Course:

ELEC ENG 3110 Electric Power Systems

ELEC ENG 7074 Power Systems PG
(Semester 2, 2022)
Voltage Control
Lecturer and Co-ordinator: David Vowles
[email protected]
 Principles of Steady-State Voltage and Reactive Power Control
• Overview
• Steady-state Control Requirements:
• Required to regulate voltages within narrow limits around nominal voltage (e.g. ±10%)
• During both:
• normal operation;
• steady-state following contingency
• In normal operation limit voltages to, e.g. ±5% of nominal, to allow “room” for contingency
• Voltage variation influenced by reactive power variation
• Q consumed by loads supplied from bulk substations varies daily, seasonally
• Q compensation usually provided by distribution companies and large consumers
• Q consumed by inductive elements depends on current flow Qloss = I 2 X
• transformers
• distribution feeders and short transmission lines depends on current:
• Q both generated and consumed by medium to long length HV / EHV transmission lines/cables:
Qgen = BV 2 Qloss = I 2 X
• Charging varies over a relatively narrow range (e.g. ±20%), Qloss varies over wide range
• Net loss depends on balance between line current and voltage
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 Principles of Steady-State Voltage and Reactive Power Control
• Overview (continued)
• Voltage control methods:
• Control production, consumption and flow of reactive power throughout system
• Cannot transmit reactive power long distances
• Compensating equipment:
• Continuously acting automatic controls, for example,
• Synchronous generators -> automatic voltage regulators (AVRs)
• Static VAR Compensators (SVCs)
• Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
• Grid scale wind- and solar PV farms (many existing controls are discontinuous)
Q output automatically adjusted to maintain their bus voltages at specified setpoint
• Discontinuous (closed- and open-loop) controls
• Switched shunt capacitors and reactors
• Series capacitors
• On-load tap-changing (OLTC) transformers
• Continuous automatic controls => establish specified voltages at specific system nodes
• Voltages elsewhere determined by P & Q flows through network elements
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 Principles of Steady-State Voltage and Reactive Power Control
• What strategies do we use to
• Specify voltage set-points of voltage-controlling equipment
• Switch reserves of reactive power (both supply and
consumption)
• Regulate flows of reactive power
• We take as a given power factor correction in distribution systems
and industrial plants

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 Review of power flow equations (lossless short line / transformer)

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 Control of reactive power flow by adjusting voltages
Scenario 1: V1 > V2, I lags V1 and V2

Note that P + jQ2 is absorbed by G2 (i.e. load convention).

G2 generates PG2 = -P and QG2 = -Q2
Q1 = V1I sin (1 ) Q2 = V2 I sin ( 2 )
Assume that: Since V1  V2 and 1   2 it follows that Q1  Q2
• δ > 0 so power is transmitted from G1 to G2
• V2 magnitude and phase is fixed

Consider scenarios in which V1 > V2, V1 = V2 and V1 < V2

in terms of phasors

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 Control of reactive power flow by adjusting voltages

Scenario 1: V1 > V2; Scenario 2: V1 = V2; I lags V1 & leads V2 Scenario 3: V1 < V2;
I lags V1 & V2 Desirable condition: Reactive losses provided I leads V1 & V2
in equal measure by each generator.

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 Reactive power flow and losses: Example
Example: X = 0.4 pu, P = 0.5 pu, V2 = 1.0 pu
Q1 = -Q2 when V1 = V2 = 1.0 pu.
When V1 < V2, Q1 < (-Q2)
When V1 > V2, Q1 > (-Q2) Minimum Qloss: V1 ~ V2

V1 ~ V2
Equitable Qloss
sharing

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 Reactive Power Losses in Reactance: Example

Example: X = 0.4 pu, V2 = 1.0 pu

Compare reactive generation and losses for
two levels of power transfer:
P(1) = 0.5 pu (solid lines), P(2) = 1.0 pu
(dashed lines)

Qloss = I2X
• double current quadruple Qloss!

The above observation suggests an

important operating principle …
Px2
Qloss x 4

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 Reactive Power Losses in Reactance: Example

Example: X = 0.4 pu, P = 0.5 pu

Compare reactive generation and losses for
V2(1) = 1.0 (solid) and V2(2) = 1.05 pu
(dashed)

Operate with highest possible voltages to

minimize current and hence reactive (&
real) losses.

