3
Not specified 8f
Perspectives 71
Individual 60
Organizational 1
Both 10
a
Total > 71. Several articles used more than one method.
b
Some articles reported more than one sample.
c
Category used in Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris, and McDonnel (2006).
d
Category used in Getz (2005).
e
Events categorized by both type and scale of events.
f
The number of articles that did not provide sufficient details to decipher
sampling.

1958; Thibault & Kelly, 1959). Psychological cont­ adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984), expectation
ract theory (Rousseau, 1989) and motivation theory theory (Becker, 1976), identity theory (Callero,
(Herzberg, 1986; Maslow, 1987) were each cited Howard, & Piliavin, 1987), associative-supportive-
in three articles but not clearly applied. Flex- cognizant theory (Clary, Snyder, Ridge, Miene, &
ibility theory (Atkinson, 1984) was cited in one Haugen, 1994; Houle, Sagarin, & Kaplan, 2005;
article and applied in another. A number of theo- Peterson, 2004), critical theory (Alvesson & Willmott,
ries were either cited or applied in only one of the 1992; Grey & Willmott, 2005), functional theory
research articles reviewed. These included reflex- (Clary et al., 1998; Katz, 1960), self-regulation the-
ive modernization theory (Beck, 1992), theory ory (Bandura, 1991), theory of habitus (Bourdieu,
of social capital (Coleman, 1988; Portes, 1998), 1977), and theory of sport fan involvement (Lavarie
theory of human capital (Becker, 1964), theory of & Arnett, 2000; Shank & Beasley, 1998; Wann,
political capital (Bourdieu, 1991), theory of work Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001).

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Table 4
Theories Used in the 71 Research Articles on Volunteer Management in Events Examined in This Study
Theories Citeda Appliedb

Theory of planned behavior or Theory of reasoned action (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) 6 6
Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) 5 1
Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964; Homans, 1958; Thibault & Kelly, 1959) 4 –
Psychological contract theory (Rousseau, 1989) 3 2
Motivation theory (Herzberg, 1968; Maslow, 1987) 3 –
Flexibility theory (Atkinson, 1984) 2 1
Reflexive modernization theory (Beck, 1992) 1 1
Theory of social capital (Coleman, 1988; Portes, 1998) 1 1
Theory of human capital (Becker, 1964) 1 1
Theory of political capital (Bourdieu, 1991) 1 1
Theory of work adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984) 1 1
Expectation theory (Becker, 1976) 1 –
Identity theory (Callero et al., 1987) 1 –
Associative-supportive-cognizant theory (Clary et al., 1994; Houle et al., 2005; Peterson, 2004) 1 –
Critical theory (Alvesson & Willmott, 1992; Grey & Willmott, 2005) 1 –
Functional theory (Clary et al., 1998; Katz, 1960) 1 –
Self-regulation theory (Bandura, 1991) 1 –
Theory of habitus (Bourdieu, 1977) 1 –
Theory of sport fan involvement (Lavarie & Arnett, 2000; Shank & Beasley, 1998; Wann et al., 2001) 1 –
Total 36c 15c
a
Cited, discussed and mentioned but not evidently assessed in the paper.
b
Applied, demonstrated and explicitly researched through methods in the paper. Applied is a sub-group of Cited.
c
Total < 71. A total of 43 papers neither cited nor applied specified theories.

Conceptualization and Measurement

The concepts and constructs used in each of the
research articles were identified and coded. It is Table 5
acknowledged that concepts and constructs are not Key Concepts and Constructs Used in the 71
identical in that concepts are a generalized notion Research Articles on Volunteer Management in
or idea about a class of objects and constructs Events Examined in This Study
turn concepts into systematically organized ideas
Key Concepts and Constructs Frequency (%)a
(Neuman, 2011), often for the purposes of mea-
surement. However, in this review the terms con- Motivation 41 (28.9)
cepts and constructs were used interchangeably and Retention (intention to continue) 30 (21.1)
Satisfaction 18 (12.7)
are referred to as concepts. Recruitment 12 (8.5)
A total of 16 concepts were identified and coded Commitment (engagement) 10 (7.0)
142 times across the 71 research articles reviewed. Experience 7 (4.9)
Motivation measurement 5 (3.5)
Many of the research articles studied more than Volunteer legacy 4 (2.8)
one concept related to volunteer management in Identity 3 (2.1)
events (see Table 5). These included, in frequency Expectation 3 (2.1)
order, motivation, retention, satisfaction, recruit- Flexibility 2 (1.4)
Media 2 (1.4)
ment, commitment, experience, volunteer legacy, Job performance 2 (1.4)
identity, expectation, flexibility, media, job perfor- Career volunteering 1 (0.7)
mance, career volunteering, volunteer learning, and Volunteer learning 1 (0.7)
Motivational climate 1 (0.7)
motivational climate. Total 142b
The concept of motivation was evident in more a
Does not add to 100% due to rounding.
than a quarter of the articles reviewed and accounted b
Total > 71. More than one concept or construct exam­
for 28.9% of the total number of concepts researched. ined in most articles.

