PORT ENGINEERING Zhou Liu and Hans F. Burcharth 2. udgave, januar 1999 Laboratoriet for Hydraulik og Havnebygning Aalborg UniversitetContents 1 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF PORTS 6 1.1 Components of a port 8 @ 6 1.2 Ships . wee 8 1.2.1 Definition of ship dimension... 6-0-6205 3 EE Sieecf Ship v ca s vin wow wee care memes 8 1.2.3 Wind area of ships i g 10 1.2.4 Types of ship movement... 0. - 44+ 1.2.5 Operation of ships inside harbour . . 1.3 Operation conditions of harbours . 13.1 Water deplh oo... cece eee ee eee oS ve 13.2 Wind... 2.55 CAE CR RR I CRN a 13 13.3 Waves .....-+ «mane seen ene as 9 aie Foi BS 1.3.4 Currents: eee oe wee we woos ea 26 18.5 Visibility... . cee 15 136 Ice . ae eee . 16 1.3.7. Availability of berth. 2... 2. . eee es 16 fd Desievel berbourbasia cvs ci ves ns ces aun ves cena 0 IP Lal Entrance ne Aaa seeeee ld 14.2 Stopping distance... ... « we Ww 1.4.3 Turning area. ee ee ee ve 14.4 Anchorage area St wa Fare maw Kee HER 2 L Berthing area... 2... bees 18 1.5 Design of navigation channel aa 1 1.6 Sediment transport and dredging. - . 0 1.7 Breakwaters . tet nee eed ek ee oe eee 2 1.7.1 Types and principles of breakwaters _ a 1.7.2 Layout of breakwaters... bee eens 2 2 EXTREME WAVE HEIGHT ANALYSIS 23 2.1 Design level: Return period and encounter probability. we 2.2 General procedure... + + - = ae SO23 Datosete: i 4 gen oes ioe wai os 08 2 24 Candidate distributions. .. 6... . 6 + ween eee a 2.5 Pitting methods and procedure 28 2.6 Plotting position formulae»... -.. - 30 2.6.1 Plotting position based on sample frequency... . « 2 2.6.2 Plotting position based on distribution of frequencies . . 32 26.3 Plotting position based on order statistics»... . 33 2.7 Design wave height: 27... . 34 28 Fitting goodness... 0. ses etc eee eee 35 2.9 Example «ae ee MA res nn 2 on 0 0 2.10 Uncertainties and confidence interval eee . 33 2.41 Physical consideration of design wave height... 6.6.0 e vee M2 2.12 Wave period 43 2.13 Water level 2.00.22 es 4 2.14 Multiparameter extreme analysis 245 2.15 References... .. Be ee ee rey sera RUBBLE MOUND BREAKWATER aT 3.1 Introduction . ae aa 3.1.1 Components of a rubble mound breakwater... 2.22. 47 3.1.2 Types of rubble mound breakwaters... 6... 5 = ve ol 3.2 Construction of rubble mound breakwaters 51 3.2.1 Construction method caro SL 3.2.2 Construction procedure vee : cee 52 3.2.3 Quarryrum . 4.2 6 bee ees we ee acca 2 3.3. Wave-structure interaction © 0. 6 eee ee fons ace ce Oe 3.3.1 Types of wave breaking . . eee Sb 3.3.2 Wave run-up and run-down 2... 6-5 renee OF 3.3.3 Wave overtopping van HF 3.3.4 Wave reflection... . es . 53 3.3.5. Wave transmission 5 gin B 3.3.6 Wave force on armour layer and armour unit stability... 593.3.7 Wave force on superstructure 3.4 Structure design of rubble mound breakwaters BAL 348, 3.5 Examples of rubble mound breakwater failures Failure modes of rubble mound breakwaters Definition of armour layer damage. . . . Armour layer o.oo eee eee Filter layer 0.5.0 e ee Core materials... 6... is 28 Berm . Rear slope... « Superstruchure VERTICAL BREAK WATERS 4.1 Introduction ie Hane 8 see 4a 412 Components of a vertical breakwater ‘Lypes of vertical breakwaters 4.2 Construction of vertical breakwaters... 6.06 +s 4.3 434 44 Structure design of vertical breakwaters... . 4.44 44.2 443 444 structure interaction . . Wave reflection . . Wave overtopping, Scour in front of vertical breakwater... . - Wave forces... « aa 8 ae a Failure modes of vertical breakwaters ©... + Overall stability of vertical structures... . « Rubble mound foundation Superstructure and caisson « 4.5 Example of a caisson failure BERTH STRUCTURES BA Introduction... 6 ee eee _ SA BAZ ‘Types of berth structure Design loads. .6 6 eps bere ee ee 67 67 68 ino sa 69 70 73 peeee ees ma B 9 sis ++ 19 9 beens 85 + 86 87 woe 8B - 89 91 935.1.3 Factors affecting the choice of the type of berth structures. . . 95 5.2. Gravity berth structures 5.2.1 Componente of gravity berth structure . . . 5.2.2 Back fill 3 New type of gravity berth structures BG) Reckillewalls s 2 eo yar oa 4 ys nee we 5.3.1 Components and connection 3 Forces acting on sheet pile wall 5.3.3 Structure design and construction procedure of shect pile wall 5.3.4 Other types of sheet pile walls 54 Open piled quay... 6. - + 5.4.1 Components and principles 54.2 De Open piled pier Fender . . 5.6.1 Principle and type ign of open piled quay... « 5.6.2 Fender factors ‘ : 5.6.3 Absorbed energy by fenders. 564 hip's impact force on berth structure 5.7 Mooring facilities . . REFERENCE BOOKS APPENDIX: New hydraulic stability formulae 4 95 96 97 99 99 - 100 101 102 103 = 103 - 104 = 105 106 106 107 108 109 110 i 1121 PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF PORTS 1.1 Components of a port A port is composed optionally the following components, cf. Figs.1 and 2. 1) Breakwater : A rubble mound or vertical structure to protect the harbour from wave attacks. 2) Harbour: A protected water area which provides safe and suitable accommo- dation for ships to transfer cargo and passenger, to be refueled and repaired. A harbour includes Entrance. Navigation channel. ‘Turning area: A place where ships can turn Anchorage area : A place where ships wait for their tum at berth or for more favorable weather conditions. Berthing area: A place where ships berth for loading and unloading operations. 3) Berth structure and land area. Berth structure : A structure built to berth ships for loading and un- loading operations. Tt inchides mooring equipments such as fenders and bollards Apron : An area between the berth line and the yard for load- ing and unloading of cargo. Yard ‘A storage arca where eargo are sorted and stored tem- porarily. Berth structures can be divided into: Quay or wharf: A berth structure which is parallel to the shore. Jetty or pier | A berth structure which projects into the water from the shore. Dolphin A berth structure isolated on open sea for mooring and berthing the ship 4) Outside harbour: Navigation channel, anchorage area, dolphin and shore pro- tection.Depene are relative ¢2 cut: 0.90 m bem ¢a'¢ Fig.i. Layout of the Port of Bilbao, Spain. Port Harbour _, Berth structure, Bert sos Yard, Fig.2, Definitions of port components. 71.2 Ships Existing ships, ships being built and ships expected to be built in the future are ound to influence the plan for improvement and new construction of ports. On the other hand, the existing facilities and physical and economical coustrains may influence the types and sizes of ships which will use the facilities at present and in the future. During the last two decades, the dramatic development has taken place in regard to size of the ships, as well as the introduction of new specialized ships, the most important of which are the container ships and huge oil tank. ‘The transport cost per tonne-nautical miles decreases with increasing carrying capacity of ships. However, general cargo ships have not changed very much in size. 1.2.1 Definition of ship dimension ‘The definition of the dimension of ships are shown in Fig.3. Fig.3. Definition of ship dimension. 1.2.2 Size of ships ‘The size of the ship is normally expressed as DWT Deadweight Tonnage: The carrying capacity of the ship, namely the total weight of cargo, fuel, fresh water ete. GRT Gross Registered Tonnage: Total volume of the ship ( in m®) divided. by 2.83 m$ NRL Net Registered Tonnage: available volume for cargo, ie. GRT minus the volume of engine room, compartments for operation and ballast, tanks DT _ Displacement tonnage: The total weight of the ship, i.e. the weight of the sea water displaced by the ship. 8It is normal that the dimensions of the ships are not clearly known at the design stage of the port, Table 1 lists the average dimensions of varions types of ships Tuble.1 Average dimensions of various types of ships. Type oRr Dwr DT Qverall, Beam Moulded Max. Tength width= depth draft ton ton ton m m mom. 490000 460000 302 66.0 20 © 240 300000 356000 364 50.5 270 22.0 Bulk cargo 00000 240000 345 51.0 250 © 18.5, (il, ore} 190000 125000 280 41.0 20 © 15.0 soo00 0000 25 «32.0 165 120 18000 20000 165 10 20 985 50000 73600 2900824 13.0 4200061000 285328 120 Container 30000 41500 220 © 310 ua 20000 27000 198287 100 1000013500 1923.5 80 10000 1sco0 20000 5S m0 95 ‘7000 tocoo 14000 1s 200 us 8S Mixed cargo 4000 sooo 8000 125 165 95 75 (on deck) 1000 15002000, 70 100 sl 43 500 700 © 1000 55 8s 45038 40000 35000 25208 18.90 10.0 30000 30000 230-80 1720 100 Passenger 20000 20000 200 25.0 150 92 0000 10000 165 205, 23 82 5000 5000 aT 84 6.0 2000 2000 0 ©6140 02 48 2500 +2800 140 50 Pishing 1000 1750 7% 110 5.0 200 400 40 10 351.2.3 Wind area of ships Besides the size of ships, the wind area of ships is also of importance. ‘The Port and Harbour Research Institute of Japan proposed ‘Wind area of ships (m?) = a (DWT)’, DWT in tonnage (a) where a and @ values are given in Table 2. Table.2 Values of « and 8 for wind area of ships. “type ot ship General cargo | Oil tank Ove carer Range ef DWT in tonnage 00 - 140,000 | 00 - 320.000 | 500 - 200.000 Coethtent a |e lalele la ‘Above | Putty oaded | 0.770 | 0.496 | 296 | 0582 | a.a00 | osex Lateratly | sea tevel | Ballast loaded | 9.64 | oa | 3913 | 00a | samt | 000 projected | Below | Fully leaded | esos | save | osu | 2725 | asas seatevel | Ballons onded | 1404 | 27 | 1520 | 0610 | ise | asia Front | Abore | ruly ated | 2703 | oaso | 2865 | ams | ier | ost0 ava | seutevel | Batlast oaded | a7 | asio | 2455 | ory | 1067 | oss 1.2.4 Types of ship movement ‘The six components of ship movements are shown in Fig.4. ‘Types of ship movement 101.2.5 Operation of ships inside harbour ‘The whole operation of a ship inside a harbour, ranging from arrival to departure, can be divided into 1) Arrival at the outer harbour basin. 