Module3:

FARM MANAGEMENT AND

DECISION-MAKING
Session 3.1 The farmer and decision-making
Session 3.2 Resources and farm management
Session 3.3 Inputs, markets and farm management
Session 3.4 Risk, vulnerability and sustainability
Session 3.5 Information and farm management

Module 3 1
 Introduction

In this module the concept of farm management will be

introduced. Farm management decisions will be covered
relating to the five capitals, inputs and marketing.
The concept of risk will be introduced as the importance
of data and information in management decisions.

Module 3 2
 Session 3.1
The farmer and decision-making

Learning outcomes:
Understand the farm/family goals
Understand the farmer as manager
Understand the farm management decision-
making process
Understand the different roles family
members play in the decision-making
process

Module 3 3
 The farmer and decision-making

In this session you will learn to realistically

visualize the decision-making boundaries of a farm.

The physical decision-making boundaries and how they

extend to the farm household will be explored.

You will also cover the decisions that have to be

made, who will make them and when.

Module 3 4
 The farmer and decision-making

Decision-making is central to farm management. Each

decision has an impact on the farm and on the farm
household. Even deciding to do nothing is a decision
and has an impact.

The more a farmer is aware of the decision-making

processes that affect farm and household, the more
sustainable the enterprise will be and the more likely
it will be profitable and sustainable.

Module 3 5
 The farmer and decision-making

In many parts of Africa, farm decisions are closely

tied to decisions made in the household. Farm
decisions affect food availability, play an important
role in social ceremonies and are linked to issues of
social status and wealth.

Module 3 6
 The farmer and decision-making

Two of the main features for understanding economic

decision-making are;

(i) the way farm boundaries are determined

(ii) the ultimate social objectives for which farm goods are
produced.

In this training programme we refer to the farm

boundaries as ‘decision-making boundaries’.

Module 3 7
 The production decision- making boundaries
We generally first think of a farm in terms of its
physical enterprise boundaries; land, crops, livestock,
fences etc.

Many of you are trained only in decision-making about

production.

The production decision-making boundaries are just

the beginning of the decision-making boundaries of
the farm.

Module 3 8
 The production decision- making boundaries

Production decisions depend on a number of factors

that fall outside the physical/ production area of the
farm.

One of these factors is the farm family/household.

Module 3 9
 Farm and family household decision-making
boundaries
In many parts of Africa, the farm and the household
are virtually one entity.

Decisions about the farm directly impact on the

household and decisions about the family directly
impact on the farm.

Module 3 10
 Farm and family household decision-making
boundaries
More and more, families require cash for things like
school fees, medicines, transports, etc.

It is useful for anyone working with a farming family

to understand the dynamics of the farm household
and the relative decisions.

Module 3 11
 Farm and family household decision-making
boundaries
Farm boundaries are determined by family structure.

There may be a family farm under the head of

household, but the farm may have various sub-units
over which a family member will have some level of
control.

This will have implications for decision-making,

particularly with reference to shared labour and
equipment.

Module 3 12
 Farm and family household decision-making
boundaries
Traditionally men are heads of households, but there
are now many variations.

Even within a clearly established arrangement,

different members of the family make different
decisions for the family at different times of the
year.

Module 3 13
 Farm and family household decision-making
boundaries
For each specific farm, you will need to identify not
only the physical boundaries of a farm, but who makes
what decisions and when.

This is necessary in order to determine the decision-

making boundaries of each farm in terms of access to
resources, resource sharing at family level and the
main objectives of production.

Module 3 14
 Social and economic goals

Farmers and their families need a secure source of

food and they seek a secure source of income.

Many develop a strategy of producing for a market

while at the same time ensuring food self-sufficiency
either from the farm harvest or by use of cash to
purchase food from the market.

Module 3 15
 Social and economic production goals

In many countries, even though the profit

maximization objective is of greater importance,
farmers are still bound by social obligations within
their own communities.

In some areas farmers are less bound by these

obligations and are freer to focus on farming for
profits.

Module 3 16
 Social and economic production goals

Food security is a social goal. Generating income is

an economic goal. These family goals often conflict.
Uncertainty (or risk) is part of the conflict.

Often demands of food security are detrimental to

farm profitability and it can happen that the sole
focus on producing for the market can negatively
affect food balances and other food security factors.

Module 3 17
 Social and economic production goals

Market-orientated farm management skills and tools

can be used to make more informed decisions about
food production and income generation.

Module 3 18
 Short-term versus long-term view

Good farm management requires a long-term view.

It requires thinking carefully about what might

happen in the future as a result of a decision made
today.

Module 3 19
 Short-term versus long-term view

Learning and applying principles of farm management

enables farmers to look at their farms more
impartially and to consider alternative actions in
advance.

This will help improve performance and profit for the

future.

Module 3 20
 The farmer as a manager
Any farmer has two main jobs;

(i) To take care of plants and livestock in order to get useful

products

(ii) To manage the farm; that is, making decisions about how to
use the farm’s resources.

Module 3 21
 The farmer as a manager

Decisions require making choices between

alternatives.

Farm planning is thinking ahead about farm activities

and making decisions some time before they will be
carried out.

As a farmer becomes more market-orientated, the

farmer will need to improve planning and decision-
making skills.

Module 3 22
 The farmer as a manager

The kind of decisions farmers make as managers can

be summarized as follows:

(i) What to produce

(ii) Whether to produce for food, for income, or for both
(iii) How to produce it
(iv) How much to produce
(v) What resources will be used and when
(vi) What inputs to use and where to get them
(vii) How much of the products to sell and when
(viii) Where and to whom to sell the products and at what prices.
_

Module 3 23
 Key aspects of decision-making

In order to make fundamental decisions farmers need

to develop understanding and skills in four broad
decision areas:
Diagnosis

Planning

Implementing

Monitoring & Evaluation

Module 3 24
 Key aspects of decision-making

Learning how to make decisions in these four areas

will put farmers in greater command of the resources
and processes that influence their food security and
their income generation.

The four areas flow in a pattern which supports

continuous learning processes about what works best
for the farmer and the farm family.

Module 3 25
 Key aspects of decision-making

Module 3 26
 Diagnosis

Diagnosis means looking at the farm and household as

it functioned over some period of time. For a first
diagnosis, the farmer may want to understand how
the farm has produced over several seasons.

