Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE
STATE COLLEGE
LABO CAMPUS - COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet,
Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

LESSON 6 ON MATERIALS AND PROCESS FOR BSABE 2B

PLASTICS & RUBBERS

PLASTICS
Unplasticized Poly Vinyl Chloride or uPVC as material for construction installations came about in
Germany in 1935. During the war it becameeven more important as shortages of metals were felt. Soon
enough, it gained wide acceptance and increased usage in Europe, U.S. and Asia.
Here in the Philippines, uPVC made its entrance in the late 50’s as material for pipes and fittings in
chemical plants to combat corrosive conditions. Later, uPVC applications branched into water pipes,
electrical conduits, sewerages, air vents.

TYPES OF PLASTICS

1. Thermosetting types. These are plastics that undergo chemical changes during processing to
become permanently insoluble and infusible. They are also called THERMOHARDENING
PLASTICS. Examples are amino, epoxy, phenolic, and polyester resins.
2. Thermoplastic types. They consist of resins that soften repeatedly when heated and harden
when cooled. Most thermoplastics are soluble in specific solvents and support flame to some
degree. Softening temperature vary with polymer types and grades. To prevent degrading
decomposing, and igniting material care must be taken. Examples of these
THERMOSOFTENING PLASTICS are acrylic, cellulose acetate, nylon, and vinyl.
3. Elastomers. These are materials that can be stretched repeatedly to at least twice their
original length when stress is removed. Polymers classified as elastomers include modified
thermoplastic, natural and synthetic rubbers. Vulcanization changes their properties and
makes them incapable of reprocessing, which is possible in thermoplastic. Chlorinated
polyethylene, nitrile, rubbers, silicon, and urethane are examples of ELASTOMERS.

SOURCES OF RAW MATERIALS. There are numerous sources of raw materials for plastic production,
like wood, minerals, and ores, which form the basis for our structural materials. The world of
plastics has been described as “the world that nature forgot”. Synthetics must be made from
simpler compounds by combining them in correct proportion under appropriate conditions. The
thousands of combinations of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in coal, petroleum, and natural gas
make it possible. These hydrocarbons known as INTERMEDIATES must be separated by chemical
process of extraction, distillation, and fractionation. Benzene, calcium, carbide, ethylene, phenol,
propane are starting chemicals for synthetic resin production.
Outstanding Features
Non-corrosive and Chemical-resistant. Unlike conventional GI and metal piping systems, Plast-Fab
uPVC Pipes and Fitting are rustproof and unaffected by water, chemicals and solvents, fungal attack,
salts, alkaline, and other inorganic acds. Absolutely sanitary, as they are lead-free and don’t cause
any odor or taste, makes them ideal for handling fluids.
Light weight. Substantially lighter than other GI and metal piping materials, 70% to 90% lighter
than concrete, cast iron or steel. Provides a lot of savings in handling and installation degradation.
Flame Resistant. With a thermal coefficient of expansion higher than metals, they are practically
flame-proof. Tested for thousands of hours at high temperatures without any pipe degradation.
Economical. They cost less than GI and other metal piping systems. Save even more money in the
long run as conventional pipes would rot and, therefore, cost more in terms of replacement and
downtime.
Tough. Outstanding for their durability to last years of trouble-free application. Exceptionally
resistant to stress, impact, cracking or aging. Plast-Fab uPVC Pipes and Fittings exhibit a generally
excellent resistance against critical attacks from most chemicals (about 245 types cited).
Product Performance. Quality forms an integral part in every operational step of the Plast-Fab
Industries. To assure optimum quality, uPVC pipes and fittings are worry-free, economical, versatile
and long-lasting.