2) Entering into the harbour. 3) Preparation for berthing, including possible turning of the ship. 4) Berthing, including mooring to the berth structure 5) Loading and unloading while at berth. 6) Deberthing from the berth structure. 7) Departure from the harbour. Fig,5 shows the approach and berthing of 80,000 DWT vessel at Hanstholm Harbour, Denmark. Fig.5. Approaching and berthing at Hanstholm Harbour, Denmark. (Svendsen, 1968) u1.3 Operation conditions of harbours 1.3.1 Water depth ‘The water depth in the navigation channel, berth basin and in front of the berth structure should be sufficient for safe manoenvring of ships, of. Fig.6, where the nominal water level is the level above which no obstacles to navigation exist ‘The rough guide for the minimum underkeel clearance is 0.5m Soft material bottom Net underkeel clearance > oy 10m — Rock bottom 0.30 D Open sea area 0.25 D Exposed channel Gross underkeel clearance > { 0.20 D Exposed berthing area (3) 0.15 D Protected berthing area Dis the maximum draft of the design ship Design low water leval Moximum draft Vertical ship movement due to waves. winds, ‘current ete Net underkee! clearance Grose undelkes! clearance Seaneling erate, Allowable sediment deposition Between dredging operations Dredged level Fig.6. Components of water depth. 121.3.2 Wind For the convenience of berthing, the berth line should be arranged as parallel as possible to the prevailing wind direction. Wind information is often expressed into the windrose diagram showing the yearly distribution of the wind directions and speed. Wind intensity is expressed either by wind speed or by the Beaufort wind scale, cf. Fig.7, which gives also the rough guidelines of ships in the harbour based on the 10 minute mean wind speed. ‘The mean wind velocity and direction should be recorded 10 m above the mean water level in not less than 10 minutes. The gust ratio is the ratio of the mean wind velocity between short duration and long duration. If mean wind velocity of shorter duration is of interest, the gust ratio given in Table 3 can be applied. Table 3. Gust ratio with respect to 1 hour mean wind velocity. Duration seconds 10 seconds 1 minute 10 minute 30 minutes 1 hour Gust ratio 1.56 1.48 1.28 Liz 1.05 1 rnd velecty operation lait , seauroar scat f m/s 12 Worricane a 10° starm gg “X SMDD should eave tne ertn 2 strong ele tent iat cee Strong breeze 16 rte im ape 5 Pass moe pon encore Fig.7. Rough operation guidelines jor ships 131.3.3. Waves ‘Waves can enter into the harbour through the entrance by diffraction, through the breakwater by penetration and overtopping. The waves are normally the main cause for the ship movement. ‘The generally acceptable wave height inside harbour depend on the ship size, the wave direction and the wave period. It increases with the inereasing ship size. With respect to the wave direction against the ship, the waves are classified into head-on wave, beam wave and quatering wave, ef. Fig.8. The generally acceptable wave height is the highest for the hoad sea and the lowest for the beam sea Quatering wave \ \~ wave Head~on aye, <_) Fig.8.. Wave directions. ‘The wave period has also influence on the generally acceptable wave heights, cf. Fig.9. For fishing boats and small ships, the short periodic waves ( < 8 seconds) is the most dangerous, and for the large ships it is the long periodic waves (> 20 seconds). SQ ABBA Fig.9. filustration of the influence of wave period on ship movement. Table 4 is a rough guideline for the acceptable significant wave heights inside har- bours with wave periods in the range of (7 ~ 12) seconds “4Table.4. Guideline for acceptable significant wave height in meter (T = 7~ 12 Type of ships 0" (head-on) 45° - 90° Fishing boat 0.5 Passenger 0.70 Contain 0s General cargo (DWT < 30000) 1.0 0s Bulk cargo { DWT < 200000) loading 15 10 unloading 10 08 (DWT < 30000) 15 10 Oil tank (DWT < 200000) 25 12 DWT > 200000) 3.0 LS An more direct criterion would be based on the acceptable ship movement when berthing and the relation between the wave climate and ship movement, 1.3.4 Currents Currents can atise inside a harbour due to wind transport water, tidal effect, water flow from river estuary, ete. The magnitude and direction of the current must be investigated in order to evaluate any influence on the hecthing and deberthing operation of ships. The direction of current is classified in the same way as waves, cf. Fig.10. ‘The practical experience gives the following limit of the current velocity for the harbour operation of large ships, Table 5. Table,5. Limit of current velocity for large ship operation inside harbour. ‘Current direction ‘0° (head on) 10° 90" current velocity limit. (m/s) 15 10 o4 1.3.5 Visibility The poor visibility is caused by fog, heavy rain and snow. In general the vis of 500 to 1000 meters is required for the ship operation inside harbours. 151.3.6 Ice Ports to be built in regions with frequent ice formation have to be designed taking into account ice problems: «Ice inside the harbour hampers ship maneuvering, ‘© Drifting ice exerts impact force on port structures # Ice reduces the durability of port structures, especially concrete structures. 1.3.7 Availability of berth ‘All the items discussed in this section lead to the total availability of berth, which again can be divided into the following two cases, Navigation availability, which describes the percentage of time the ship can enter into the harbour and berth safely. ‘© Operation availability, which describes the percentage of time the ship at berth can be loaded and unloaded. Generally speaking, the yearly average availability of berth should not be less than app. 90% ~ 95%. Table 6 is an example of the yearly preliminary estimate of berth availability for a 300,000 DWT ofl tank. Table.6. Example of berth availability for 300,000 DWT oil tank. Non-availability due to ‘Time frequency in percentage Wind above 10 m/s 45 Wave above 1.5 m 02 Current a Navigation Visibility less than 1000 m 02 Tee a Tugboat non availability 0.05 Wind above20m/ss—=—“‘=‘is™SSOSCtS— «) n(1 — F(z) t3(1 = Flr)) a)‘The return period T of = is defined as 1 Tat = her ~ (1 — Fe@)) @ ie. on average 2 will be exceeded once in every T years. -t is also called T-year counter probability p Based on the fact that on average x will be exceeded once in every 1 years, the exceedence probability of x in 1 year is 1/T. Therefore non-exceedence probability of x in L year Prob(X Sz) = 1 — # u 1 ah non-exceedence probability of x in 2 years Prob(X < x) non-exceedence probability of z in Z years. Prob(X = Fig. J. fp + Density function of X. fix, + density function of X1. For other ordered random variables X;,¢ = 2, 3, , , The distribution functions Fy,(c) can also be expressed as the function of Fx(x), cf. Thoft-Christensen et al,(1982} 312.6.1 Plotting position based on sample frequency This method is based solely on the cumulative frequency of the sarmples. The widely used formula is the so-called California plotting position formula Hee (24) where 3% Extreme data in the descending order (2=max) KR Non-exeeedence probability of 2. n Sample size, i.e. total data mumber. The disadvantage of this plotting position formula is that the smallest extreme data 2, cannot be used because F, = 0. 