Module 3 27
 Diagnosis

Just like a doctor with a patient, a diagnosis will give

the farmer important clues about the ‘health’ of the
farm.
How is it producing?
What is the condition of the farm’s resources?
Are resources becoming more or less productive?
How profitable is it?
Are farm goals being achieved?
What problems are there?
What opportunities exist?

Module 3 28
 Planning

Once diagnosis is complete, planning can begin;

decisions about what, how and how much to produce.

Some planning decisions will be based on knowledge;

such as how much land and labour are available. Other
planning decisions will be based on less certain things,
such as rainfall and product prices.

The plan will also include an indication of the

expected results in terms of yields and income.

Module 3 29
 Implementing

Implementing means putting the plan into action. In

general, implementing does not require major
decisions.

Things may not always work according to plan; less

rainfall than expected, the price of a crop changes
etc.

During implementation, plans may need to be adjusted

to accommodate such changes.

Module 3 30
 Monitoring & Evaluation

Monitoring means keeping track of what is happening

on the farm and the plan is a guide for monitoring.

Monitoring provides the farmer with the information

needed to evaluate the success of the plan.

Module 3 31
 Monitoring & Evaluation

Evaluation means judging how well the farm

performed when compared to the plan.

Did things go as planned?

Were expected yields achieved?
Were expected incomes reached?

Monitoring and evaluation provide the information the

farmer needs to diagnose the farm for the next
season. It is the basis for making the next plan.

Module 3 32
 Key aspects of decision-making

Farmers that follow these decision-making steps will

have a very powerful process in their hands.

Just like a doctor, they will be able to know the

‘health’ of their farm business.

If the farm is healthy the farmer will know what to

do again, if the farm has problems, the farmer will
possibly know why and what to do about it.

Module 3 33
 Key aspects of decision-making

Such a process will increase the sustainability of the

farm.

It will improve the family’s food security and it will

make the family’s income more predictable and
reliable.

Module 3 34
 Men and women in farm management decision-
making

The role or place of women in making farm

management decisions varies widely across Africa.

Women and men clearly have equal personal capacity

to apply the principles and tools of farm management.

Module 3 35
 Men and women in farm management decision-
making

Market–oriented farm management should not, in

principle, be affected by gender.

In practice gender may play a very important role,

especially regarding access to resources. Women often
have less access than men to the inputs required for
farming.

Farm management advice needs to be carefully

targeted in order to address gender specific issues.

Module 3 36
 Session 3.2
Resources and farm management

Learning outcomes:
Understand the importance of maintaining
value and productive power of resources
Understand the role of farm management
in the sustainable use of resources

Module 3 37
 Resources and farm management

In this session you will cover in detail the kind of

decisions required which affect the use and allocation
of the five capitals used by farmers.

Module 3 38
 Resources and farm management

Each decision has an impact on the farm and on the

farm household.

Farmer awareness of the range of decisions and

factors affecting those decisions, the better the
decisions will be, the more sustainable and profitable
the farm will be.

Module 3 39
 Resources and farm management

We know that some of the key decisions to be made

include:
What to produce?
Produce for food, for income, or for both?
How to produce it?
How much to produce?
What resources will be used and when?
What inputs to use and where to get them?
How much to sell and when?
Where and to whom to sell and at what prices?

Module 3 40
 Resources and farm management

Underpinning all these decisions are the resources

available to the farmer.

Each decision a farmer makes is essentially about how

to utilize farm and household resources.

Module 3 41
 Resources and farm management

Resources or capital are categorized into five types:

Natural capital

Human capital

Physical capital

Financial capital

Social capital

Module 3 42
 Resources and farm management

Each of these capitals is vulnerable. Each is subject

to stresses and shocks.

There are many pressures on these resources that

may cause them to decrease in value or reduce in
their productive capacity.

There are other pressures and events which may

completely deplete or remove the resource.

Module 3 43
 Resources and farm management

Farmers have two areas of concern:

1. Productivity of resources.

2. Profits.

To achieve both objectives, farmers will need to

consider very carefully decisions about resource
utilization.

Module 3 44
 Resources and farm management

Farming for profits does not imply that one must

sacrifice resources to maximize income.

The real goal of market-oriented farm management is

long-term sustained profits from farming; good farm
management demands sustainable use of resources.

Module 3 45
 Resources and farm management

Maintaining and improving the value and productive

power of farm resources, sustains profits.

Good farm management embraces sustainable

agriculture and supports sustained profits from the
farm.

Module 3 46
 Resources and farm management

One of the key decision areas of a good farm

manager is maintaining the farm’s resources.

Reducing the vulnerability of a farmer’s natural,

human, physical, financial and social capital will help
ensure that they are productive for many years.

Module 3 47
 Resources and farm management

Maintaining control over the long-term value and

productive power of resources is a very important
part of market-oriented farm management.

Farming for high profits in the short-term without

taking steps to sustain resources will eventually lead
to lower profits.

Good farm management looks for ways to put these

resources to work in such a way that the farm will be
profitable in both the short and long term.

Module 3 48
 Farm management decisions :
natural capital

Farmers do not farm in isolation. They take from and

influence natural capital.

Natural capital is the first resource base on which a

farm is established and run.

Farmers need to be very aware of the inter-

relationship of their farms with their natural
resource base.

Module 3 49
 Farm management decisions :
natural capital
Natural capital is run down and destroyed by one of
two forces:

1. Acts of nature such as droughts, wind and floods

2. Deliberate acts of humans such as over-grazing,

harmful production practices.

Module 3 50
 Farm management decisions —
natural capital

Some actions that can be taken by farm managers to

enable land remaining productive and to help make
sure that common property also remains productive
are:
Improved land reclamation

Introduction of soil conservation measures

Development of better integrated on-farm livestock production

activities

Module 3 51
 Farm management decisions —
natural capital
While each of these steps take place at a cost, they
have long-term benefits. They will contribute to the
sustained profitability of the farm.

Module 3 52
 Farm management decisions:
human capital
Decisions about human capital on the farm are among
the most important decisions made by a farmer.

Decisions about human capital represent choices in

technologies.

They represent productivity, technology choices and

how the farm family earns its income.

These decisions represent the way the family sees

itself and the way it sees its farm.

Module 3 53
 Farm management decisions :
human capital
With the change in economies in Africa, the
availability and the cost of labour are changing and
with it farmers now face serious questions.

Farmers need to decide if it is better for their

families to sell their labour in town or to use it on the
family farm.

Understanding the concepts, principles and tools of

farm management will help farmers assess the
choices and to make better decisions.

