Lesson 1:

BASIC PROBABILITY
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. explain the concept of probability.
2. determine the number of possible outcomes using tree diagram and multiplication rule.
3. calculate the probability that an event will occur.

Probability
It is the study of random experiments. It is a measure of certainty or uncertainty
that a particular event will happen. It is how likely something is to happen.
Any probability activity is called an experiment. Sample space is all the possible
outcomes of an experiment. Results are known as outcomes.
We can show probability on a probability line:

https://www.mathsisfun.com/probability_line.html
Tree Diagram
It is a graphic organizer that makes use of branching connecting lines to represent
a certain relationship between events.
General Counting Principle: Multiplication Rule
If k choices are made in which there are 𝑚1 ways for the first choice, 𝑚2 ways for
the second choice, 𝑚3 ways for the third and so on, then there are 𝑚1 x 𝑚2 x 𝑚3 x … . 𝑚𝑛
number of possible outcomes.
Example:
Number of
Multiplication
Experiment Tree Diagram Possible
Rule
Outcomes

Two coins are

tossed 2x2 4
together.

Tossing three
2x2x2 8
coins.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 2

 A coin and a
die are tossed 2x6 12
together.

Probability That an Event Will Occur

Suppose that there are 𝑛 possible outcomes in an experiment and each 𝑛 has
1
equal chance to occur, then the probability that a particular outcome will occur is 𝑛.

Example:
1. Suppose we have a random experiment of tossing a fair coin. Find the probability of
obtaining a head. Ans. ½
2. Suppose we have a random experiment of rolling a fair die once. Find the probability
of getting the following events:
a. 2 Ans. 1/6
b. odd Ans. 3/6
c. greater than 2 Ans. 4/6
d. an even number Ans. 3/6
3. A card is chosen from a deck of cards. What is a probability that it is:
a. an ace? Ans. 13/52
b. a face card? Ans. 12/52
c. red queen? Ans. 2/52
d. a face card or red? Ans. 32/52

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 LESSON 2:
MEAN AND VARIANCE OF RANDOM VARIABLE

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
1. calculates the mean and variance of a discrete random variable.
2. interprets the mean and variance of a discrete random variable.
3. solves problems involving mean and variance of probability distribution.

Random Variable

It is also called a stochastic variable, is a rule that assigns a numerical value or

characteristic to an outcome of an experiment. It is essentially a variable, usually denoted
as X or any capital letter of the alphabet.

• Discrete Random Variable - a variable whose value is obtained by counting.

Example: students’ grade level, number of representatives, number of heads when
tossing a coin twice
• Continuous Random Variable - a variable whose value is obtained by measuring.
Example: height of the students, weight of the babies, distance traveled between
places

Range Space is the set of all values possible for a given random variable.

Example 1: A die is rolled five times and a random variable X is assigned as the number
of times “6” will appear. Ans. X = {0,1,2,3,4,5}

Example 2: Two fair coins are tossed, and the random variable X is defined as the
number of heads that appear. Ans. X = {0,1,2}

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Example 3: A pair of dice is thrown, and the random variable Y is defined such that Y
gives the sum of two numbers that appear. Determine the following:

a. range space Ans. (Y) = {2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12}

b. Y (3,2) Ans. Y = 5
c. Y (1,3) Ans. Y = 4
d. Y (4,6) Ans. Y = 10

Solution to (a):

Figure 1: Reference for Range Space

Probability Distribution – also known as the probability mass functions. It is a table that
gives list of probability values along with their associated value in range of a discrete
random variable.

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
= 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒

Mean of the Discrete Random Variable – denoted as 𝜇. It is the central value or average
of its corresponding probability mass functions computed using the formula:
𝑛

𝜇 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 )
𝑖=1

where 𝑥𝑖 is the ith outcome and 𝑝(𝑥𝑖 ) is the probability of the ith outcome.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 5

Variance and Standard Deviation of a Discrete Random Variable - values that
described how scattered or spread out the scores are from the mean value of the random
variable.