2.6.2 Plotting position based on distribution of frequencies Assume that the random variable X hes a cumulative distribution function F'y. The th highest value inn samples, X;,is a random variable, loo. Consequently, Fx,(2), the cumulative frequency of 2, is a random variable, too, The philosophy of this method is to determine the plotting position of x; via cither the mean, the median or the mode of the random variable Fx,(2;). ‘Phe plotting position formula by this method is independent of the parent distribution (distribution-free) Weibull (1939) used the mean of Ix,(x;) to determine the cumulative frequency Ky to be assigned to 1, aoe (25) Weibull F; = nel There is no explicit formula for the median of Fy,(x). However, Benard (1943) developed a good approximation 1-08 Benard Foe 1 oy (26) ‘Phe plotting position formula based on the mode of Fy,(2,) has not drawn much attention, becanse the chance of the occurrence of mode is still infinitesimal even though mode is more likely to occur than the mean and median,2.6.3 Plotting position based on order statistics ‘The philosophy of this method is to determine the plotting position of x; via the mean, the median and the mode of the ordered random variable , Fig. 5. Ulustration of the determination of F, based on the mean, the median and the mode of Xy Plotting positions based on the mean value are distribution-dependent and not ex- plicitly available. The best known approximations are Blom K - oR Normal distribution (27) Gringorten Gumbel distribution (28) Petrauskas Fy = 1 = SS5018/ Weibull distribution (29) oda Fy = 1 — meee Weibull distribution (30) The plotting position based on the median value of the ordered random variable is the same as that based on the median value of distribution of frequency. Summary on plotting position formulae ‘The choice of the plotting position formula depends on engineer's personnel taste. From the statistical point of view the plotting position formula based on the mean (unbiased) is preferred because the expected squared error is minimized. Rosb- jetg (1988) advocates the choice of the median plotting position formula (Benard formula) because it is distribution-free and is based both on the distribution of fre- ‘quency and the order statistics. In practice the Weibull plotting posi most widely used. in formula is 33,2.7 Design wave height: 27 The design wave height x ‘The Weibull and Gumbel distributions, eqs (6) and (7), are rewritten as A(-In(1 — F))F + B Weibull distribution r= A(-in(ln(F))) + B Gumbel distribution Define the sample intensity A es number of extreme data number of years of observation and employ the definition of return period T L L ——— or Pal - A(1- F) , : T the wave height corresponding to the return period 1’. @L) (32) (33) (34) Inserting eq (34) into eqs (31) and (32), we get (now z means the wave height corresponding to return period ‘7’, and therefore is replaced by «") A (-in¢gn)* +B Weibull distribution eT = A(-In(-In(1 — s5))) + 8 Gumbel distribution where A, Band k are the fitted distribution parameters. a) (35) (36)2.8 Fitting goodness Normally several candidate distributions will be fitted and the best one is chosen, ‘The linear correlation coefficient, defined as Cov(. vy YVar(X) Var(V) (37) is widely used as the criterion for the comparison of the fitting goodness. However, pis defined in the linear plotting domain (y, x), where the reduced variate y is de- pendent on the distribution function, Therefore, the interpretation of this criterion is leas clear. With the fitted distribution functions, the wave heights corresponding to the non- exceedence probability of the observed wave heights can he calculated, cf. eqs (31) and (32). The average relative error B, defined as (38) is @ good simple criterion with a clear interpretation. £ = 5 % means that on the average, the central estimation of wave height deviates ftom the observed wave height by 5%. Obviously a smaller E-value indicates a better fitted distribution. The statistical hypothesis test can also be used in the comparison of the fitting goadiess (Goda et al. 1990)2.9 Example Delft Hydraulics Laboratory performed a hindeast study for the ‘Tripoli deep water wave climate and identified the 17 most severe storms in a period of 20 years. The ranked significant wave heights arc listed in Table 2. Table 2, ‘Tripoli storm analysis Significant non-exceedence Reduced variate Reduced variate rank wave height probability 1 a i 2 (m) Ky Gumbel Weibull 1 9.32 0.944 2.86 157 2 8.11 0.889 aud 140 3 719 0833 1.70 1.28 1 7.06 O78 1.38 Lis 5 6.37, 0.722 TED LU 6 6.15 0.667 0.90 1.04 7 6.03 0.611 O71 0.98 8 5.12 0.556 0.53 0.92 9 4.92 0.500 0.37 0.86 10 4.90 0.444 0.80 1B ATE 0.389 0.74 12 467 0.333 0.68 3 4.64 0.278 0.62 4 41D 0.222 0.55 15 3.06, 0.167 0.49 16 273 oat 0.40 3 0.056 30 You are required to find the design wave height which has 22% exceedence proba- bility within a structure lifetime of 25 years, ‘The steps in the analysis are as follows: 1) Calculate the sample intensity by eq (33) 2) Calculate the return period by eq (3) 1’ = 100 years 3) Assign a non-exceedence probability F) to each observed wave height 2; accordiny ‘Table 2. to the Weibull plotting position formula, Resnlts are showa in 364) Choose the Weibull and the Gumbel distributions as the candidate distri- butions. Calculate the values of the reduced variate (y;} according to eqs (11) and (12) respectively. For the Weibull distribution {yi} involves the iterative calculation. {y;} of the two distributions are also shown in Table 2. 5) Fit data (yj, 2,) to eq (10) by the least square method and obtain the dis- tribution parameters: Weibull, k= 235, A=5.17, B=0.89 Gumbel, A = 1.73, B= 4.53 ‘The fitting of the data to the Gumbel and the Weibull distributions is shown in Fig. 6 6) Compare the goodness of fitting according to the value of the average rele: tive error B, eq (38) E=4.72 % for oe Weibull distribution fitting E = 6.06 % for the Gumbel distribution fitting Because of a clearly smaller E-value the Weibull distribution is taken as the representative of the extreme wave height distribution Calculate the wave height corresponding to a return period of 100 years 1X! by eq (35) 2! = 10.64 m 1 sty = Inf) sean write = (lng -BI) Fig. 6. Fitling to the Gumbel and the Weibull distributions and comparison. 372.10 Sources of uncertainties and confidence interval Sources of uncertainties ‘The sources of uncertainty contributing to the uncertainty of the design wave height 1) Sample variability due to limited sample size. 2) Error related to measurement, visual observation or hindeast 3) Choice of distribution as a representative of the unknown true long- term distribution 4), Voriobility of algorithms (choice of threshold, filling method ete. 5) Climatological changes "The uncertainty sources 1) and 2) can be considered by numerical. simulation in the determination of the design wave height. Wave data set contains measurement/hindcast error. Measurement error is from malfunction and non-linearity of instruments, such as accelerometer and pressure cell, while bindcast error occurs when the sca-level atmospheric pressure fields are converted to wind data and further to wave data, ‘The accuracy of such convei depends on the quality of the pressure data and on the techuique which is to synthesize the data into the continues wave field, Burcharth (1986) gives an overview on the variational coefficient C' (standard deviation over mean value) of measurement /hindcast error. Visual observation data should not be used for determination of design wave height becanse ships avoid poor weather on purpose. With the advance of measuring equipment and numerical model, generally @ value has been reduced to below 0.1. Table 1. variational coefficient of extreme data C Mothods of Accelerometer Horizontal radar Hindeast Hindeast Visual Uetermination Pressure cell by SPM other Vertical radar _ Variational Coe. 0.05-0.1 0.18 01202 0102 02 Confidence interval of design wave height 2! We use an example to demonstrate how the confidence interval of the design wave height is determined. The gumbel distribution curve in Fig.7 is obtained by fitting Tripoli significant wave height to Gumbel distribution by the least. square fitting method and the Weibull plotting position formula.Return value x" (on) 15 Gumbel Somple size: 17 1 10 100 1000 Return period T (years) Fig.7. Design rave height. If the design level for design wave height is a return period of 100 years, i.e. T= 100, the design wave height is a! = 12.2 m. Ifother uncertaintics, e.g. sample variability, is included, the design wave height 21 becomes a random variable. The