Module 3 54
 Farm management decisions:
human capital
You will need to take special care in assisting farmers
with examining this aspect of farm management.

Human capital decisions touch on societal and cultural

issues as well as on more purely management issues.

Many of the factors to be taken into consideration

are related to the status of women.

Module 3 55
 Farm management decisions:
human capital
Some technical or practical factors that might also
be taken into account include:

(i) Issues of land rights and inheritance

(ii) Who is allowed to work outside the home

(iii) The effect of HIV/Aids and other health issues on ‘head of

household’.

Module 3 56
 Options for alternative labour sources

Farmers need to think carefully about options for

providing power on the farm and to plan for them in
advance.

Some of the options might include:

Labour saving technologies

Changing farm enterprises and combinations

Increasing productivity

Module 3 57
 Labour saving technologies

Most farmers could improve the productivity of their

labour by adopting better tools that have been tried
out successfully elsewhere.

This may include replacing hand-labour with animal

power by using drought animals, tractors or
motorized implements. Each of these is an additional
cost to the farm.

Farmers should decide to use labour saving

technologies only when sufficient returns can be
generated to cover the extra costs.

Module 3 58
 Changing farm enterprises and combinations
Market-oriented farmers should consider adding or
changing crops carefully. This can be a very effective
way to increase farm profitability and cope with
labour productivity problems.

Some possible changes include:

Intercropping

Introducing a new crop

Module 3 59
 Increasing productivity
There are a number of ways to increase labour
productivity ;
Introducing new technology

Producing more per hectare

Choosing the right enterprises to produce

Improving farm layout

Using improved tools and working methods

Practicing good labour relations and paying wages in relation to the

amount and quality of work done

Module 3 60
 Increasing productivity

Good relations means treating labourers justly, paying

fair wages and providing good supervision for hired
labour.

Module 3 61
 Increasing productivity

NOTE

Increased productivity based on intensification of

cropping techniques together with mechanization
often results in increases in labour constraints.

Module 3 62
 Farm Management decisions;
physical and financial capital
Decisions made today limit the decisions you can make
tomorrow.

Farmers need to make both short-term and long-term

decisions about physical and financial capital.

Short-term decisions affect long-term decisions and

long-term decisions affect short-term decisions.

Module 3 63
 Long-term capital decisions in different
enterprises
Capital invested in livestock, perennial crops, orchard
trees or buildings cannot be readily changed into
another form of capital which might earn a higher
rate of return.

Once capital has been invested in durable assets it is

committed and flexibility is lost.

Module 3 64
 Long-term capital decisions in different
enterprises

Capital is always limited. It should be used where it

will add most to profits.

Different enterprises involve issues when making long-

term capital decisions.

Module 3 65
 Tree crops

The capital cost involved in tree production is equal to

the cost of growing that tree up to the stage of full
production.

Taking good care of trees and controlling diseases and

pests is very important to protect the money that has
been spent growing the tree.

If the tree dies before it has produced anything,

capital is lost.

Module 3 66
 Livestock

The capital cost involved in livestock production is

equal to the cost of keeping that animal up to the
stage it reaches full production.

Animals being kept for meat, milk, eggs or other

products should be kept fit and healthy, so to
produce efficiently. Only in this way can the farmers
get high gross margins for their livestock.

Farmers want and need to protect investments. If

the animal dies before producing, capital is lost.

Module 3 67
 Livestock

In cases where farmers cannot afford to raise

livestock, they can also hire.

Module 3 68
 Buildings

The cost of buildings can be kept very low if the

farmers and farm families do most of the building.

Careful repair and maintenance of buildings will make

the buildings last longer and this will reduce
depreciation cost.

Module 3 69
 Buildings

Where possible and practical, a farmer can hire a

building. Buildings that are hired should be put to
maximum productive use. An empty building is a waste
of money.

There is no use in filling a building with stored

produce where it will be losing value; if produce can
be sold at a good price, it should be sold.

Module 3 70
 Machinery and equipment

Investment in machinery and equipment can be very

profitable if the farmer can manage the finance and
if it increases profitability.

Mechanization can be costly both in terms of buying

it and in terms of repairs and maintenance.

Module 3 71
 Mechanization through animal traction

In many countries animal traction with draught

animals is an immediate way of mechanizing.

The investment includes the animals and the

equipment they will pull such as a plough, a planter, a
cart or other farm implements.

Module 3 72
 Motorized machinery and equipment,
intermediate power driven equipment
This includes two-wheel tractors and light four-wheel
tractors.

Farmers can also invest in small-scale post-harvest

equipment like threshers, mills or oil-presses; adding
value to their products before taking them to market.

Module 3 73
 Heavier power-driven equipment

This includes tractors, combine harvesters or

trailers.

Hiring is an option that can be used by farmers and

this saves on the cost of buying the machine.
Hiring is often cheaper than buying.

Module 3 74
 Heavier power-driven equipment

Cooperative use of machinery or sharing is another

option.

Shared use of equipment by two or more farmers has

often been more successful than cooperatives.

Module 3 75
 Short-term decisions about physical and
financial capital

Farms require many decisions that affect the farm

for a single season;

Which seed to buy?

When to plant?

Which market to use?

Module 3 76
 Short-term decisions about physical and
financial capital

Farms also require short-term decisions which impact

on the long-term sustainability of the farm.

Often these decisions involve choices about what to

do with limited cash.

Should the farmer repair a weakening fence this

year, or use the cash to buy all the seed needed?

Module 3 77
 Short-term decisions about physical and
financial capital

Not buying all the required seed will limit income this
year.

Not repairing the fence may allow cattle into the

fields and destroy the crop.

Farmers will need to think carefully about the many

short-term decisions to be made. They need to
anticipate what long-term effect short-term
decisions will have.

Module 3 78
 Farm management decisions: social capital

Some farm management decisions involving social

capital affect the farm directly.

Other farm management decisions involving social

capital affect common property, such as in the case
of common forests, grazing land and water to which
the farm family has access.

Module 3 79
 Decisions affecting the farm directly

1. What are the sources of crop land available to me? How do I access
that land?

2. What sources of labour are available to me? How do I access it?

3. What sources of finance are available to me? Can I borrow from family
members? Should I be part of a group to negotiate better terms?

4. Should I buy my own tractor or alternatively hire from a tractor pool?

Is it possible to borrow from a neighbour?

5. Should I market my own farm produce? Should I be part of an

organized marketing group?