Variance of a Standard Deviation of a

Discrete Random Variable (𝝈𝟐 ) Discrete Random Variable (𝝈)

𝒏 𝒏
𝟐 𝟐
𝝈 = ∑(𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁) 𝒑(𝒙𝒊 ) 𝝈 = √∑(𝒙𝒊 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝒑(𝒙𝒊 )
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

To simplify the process of computing the variance and standard deviation, the following
steps will be used:

1. Compute the mean value of the random variable.

2. Subtract each value from the mean and square the differences.
3. Multiply the squared differences by the corresponding probabilities.
4. Add all the products. This gives the variance of the probability distribution.

Example 1: Consider the random event of tossing three coins and the variable X gives
the number of heads that appear. Create a (a) probability distribution table and compute
for (b) mean, (c) variance and standard deviation.

Solution:

We must know first the range space and

the total possible outcomes. In this case, the
range space will be the set {0,1,2,3} while the
total possible outcomes is 8.

Since there is only 1 outcome that will

give no head (TTT), then the probability of X
when it assumes a value of 0 is 1/8 or 0.125.
Similarly, we can determine the following
probabilities: P(X=1) = 3/8 or 0.375, P(X=2) = 3/8 or 0.375, and P(X=3) = 1/8 or 0.125.
To summarize:

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(a) Probability Distribution Table

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿)
0 1/8
1 3/8
2 3/8
3 1/8
TOTAL 1

(b) For the mean, use the given formula to compute the mean value.

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿) 𝑿 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿)
0 1/8 0 The mean of the distribution is 1.5. This
1 3/8 0.375 means that the average number of
2 3/8 0.75 heads that will appear in tossing three
3 1/8 0.375 coins is 1.5.

TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟓

(c) To get the variance and standard deviation, follow the given process in solving it.

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿) 𝑿 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿) (𝑿 − 𝝁) (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑿)

0 1/8 0 -1.5 2.25 0.2813
1 3/8 0.375 -0.5 0.25 0.0938
2 3/8 0.75 0.5 0.25 0.0938
3 1/8 0.375 1.5 2.25 0.2813
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟓 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓𝟎𝟐

𝜎 = √0.7502
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔𝟏

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Example 2: A card is drawn from a deck of 20 cards (all the cards numbers 1 to 5 in a
standard deck of card) and the random variable W gives the number on the card.

Solution:

Range Space = {1,2,3,4,5} 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

Total Possible Outcomes = 20 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

𝑾 𝑷(𝑾) 𝑾 ∙ 𝑷(𝑾) (𝑾 − 𝝁) (𝑾 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑾 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑾)

1 4/20 0.2 -2 4 0.8
2 4/20 0.4 -1 1 0.2
3 4/20 0.6 0 0 0
4 4/20 0.8 1 1 0.2
5 4/20 1 2 4 0.8
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟑 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟐
The mean value is 3. This means that the average 𝜎 = √2
number that will appear is 3. 𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒𝟐

Example 3: A coin is tossed, and a die is rolled. The outcome of the coin is recorded “1”
when it shows head and “0” when it shows a tail. The random variable R gives the sum
of the outcomes of the coin and the die.

Solution:

Range Space = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} 1+1=2 1+2=3 1+3=4 1+4=5 1+5=6 1+6=7

Total Possible Outcomes = 12 0+1=1 0+2=2 0+3=3 0+4=4 0+5=5 0+6=6

𝑹 𝑷(𝑹) 𝑹 ∙ 𝑷(𝑹) (𝑹 − 𝝁) (𝑹 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑹 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑹)

1 1/12 0.0833 -3 9 0.75
2 2/12 0.3333 -2 4 0.6667
3 2/12 0.5 -1 1 0.1667

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 4 2/12 0.6667 0 0 0
5 2/12 0.8333 1 1 0.1667
6 2/12 1 2 4 0.6667
7 1/12 0.5833 3 9 0.75
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟖
The average value is 4, which means that in a 𝜎 = √3.1668
single roll, it will most likely show a sum of 4. 𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟗𝟔

Example 4: A die is rolled twice, and the random variable gives the number of times a “4”
will appear.

Solution:

Range Space = {0,1,2} Total Possible Outcomes = 36

1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5 1,6 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5 2,6
3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5 3,6 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6
5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5 5,6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5 6,6

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿) 𝑿 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿) (𝑿 − 𝝁) (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑿)

0 25/ 36 0 -0.33 0.1089 0.0756
1 10/ 36 0.2778 0.67 0.4489 0.1247
2 1/ 36 0.0556 1.67 2.7889 0.0775
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟕𝟖
The mean is 0.33. This means that the average 𝜎 = √0.2778
number that 4 will appear after rolling a die twice is
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟕𝟏
0.33.