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 93

Some articles adapted existing measurement scales on prediction in order to better understand effective
or developed new scales to measure event volunteer volunteer management in events.
motivation. These measurement scales included: Spe­ Not surprisingly, motivation was the mostly fre-
cial Event Volunteer Motivation Scale (SEVMS) quently used term in the research questions. Moti-
(six articles); Volunteer Motivation Scale for Inter- vation was used predominantly as an independent
national Sporting Events (VMS-ISE) (five articles); variable to research volunteer attitudes or behaviors,
Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI) (one articles); and appeared in 40 of 71 research articles reviewed.
Associative–supportive motivation (one article); and Differences in motivations between groups of vol-
Olympic Volunteer Motivation Scale (OVMS) (one unteers (n = 12) was a frequently asked research
article). The next most frequently measured con- question. Other studies examined satisfaction, com­
cepts were volunteer retention (21.1 %) coded to mitment, retention, and recruitment as the key term
include future voluntary engagement, intentions to in the research questions (see Table 6).
continue, and to remain as a volunteer for future In summary, peer-reviewed research articles on
events and volunteer satisfaction (12.7%). Together the topic of event volunteer management have been
motivation, retention, and satisfaction accounted concentrated within certain countries but published
for 62.7% of the concepts researched across the 71 in 35 different journal titles across a range of fields.
reviewed articles. A total of 12 articles (8.5 %) mea- Volunteer management in events has been the focus
sured recruitment in examining volunteer selection of increased research attention over the past 6 years
and seeking pathways for continuous improvement with almost two thirds of the 71 articles included
in the process of recruitment. Commitment was cate- in this review being published between 2009 and
gorized with engagement and was investigated in 10 2014. Most research articles have taken a quantita-
articles (7.0 %) to examine the relationships between tive approach to data collection using survey methods
motivation and commitment, factors influencing the and have sampled mega-sport event volunteers. The
commitment of volunteers, and to enhance volunteer theories of planned behavior and reasoned action
commitment. Experience, as a broad concept, was (Ajzen, 1988; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) were the
identified in seven articles and included sport event most frequently cited theories. However, more than
volunteer experience, experience of training and half of the research articles reviewed neither cited
associated learning, and generated a greater under- nor applied an identifiable theoretical base. Key
standing of sport event volunteerism by personal concepts and main research questions were mostly
lived experience. Less than five articles researched concerned with volunteer motivation, retention,
concepts that included volunteer legacy, identity, and satisfaction.
expectation, flexibility, media, career volunteers, vol-
unteer learning, and motivational climate.
Discussion
The purpose of this review of the event volun-
Types of Research Questions
teer management literature was to uncover patterns
Of the 71 articles reviewed a total of 78 research and trends in the development and focus of this
questions were identified as several articles stud- increasingly important and rapidly developing field
ied more than one research question (see Table 6). of research. An established systematic quantitative
A total of 24 research questions examined “cause literature review method was used to identify code
and effect” relationships between independent and and analyze the peer-reviewed literature on event
dependent variables with 20 positive results, one volunteer management. The approach taken was to
negative result, and three mixed results in terms identify the scope, methods, theories, concepts, and
of volunteer management processes, volunteer sat- types of research questions from the first identifi-
isfaction, or the experiences of volunteers. A total able event volunteer management article published
of 22 research questions focused on relationships in 1988 until the end of 2014. Such an approach
between variables and 12 research questions exam- enabled important trends as well as possible gaps
ined differences between groups regarding motiva- in the literature to be identified, which in turn may
tion. Finally, 20 research questions were focused assist in developing an agenda for future research

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Table 6
Types of Research Questions Reported in the 71 Research Articles
on Volunteer Management in Events Examined in This Study
Types of Research Questions Frequency