6. Should I buy my own inputs and materials? Should I work with others
to buy in bulk?

Module 3 80
 Decisions affecting common property (off-
farm)
7. How can I access water for irrigation? Is there adequate water for
irrigation?

8. Should we establish a community forest plantation?

9. How should we as a community treat the watershed? How should we

organize ourselves?

10. What are the sources of grazing land available to me? How do I access
this land and vegetation? What are my responsibilities?

Module 3 81
 Farm management decisions: social capital

All these decisions have an impact on the farmer’s

resource base and income.

Farm household decisions are inseparable from the

social relations of farming.

Module 3 82
 Farm management decisions: social capital

Social capital can lower the costs of performing farm

operations. In this way it can improve the efficiency
of farming. This often results in financial savings and
increased income.

Farmers coming together as a group facilitate

cooperation and foster confidence.

Module 3 83
 Farm management decisions: social capital

Social capital is useful in promoting collective action

such as water saving and communal grazing.

It helps to ensure that farmers get greater benefits

when negotiating with powerful bodies.

Social capital can also promote better use of natural

and other resources, if managed correctly.

Module 3 84
 Farm management decisions: social capital

Joint or group interventions contribute to the

formation of social capital by developing expertise
within the group such as;
Working together for a common good

Learning and implementing formal rules and procedures

Democratic election of leaders

Participatory decision-making in allocation of credit and inputs

for farm enterprise development

Module 3 85
 Farm management decisions: social capital

Social capital arrangements provide farmers and

other members of the rural community with full
control over the use of resources.

There are many benefits from such an association at

grass roots level:
Higher productivity
Reduced costs
Increased efficiency
Building of democratic group organization
Enhanced self-reliance among the poor

Module 3 86
 Farm management decisions: social capital

The strength of social capital arrangements lies in

the processes that they offer and their economic and
social benefits.

Module 3 87
 Session 3.3
Inputs, markets and farm management

Learning outcomes:
Understand the range of decisions farmers make
about inputs, equipment and markets
Understand the role of the extension worker in
supporting the farmer in making decisions about
inputs, equipment and markets

Module 3 88
 Inputs, markets and farm management

This session provides checklists for you to help

farmers make decisions about inputs, equipment and
markets. It also helps you identify your role in the
farmer's decision-making process.

Module 3 89
 Decisions about inputs

Farmers need to know which inputs to use and where

to get them.

They need to determine whether the additional cost

of using inputs will generate sufficient additional
income to cover these costs.

Module 3 90
 Decisions about inputs

Inputs can be obtained from a number of sources:

The farmer ’s own farm

Another farm
Private suppliers
Local general dealers
Farmer cooperatives
Product distributors

In each case, the farmer must consider the price,

quality and availability offered by the various sources
of inputs.

Module 3 91
 Choice of inputs and equipment

When deciding on inputs and equipment there are a

number of questions a farmer should ask:

Is it technically effective?

Is it of dependable quality?

Is its price reasonable?

Is it available locally when a farmer needs to use it?

Is it offered for sale in appropriate sizes or amounts?

Module 3 92
 Qualities of inputs (supplies and equipment)

Technical effectiveness:
Seed, fertilizer or other items must be technically
effective.
Does the seed produce as promised?

Does the fertilizer perform as intended?

Does the livestock medicine really work?

Does the implement do the job it is supposed to do?

Is the input or equipment appropriate to the farmer’s farm system?

Module 3 93
 Qualities of inputs (supplies and equipment)
Quality and dependability:
Sustained quality is another important characteristic
for inputs and equipment.
Is equipment built to last?

Does it come with a guarantee?

Is the seed within its expiry date?

Do the pesticides contain any illegal chemicals?

Have the feeds been properly mixed?

Is the supplier reliable and honest?

Module 3 94
 Qualities of inputs (supplies and equipment)

Price relationships:
A farmer should not buy fertilizer or other inputs
just because its price is low.

The inputs must also be effective and of a certain

quality.

In all events the farmers must take into account the

price, especially the relationship between prices and
inputs and the prices the farmer can get for farm
products.

Module 3 95
 Qualities of inputs (supplies and equipment)

Availability when needed:

The need for each input is highly seasonal.

Seeds must be available shortly before planting and

can seldom be sold at any other time of the year.

Fertilizers must be applied at specific times and few

farmers have facilities for storing them
satisfactorily. The same is true of pesticides,
although small amounts of them can be held for
future use.

Module 3 96
 Qualities of inputs (supplies and equipment)

Quantity offered for sale:

The size of the containers in which many supplies are
offered for sale is also important.

Frequently containers hold more than a small farm

needs at any one time and the farmer may not have
facilities for storing the extra amount until the
following year when it may be needed again.

Module 3 97
 Choice of input and equipment supplier

Farmers also need to know who are reliable and

trustworthy suppliers of inputs, equipment,
machinery, spare parts and maintenance supplies.

Farmers also need to know what each supplier offers

in terms of prices, quality and availability of inputs
and equipment.

Module 3 98
 Operations and maintenance

One of the key factors in profitability is maintaining

capital.

The better equipment is maintained, the longer it will

retain its productive power.

Good farm management includes care for all of the

physical capital on the farm.

Maintenance costs money, so as with all farm

management decisions, the value of the maintenance
must be measured against the income it generates.

Module 3 99
 Decisions about the market

Decisions about markets are among the most

important decisions farmers will make.

They can also be among the most difficult to make

because markets generally represent the unknown.

Farmers cannot be certain of the supply of farm

products, the demand for certain products and the
market prices.

Module 3 100
 Decisions about the market

Farmers can make decisions which are informed by

knowledge of how markets have performed in the
past.

They can make decisions based on the best available

information regarding the following market issues:

The market

The product

The marketing chain

Module 3 101
 Decisions about the market

What can farmers learn about the market for the

products they want to sell?

Module 3 102
 The market: markets and buyers

• How is the crop/livestock produce marketed at present?

• What are the main markets and where is produce sold?

• What has been the demand for the products?

• Who buys the produce and when? In what quantities?

• What is the best day for arrival in the market?

• Who are the most important intermediaries or buyers?

• Which buyers have the best reputation?

Module 3 103
 The market : prices and pricing
• What prices are paid?

• Is there a wide variation between the prices received by farmers for

similar produce in the same area? If so, why?

• Is there competition between buyers?

• Do buyers provide credit to farmers and on what conditions?