Example 5: Damon loves to go fishing in Taal Lake. Each time he catches a fish is
independent, and there is a chance it is a tawilis or a tilapia each time. X is a random
variable that represent the number of tawilis Damon catches if he catches 2 fish.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 9

Solution:

Range Space = {0,1,2} tawilis tawilis tilapia tilapia

Total Possible Outcomes = (4) tilapia tawilis tawilis tilapia

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿) 𝑿 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿) (𝑿 − 𝝁) (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑿)

0 1/ 4 0 -1 1 0.25
1 2/ 4 0.5 0 0 0
2 1/ 4 0.5 1 1 0.25
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟏 𝝈𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎
The mean value is 1. This means that the average 𝜎 = √0.50
of catching a tawilis after catching two fishes is 1. 𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟏

Example 6: Four patients are treated with a specific medicine. The probabilities for
0,1,2,3, or 4 successes are 0.24, 0.08, 0.14, 0.31, and 0.23.

Solution:

𝑿 𝑷(𝑿) 𝑿 ∙ 𝑷(𝑿) (𝑿 − 𝝁) (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 (𝑿 − 𝝁)𝟐 𝑷(𝑿)

0 0.24 0 -2.21 4.8841 1.1722
1 0.08 0.08 -1.21 1.4641 0.1171
2 0.14 0.28 -0.21 0.0441 0.0062
3 0.31 0.93 0.79 0.6241 0.1935
4 0.23 0.92 1.79 3.2041 0.7369
TOTAL 1 𝝁 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟏 𝝈𝟐 =2.2259
The mean value is 2.21. This means that the 𝜎 = √2.2259
average success of the medicine is 2.21. 𝝈 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟗

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 10

 LESSON 3:
NORMAL DISTRIBUTIONS
THE NORMAL RANDOM VARIABLE

Continuous Random Variable

It is considered normal when its value is distributed normally, that is, when
majority of the values are close to the expected value with only very few values that are
extremely smaller and extremely larger.

Normal Random Variable

A continuous random variable X can be considered a normal variable when it has
a probability density function of the form
𝟏 (𝒙−𝝁)𝟐
−
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝓮 𝟐𝝈𝟐
𝝈√𝟐𝝅
where 𝜇 is the expected value (mean), 𝜎 is the standard deviation, 𝜋 ≈ 3.14,and
ℯ ≈ 2.718.

Gaussian Curve

Graph of Normal Distribution

Properties of the Normal Distribution

Gaussian Distribution
1. The graph is continuous curve with the domain −∞ < 𝑋 < ∞.
2. The graph is asymptotic to the x-axis. (The value of the variable approaches but will
never be equal to 0.)
3. The maximum point on the curve occurs at 𝑥 = 𝜇.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 11

4. The graph is symmetrical about the line 𝑥 = 𝜇. It implies that the mean of the
distribution is located at the center and it indicates the line of demarcation in
which the region occupied by the curve is divided into halves.
5. The median and mode of the distribution are also located at the center of the
graph. This implies that in normal distribution, the mean, median, and mode are
equal.
6. The area under the curve bounded by the x-axis is equal to 1. The factor √2𝜋 in
the probability density function ensures this area. Also, since the mean divides
the curve into halves, then 50% of the area is to the left and the other 50% is to
the right.

7. The standard deviation affects both the width and the height of the curve.

8. The graph of a normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve with two inflection

points, one on the left and another on the right. Inflection points are the points
that mark the change in the curve’s concavity. (Note that each inflection point of the
normal curve is 𝜎 away form the mean.)

9. The standard deviation precisely describes the spread of the normal curve. In
fact, approximately 68.3% of the values in the distribution are within one standard

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 12

 deviation of the mean (from each side), 95.4% is within two standard deviations
of the mean, and 99.7% is within three standard deviations of the mean.