Table 13.1`
Mechanical and Electrical Properties of Plastics
Properties of Plastics Metric British
Specific Gravity 143 g/cc 892 lb/ft3
2
D by the plunger through an opening 0.04 – 0.06 mg/cm 5.8 – 8.5 x 107 ld/in
Water Absorption
Tensile Strength 505 – 550 Ksc 7200 – 7900 Psi
Bending Strenth 860 Ksc 12,300 psi
Compressive Strength 660 Ksc 9,400 psi
Shearing Strength 400 Ksc 5,700 psi
Modulus of Elasticity 28,900 Ksc 414,000 psi
2
Impact Strength (Charpy) 5 Kg-cm/cm 27.94 lb-in/in2
Coefficient of Linear Expansion 0.00007/0C 0.0000039/0F
Specific Heat 0.2 – 0.5 cal/0C g 0.2 – 0.5 Btu/0F lb
0
Thermal Conductivity 0.11 – 0.14 K cal/ Cmh 0.027 – 0.35 Btu/0Fth
Softening Temperature 76.30C 1690F
Dielectric Strength 40 or more Kv/mm
Dielectric Power factor (200C 1 KHz) 0.02
0
Dielectric Constant (20 C 1 KHz) 3.2

Processing of Plastics
Processing is the fabrication or convertion of the liquid or solid plastic material into a product. The
most commonly used process is molding. There are six molding processes. They are:
1. Compression Molding – It is generally limited to processing of thermosets. Molding by
compression is also applicable to thermoplastics, Figure 11.3a. The molding powder is
poured into the cavity and the plunger, part of a heavy press, rams downward to fuse the
powder into the desired shape.
2. Injection Molding – This process is used for forming synthetic thermoplastics, and celluloic
plastics, Figure 11.3d. In this process, the molding powder enters the heated chamber and
melts. It is then forced by the plunger through an opening into the mold where it sets.
3. Extrusion – The technique of forcing a material by pressure through a die, Figure 11.3c.
Here, the compound enters the press and is forced by an endless screw into a heated
chamber where it melts. It is the pushed out through a die opening which gives the molten
plastic the desired shape.
4. Thermoforming – A process wherein the thermoplastic sheet is preheated before drawing it
into a suitable form, Figure 11.3b. The thermosetting plastic sheet is placed on the jig mold,
which follows the desired curves under a rubber bag with an outside vent. The press is then
closed and the bag is forced to expand by the introduction of heating materials like stream
or hot water.
5. Blow Molding – A basic process for production of hollow materials as bottles, vessels, etc.,
from thermoplastics.
6. Rotation Molding – This is another method of forming hollow shapes by means of a suitable
mold in a rotating table. Here the powdered polymers or fusible liquids are heated before
the mold is closed and rotated.
Other Methods of Plastic Forming
Laminating – A process of combining layers of fabric, paper, or mat with thermoplastic or
thermosetting resins. Examples of laminates are plywood, safety glass, flat sheets, and molded
tubes.
Casting – A technique of pouring liquid thermoplastic or thermosetting resins into an open mold to
harden by either cooking or chemical reaction. No pressure is used in this process, although vacuum
or centrifuging for densification may be used. This is used to produce novelties, tooling standard
rods, tubes, and sheets.
Calendering – It is generally a rolling process to produce rigid or flexible thermoplastic sheets. It is
also used to supply films to substrates like in paper cloth. Other products from this process are
linoleum, wall paper and upholstery fabrics. Figure 13.4.
Fabrication – This is a regular machining operations plus special process like forging, gas welding,
sealing, stamping and ultrasonic welding for the production of plastic articles. This process is often
resorted to only when above methods are not possible or economical.
Kind of Plastic Materials
ABS. This plastic is a family of more than 15 different groups of engineering materials formed
basically from three different monomers as acrylonitrils, butadiene, and styrene. These three
monomers can be tailored to produce a variety of properties needed in a wide range of applications
as telephone, radio and TV housing, car tops and others. Their contributions to the product are: (a)
Acrylonitile-heat resistance, strength and chemical resistance, (b) Butadiene – impact strength and
toughness, and (c) Styrene – gloss, processibility and rigidity.
In its commercial form, ABS is available as color matched pellets, unpigmented pellets for customer
coloring and in powdered form for blending with other polymer like PVC.
Acetal Homopolymer. This is an easily process thermoplastic designed for injection, molding and
extrusion. Its high crystallinity makes it possible to mold in short cycles. Its properties include high
melt point, rigidity, and strength in addition to good frictional properties over a wide range of
temperatures and humidities and solvent exposure.