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 Supplying a load through a radial line from a generator
G1

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 Example: Maximum uncompensated demand supplied through a radial line

Find maximum load, PL + jQL, that can be supplied from

a generator through a radial line. Assume that:
QL = PL tan ( ) where  = arccos ( pf )
Using b 2 − 4c = 0 from the previous slide obtain following
equation for determining Pmax.
 V12 tan ( )   V12   V12 
Pmax +  Note: With pf = 0, (i.e. P = 0) Qmax =  = 0.69 pu
 Pmax −  =0
2
 X  4X 
   2X 
 V12 
Example parameters: V1 = 1.05 pu, X = 0.4 pu used in and pf =1 (i.e. Q = 0) Pmax =  = 1.38 pu
solution of Pmax with lagging power factors (pf) from 0 to 1.  2X 
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 Example: PV characteristics for radially fed uncompensated load

• PV curves calculated for uncompensated load, PL + jQL

supplied from a generator through a radial line.

• The parameters in the previous example are used and the

formula for V1 derived in slide 11 is used to compute P(V).

• For each curve the load power factor is maintained

constant as PL is increased.

• Curves are plotted for four power factors.

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 Example: Find Q compensation to achieve specified load voltage

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 Effect of line charging on reactive power flows
• Medium – long HV transmission lines have
significant shunt capacitance

• Lightly loaded lines (relative to SIL) tend to be net

generators of reactive power

• Heavily loaded lines (relative to SIL) tend to be net

consumers of reactive power

• Terminals of such lines must have the capability to

both generate and absorb reactive power depending
on line loading.

• Radially fed load may require inductive

compensation under light load conditions.

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 Effect of line charging on reactive power flows
• Series reactance X = 0.2147 pu absorbs
reactive power

• Shunt susceptance B/2 = 0.1073 at each

end of the line generates reactive power
(QC = (B/2)*V2)

• Voltages are near 1.0 pu. Therefore

reactive power generation (QC) by line
approximately BC/2 pu at each end.

• Series reactive power consumption I2X

varies depending on loading.

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 Effect of line charging on reactive power flows

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 Effect of line charging on reactive power flows

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 Sources and sinks of reactive power

• Continuous control
• Synchronous generators
• Synchronous compensators (or condensors)
• Static VAR compensators (SVCs)
• Wind / solar PV farm centralized voltage control systems
• Q output automatically adjusted to maintain bus voltages at specified setpoint

• Discontinuous control
• Fixed and switched capacitors and reactors
• Series capacitors
• Regulating transformers (on-load tap-changing – OLTC – transformers)

• Overview some of these technologies …

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 Sources and sinks of reactive power
Synchronous Generators Synchronous Compensators
• Synchronous motor with no load (P = 0)
• Fitted with AVR
• Used to regulate voltage similarly to synchronous
generators.

• Turbine adjusts Pm to keep P = Pref (constant)

• AVR adjusts field voltage to keep Vt = Vref
(constant)
• Q > 0 if external voltage < Vref
• Q < 0 if external voltage > Vref
• Must operate within generator PQ capability
• Turbine power limit
• Stator & field current limits
• Stability and end winding heating limits
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 Sources and sinks of reactive power
Static VAR Compensators (SVCs)
• Typical SVC structure depicted

• Controllable susceptance used to regulate

HV bus voltage to specified set point Vref

• TCR provides for continuous adjustment

of susceptance within its range

• TSCs provide means of providing leading

(capacitive) reactive power (i.e. ability to
boost voltage)

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 Sources and sinks of reactive power
Static VAR Compensators (SVCs)

Overall SVC control schematic

(left) and steady-state control
characteristic (right).

Note that reactive support from

SVC decreases quadratically with
voltage once upper capacitive
susceptance limit is reached.

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 Regulating transformer – Controlling reactive power flow

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 Regulating transformer -- Controlling reactive power flow

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 Geometry of the Powerflow Equations - Power Circles
Constructed for extreme case:
VS = 1.1 pu, VR = 0.9 pu

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