EXAMPLE:
1.Find the standard deviation of the normal distribution where 99.7% of the values fall
between 52 and 82.
Solution: The mean is the point halfway between 52 and 82. Thus,
52 + 82
𝜇=
2
134
𝜇=
2
𝜇 = 67
Since 99.7% of the values fall between 52 and 82, then by property 9, there are
three deviations from the mean, i.e., 𝜇 + 3𝜎 = 82. Solving for 𝜎,
𝜇 + 3𝜎 = 82
67 + 3𝜎 = 82
3𝜎 = 15
𝝈=𝟓
1. Assume that 68.3% of grade 11 students have heights between 1.5 and 1.7m and
the data are normally distributed.
a. Find the mean.
b. Compute the standard deviation.
c. Construct the normal curve of the normal distribution.
Solution: a. To find the mean, compute the value that is halfway between 1.5 and 1.7.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 13

 1.5 + 1.7
𝜇=
2
𝝁 = 𝟏. 𝟔
The mean height is 1.6 m.
b. By property 9 of the given normal distribution, 68.3% accounts for 1 standard
deviation of the mean. Therefore, 𝜇 − 𝜎 = 1.5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 + 𝜎 = 1.7. Use the second
equation to solve for the standard deviation, substituting𝜇 = 1.6.
𝜇 + 𝜎 = 1.7
1.6 + 𝜎 = 1.7
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟏
c. To construct the normal curve, solve the corresponding values up to three standard
deviations of the mean (on the both sides) using normal density function.
The equation of the normal random variable is
1 (𝑥−𝜇)2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2𝜎2
𝜎√2𝜋
(𝑥−1.6)2
1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 2(0.1)2
0.1√2𝜋
10 (𝑥−1.6)2
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 0.02
√2𝜋
Substituting the values of x in the equation,
(1.3−1.6)2 (1.5−1.6)2
10 10
𝑓(1.3) = 𝑒 0.02 = 0.0443 𝑓(1.5) = 𝑒 0.02 = 2.4197
√2𝜋 √2𝜋
(1.4−1.6)2 (1.6−1.6)2
10 10
𝑓(1.4) = 𝑒 0.02 = 0.5399 𝑓(1.6) = 𝑒 0.02 = 3.9894
√2𝜋 √2𝜋

Using symmetry (property 4),

𝑓(1.7) = 𝑓(1.5)
𝑓(1.8) = 𝑓(1.4)
𝑓(1.9) = 𝑓(1.3)
Organizing the values in a table,
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9
0.0443 0.5399 2.4197 3.9894 2.4197 0.5399 0.0443

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 14

Understanding Z-Scores
Z-Scores is stated to be a measure of relative standing. These scores represent
distances from the center measured in standard deviation units. There are six z-scores
at the base line of the normal curve: three z-scores to the left and three z-scores to the
right of the mean.

The Z-Scores
The areas under the normal curve are given in terms of z- values or scores.

For population: For sample:

𝒙 − 𝝁 ̅
𝒙 − 𝒙
𝒛= 𝒛=
𝝈 𝒔
where: where:
x = raw score/measurement x = raw score/measurement
μ = mean 𝑥̅ = mean
σ = standard deviation s = standard deviation

Example:
1. Given the mean μ = 50 and standard deviation σ = 4 of a population of Reading
scores. Find the z-value that corresponds to a score x = 58.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 15

 𝑥 − 𝜇
𝑧=
𝜎
58 − 50
𝑧=
4
8
𝑧=
4
𝒛=𝟐
2. Given x = 20, x̅ = 26 and s = 4, compute for its corresponding z-score.
𝑥 − 𝑥̅
𝑧=
𝑠
20 − ̅̅
26̅̅
𝑧=
4
−6
𝑧=
4
𝟑
𝒛= −
𝟐

Standard Normal Distributions

The Standard Random Variable
Suppose the random variable Z is a standard normal variable. Then, μ = 0 and
σ = 1 and the probability density function for Z is given by
𝟏 𝒛𝟐
𝒇(𝒛) = 𝓮− 𝟐
√𝟐𝝅
Properties for the Standard Normal Distribution
Z-table
It is the table of probabilities or the table of areas under normal curve.

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The standard normal distribution table to be used in this course gives areas under the
standard normal curve for the variable Z ranging from 0 to a positive number z.

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 Fact: The area between 0 and a positive value z is the same as the area
between z and 0. To find the area between z and 0, use the value in the table
corresponding to positive z.

Both regions have the same area.