They are available in a variety of compositions from pellets, powder to liquid form to suit any
requirements.
Acetal Copolymer. This is a true engineering plastic with a unique balance of mechanical, thermal,
chemical, and electrical properties. It is a strong hard, highly crystalline thermoplastic. It is marketed
under the trade name CELEON.
Acetal copolymer is transluscent white in its natural color. But it is available in a number of standard
color for blending with natural pellets before processing. It is excellent for plumbing, (valves, sinks,
and faucets), automotive uses as electrical switches, body, hardware, packaging, gears, cams,
housing in machines and others. Its industrial use has been largely the replacement of metals as
diecast zinc and aluminum, where improved properties at least cost is attainable.
Acrylic. A thermoplastic material that was first used in 1930 for aircraft canopies and windshiels. Its
used however expanded to automotive and industrial lighting lenses, diffusers, louvers, solar panels,
appliances, sanitary wares and dental uses. It is characterized by crystal clear transparency,
unexcelled weatherability in combination with stiffness, density, and toughness.
Alkyd. This is produced by mechanical mixing of polyester resins, cross-linking monomers, catalysts,
mineral fillers, mold release agents and fibrous reinforcements. It has good dimensional stability and
dielectric properties making it applicable in wide variety of electrical gadgets.
The thermosetting materials is available in three forms: granular, extruded, and bulk.GRANULAR
ALKYDS are used where impact strength requirement is low. EXTUDED ALKYD is supplied as
preweighted logs or continuous rope for medium impact strength applications, and BULK ALKYDS are
compression molded to produce parts requiring high compression strength.
Allyt. This is a family of esters with allyl radical base usually formed from the reaction with allyl
alcohol. Allyls are noted for their retentionof electrical properties under conditions of high
temperature and humidity. Reinforced moldings are characterized by their dimensional stability,
chemical resistance, mechanical resistance, and heat resistance.
Amino. This is a group of the thermosetting polymers, produced by the reaction of an amino
compound, usually melamine or urea, with formaldehyde. They have found extensive uses in
molding compounds, industrial and decorative laminates, bonding, paper and textile treating resins
for the manufacture of protective coating and insulating foams.
They are available as liquid or dry resins and as filled molding compounds. Amino plastics are
moreover of relatively low molecular weight and can be readily converted to insoluble and infusible
end product.
Cellulosic. A kind of plastic manufactured by chemical modification of cellulose, which is a naturally
occurring polymer from wood pulp and cotton linters. It is not a thermoplastic material and
therefore will not melt. But it can be made into fibers like rayon, or film like cellophane. The first
cellulose derivative (cellulose nitrate) used for commercial production of celluloid was patented in
1869. Some of the distinctive properties of cellulosic materials are: good scuff resistance, high gas
permeability, good electrical insulation and good clarity.
Epoxy. These resins consist of two groups: (a) epoxide group and (b) hydroxyl group. Another
relatively important class of epoxy resins in the diglycid ethers of tetrabromobisphenol A. They
produce similar mechanical properties with the added advantage of flame retardance. There are
other types of epoxies whichinclude epoxy novalace based on phenol and formaldehyde or O-cresol,
cyloaliphatic epoxies, and resins with a flexible backbone.
Fluroplastic. It consists of the family of polymer of general paraffinic structure having some or all of
the hydrogen replaced by fluorine. This family of plastics consists of fluorinated ethylene propylene.
(FEP), copolymer, perfluoroalkoxy (PFA), resin, polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE), polyvinylindine
fluoride (PVDF), and others.
This family of polymers possesses unique characteristics as resistance to chemical attack, and very
low and high temperatures (2800C). Their uses are lining for chemical process equipment, valves and
fittings of piping and large vessels, mechanical seals, rings and bearings and other industrial uses.
Nylon. This is a generic name of a long-chain of synthetic polymeric amide with recurring amide
groups as an integral part of the main polymer chain. Nylon 6/6, and nylon 6 are considered general
purpose materials. They are known for their improvised thermal stability, rapid crystallization, and
outstanding mechanical properties. Nylon is available as injection molding and extrusion grades and
are used mainly for fluidized beds and electrostatic coatings.