distribution of the design wave height 2'%, which is usually assumed to follow the normal distribution, can be obtained by numerical simulation to be described in the next section, of. Fig.7. In order to account sample variability, a confidence band is often applied. For example, the design wave height is 14.8 m which corresponds to the 90% one-sided confidence interval, ef. Fig.?. jumerical simulation To exemplify the discussion, it is assumed that the extreme wave height follows the Gumbel distribution exp (-24)) (39) where X is the extreme wave height which is a random variable, « a realization of X, Aand B the distribution parameters. F(a) = P(X <2) = exp( Due to the sample variability and measurement/hindcast error. the distribution parameter A and B become random variables, In order to account the sample variability and measurcment/hindcast error, a nu- merical simulation is performed as explained in the followings A sample with size N is fitted to the Gumbel distribution. The obtained distribution ‘Awe 61d Byse are assumed to be the truc values, 391) Generate randomly a data betiveen 0 and L. Let the non-exceedence probability F; equal to that data. the single extreme data x is obtained by (cf. Fig.8) xe = F(R) = Auve[-n(-tn Fd] + Bove (40) 2) Repeat step 1) NV times. Thus we oblain a sample belonging to the distribution of eq (39) and the sample size is NV 3) Fit the sample to the Gumbel distribution and get the new esti- mated distribution parameters A and B, 4) Calculate the wave height 2” corresponding to the return period T by eq (36) 5) Repeat steps 2) to 4), say, 10,000 times. Thus we get 10,000 values ofa”. 6) Choose: the wave height corresponding to the specified confidence band. In order to include the measurement /hindeast error the following step can be added after step 1). This step is to modify each extreme data « generated by step 1), based on the assumption that. the hindeast error follows the normal d tribution, of. Fig.S 1°) Generate randomly a data between 0 and 1. Let the non-exceedence probability F, cqual to that data. the modified extreme data tnosinet is obtained by aint = + Ce OF) (4) where ® is the standard normal distribution and C is the coefficient of variation of the measurement/hindeast error. C’ ranges usually from 0.05 to 0.1. Fig.8, Simulated wave height taking into account measurement/hindeast error. 40Example Again the Tripoli deep water wave data is used as an example to demonstrate the determination of the design wave height and the influence of sample variability. By fitting the extreme data to Gumbel distribution we obtain the distribution pa- rameters A = 1.73 and B= 4.53, ef. Fig.9. The design wave height corresponding toa return period of 100 years is 12.2 m. Prob dasty etum wolue (mn) samt cst Be) fe 2 Stale coe Ne? we Total oof sco Song aes 17 | Return period T (years) Fig.9. Simulated distribution of 2" (semple variability). If sample variability is included, the design wave height «! becomes a random vati able. The distribution of the design wave height a! can be obtained by numerical simulation, cf. Fig.9. In order to account sample variability, an 80% hand is offen applied. In the case of wave height estimate, one-sided confidence interval is preferred over two-sided confidence interval because the lower bound of , the design wave height is 14.8 m the confidence band is of less interest. Therefor which corresponds to 90% one-sided confidence interval. 42.11 Physical consideration of design wave height Wave breaking ‘The design wave height must be checked against wave breaking condition, Wave breaking accurs due to weve steepness (Stokes wave theory) or limited water depth (Solitary wave theory). Based on laboratory and ficld observations, many empirical formulae for wave breaking condition have been proposed, ¢.g. Goda (1985). Structural response characteristics ‘The choice of design wave height depends not only on the structure life time, but also on the character of the structural response Fig.10 indicates as an example the differences in armour layer damage development for various types of rubble structures. The figure illustrates the importance of evalu: ation of prediction and confidence limits related to the estimated design wave height, especially in case of structures with brittle failure characteristics. To such cases a lower damage level must be chosen for the mean value design sea state. ‘The figure jg illustrative. In realily also the confidence bands for the damage curves should be considered. © @ ou i ie ee sere - 20 Qopeet Seine Fig 10. Ilustration of typical armour layer failure characteristics for various types of rubble mound structures.2.12 Wave period There is no theory to determine the design wave period corresponding to the design wave height obtained by the extreme analysis, due to the complexity and locality of the joint distribution between wave height and wave period Pig.IL shows examples of scatter diagrams representing the joint distribution of significant wave height, H,, and mean wave period, Tra and still water level, 5 tespectively, The numbers in the scatter diagrams are the number of observations falling in the corresponding predefined intervals of H,, Tm and =. 7 Pig.11. Scatter diagrams signifying examples of joint distributions of H, and Tm, and H, and water level, In practice, several wave periods within a realistic range are simply assigned to the design wave height to form the candidates of the design sea state conditions. Then by theoretical consideration and/or laboratory investigation, the one which is most dangerous is chosen. DS149 gives the range of peak wave period 130 He Te on (4) g g 432.13 Water level ‘The sea water level is affected by the following effects: 1) Astronomical effect: Tides generated by the astronomical aspect is the best, understood due to their extreme regularity and the simplicity of observa- tions, At a site without any previous tidal records usually one or a few month of recording will be sufficient to analyze the astronomical effect on the water level. The astronomical tidal variations can be found in the Ad- miralty Tide Tables. 2) Meteorological effect: In shallow water the water level is also affected by the meteorological effects, namely, i) Barometric: The higher barometsic pressure causes a lower water level and vise versa. ji) Wind: Strong wind creates a set-up of the water level on the downwind side and a set-down on the upwind side. It is difficult lo determine the meteorological elfect on the water level. If water level records are available for a long period of time, tle meteorological effect can be isolated from the astronomical effect and subjected to the extreme analysis in order to establish the long-term statistics of the water level. If such records are not available, numerical models can, using, wind and/or barometric chart, give reliable results. 3) Earthquake ‘The water depth read from the Chart Datum is the one corresponding to the Lowest Astronomical Tide, which is the lowest tide love] under the average meteorological conditions, cf. Fig.12, which gives also the widely used terminology and abbreviation of the various sea water levels. The extreme analysis should be performed on both the high water level and the low water level, Based on the established long-term statistics is given the design low water level and the design high water level. Se ee Fig.12. Water depth. Sect atop ne2.14 Multiparameter extreme analysis A sea state should be characterized at least by some characteristic values of wave height (e.g. Hs), wave petiod (c.g; Tix), the wave direction, and the water level, because these four parameters are the most important for the impacts on the struc- tures. OF importance is also the duration of the sea staie and sometimes also the shape (type) of the wave spectrum. When more sea state parameters have significant influence on the impact on the structure considerations must be given to the probability of occurrence of the various possible combinations of the parameter values. For the general case where several variables are of importence but the correlation coefficients are not known the best joint probability approach would be to establish a long-term statistics for the response in question, eg. for the run-up, the armour unit stability, the wave force on a parapet wall, etc, If we assume that the variables of importance are H,, Tr, (wave direction) and += (water level) then by hindcasting or/and measurements several data sets covering some years ean be established (Haas Tin 6 ie, & For each dita, set the response in question is cither calculated from formulae or determined by model tests. If for example run-up, Ay, is in question a single variable data set is obtained (Rug) $=, 2, 00 The related long-term statistics can be established by fitting to a theovetical extreme distribution (extreme analysis)2.15 References Renard, LR, , 1943. Statistical analysis in Aydrology. Trans, Atm. Soc. Civ. Eng., 108, pp 1110-1160 Burcharth, H.P. , 1986. On tho uacertainties related to the estimation of extreme environmental conditions, Proceeding of Seminar on Uncertainties Related to the Design and Construction of Offshore Jacket Structures, Copenhagen, 1986, Published by Danish Society of Hydraulic Engineering Burcharth, H.P. and Zhou Liu , 1994. On the extreme wave height analysis. Pro- ceedings of HYDRO-PORT'94, Yokosuka, Japan, 19-21 October, 1994 Cunnane, C. , 1978. Unbiased plotting positions ~ a review. J, Hydrology, 37, pp 205-22 Goda, Y. , 1979. 