Four-Step Process in Finding the Areas Under the Normal Curve Given a z-Value
Step 1. Express the given z-value into a three-digit form.
Step 2. Using the z-table, find the first two digits on the left column.
Step 3. Match the third digit with the appropriate column on the right.
Step 4. Read the area (or probability) at the intersection of the row and the
column.
Example:
1. Find the area that corresponds to z = 1.

The area is A=34.13%.

2. Find the area under the standard normal curve between 0 and 2.58.

The area is A=49.51%.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 18

3. Find the area under the normal distribution between -1.15 and 0.

The area is A=37.49%.

Finding the Areas of Other Regions

Case 1: Finding areas of region in the TAILS
To find the area at any tail:
➢ Look up the z-score to get the area.
➢ Subtract the area from 0.5.

For Example:
1. Find the area under the standard normal curve for z greater than 2.

𝐀 = 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟕𝟕𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟖 or 2.28%

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 19

2. Find the area to the left of z = −1.5.

𝐀 = 𝟎. 𝟓 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟑𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟔𝟖 or 6.68%

Case 2: Finding areas between two values of z with the SAME SIGN
Between two z scores on the same side of the mean (or with the SAME SIGN):
➢ Look up both z scores to get the areas.
➢ Subtract the smaller area from the larger area.

Example:
1. Find the area of the region between z = 1.23 and z = 2.57.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 20

 𝐀 = 𝐀 𝟐 − 𝐀 𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟒𝟗 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟎𝟕
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒𝟐 or 10.42%

Case 3: Finding areas between two values of z with DIFFERENT SIGNS

Between two z scores on DIFFERENT sides of the mean (or with DIFFERENT SIGNS):
➢ Look up both z scores to get the areas.
➢ Add the two areas.
Example:
1. Find the area of the region between z = −2.46 and z = 1.55.

𝐀 = 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝐀 𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟑𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟑𝟗𝟒
= 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟐𝟓 or 93.25%

Case 4: Finding areas of regions to the LEFT of a positive z or to the RIGHT of a

negative z
To find the area to the left of any positive z score or to the right of a negative z score:
➢ Look up the z score to get the area.
➢ Add 0.5 to the area.

Example:
1. Find the area of the region to the left of z = 2.37.

𝐀 = 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟏%

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 21

2. Find the area of the region to the right of z = −2.37.

𝐀 = 𝟎. 𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟏𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟏 𝐨𝐫 𝟗𝟗. 𝟏𝟏%

Percentile

A percentile is a measure of relative standing. It is descriptive measure of the

relationship of a measurement to the rest of the data.

Thus, when we are given the area and we wish to find the corresponding z-value, we
locate the given area at the body of the table. If the exact area is not available, we take
the nearest value. Then, we look up the corresponding z-value in the z-table.

Having obtained a score of 85 in a recently concluded unit test in Mathematics. Mark

wanted to know how he fared in comparison with his classmates. His teacher told him
that he scored at the 90th percentile. What is the corresponding z-score of 90th
percentile?

Step 1: Split 90% or 0.90 into 0.50 + 0.40

Step 2: Find the area 0.40 in the body of the z-table, get the area value nearest to it.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 22

Step 3: Identify the corresponding z-value of the found area

A score is in the 92nd percentile. Where is the score under the normal curve?

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 23

Example:
The mean score in a university admission test is 85 with a standard deviation of 3. What
is the 70th percentile of the scores?

Step 1: Split 70% or 0.70 into 0.50 + 0.20

Step 2: Find the area 0.20 in the body of the z-table, get the area value nearest to it.
Step 3: Identify the corresponding z-value of the found area
Step 4: Apply the formula

LESSON 3:
STATISTICS
Statistics
It is defined as a science that studies data to be able to make a decision. Hence,
it is a tool in decision-making process. Statistics as a science involves the methods of
collecting, processing, summarizing, and analyzing data to provide answers or solutions
to an inquiry. One also needs to interpret and communicate the results of the methods
identified above to support a decision that one makes when faced with a problem or an
inquiry.
Functions of Statistics
• Characterize persons, objects, situations, and phenomena.
• Explain relationships among variables.
• Formulate objective assessments and comparisons.
• Make evidence-based decisions and predictions.