4 Methods of joining plasic pipes:

1. Solvent-Cement Method – Here the interior of the fitting and exterior end of the pipe are thinly
coated with cement or solvent before the pipe and fitting are firmly pressed together.
2. Flange Method – A pair of metal flange on each end of the pipe are bolted together just enough
to compress a gasket material to obtain a good seal.
3. Threading – The plastic pipe is first threaded like in metal pipes before joining. The drawback of
this method is that it reduces the rating of the pipe.
4. Wielding – this is the technique similar to joining of metal pipes by the use of a suitable flame as
the oxyacetalene or blow torch. Much lower heat is however required in plastic pipes. uPVC
welding rods maybe used as filler.

RUBBER
Fresneau, an engineer living in Cayeme, had a few rubber objects brought to his attention by some
Portuguese and Indians from Para, Brazil. He decided to explore the forest of Guiana to find the
trees that produce rubber. In 1747 he discovered several kinds of latex – producing trees, including
Havea brasilliensis and actually fashioned a pair of boots and several pear-shaped objects with the
rubber. He described the appearance of rubber and growth of the trees, then the Indians made
boots of it.
In 1803, Thomas Hancock, often referred to as the "Father of the Industry”, opened a small shop in
London for working rubber and cutting strips to insert into garters and softening raw raw rubber to
make it suitably plastic for further handling. Charles Macintosh, a young textile chemist, developed
methods of proofing and doubling. He secured patent on the process in 1823 and garmentsmade
from the new fabric achieved quick popularity. First known as Waterproof Double Textures, they
soon became universally known as Macintoshes.
Physical Properties. As has been noted, the term rubber can be applied to the elastic, resilient
coherent solid obtained from the latex of many varieties of trees, plants, and shrubs. It is a basic raw
material to be modified and processed in thousands of ways to meet any kind pf abrasion as in a tire
thread. It can be an electrical insulator or an electrical conductor. It can be soft and foamy as in
mattress or tough enough to put an edge on carbon steel as in a rubber-bonded grinding wheel.
Mechanical Properties. Vulcanized rubber possesses widely varying characteristics of elasticity
softness, or hardness, flexible, extensible, waterproof, relatively impermeable to gases, an electrical
and heat insulator, resistant to the action of all but a relatively few chemicals and with high
frictional resistance on dry surfaces and low resistance on dry surfaces and low resistance on wet
surfaces with rubber.
Chemical Properties. Natural rubber is known chemically as polyisoprene. This means that it consists
of many units of isoprene a compound of carbon and hydrogen with the formula of C5H8. Isoprene
molecules are joined to each other in long chains; and each chain forms multiple molecules, or
polymer, composed of a number of identical smaller molecules. The number of such units in a rubber
polymer may be as high as 10,000 to 20,000. The carbon and hydrogen atoms are arranged in the
following fashion in a short section of such a chain:

Table 13.3
Composition of a Crude Rubber
Component Smoked Sheet (%) Pale Creep (%)
Moisture 0.6 0.4
Acetone – soluble material 2.9 2.9
Proteins 2.8 2.8
Ash 0.4 0.3
Water – soluble material 1.0 1.0
Esters insoluble in acetone 1.0 1.0
Rubber hydrocarbon 91.3 91.6
TOTAL 100 100

Major technical advance was the incorporation of carbon black (soot) into the compounds which
increased the mechanical strength of rubber far beyond anything previously known. THERMOPRENE
was prepared by reacting rubber with certain derivatives of sulfuric acid.