• Do buyers expect credit from farmers in the form of deferred

payment?

• What are current price levels, price policies, conditions of sale and
payment terms found in the market?

• Is the farmer a price taker or a price maker?

Module 3 104
 The market: prices and pricing
• What market prices are obtained (average, maximum, minimum, effect of
different quality standards and seasonal conditions on price)?

• How can premium prices be attained?

• If the farmer is a price maker, what price strategy should be followed? What is
the percentage mark-up? Does the set price leave a margin for profit?

• What are the various cost factors to be considered in determining the pricing
policy?

• How does the location of the market affect prices?

• How does time of day affect prices?

• How much does the price normally fluctuate during the year?

• What credit does the buyer require and how does this affect price?

Module 3 105
 The market : promotion

• Is the market aware of the product?

• Does the market know the volume available and how to purchase
the product?

• Does the product need promotion?

• How can producers give advance notice of changes in their

ability to provide the goods?

Module 3 106
 The market: marketing costs and margins

• What are the overall costs of marketing and what are the
marketing margins?

Module 3 107
 The market: sales

• What factors are likely to affect sales (weather, special

festivals, day of arrival in market)?

• What are the potentials and techniques for developing sales?

Module 3 108
 The product: product type and form

• What products are farmers interested in producing?

• What market forms (fresh, processed)?

Module 3 109
 The product: competition

• How competitive is the market?

• Who are the main suppliers to that market?

• Is the marketing plan being adjusted to reflect changes in

competition?

Module 3 110
 The product: market potential

• What demand needs to be satisfied?

• How large is the market? How much can the market absorb?

• Which market is the farmer willing and able to satisfy?

• What percentage of produce should farmers be interested in

producing?

Module 3 111
 The product: quality standards, packaging

• What are the grades and quality standards of the produce?

• What type of packaging is required? What is the cost of

packaging?

Module 3 112
 The marketing chain: product preparation and
packing

• Who can/should prepare and pack the product according to the

market requirements?

• What is the cost of preparation and packing?

Module 3 113
 The marketing chain : handling

• Who can/should handle the product?

Module 3 114
 The marketing chain : transport

• What is the best way to transport goods to the market?

• Who provides transportation?

• What is the unit price of transport to the different markets?

• How long do the journeys take? How frequently does the

transport leave the area?

• How efficient are the transport links?

• Should the transport of produce be pooled or sent individually?

Module 3 115
 The marketing chain: delivery of products

• How should the product be delivered?

• What method of transportation does the consumer require?

• What methods of transportation does the producer or trader

have?

• Can small farmers meet the markets’ delivery requirements?

• Is the crop/livestock produce stored? If so, where and by

whom?

Module 3 116
 The marketing chain: delivery of products

• How much of the product should be stored?

• What storage arrangements are required?

• Are storage and stocking required to meet the buyers’ delivery

schedule?

• Are associations and cooperatives a necessary link in reaching

the market?

• Are goods delivered directly to the buyer by producers?

• What size units does the buyer require?

Module 3 117
 Supporting farmers with inputs and making
decisions

You have an important role in assisting farmers

making management decisions about inputs, equipment
and markets.

You can help farmers to ask the right questions about

sources of inputs and equipment, and about the inputs
and equipment themselves.

Module 3 118
 Supporting farmers with inputs and making
decisions

You can provide farmers with information about

inputs and equipment including:

Research information on the technical effectiveness of the

inputs and equipment

Experiences of other farmers with the inputs and equipment

Availability of inputs and equipment in the area

Module 3 119
 Supporting farmers with inputs and making
decisions
You can help farmers with reliable information about
markets including:
Prices

Quality requirements

Handling

Packaging and transport

Niche marketing opportunities

Module 3 120
 Supporting farmers with inputs and making
decisions
Remember

Your support for input and marketing decisions should

always include information and guidance on the impact
of the inputs and markets on farm profitability.

Module 3 121
 Session 3.4
Risk, vulnerability and sustainability

Learning outcomes:
Understand the concept and different
types of risks
Understand farm-family strategies to cope
with risk
Understand the concepts of vulnerability
and sustainability

Module 3 122
 Risk, vulnerability and sustainability

This session introducers the concepts of risk and

sustainability. You will learn about the different
types of risk and what makes farmers and their
farms vulnerable.

You will work with the idea of mapping sustainability

to locate areas in the farming system that need
strengthening.

Module 3 123
 What is risk?

Small-scale farmers in Africa are particularly

exposed to uncertainties of weather, prices and
disease.

Many farmers live on the edge of extreme insecurity,

sometimes falling just below and sometimes rising
just above the threshold of survival.

Module 3 124
 What is risk?

Farmers do not know whether rainfall will be good or

bad over the season.

They do not know if the crop will be infected by

disease.

Risks are usually not under the control of the

farmers themselves, so they develop strategies to
cope with them.

Module 3 125
 Types of risk

Risks have a direct impact on the farm family and

their options to increase profitability and farm
income.

Good farm management includes making decisions to

reduce vulnerability to risk.

Module 3 126
 Production and technical risk

Crop and livestock performance are affected by

weather, soils, pests, diseases and wildlife. These
cannot be predicted accurately.

Farmers experience a wide range of weather

conditions and refer to them simply as a ‘good’ year,
‘normal’ year and ‘bad’ year.

Poor rainfall leads to poor plant growth which may

lead to reduced livestock fodder supplies and
livestock production.

Module 3 127
 Production and technical risk

Pests or diseases can also cause major yield losses.

Seed is planted and inputs such as fertilizer are

applied before the farmer knows what the weather
will be.

Inputs do not change the weather.

Module 3 128
 Marketing or price risk

The prices of farm products may vary from year to

year or even on a daily basis.

These changes are usually beyond the control of the

individual farmer.

Supply of a product is affected by a combination of

production decisions made by many farmers and the
weather.

Module 3 129
 Marketing or price risk

Demand for a product is affected by the level of

income of consumers, the strength of the general
economy, the supply of competing products, and by
changing tastes and eating habits.

Costs of production are another source of price risk.

While input prices do not usually change suddenly,

they generally increase steadily year to year. Some
inputs such as petrol and diesel are subject to sudden
prices increases.

Module 3 130
 Financial risk

Financial risk occurs when farmers borrow money to

cover their farm and family needs.

Risk may be caused by uncertainty about the interest

rates lenders charge and their willingness to continue
lending.