Cause and effect 24

Positive 20
Motivation à commitment 4
Experience à commitment 1
Motivation à satisfaction 4
Learning experience à satisfaction 1
Identity à satisfaction 1
Motivation à retention 4
Job design à retention 1
Social, Human, Political capital à recruitment 1
Motivation à recruitment 1
Public service advertisement à recruitment 1
Satisfaction à recruitment 1
Negative 1
Volunteer learning à experience 1
Mixed 3
Media à commitment 2
Flexibility à satisfaction and retention 1
Relationship between variables 22
Motivation–commitment 6
Satisfaction–commitment 2
Career volunteers–commitment 1
Motivation–recruitment 4
Motivation–retention 2
Psychological contract–retention 1
Identity–retention 1
Satisfaction–retention 1
Motivation–motivational climate 1
Motivation–satisfaction 2
Experience–satisfaction 1
Difference between groups 12
Motivation 12
Prediction 20
TPB or TRAa à retention 3
Motivation and satisfaction à retention 3
Identity à retention 1
Volunteer legacy à retention 1
Satisfaction à commitment 3
Experience à recognition 2
Volunteer legacy à recognition 1
Expectation à recruitment 1
Motivation and expectation à recruitment 1
Mentoring à recruitment 1
Flexibility à recruitment and retention 1
Psychological contract à expectation and recognition 1
Systematic framework à effectiveness 1
Total 78b
a
TPB, Theory of planned behavior; TRA, Theory of reasoned action.
b
Total > 71. Several articles studied more than one main research
question.

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 95

in this rapidly evolving field. Several key findings World Cup (e.g., South Africa, Brazil, Qatar, and
have emerged from the review: (1) the research is Russia), which has arguably been led by the Olym-
concentrated in four countries; (2) research inter- pic Movement with Summer Olympic Games (e.g.,
est has accelerated rapidly over the last decade; Tokyo, Moscow, Seoul, and Beijing), these tend to
(3) much of the published research does not have be the exception rather than the rule. In effect, there
a clearly articulated theoretical basis; (4) quantita- may be less frequent opportunities for researchers to
tive research methods have been the most common; study event volunteers in countries that host mega-
and (5) volunteer motivation is the most frequently events less frequently. Furthermore, many of the
researched topic. studies of events in the four dominant countries
have collected data from some events on more than
one occasion. For instance, samples were collected
Geographically Concentrated Research
more than once in the men’s World Cup of skiing
The review identified and retrieved 71 peer- in Whistler 1994, Honda Classics in 1997, Alliance
reviewed research articles on volunteer manage- London Jeux du Canada Games in 2001, Com­
ment in events that were published in 35 different monwealth Games (Manchester in 2002 and Mel-
English language journals. However, whether by bourne in 2006), Twin Cities Marathon in 2004,
the event researched or by authors’ institutional Indianapolis Tennis Championship in 2005, USA
affiliation the majority of published research is National Special Olympics in 2006, Sony Ericsson
dominated by the US, Canada, Australia, and the Open in 2008, Turning Stone Resort Champion-
UK. Two thirds of the authors were affiliated with ship (PGA Tour event in 2009), Vancouver Olym-
one of the four dominant countries and of the events pics in 2010, British Women’s Golf open in 2011,
studied 60% were from these same countries. There and the London Olympic Games in 2012. Third,
was limited evidence of published research origi- main academic researchers in the US (19.7 %), UK
nating from other world regions or countries. Sig- (17.1 %), Canada (15.9 %), and Australia (14.6%)
nificant regions appear to have little or no research have published most articles on volunteer manage-
published on this topic even though they host and ment in events compared to researchers from other
stage events and presumably rely on volunteers to countries. Furthermore, due to time and financial
assist with the staging of events (e.g., South Amer- cost constraints, it is more likely that researchers
ica, India, and the subcontinent, Russia and China). study events that are located close to where they
There are three possible reasons. First, the review work rather than study events that are staged in
was limited to English language journals. Review- other countries or regions.
ing non-English language peer-reviewed journals
would capture a broader array of events and vol-
Rapid Increase in Volunteer
unteers assuming research of this nature is being
Management in Events Research
undertaken and published. However, including
research articles in languages other than English The field of event volunteer management has
would present a major challenge but could identify a research history of about 27 years with the
significantly different patterns and trends in event first identified article published in 1988. After
volunteer management research than the results two decades of a comparatively slow but steady
reported here as well as highlighting the impact increase in research interest, as measured by pub-
of cultural differences in event volunteer manage- lished research articles, the field has accelerated
ment. Second, it is likely that there is a tendency rapidly since 2008. Conservatively assuming a
for major sport events to be hosted more frequently doubling of research output in the next 7 years
in the countries that have dominated the research from 2015 in excess of 160 English language arti-
literature on this topic compared to other countries. cles are likely to have been published on this topic
Although there is evidence of mega-sport events, by 2021. The rapid increase in event volunteer
being awarded to or hosted by a more diverse management research is indicative of the develop-
array of countries including, for example, the FIFA ment of a critical mass of both research knowledge