Table 13.4
Percentage Composition of Rubber Latex
Age of Trees
Contents 4 yrs. Percent 10 yrs. Percent
Acetone-soluble materials
 (resin, fatty acid,etc.) 1.22 1.65
Protein 1.47 2.03
Ash 0.24 0.70
Rubber hydrocarbon (countihouc) 27.07 32.62
Water 70.00 60.00

Sources of Natural Rubber

Throughout the nineteenth century the bulk of all crude rubber of commerce was wild rubber
collected from millions of Havea Brasiliensis trees in the tropical forests of Latin America.
1. HEVEA. The country around the mouth and the valley of the Amazon River in South America
continues to be the most important source of wild rubber. In 1912, wild rubber output
reached an al- time peak of 70,000 tons, of which 42,000 tons came from Brazil by 1941, the
world figure was only 25,000 tons.
2. GUTTA PERCHA. Gutta-Percha and baklata are obtained from the latex cells of different
trees belonging to the family Sapotaceae: Most of the Gutta-Percha comes from Malaya,
Borneo,Sumatra, and Java.
3. GUAYULE. Guayule is a woody shrub grown wild in Northern Mexico. It has been cultivated
in the same region and in South-western part of the United States. The shrub grows to a
height of several feet and belongs to the Compositae family, genus Parthenium
4. BALATA. It is obtained from species of Mimusops, found in Trinidad, Guianas, Venezuela,
and adjacent regions.
5. JELUTONG. Derived from the various species of Dyra, it is used extensively in the
manufacture of chewing gum. The latex from the tree is coagulated with acetic acid and
purified by boiling with water.

SYNTHETIC RUBBER
To be classed as a rubber, a material must meet four requirements:
1. It must consist of very long chain molecules.
2. The long-chain molecules must be lightly cross-linked (vulcanized).
3. The glass transition temperature must be well below room temperature.
4. The melting point of the crystallites, if any, must also be below room temperature.

The long chain rubber molecules consist of repeating units of one or more low molecular weight
compounds called monomers. Natural rubber exemplifies a rubber with only one repeating unit,
isoprene, C5H8. Styrene, butadiene rubber (SBR) is an example of a rubber built up from two
monomers, styrene, C8H8 + butadiene, C4H6. Long chain-materials are called elastomers or rubbers if
in the vulcanized state they meet the four requirements for a rubber; if not, they are called
plastomers or plastics. The generic name for both types is polymers. All polymers are prepared
synthetically by polymerization or polycondensation.

Types of Synthetic Rubber

1. Styrene-Butadiene Rubbers (SBR). SBR rubber is obtained by random emulsion
polymerization.
CH2 = CHCH = CH2 = CH = CH2
C6H5

Butadience styrene

mostly in the ratio of about 77% butadiene and 23% styrene. SBR rubber is obtained by
starting from an aqueous emulsion of butadiene and styrene. Consequently the rubber is
first obtained in the form of a latex, which is coagulated after the wet coagulum is dried.
The old-emulsion-polymerized at an elevated temperature of about 50 degree Celcius (0C)
and are called “hot rubbers”. Improvements in the polymerization process, carried out at
 low temperature 50C give improved properties. These SBR types thus obtained are called
“cold rubbers”.
The glass transition temperature of SBR with a normal styrene content about 23% is about
620C somewhat higher than natural rubber (720C).
Properties and Applications. Raw SBR shows much more elasticity on the mill and its
vulcanizates are somewhat less resilient than those of natural rubber. Heat and oxygen
resistance are somewhat better than those natural rubber; ozone resistance is about
equally poor. Low temperature resistance is good, but somewhat less than that of natural
rubber. Resistance to solvents and oils is about the same.
SBR is a general purpose rubber and can successfully replace natural rubber in most
applications except those for which a very high elasticity and low hysteresis are required.
SBR types with a high styrene content higher than 23% have been found to be very useful in
soles and heels.
2. Nitrile (acrylonitrile) Butadiene Rubbers (NBR). The polymers have been designed with the
special aim of preparing oil resistant rubber in which both natural rubber and SBR are
deficient . Nitrile rubbers are obtained by random emulsion polymerization of
CH2=CHCH=CH2 and CH2 = CHCN