4 review on statistical interpretation of wave data, Port and Har- bour Research Institute, 18(1), 1979 Goda, Y. , 1985. Random seas and design of marine structures . University of ‘Tokyo Press, Japan, 1985 toda, Y., 1988. On the methodology of selecting design wave height. Proc. 21st Int. Conf. on Coastal Engr., Spain. Goda, Y., Kobune, K. , 1990. Distribution Junction fiting for storm wave data, Proc. 22nd Int. Conf, on Coastal Engr., ‘The Netherlands. Le Mehaute, B. and Shen Wang , 1984. Effects of measurement error on long-term ‘wave statistics. Proceedings of the 19:h International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Houston, USA, 1984. Lin, % and Burchatth, H.P , 1996. Design wave height related to structure lifetime. Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Coastal Engineering, Or- Jando, USA, 1998. Rosbjerg, D. , 1985. Estimation in partial duration series with independent and de- pendent peak values. Journ, of Hydrology, 76, pp 183-195. Rosbjerg, D. , 1988. A defence of the median plotting position. Progress Report 66, ISVA, Technical University of Deamark Ross, S.M., . 1987. Introduction to probability and statistics for engineers and sei- entists. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1987, PP 245-305. ISBN 0-471-60815.7. ‘Thoft-Christensen, P, and Michael J, Baker , 1982. Structural reliability theory and ils application. ISBN 3-540-11731-8, Springer-Verlag, 195 Weibull, W. , 1939. A statistical theory of strength of material. Ing. Vet. Ak Handl. (Stockholm), 1513 RUBBLE MOUND BREAKWATERS 3.1 Introduction Rubble mound breakwaters are used for protection of harbours and beaches against wave action. They are also used for protection of navigation channels and beaches against sediment transportation. ‘The energy of incident waves are mainly dissipated by wave breaking, partly re- fected back to the sea and partly transmitted into harbour due to penetration and overtopping, cf Fig.1. 2) Bispatin by we 1) Orertapping o} Penetration (oome fetiestion) Se Fig.t. Mlustration of incident wave energy transformation in front of a rubble mound breakwater. 3.1.1 Components of a rubble mound breakwater A rubble mound breakwater is composed of core, berm, filter layer, armour layer and superstructure, ef. Fig.2. Concrete superstructure Armour layer Filter layer Secand filter layer Fig.2. Components of a conventional rubble mound breakwater a7The purpose of the core is to prevent, wave transmission into harbour, therefore, it is of importance that core material is not too coarse. The core is usually constructed of natural gravel or quarry run. ‘The berm functions as the foundation for the armour layer. Besides, the berm may catch armour units displaced from armour layer, by which the slope of the armour layer becomes more gentle and the breakwater stability may improve. The berm is normally construeted of large stones of quarry run. The objective of the filter layer is to prevent the core material from being washed out through armour layer. Sometimes it is necessary to design multi filter layers. Filter layer is also called underlayer. It is built of quarry run. The purpose of armour layer is to protect the core from direct wave attacks by the dissipation of wave energy. Historically armour layer was built of large rocks. Today the increasing size of vessels make it necessary to construct a rubble mound break- water in deep water. This calls for larger armour units. If stones of sufficient size aro not available, concrete armour units, such as cubes, Tetrapods, Dolosse are used, cf. Fig.3. Compared to rocks, concrete armour units, especially the slender type, have the advantage of being interlocked with high permeability and porosity as armour layer, which make them more stable and more effective in dissipating wave energy. ‘This leads to the adoption of steeper cross sections and hence, the reduction of the construction volume, However, slender types of units ean be easily broken. ‘The superstructure is used either in order to reduce the crest elevation or to reduce wave overtopping, or as roadway for traffic or pipelines. The superstructure are usually constructed of concrete. Superstructure is also called wave seteen, crown. wall or parapet wall ror S i SS oy (Cstiter bye) D iti 2 & @ & Fig.3. Baamples of concrete armour units.3.1.2 ‘Types of rubble mound breakwaters Various kinds of rubble mound breakwaters are shown in Fig.4 Fig.4-a.is the most simple rubble mound breakwater, consisting, of a mound of stones However, a homogeneous structure built of stones large enough to resist displace- ments due to wave forces is very permeable and will cause too much penetration not only of waves but also of sediments if present in the area. Moreover, large siones are expensive because most quarries yield a lot of finer material and only relatively fow large stones. Consequently a real structure will consist of a core of fine material covered by big stones To prevent the finer material from being washed out, filter layers must be constructed, cf. Fig.4-b. In Fig4-c. a superstructure and concrete armour units are introduced. Note that the slope built of concrete armour units is steeper than that of stones. This means a great reduction of the construction volume, The armour units in conventional multilayer structures, Pigs 4-b and 4-c, are de- signed to stay in place as built, ic, the profile remains unchanged with only minor displacements of armour units. In the case of rock armour a design can also be based on some natural reshaping of the seaward profile during wave action (self-adjusted profile). In this way relatively smaller rocks can be used because nature will optimize the profile to be the most: resistant to wave action. If the mound is large enough to prevent complete erosion of the crest, then an S-shaped profile will develop as, indicated in Fig. 4-d. This type of structure is often called a berm breakwater due to the large berm of armour stones placed during construction, and is designed for xno overtopping, Multilayer rubble mound structures might be given an S-shaped or bermed profile as shown in Fig, 4-e in order to reduce the wave forces, run-up and overtopping, Completely submerged breakwaters are called reef breakwaters, which is mainly for the protection of beaches, They are constructed either as conventional multilayer structures or as homogeneous structures aa shown in Fig.4-f. Most of the existing submerged breakwaters are actually the remains of normal breakwaters that were not repaired after severe damage. ‘The selection of the types of rubble mound breakwaters depend on availability of materials, construction methods, maintenance methods. Usually two or more types of rubble mound breakwaters will be chosen for the sub- sequeat design phase and model tests. The final is chosen based on economy versus reliability.4) Rubble mound ») Conventional multi layer rubble ? Froud Breakwater ©) Multi lpyer rubble mound breakwater with Superstractire Concrete superstructure 4) Reshaping rubble mound breakwater (berm breakwater) As constructed, €) S-shaped front Permed front (composite slope) Ee I~ 1) Reet breakwater Fig.4. Types of rubble mound breakwaters (Burcharth, 1993). 503.2 Construction of rubble mound breakwaters Contractors bidding for the breakwater constructions are free to choose the method of the construction within certain limitations. This means that the choice of con- struction methods is handed over to the contractors. However, it is always necessary in the design process to consider hovr the breakwater is to be built. For example, a wider berm should be d igned if the berm is to be constructed by a less accurate construction method in order to assure the berm to support the armour layer. 