Terminologies
Branches of Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics – aims to provide the basic characteristics of a data; set
through tables and graphs and other descriptive measures such as measure of
central tendency, measure of position, and measure of variation.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 24

 • Inferential Statistics – aims to infer or to make interpretations; measure
commonly used includes analysis of variance, t-test, chi-square, correlation and
regression.
Example:
1. The average life expectancy at birth in the Philippines for 2014 is 72.48 years.
Ans. Descriptive Statistics
2. Taking slimming pills will help you lose weight.
Ans. Inferential Statistics
3. The total amount of estimated losses for Typhoon Ondoy is ₱11 billion.
Ans. Descriptive Statistics
4. The studies show that gender is related to excellence in mathematics.
Ans. Inferential Statistics
5. In 2016, the government projects that some 1.2 to 1.6 million students will enter
senior high school.
Ans. Descriptive Statistics

Variable – used to define certain observable values or characteristics.

Type of Variable
• Qualitative Variable – a descriptive information.
• Quantitative Variable – a numerical information.

Classification of Variables
According to continuity of variables
• Discrete Variable – obtained by counting.
• Continuous Variable – obtained by measuring.
Example:

Classification of
Variable Type of Variable
Variables

civil status Qualitative Variable

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 25

 body temperature Quantitative Variable Continuous Variable

predominant hair color Qualitative Variable

highest educational attainment Qualitative Variable

brand of laundry soap being

Qualitative Variable
used
number of children in the
Quantitative Variable Discrete Variable
household
distance travelled by the teacher
Quantitative Variable Continuous Variable
in going to school
amount spent on rice monthly by
Quantitative Variable Discrete Variable
the household
number of decayed teeth per
Quantitative Variable
child in elem. school
time it takes standing in queue
while waiting to be served by a Quantitative Variable Continuous Variable
bank teller

According to functional relationship

• Dependent Variable – a value to be predicted.
• Independent Variable – a predictor.

Independent Dependent

Cause Effect

Before After

Input Output

What you do What happens

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 26

Example:

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

track/strand specialized subjects

number of gallons in your gas tank distance your car will travel

overpopulated senior high school shifting of classes

number of calories you eat each day weight

amount of money you spend on

number of cookies you buy
cookies

Scales or Levels of Measurement

• Nominal – used when we want to distinguish one object from another for
identification purposes only.
• Ordinal – data arranged in some specified order or rank.
• Interval – a data that there is no true zero point or fixed beginning, it can represent
values below zero.
• Ratio – a value of zero which indicates cases where no quality of variable is
present; it never falls below zero; there is always the presence of unit measure.
Example:

height ratio

religions nominal

civil status nominal

Celsius scale interval

amount of money ratio

letter grades on an English essay ordinal

IQ level of G11 students as low,

ordinal
average, or high

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 27

Population and Sample
• Population (N) – the totality of observations or elements from a set of data.
• Sample (n) – one or more elements taken from the population for a specific
purpose.
Example:
1. The total number of students in a school. Answer: Population
2. A group of 40 patients in a hospital who are given a treatment. Answer: Sample
3. The ages of all employees of a certain company. Answer: Population
4. The top 50 taxpayers in the Philippines. Answer: Sample
5. The list of all the countries in the world. Answer: Population

Parameter and Statistic

• Parameter – a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a population.
• Statistic – a numerical measure that describes a characteristic of a sample.
Example:
1. The Food and Nutrition Research Institute of the Department of Science and
Technology (FNRI-DOST) surveyed 14 million Filipino adults aged 20 and above
and determined that 80% of Filipino adults are at risk of hypertension.
Parameter: The percentage of adults at risk of hypertension out of all Filipino
adults aged 20 and above.
Statistic: The percentage of 80% obtained from the sample of 14 million adults.

2. A researcher wants to estimate the average death age of Filipino women in the
last decade and from a sample of 100 deaths, he obtained a sample mean age of
73.
Parameter: The mean death age taken from the data including all Filipino women
who died in the last 10 years.
Statistic: The mean age 73 identified from the 100 samples.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 28

 3. Capvex is a drug used to treat patients with metastatic breast cancer. An
oncologist wants to determine the proportion of patients taking Capvex who are
healed within 10 weeks. A random sample of 300 breast cancer patients was
selected and 250 of them were healed after 10 weeks.
Parameter: The proportion of patients healed by Capvex within 10 weeks out of
all patients taking it.
250
Statistic: The proportion 300 = 0.833 obtained from the sample of 300 patients.