On the other end, financial risk is affected by the

ability of the farm to generate the cash flows
necessary for debt payments.

Module 3 131
 Institutional risk

Institutions include organizations and businesses on

which farmers rely for inputs, markets, information
or finance.

Unpredictable changes in the provision of services

such as the supply of credit, purchased inputs and
information from traditional and modern institutions
are also risks faced by farmers.

Module 3 132
 Human and personal risk

Human risk refers to problems of human health and

personal relationships that affect the farm business.

Illness and death threaten and disrupt farm

performance through loss of labour or reduced
productivity of labour.

Labour migration to towns and cities reduces

availability of labour to farms.

Module 3 133
 Types of risk

Production, marketing, financial, institutional and

personal risks exist on most farms and are often
interrelated.

The ability to repay debts depends on production

levels and prices received for produce sold.

Financing of production depends on the ability to

borrow capital and the performance of the institution
to supply capital in time.

The different types of risk often need to be

considered together.

Module 3 134
 Vulnerability and the effect of risk

Vulnerability can be defined as the ability to recover

from a stress or a shock.

Stresses erode the productivity or value of capital.

Part of coping with risk is reducing vulnerability.

The less vulnerable the resources, the more

sustainable the farm.

Module 3 135
 Vulnerability and the effect of risk

High vulnerability leads to greater negative effect of

risk.

The vulnerability of the family’s livelihood often

makes it difficult to cope with risks, making the
family less able to control or influence their
environment to reduce or recover from stresses and
shocks. As a result they become even more vulnerable
to risk.

Module 3 136
 Vulnerability and the effect of risk

Risks influence the amount and costs of inputs

farmers use. These risks also affect crop yields and
product prices.

As a result, farm profits are always uncertain. But

not all of these factors have the same effect on farm
profits.

As a result of vulnerability to risk, farmers often

make a trade-off between maximizing profits and
minimizing risks.

Module 3 137
 Risk – reducing strategies

The ways a farmer deals with risk depends on their

personality, family situation and the extent to which
they wish to gamble.

No two farm families are the same.

Some farmers like to take more risk than others.

Module 3 138
 Risk – reducing strategies

Decisions also depend on the situation of the farmer.

Generally, the higher the demands on the family for

cash, the less likely the family will be able to absorb
risk; it is more vulnerable.

Module 3 139
 Strategy : Choosing low risk enterprises

Based on their knowledge and experience, farmers

may select enterprises or crop varieties that are
usually reliable in preference to enterprises that
result in variable yields between one year and the
next.

Low risk enterprises often give lower, but more

predictable incomes.

Module 3 140
 Strategy: Diversification, growing many things
Diversifying means producing more than one
enterprise together on the farm. This can be done by
producing more than one crop or combining with
livestock.

Diversifying is done with the expectation that all

enterprises will not fail together.

If one crop does not do well, the farmer has other

crops on which to rely. This way, the farmers’ income
is not totally dependent on a single enterprise.

Module 3 141
 Strategy: Diversification, growing many things

Intercropping is a common form of diversification,

but the benefit of diversification is often offset by
increased costs.

The second enterprise may make very little money.

The income the farmer makes from the two crops may
not be as high as if the farmer specialized in growing
just one crop.

Module 3 142
 Strategy : Growing crops on different land
parcels or plots
Farmers also rotate crops to protect their soils and
stop diseases building up. This reduces costs and
increases yields.

Growing crops in different locations on the farm

reduces the impact of localized disease and micro-
climatic factors.

But in order to increase the scale of their crop

production, farmers must cultivate over a wide area
which costs more money; the protection from risk
needs to be weighed against the reduced income.

Module 3 143
 Strategy : Growing crops at different times

Staggered planting of the same crop can be used to

ensure an even supply of food over as long a period as
possible.

Staggered planting can help cope with uncertain

rainfall.

Earlier planted crops may suffer, but later planted

crops may still do well because the rains come at a
better time for them.

Module 3 144
 Strategy: Selecting and changing production
practices

Farmers can spread risk by using different

production programmes.

Some farmers may buy inputs that control diseases or

pests or support animal health.

These inputs reduce the chances of low yields.

Farmers may use pesticides and fungicides to reduce

the risk of low yields.

Module 3 145
 Strategy: Selecting and changing production
practices

Profits are also affected by the prices of inputs,

using costly inputs could increase the risk of income
shortfall; more stable yields from using costly inputs
may not lead to a more stable income.

Farmers may use low cost, conservation practices

such as composting and mulching as a way to manage
risks and reduce the amount and cost of purchased
inputs.

Module 3 146
 Strategy: Selecting and changing production
practices
Determining whether or not an input reduces risk
depends on the type of risks that the farmer is
trying to address.

The added cost of doing this has to be compared

against what could happen if they did not.

Module 3 147
 Strategy: Maintaining flexibility

Flexibility of the farming system allows farmers to

shift from one cropping pattern to another without a
negative effect on farm profitability.

Farmers may change the area of land planted or the

number of livestock kept if, for example, market
prices change markedly.

To avoid risking expenditure on inputs, a farmer may

decide not to plant when rainfall is low.

Module 3 148
 Strategy: Maintaining flexibility
Intensive small stock farmers raising pigs or poultry
might vary the use of their housing in response to
price changes.

If farmers believe prices will be good, they may

increase production by intensifying the use of the
facilities.

If they believe prices will be low, they may try to

increase efficiency and cut costs.

However, the costs associated with maintaining

flexibility are often higher than farmers are willing
to pay.
Module 3 149
 Strategy: Maintaining reserves

Reserves are a quantity of something stored for the

future or for possible emergencies.

They can be kept by farmers in the form of money,

physical inputs, final products and food.

Keeping reserves of inputs and products could

protect farmers from the risk of price changes.

Food reserves also provide some security against the

risk of crop failure.

Module 3 150
 Strategy: Spreading crop and livestock sales

Spreading sales means making several sales of a

product during a year and can be used to reduce risk.

Farmers with marketing flexibility can spread cash

sales and obtain a price similar to the seasonal
average price.

This method of selling enables a farmer to avoid

selling all production at the lowest price in the
market.

Module 3 151
 Strategy: Partial processing

Drying perishable products such as vegetables, fruits

and meats can also be used as a strategy to reduce
risk.

Dried foods can be sold or used at times when the

particular food item is out of season or in short
supply.

This strategy can be used together with spreading

sales and maintaining reserves.