3.2.1 Construction methods There are in principle three construction methods. Dry Land Floating To construct the breakwater in the dry behind a cofferdams or at extreme low tide. It is the most accurate construction method. However, it is sel dom the case because cofferdams are available only if they are built for other purposes, and the construction should not wait for the extreme law tide. To place or dump the material from the equipment standing on the breakwater. The top of the breakwater serves as a roadway during the con- struction. This may makes the width at the top of the breakwater wider than required by ‘The superstructure of breakwaters may form an excellent foundation for crane rails in the construction of large breakwaters for which huge cranes are necessary. Tt is necessary that the roadway is at such @ high level that the safety of equipment is not endangered by waves. To place or damp the material from floating equipment, such as barges. Itis the most inaccurate construction method. It requires a posi- tioning system to guide barges. Besides, waves and currents ham- per barges from accurate placement of materials. But it is often the most economical construction method, especially if materials are delivered to the site on barges. Barges are often used to place the large volumes of materials needed for the core and the lower part of a breakwater. Sometimes barges are also equipped with a crane in order to make it possible to place the material at higher level and to place the armour units. In practice the combination of floating equipments and breakwater-based equipments will normally be the most. economical and efficient way to construct a rubble mound breakwater. 53.2.2 Construction procedure Rubble mound breakwaters are in general very vulnerable during construction. The construction strategy should aim at the completion of the armour layer at the earliest possible stage. Fig.5 shows an example of the construction procedure of a rubble mound breakwater. ‘The construction method is the combination of floating equipments and breakwater- based equipment. Construction from land consirvetion ‘rou floating eulpment Fig.5. Construction procedure of a rubble mound breakwater (Agerschou, et al. 1988). ‘The berm stones are placed either by barge crane or breakwater-based crane, not dumped, The berm is usually built first because it forms the boundary for the core and filter to be dumped. ‘The core and filter materials were dumped either from barges or from the free end of the breakwater. The core and filter materials tend to stand with a rather steep slope (natural angle of repose). This means that it is often necessary to use other equipment to make the slope flatter. For the construction of the filter layer the breakwater-based equipment is preferred in order to control the filter layer thick- ness, ‘The armour units are placed by a crane, usually from the breakwater, but some- times also from barges. The free drop height of the concrete armour units should be specified so that the units do not break. In order to assure the uniform distribution of armour units to be placed randomly, a grid system indicating the position of each unit can be used, Superstructure is normally cast in-situ in elements of app. 5 ~ 10 meter length, 523.2.3 Quarry run Rubble mound breakwaters require very large quantities of rock materials of various gradings and qualities. Because natural stones are seldom available in sufficient quantities and sizes the materials must in most cases be supplied from quarries. The output from a quarry in terms of sizes and shapes is, however, not only dependent on the applied blasting technique but to a lange extent on the type of rock and the degree of weathering. ‘A sample of quarry blocks will cover a range of block weights (or masses). The cu- mulative distribution of block weights is the basis for the definition of characteristic block weights, sizes and gradings, of. Fig.6. 2H by weient enter 100 8 SPA Ec met cetinn tri Fig.6, Mlustration of cumulative black weight distribution. ‘The equivalent cube length Dy.su used is defined as a9 where Weg is the median weight and p, is the mass density of the stone. ‘As an indicator of the gradation (grading width) is often used the ratio, Dss/Dis = (Wes /Wis)'!* or Wes). In breakwater engineering the following classes are often used, cf. Table 1. Table 1, Conventional gradings and thetr application. Gradation Dys/Dis ‘Application (conventional) Narrow <15 Armour layer, berms, filter layer Medium = 15-25 Filter layers, (maybe berms and armour layer) Wide 25-5 (or more) Core material3.3. Wave-structure interaction This section discusses the wave structure interaction. Functional relationships be- tween the main environmental parameters, structural parameters and the structural responses are given in terms of formulae, when they exist. The formulae are derived mainly from physical considerations and scale model tests and are valid only for the tested parameter ranges. 3.3.1 Types of wave breaking on slope ‘The kinematics of rogular waves breaking on smooth, impermeable slopes can be qualitatively described by the so-called surf-similarity parameter or Inribarren mum- ber, &, which characterizes the type of wave breaking. -—7_ © : @) t= TE aa Fiona where Hy wave height in deep water Hy, wave height at the breaking point L=€ a To wave length in deep water a slope angle ‘The breaker types and related ranges of €-values are given in Table 2 Table 2. Types of wave breaking and €-values. Regular waves, smooth and impermeable slope. See thing 08 tet 4233 Geo (io real wave breaking on the slope) For irregular waves some characteristic values of wave parameters, e.g. significant ‘wave height /7,, peak wave period T, or mean wave period Tj, are used for the determination of é-values, Moreover, Table 2 can be used only a3 a reference. 543.3.2 Wave run-up and run-down Wave breaking on a slope causes up-rush and down-rush. The maximum and min- imum elevation of the water surface measured vertically from still water level are denoted by R,, run-up, and Ry, run-down, respectively, see Fig.7. R Si, Run-dewn Re Fig.7. Definition of wave run-up and run-down. ‘The value of R,, helps to determine the crest elevation of rubble mound breakwaters. And the value of Ry gives hint on the range where the slope should be covered by armour units. Fx and Re depend on the water depth, wave climate (wave height, wave period and wave attack angle), and the structure (slope angle, the surface roughness and the permeability and porosity of the slope). ‘The following dimensional analysis shows that wave run-up is proportional to the wave height. oc should be read as proportional to. It is reasonable to assume that the velocity of up-rush at still water level is pro- portional to the maximum horizontal velocity of water particle when wave breaks, ie. UX Umax ‘Umex equals the wave celerity c when the wave breaks. Umer 6 = VOL In shallow water the wave celerity depends on water depth. c= fh => va hi? And the wave height is proportional to water deptin when the wave breaks Hoh = ve Hi? If there is no energy loss during the process, by energy conservation mo, => Rixvaw 55Obviously the conclusion holds for wave run-down. ‘The empirical formula for regular wave run-up on smooth and impermeable slope reads € if e<23 a3 if €223 where H wave height in front of structure € €=>3— Ji coe ‘The empirical formula for irregular wave run-up on smooth and impermeable slope reads x _ [8% G82 3 if & 22 where H, significant wave height in front of structure fe he bb ba Ruzy 2% of wave run-up will exceed Ream ‘There are also empirical formulae taking into considerations rough, permeable slopes, bermed slopes, oblique waves and 3-D waves. Wave run-down can be positive as well as negative. A positive run-down means that the dowa-rush process is interrupted by the up-rush from the proceeding wave, and the water level on slope is always above the still water level. Regular wave run-down on smooth, impermeable slope can be calculated by the empirical formula Re “t= R,(1-0. 