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 96 KIM AND CUSKELLY

and researchers with an increasing level of exper- (e.g., HRM practices) that may influence the vol-
tise and specialist knowledge in this field. Fur- unteer behavior in event settings. A lack of engage-
ther, the increase in research in this field is likely ment with theory in all but one fifth of the reviewed
to be related to the growth of the event industry research articles presents an opportunity for future
along with increased demand for volunteer labor. research to actively participate in the develop-
Improved volunteer management practices, in ment of theories that are relevant to furthering our
turn, are required in that well-managed volun- understanding of volunteer management in events.
teers are more likely to contribute to the success Research informed by relevant various theories
of an event. Such trends provide opportunities for may be better able to predict and explain the effec-
the development of a more coordinated research tiveness of HRM in managing event volunteers.
agenda that encourages greater collaboration inter-
nationally between researchers, more frequent,
Research Methods
open, and effective exchange of research ideas,
and better use of limited resources for event vol- Decisions about research methods are influenced
unteer research enabling more rapid and coherent by several factors that include the scale of the
development of the body of knowledge. study area, sample, type of event and access to the
event, the purpose of the study, and the availability
of data. Surveys were used as the chosen method
Theoretical Base
in more than two thirds of the reviewed research
A limitation in the reviewed articles has been the articles, reflecting the dominance of a quantitative
lack of a clearly articulated theoretical basis. Fewer approach event volunteer management research.
than 40% of the reviewed articles identified the the- Survey methods might be the preferred approach
oretical underpinning and of those that articulated for data collection because researchers focused
theory many articles cited rather than engaged with mostly on sampling individual volunteers in more
theory in a way that influenced either the research than four out of five of the reviewed research arti-
design or analysis. van Knippenberg (2011) noted, cles. There are proportionately few research articles
“Good theory explains. It captures causal relation- that have used qualitative methods. According to
ships between concepts with a sufficient level of Edwards and Skinner (2009), qualitative methods
specificity to provide an explanation with enough produce in-depth information and rich data. Aims
detail to be insightful and to offer fertile ground for and objectives of qualitative research are allowed
further theory development as well as practical appli- to provide a detailed and interpreted understand-
cation” (p. 4). Sutton and Staw (1995) also argued ing of social world of research participants by
that “Strong theory delves into underlying processes learning about the sense made of their social cir-
so as to understand the systematic reasons for a par- cumstances, their experiences, perspective, and
ticular occurrence or non-occurrence” (p. 378). histories (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston,
Interestingly, the most frequently applied the- 2013). There are opportunities for future research
ory within the reviewed articles was the theory of to reflect different types of samples and research
planned behavior, which has been used predomi- methods other than quantitative studies from the
nantly to explain and predict health related behav- perspective of event volunteers.
iors through behavioral intentions. The theory of
planned behavior uses subjective norms, perceived
Volunteer Motivation
behavioral control, and attitudes towards a specific
behavior to predict behavioral intentions. There The field of volunteer event management is
are substantial limitations to applying the theory of dominated by studies of volunteer motivation as
planned behavior to the behavior of event volun- evidenced by the large proportion of studies that
teers. The theory assumes a linear decision-making researched motivation as a key concept or construct.
process, does not consider that behavioral inten- It is important for event managers and volunteer
tions and behavior can change over time, and does coordinators to better understand why volunteers
not take into account the many external factors engage in certain events and what influences their

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 EVENT MANAGEMENT VOLUNTEERS 97

decision to continue to volunteer work at an event. approach with the aim of better understanding vol-
Therefore, researchers are interested the correlates unteer management in events and more effective
and causes of volunteer commitment, satisfaction, practical application of future research.
and retention, motivation is a good starting point. It
is likely that the readily available volunteer moti- References
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