Module 3 152
 Strategy: Traditional institutions and social
arrangements

The customs and organization of traditional society

tend to provide the individual family with a measure
of security against risk.

Module 3 153
 Strategy : Maintaining resources

One of the key strategies to reduce the effect of

risk is to maintain the farm’s resources.

Module 3 154
 Sustainability
Sustainability is in a sense a balance between risk and
vulnerability.

In terms of farm management, it is useful to assess

sustainability in terms of the vulnerability of the
farm’s resources.

Such an assessment can be made in terms of the

following basic factors:
Availability
Accessibility
Affordability
Appropriateness
Reliability (trustworthiness)

Module 3 155
 Availability
A resource is considered available when it is in
regular supply.

In some African countries, there is a shortage of land.

In other countries labour is in short supply.

If farm profits are dependent on a resource that is in

short supply, the farm is vulnerable and therefore
less sustainable.

Module 3 156
 Accessibility
A resource is considered accessible when it is
available and within reach of the farmer.

In many African countries, land is accessible only to

men, not women.

Markets often require membership, and membership

is exclusive.

Module 3 157
 Accessibility

Some social capital is accessible only by select

members of the community.

Similarly, credit may be conditioned upon private

ownership of land, making it not accessible to many
smallholder farmers.

If a farmer plans a farm around a resource that the

farmer cannot readily access, then the farm is more
vulnerable, making it less sustainable.

Module 3 158
 Affordability

A resource is considered affordable when it is

available at a price which allows for profits.

Many technologies are not accessible by smallholder

farmers because the technologies are available only
at high prices.

Sometimes this is a problem of quantities, other times

it is a problem of exclusivity.

Either way, the most suitable resource in terms of

production efficiency, may simply cost too much.

Module 3 159
 Appropriateness

Many resources are available and accessible, but not

appropriate to the farmer’s particular situation.

Often inputs such as seed and fertilizer are available

only in quantities too large for the farmer to handle.

Often equipment choices are limited to those which

require large land sizes to make them viable.

Module 3 160
 Appropriateness

Another aspect of appropriateness is social or

cultural acceptability.

In many African cultures, pork is taboo. So even if it

is a profitable enterprise, it may be inappropriate.

As with other factors, when the profitability of a

farm relies on a resource that is inappropriate, the
farm is less sustainable.

Module 3 161
 Reliability ( Trustworthiness)

A resource is considered reliable when it produces

consistent performance or behaviour.

Land that is known to be in good condition is reliable.

A supplier that supplies the right inputs at the right

time is reliable.

Module 3 162
 Reliability ( Trustworthiness)
Reliability is linked to trustworthiness.

Can a farmer trust the supplier to deliver according to his/her word?

Will the equipment or seed variety perform as advertised or promised?

Is the market information usually correct?

If a farmer must rely on a resource (particularly a

human resource such as labour) that is not reliable or
trustworthy, the farmer is highly vulnerable and the
farm is not sustainable.

Module 3 163
 Session 3.5
Information and farm management
Learning outcomes:
Understand the role of information in farm
management
Understand the difference between data
and information
Understand sources of data and
information
Understand the role of the extension
worker in collecting and utilizing
management information

Module 3 164
 Information and farm management

This session explores the role of information in farm

management decision-making. Also it explores your
role in supporting farmers in locating and using
information.

Module 3 165
 Farmer decision-making
Farmers are constantly making decisions.

Farmers require timely and appropriate information

at every stage in the farm management decision-
making process.

Information is needed to diagnose the farm, to set

objectives, to plan, implement, control and monitor
farm activities and to make more efficient use of
their limited resources.

Module 3 166
 Farmer decision-making

The better skilled farmers are in using data and

information, the better their farm decisions will be.

In addition to being able to access and interpret data

and information and to communicate this with
farmers, you will also need to help farmers develop
these skills.

Module 3 167
 Farmer decision-making

Assisting farmers to obtain information to make

input, production and marketing decisions is an
important part of your work.

It is not sufficient to provide information on

production only; input and market information is just
as vital to the profitability of the farm.

Module 3 168
 Farmer decision-making

As farmers become more market-oriented, you must

also become more market-oriented.

If farmers cannot sell what they produce, then much

of your advice on production techniques will have been
wasted.

Module 3 169
 Farmer decision-making

Farmers’ circumstances are not static.

There are often changes occurring that influence the

farming operations.

Module 3 170
 Farmer decision-making

Whenever there is a change in the circumstances of a

farmer, it may be necessary for you to review the
situation with respect to target farmers, suitability
of recommended technologies and the introduction of
new enterprises.

Staying on top of these changes requires a good

command of relevant data and information.

Module 3 171
 Farmer decision-making

You have an important role in the process of

information gathering, interpretation, and
dissemination.

They can be a vital element in feeding information to

the farmer and the rural community.

Module 3 172
 For inputs, farmers need to know

• Who are the reliable suppliers?

• Where can they obtain credit?

• What is a fair interest rate for credit?

• What inputs are available/which are the most appropriate

inputs?

• What prices will ensure profits/how will prices affect profit?

Module 3 173
 For production, farmers need to know

• What resources do they have available?

• What is their condition?

• What crops/enterprises are best suited to their resources?

• What skills are needed for each enterprise?

• What inputs and labour are required for each enterprise?

• What technologies are most appropriate for their resources?

Module 3 174
 For markets, farmers need to know

• What markets exist?

• Where can they sell their products?

• What are the quality requirements?

• What are the packaging and related requirements?

• How can they get their products to the various markets?

• What will this cost?

• What prices can they expect for their products?

• How will prices affect profits?

Module 3 175
 Farmer decision-making

You need to be good at communicating with farmers

and passing on knew knowledge and skills.

In order to be effective as agents of information

exchange, you have to have knowledge of sources of
data and information and be able to obtain it quickly.

Module 3 176
 Farmer decision-making

Sources of data and information could include:

The experience of good farmers
The extension service itself
Private companies
Research workers
Up-to-date reference books
Libraries
Friends
Teachers
Agents selling equipment and inputs
Transport companies
Traders
Wholesalers
Retailers

Module 3 177
 Farmer decision-making

An important skill is the ability to assess the value and

relevance of bits of information in solving particular
problems in the local situation.

It is also important to know the difference between

data and information.

Module 3 178
 What is the difference between data and
information ?
Data refers to the raw numbers and facts such as
prices, costs, quantities, etc.

Information is data that is processed in a way that is

useful for decision-making.