3) He = Fu (1— 046) ®)3.3.3 Wave overtopping Wave overtopping is often represented by @, the average volume of water overtopping the crest of the breakwater per second per meter length of the breakwater, even though the amount of overtopping varies considerably from wave to wave and in most cases the bulk of the average discharge is caused by a limited fraction of the waves. No standards for overtopping exist. However, some critical @ values structure, G mi/s/m, have be established on the basis of field observations, of. Table 3, which corresponds to targets situated few meters behind the breakwater crest. Table 3. Critical values of average overtopping discharges, Q m*/s/m Pedestrians | wet, butsafe <4:10-©< very uncomfortable < 3:10~* < unsafe Vonicles | safedriving © <10"% < dificult todrive< 2-40" < unsafe to drive Buildings rninor damage i damage to nodhmare << 10-6 < sign posts, tings <3-10-* <_siructaral ons ‘windows ete. pert Fig.8 shows the parameters related to @. The relative free board # is the most im- portant dimensionless parameter, because model tests show that the dimensionless @ is decreasing proportionally to the exponential function of #, ie rier = 8(+ 7) @ where a and 6 are empirical coefficients depending on the geometry of the structure. Fig. 8. Parameters related to overtopping. 873.3.4 Wave reflection Rubble mound breakwaters reflect some proportion of the incident wave energy. If significant, the interaction of incident and reflected waves can create a very confused sea with very steep and often breaking waves. It is a well known problem in many harbour entrance areas where it can cause considerable manoeuvring problems to smaller vessels. A strong reflection also increases the sea bed erosion potential in front of the structure (scour). Moreover, waves reflected from breakwaters can in some cases create or increase erosion of neighbour beaches. ‘The reflection can be quantified by the reflection coefficient G, = Hap/ He 6) where H, — significant wave height of incident wave H,» significant wave heights of incident wave ‘The reflection coefficient for smooth, impermeable and non-overtopped slope reads CG, =012 e<25 (6) and for non-overtopped rock slope reads c= 014ee" & <8 @ 3.3.5 Wave transmission Waves behind a rubble mound breakwater are caused mainly by overtopping, but also by wave penetration. Wave transmnission can cause ship maneuver problem inside a harbour. ‘Wave transmission can be characterized by a transmission coefficient, C,, defined as Of = Hy] He (8) H,, is the significant wave height, on the harbour side of structures.3.3.6 Wave force on armour layer and armour unit stability Wave breaking on slopes causes up-rash and down-rush, which are characterized by the velocity v. v is highly non-stationary with respect to both velocity and direction, ‘The flow forces acting on an armour unit by up-rush and down-rush is schematized in Fig.9. The flow is assumed to be quasi-stationary, ic. the inertia force Fy is neglected. Fig.9, Mlustration of jorces on. armour units ‘The armour unit size is characterized by an equivalent cube length D,, My = 9) (z) M and pq are the mass and density of the armour unit respectively. The gravity force is the submerged weight of the armour unit Fo = (ta — Pe)gDn (10) ‘The lift force F;, is caused by the difference in pressure on the upper and lower side ‘of the unit due to the velocity difference. Dd, ‘The drag force Fp consists two parts: skin friction force acting on the surface of the unit and form drag force due to the difference in pressure on the up-flow and down-flow side of the unit. For the case of rubble mound breakwater armour unit the form drag force is many times larger than the skin friction force. Applying the Morison equation the flow forces on a resting unit can be expressed as follows: Fo © CypyAr® FL ® CrppAv where A cross sectional area at right angles tov Cp, Cy drag and lift coefficients respectively 59Because A oc D2 and v oc H (ef. section on wave run-up and run-down), the resultant flow force may be written Fr = CpogD.H ql) Cis a coefficient. ‘There are several armour unit displacement modes, ef. Fig.10. 1) Rocking of unit duving yp-ond down 8) tation and eubeacal dove. lee ma Gieplacoment of anit auring sown rash Point of rotation 2) otetion nage: te) ino vein aria Rie ce Eaen REP A tute doen rush ‘gplacement of an Peint of rotation Fig. 10. Armour unit displacement modes. 60‘Take the sliding of armour unit during down-rush as an example, cf. Pig.11. Friction ys Fig.11. Unit sliding during down-rush. ‘The criterion for stability may be expressed. Facos i + Fosine < p(Fecosa — Frsin 8) or Fo(sin a — 1cosa) < —Fa(cos + usin 8) by inserting the expressions for Fy and Fe and M = p.D3 pal et (zyesaie a OE i o_O tame M(B-i)eora ~ Ceota \eos t+ psind or write into the form of the well-known Hudson formula M= pall (12) J. a, Kp(%~1) cota ‘The stability coefficient K’p is an empirical coefficient depending on the type of ar- mour unit, wave steepness, ete For other armour unit displacement modes the stability formulae are basically the same as the ane derived above However, Hudson formula, which was developed for rock armour, where the stabi- lizing force is the weight of rocks, cannot represent the stability of conerete armour “unit layer, whose stability depends both on weight and interlocking. With respect to ‘the contribution of the weight of concrete armour unit to the hydraulic stability, the more gentle the slope, the bigger the contribution, as expressed in Hudson formula But on the other hand, the interlocking ability increases with the increase of slope angle ( before the slope reaches its natural angle of repose). This means that there is an optimum slope which maximize the stability of concrete armour unit layer Today it becomes more popular to use the stability number N., defined as 2 ae = (Kpeotay!® (a= 2-1) (a3) Ns 613.3.7 Wave force on superstructure The wave forces on a superstructure exposed to irregular waves are of a stochastic nature. The forces acting on a superstructure at a given instant are schematized in Fig. 12 Ware generated pressure. Py \reignt. Fy Armour load. 2 on wall, Ph Py fore pressure on base plate, Py, Fig.12. Wave forces on a superstructure. ‘The wave generated pressure, pp, acting perpendicular to the front of the wall is the one, which would be recorded by prescure transducers mounted on the front face Fy is the instantaneous resultant of the wave generated pressures Pe ‘The instantaneous uplift pressure, ps, acting perpendicular to the base plate is equal to the pore pressure in the soil immediately under the plate, The resultant is Fy ‘At the front comer, f, the uplift pressure pj, equals the pressure on the froat wall wh ‘At the rear comer, 7, the uplift pressure, pf, equals the hydrostatic pressure at r. ‘The actual distribution of p, between pf and pf depends on the wave generated boundary pressure field and on the permeability and homogeneity of the soil. The distribution cannot be determined in normal wave flume scale tests because of strong. scale effects related to porous flow. However, the corner pressures pf and pl can be measured or estimated, and in case of homogeneous and rather permeable soils and quasi-static conditions, a safe estimate on the most dangerous uplift, can be found assuming a linear pressure distribution between a maximum value of pf and a minimum value of pj. Armour and filter stones resting against the front of the wave wall will introduce fan armour load, pa, on the front through the contact points. Both a normal soil mechanics load and a proportion of the dynamic wave loads on the armour contribute to py. The resultant force F, is generally not perpendicular to the front due to friction between the armour and filter stones and the wall, and must be split into the two orthogonal components F* and Fy. 623.4. Structural design of rubble mound breakwaters 3.4.1 Failure modes of rubble mound breakwaters In this context failure means excess of a design damage criterion, e.g. excess in displacement of armour units or excess in overtopping. All possible failure modes must be identified and considered in the design process. The failure modes of a rubble mound breakwater are indicated in Fig.13. They can be classified into Geotechnic Core settlement. Slip failure of various components. Hydraulic Erosion of armour layer, rear slope layer and toe berm ‘Too much overtopping, Sliding and tilting of superstructure. Structural Breakage of armour units. Breakage of superstructure It should be stressed that these failure modes interact with cach other, eg. the exzosion of toe berm and the breakage of armour units will speed up the erosion of the armour layer, excessive overtopping might cause the failure of the rear slope _— Breokoge, sliding . tiling ef copping wal Erosion of armour oformaur Berm ond toe ‘scour ‘Subset! sottement Fig.13. Failure modes of a rubble mound breakwater (Burcharth, 1993). 