The first nitrile rubbers were hot polymerized, later on cold rubbers also became available
which are easier to process. At present both hot and cold rubbers are available of which the
acrylonitrile content can vary between 18 and 50%.
NBR is more difficult to process than SBR and even much more difficult than natural rubber.
Therefore, high amount of processing oils are incorporated which have to be of a polar
nature in order to be compatible with the polar rubber.
Properties and Applications. Like SBR, NBR does not crystallize, hence only reinforced
vulcanizates have useful properties. Resistance to polar compounds like esters, betones and
chlorinated solvents including inert gas ozone is poor. NBR is a general purpose rubber
which is almost exclusively used when oil resistance is required. The main applications are:
fuel hoses, collapsible containers, roll coverings, packings, membranes, heat resistant hard
rubber and adhesives.
3. Polycholoroprene Rubber (CR). These rubbers are obtained by emulsion polymerization of
chloroprene, (CH2 = CCI – CH = CH2) yielding polycholoroprene (CH2 - C = CH – CH2).
There are 2 main classes: the sulphur modified types (SHT) and nonsulphur modified types
(NSMT) indicating the differences in polymerization techniques. The SMT are
interpolymerization with sulphur having a broad molecular weight distribution. Storage
stability of the raw rubber is limited, readily masticated and does not need an acceleration
for vulcanization. The NSMT have a narrower molecular weight distribution, good storage
stability, and are difficult to masticate. They need an organic accelerator for vulcanization
and show better properties than SMT.
Application and Properties. Although CR can be used for many purposes it has remained a
special purpose rubber, mainly because of its price which is twice that of NBR and SBR. CR
vulcanizates do not support combustion and swell only moderately in hydrocarbon oils and
solvents. Their electric properties are moderate at low temperature. Flexibility is restricted.
The main applications are in high performance articles such as cables, fabrics, adhesives,
and a large number of technical rubber articles.
4. Chlorosulphonated Polythene (Hypalon). Hypalon is prepared by the reaction of chlorine
and sulfonyl chloride or polyethylene, transforming the thermoplastic polyethene into a
vulcanizable elastomer.
Hypalon crystallizes on extension and also to some extent on cooling when stretched.
Nonreinforced vulcanizates show high tensile strength. The glass transition temperature is
about – 500C hypalon cannot be masticated, but does not need it because the viscosity
decreases considerably with increase in temperature.
Properties and Applications. Hypalon is a special purpose rubber. It is completely inert to
ozone and has a high resistance to strongly oxidizing media, even to chromic acid. The
 electrical properties and the resistance to heat and weather are very good and better than
those of polychloroprene. It is characterized by hardness, strength, and moderate elasticity.
The main applications are tank linings and hoses in chemical industry, conveyor belt
coverings for high temperature service, cover layers on proofed fabrics, electrical insulation,
white side-walls of tyres, solution coatings on rigid substrates.

5. Butyl Rubbers (IIR). Butyl rubber is the copolymer of isobutylene with about 2 percent
isoprene. Polymerization is carried out in a solution at extremely low temperatures,
followed by precipitation of the rubber by the addition of water, separating the rubber
crumb which can be filtered and dried with conventional equipment.
Butyl rubbers crystallize when cooled and when stretched, the glass transition temperature
ranges from – 75 to -800C. IIR cannot easily be masticated cool mill; chemical breakdown
can be affected at elevated temperatures with the aid of special peptizers.
Properties and Applications. Gas permeability is very low. Elasticity ambient temperature is
very low but increases considerably with increasing temperature. Resistance against heat,
weathering and ozone is very good. Mechanical properties are moderate, electrical
properties are very good. Resistance to hydrocarbon oils and solvents is low, but resistance
to alcohols, esters, betones, and animal and vegetable oils is good.
The main applications are for the inner tubes, innerliners. Tubeless tires, cables, curing bags,
milking appliances, convetor belts, gas kits.football bladders, window channels and seal,
steam hose and caulking compounds.

Other types of Synthetic Fibers

1. Halogenated Butyl Rubbers. These are special purpose rubbers obtained by chlorination or
bramination of butyl rubber. Their advantages over butyl rubber are: (a) Fast curing, (b) Co-
vulcanizable with highly unsaturated rubbers, and (c) Good adhesion to other rubbers,
textiles and metals.
2. Polyurethane, Silicone, Polysulpide, Flourocarbon rubbers, etc.

SOURCE: Engineering Materials by Emmanuel and Teresita Nińo

Prepared by:
DAVE Y. RIEZA, RPABE
Instructor