Module 3 179
 What is the difference between data and
information ?

Information increases farmer’s knowledge, which

leads to improved decision-making and thereby
results in higher income and livelihood outcomes.

Access to appropriate information empowers farmers

and assists them in their efforts to become more
food secure and more profitable.

Module 3 180
The relationship between data, information and
decision-making

Module 3 181
 Data can be categorized into different types,
all of which should facilitate the decision-
making process
Categories Specific data

Soil characteristics: soil type, soil texture, soil analysis data, etc.
Weather: rainfall, humidity, temperature, storms, drought.
Land characteristics: slope, topography, elevation, carrying capacity, etc.
Technical and physical Production: yields per unit of land, yield per unit of labour
Production technology: fertiliser, disease control, seed variety, harvest and
post-harvest technologies, etc.
Labour: source of labour, seasonal labour distribution, gender, etc.

Prices: prices of inputs and products

Buyers: prices, quality requirements, terms of payment, etc.
Economic
Supply and demand: conditions
Sources of credit: conditions, terms of payment, interest rates, etc.

Community culture: customs beliefs and traditions

Social Community organization: farmer associations, cooperatives, civic groups,
religious groups, etc.

Support services: extension, research, banking, etc.

Private organizations: NGOs and other private organizations
Institutional
Government organizations: International (e.g. UN), Regional, National,
Provincial, Local

Political Government: policies and priorities

Module 3 182
 What is the difference between data and
information ?
Data is useful only when it has been processed into
information.

Farmers need information that will help them make

decisions about their farms.

Data must be processed in a way that will make it

relevant to the farmers’ individual situations.

It is one of your tasks to turn data into such

information.

Module 3 183
 Guidelines for changing data into appropriate
information
1. The combining and interpretation of data needs to match the
issues of real concern to the farmers (these may differ for
different groups of farmers).

2. The level of detail needs to match the educational level and

literacy of the farmer.

3. Use definitions of terms and methods of presentation that

make sense to the farmer’s numeric background and technical
knowledge.

4. The level of complexity of the message must be suited to the

farmer and the farming system.

5. Graphics and other visual diagrams will be particularly useful

in focusing the farmer’s interest and aiding understanding.
Module 3 184
 Data and information sources

Farmers and extension workers can obtain data in two

ways:

1. They individually or together collect data first

hand; Primary data.

2. They can use data collected by someone else;

Secondary data.

Module 3 185
 Data collected first-hand

Primary data is the data you and the farmer collect

either independently or together.

The data is collected directly from respondent(s).

The table on the next slide gives some examples of

first-hand data.

Module 3 186
 Source Type of data collected
Farmer Data on farm inputs, farm gate prices, yields, etc.
Semi-structured
interviews,
questionnaires, direct
observation, case
studies, etc.
Farmer Historical production & marketing information including crop yields,
Examination of farm livestock production and cost.
records (Note: Production records might tell the farmer and rural
entrepreneurs and rural entrepreneurs how successful she was at
managing the farm in the past. The combination of historical results
and the risk preferences of the farmer and rural entrepreneurs and
rural entrepreneurs is useful in the planning process as well as to
identify possible risk management strategies for the future.)
Community, Group, Information about members of the community or population under
Church/Religious leaders study to identify lead farmer and rural entrepreneurs and rural
Key informant interviews, entrepreneurs s with whom the extension workers can work.
semi-structured Information about the status of social capital arrangements.
interviews
Government officials, Information relating to land holdings, the farmer and rural
including extension staff entrepreneurs and rural entrepreneurs s benefiting from government
Key informant interviews, programmes or involved in trials and demonstrations, etc.
semi-structured Information about farmer and rural entrepreneurs and rural
interviews; entrepreneurs -led initiatives, farmer and rural entrepreneurs and
Review of government rural entrepreneurs responses to technologies and about government
documents initiatives (e.g. infrastructure development) which may impact on
farmer and rural entrepreneurs and rural entrepreneurs s’ decisions.
Remote sensing and Technical data relevant to agriculture
computer terminals
Direct reading from
instruments
Weather stations and Rainfall, soils, vegetation, etc.
laboratories
Review of published data;
Direct readings

Module 3 187
 Data collected by others

Data used by a farmer or yourself, which has been

collected by others.

The data could have been collected for some other

purpose different from that of the farmers or your
needs , but it can still be very useful.

There are a number of these sources available to you

and farmers which can be seen on the next slide.

Module 3 188
 Source Type of data and information

Lending institutions Data on lending for agricultural enterprises and ventures.

Veterinary and fishery Data on livestock numbers and fish population stocking rates This data is often useful
institutions when planning grazing schemes or fish farming enterprises.

Publications and journals Any issue related to rural enterprise management

Television and radio Data is provided on a regular basis particularly on market prices of major agricultural
programmes commodities.

Development projects Baseline surveys and evaluations

NGOs (Non- Wide range of issues, depending on their particular areas of focus.
governmental
organizations)

Agricultural input Product specifications, performance, prices, availability, etc.

dealers

National statistics Historical yield and price information

(Note: national data is often an average of the information collected from many farms and
as such it does not tell the farmer and rural entrepreneurs and rural entrepreneurs
exactly what he or she can get. Comparing historical farm yields to that of similar farms
in the same area is an additional source of information on how the farmer and rural
entrepreneurs and rural entrepreneurs can improve farm performance.)

Module 3 189
 Your role in data and information...revisited

As farmers become more market-oriented, you must

also become more market-oriented.

Gathering data and information on your own, working

with farmers to gather data, working with farmers to
process data into useful information and
helping/training farmers in data gathering and
processing skills are all important parts of your job.

Module 3 190
 Your role in data and information...revisited

Most farmers tend to develop information from

processing data gathered from their own experience.

They may gather production data from their own

farms of other farmers.

Market data often comes from contact with traders

(buyers).

Input data comes from contact with suppliers.

Module 3 191
 Your role in data and information...revisited

When you are familiar with how farmers in their area

currently obtain data and information, you will be
better able to facilitate the process.

Special care must be taken to ensure that data and

information is not only about production; input and
market information is just as vital to the profitability
of the farm.

Module 3 192
Module 3 193
 Module 3 :Review

• Do you believe that the overall purpose of the module

has been achieved ?
• You should have a good understanding of the critical
role of the farmer as a decision-maker related to
resources, inputs, markets, risk, vulnerability,
sustainability and information.

Module 3 194