LESSON 4:
COLLECTION OF DATA

LESSON OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:

1. define and illustrate the sources and method of collecting data,

2. find the sample size using different techniques;

3. determine the different sampling techniques; and

4. identify the sampling techniques illustrated on the given scenario.

Data is a collection of facts, such as numbers, words, measurements, observations or

even just descriptions of things.

Sources of Data

• Primary Data – a first-hand information where the person who collected the data
is the one using it.
• Secondary Data – a second-hand information where the data being used are
collected by another person or organization.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 29

Methods of Collection of Data

• Direct Method - “interview method”

• Indirect Method - “questionnaire method”
• Document Method - gathering of data from concerned offices.
• Observation Method - purely based on the subjective remarks of the observer.
• Experimental Method - determines the cause-and-effect relationships of a certain
parameter.

Sample Size Formula

where:
𝑵 𝑛 = sample size
𝒏=
𝟏 + 𝑵𝒆𝟐 N = population
𝑒 = margin of error

Sampling Techniques

There are two ways to determine the sampling techniques to be used these are:
probability and non-probability sampling.

A. Probability Sampling. Each member of the population has a known probability of

being selected in the sample.

• Simple Random Sampling. Each member of the population has an equal chance to
be selected as a participant.

Example: A teacher assigned class numbers to each student and then spin a
number roulette to identify the members of the sample.

• Systematic Random Sampling – done by picking every 𝑘 𝑡ℎ element of the

population.

𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑁
𝑘 𝑡ℎ = =
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑛

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 30

 Example: Annie choose 10 samples from a population of 50 by assigning numbers
to each member and then selecting the members who is assigned to numbers that
are multiple of 5.

• Stratified Random Sampling. The population is divided into strata (groups) based
on their homogeneity or commonalities. The steps are as follows:

1. Determine the distribution of the population in each stratum.

2. Find the percentage of each stratum from the population.

3. Multiply the percentage of each stratum by the sample size.

Example 1: In a certain study, 200 samples are taken from the population of 50,000
individuals. The population is divided into strata based on their schools. Using
stratified sampling, we have:

Distribution of Percentage from Sample Units

Strata
Population the Population Per Stratum
UST 15, 000 30% 60
UP 10, 000 20% 40
NU 25, 000 50% 100
Total 50, 000 100% 200

Example 2: A researcher grouped the respondents according to religious

affiliations and then chose proportional numbers of members from each religious
group.

• Cluster Sampling. The population is divided into groups called clusters. The clusters
are heterogenous groups of the population.

Example: A researcher who studies the effectiveness of a particular drug chose

four hospitals at random which are located within the region and then surveyed all
the patients in the selected hospital.

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 31

B. Nonprobability Sampling. There is a bias in the selection and there is no recognized
probability that one member will be included in the sample.

• Convenience Sampling. The procedure is carried out on the matter of ease of

implementation on the part of the researcher.

Example: Kate conducted an online survey about the mostly preferred presidential
candidate.

• Purposive Sampling. The goal of this sampling is to carefully choose the members
of the population which are best fitted to answer the research question.

Example: The teacher chose the top three students of the batch to respondent the
school in a regional quiz bee.

• Snowball Sampling. Snowball sampling is sometimes called chain-referral sampling.

Each respondent is asked to give recommendations or referrals to other possible
respondents.

Example: Liza asked some respondents to suggest other possible participants for
the research.

• Quota Sampling. A certain limit is pre-established to determine who among the

population can be part of the sample.

Example: Marianne grouped together the members of the populations into

categories and then set possible number of respondents from each category.

Watch these video tutorials for additional knowledge:

• Basic Probability:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KzfWUEJjG18
• Mean and Variance of Random Variable:
https://youtu.be/MeC40ACXHx4
• Descriptive VS Inferential Statistics:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0VDafmUys04&t=234s

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 32

• Qualitative VS Quantitative and Discrete VS Continuous Variable:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5rUVYWfZOb8
• Dependent VS Independent Variable:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-mVHzIDN0A8
• Levels of Measurement:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eghn__C7JLQ
• Population VS Sample and Parameter VS Statistic:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYjgfoNAKkk
• Sources of Data:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjySQ_HcpsI
• Methods of Collecting Data:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prGqOnfsCow
• Sampling Techniques:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=be9e-Q-jC-0

Transforming ourselves, Transforming our world. 33