633.4.2. Definition of armour layer damage Categories of the unit movement are 1) No movements 2) Rocking 3) Small movement: displaced by less than 2D, 4) Displacement: displaced by more than 2D, There are 3 parameters defined to represent the armour layer damage. 1) The relative displacement D is defined as na (number of displaced units) “(total number of units) (14) D= 2) The strip displacement Nog is defined as the number of the units displaced within a strip of one D, width. Ra Nea = (B : Length of the breakwater) (as) =z Dy 3) The relative eroded area S$ is (cf. Fig-14) po & (18) A,, eroded area Fig.14. Definition of the eroded area A,‘The relative displacement D has been used for long time. But the use of the total number of units as a reference has the disadvantage that D values depend on the height of the slope. The strip displacement Ny was presented recently in order to overcome the disadvantage. But it cannot account the effect of the packing density, ‘eg. Nod Values are the same if two identical slopes have the same number of displaced units, even though the one is covered by, say 100 units and the other by 200 units. ‘The relative eroded area was first introduced in the study of b each erosion. For the slope formed of uniform concrete armour units, if settlement is disregarded, then Nw = (1-p)S — (p: Porosity of the armour layer) ay) Unfortunately the relationship between lVjq and $ depends on the type of units and the slope angle due to the settlements. There are 3 stages of the damage 1) Initial damage. There are very limited number of displaced unite 2) Moderate to severe damage. There are some displaced units. the armour layer remains stable as a whole, Usually it is the design criterion 3) Failure. The damage is so severe that the filter layer is exposed directly to wave attack. ‘Table 4 gives the values of D, Nea and S corresponding to the damage stages. Table 4. Damage parameters and damage stages. Damage parameters Initial Moderate to severe Failure damage damage D <2 5-10 15 Noe <05 23 5 slope 1: 1.5 2 35 S slope 1: 2.0 a 46 8 slope 1 = 4.0 ez Ww 653.4.3. Armour layer ‘The weight of the individual armour unit is determined by Hudson formula, 3 ar OE _ Kp (#-1) cota Kp values, corresponding to moderate damage and determined from model tests, are listed in Table 5. For the armour units to be located at the round-head of the breakwater, the mass should be increased by 50%. ‘There are also other stability formulae developed recently for various types of con~ crete armour units, cf, Appendix. ‘The lower bound of armour layer is app. 1.5 x H, below the still water level. In the case where superstructure is applied, the horizontal width of armour layer in front of the superstructure should be at least 3 times the equivalent cube length of the armour units in order to avoid severe wave impact on the superstructure. Armour layer is usually composed of two layers of armour units placed randomly on the slope. Table 5 lists the packing density of armour units, porosity and layer thickness coefficient of armour layer. The number of armour unit per unit area, the concrete volume per unit area and layer thickness are determined by number of armour units per unit area Ny = fr cDa (as) concrete or rock volume per unit area V = Nq D3 layer thickness te where D, equivalent cube length, Dy packing density, of, Table 5 ¢ layer thickness coefiicient, ef. Table 5 y" ‘Table §. Characteristic parameter values of armour units two layer random placement type of armour unit rock cubes Tetrapods —Dolosse stability coefficient a) 6 10 12 packing density y 1% 18 10 0.83 porosity p 037 0.33 05 0.56 layer thickness coefficient ¢ 1 1 1.02 0.943.4.4 Filter layer The purpose of filter layer(s) is to prevent the finer material in the core and the sea bed from being pulled out through the armour layers. Significant migration of finer material into the coarser material will Jead to settlements and might cause reduced porosity and permeability of the filter layers resulting in reduced hydraulic stability of the cover layers. It is easy to formulate filter rules which assure no or marginal migration. However, such restrictive rules necessitate more filter layers to overcome a certain difference in size of core and armour layer. Table 6 gives more applicable rules for filter layer, Table 6. Filter rules. ‘Type of armour anit average) mass of armour unit P NM average mass of Titer stones Rock 15 Massive (cubes ete.) 19 Slender (Teirapods etc.) 5 ‘The thickness of the filter layer should be at least twiee of the average equivalent length of filter stone. Moreover, it should also be at least half of the equivalent cube length and armour units in order to prevent filter damage duriug the placement of armour units. 3.4.5 Core ‘The core material is generally quarry run, which usually has a wide gradation. ‘The core should not. be constructed of too coarse materials in order to avoid undesin~ able transmission of waves and sediment transport through the breakwater. Coarse core material might: also facilitate venting underneath superstructures. ‘On the other hand a lower limit for the size of material should also be set in order to prevent wash-out of the finer material. This is due to the consequent risk of larger settlements and inconvenient deposition of the materials. Also, if very fine material js used for the core it might be necessary to nse several filter layers to avoid out-wash, Finer materials are also less suitable for construction due to the smaller natural angle of repose (very gentle slopes) and the vulnerability to erosion in waves and currents. In practice the mass of core materials ranges (average) mass of armour wits a4. go99 ay muss of core material 673.4.6 Berm ‘The main function of berm is to provide support for the armour layer. The width of the berm should be at least 5 to 10 times the stone dimension of the berm. If less accurate construction methods are used, such as dumping of stones from floating equipment, a wider berm is recommended. In the case of shallow water, concrete armour units are used for the construction of, the berm. Tt is normally recommended to construct the berm with a trough on the inner side. This trough gives better support for the armour layer. Moreover, it makes the placement of filter and armour layer easier. Benin stone size can be estimated by (20) where Dyso Daso = (Mi) hy Water depth above the berm ‘Neg Number of stones displaced within a strip of one D,.sg width { 0.5 no damage Nu 2 moderate damage 5 collapse 3.4.7 Rear slope If there is no severe overtopping, the filter materials are used for the protection of the rear slope. Moreover, a rather sieep slope, say 1:1.5 or even 1:1.25 can be applied. If there is significant overtopping, larger stones are needed to protect rear slope. Generally model tests should be performed to check the rear slope stability, even though there are some research results. 683.4.8 Superstructure ‘The most common failure modes of concrete superstruetures are shown in Fig. 15. Quite often the combinations of failure modes occur, Wy mtn pte tn pes ating gee al te tre Fig.15. Common failure modes of concrete crown walls. It is usually necessary to perform model tests in order to determine wave forces on the superstructure. Prediction of the breakage of wall is the most simple case in the sense that only the ‘wave loads on the front wall and the sirength of the structure need to be known. ‘The total stability of the superstructure must be investigated by considering both the resistance to sliding and overturning and the bearing capacity of the foundation. ‘They will be treated in the section on the overall stability of caisson. Due to the uncertainty related both to wave loads, uplift pressure and coefficient of friction it is important to apply a safety coetficient in such calculation. Severe wave impact on the superstructure can be avoided either by increasing the crest level of the armour layer or by increasing the width of the berm in front of the superstructure, ef. Pig.16. 4) igh Wott) Medium Mgt watt) Low wal igh tore (ohetored wal) Mena a Tm, Fig.16. Typical superstructure configurations. 693.5 Examples of rubble mound breakwater failures Anything, which might go wrong, will go wrong Marfian’s Law Breakage of 25 t Tetrapods and 38 t Dolosse Crescent City Harbour, California, USA (Magoon, et al. 1990) 70Sinking of ships caused by wave overtopping Oran City Harbour, Algeria (Agerschou, et al. 1983) Armour layer is 42 t Dalosse on the slope 1:1.5 Failure started jrom breakage of Dolosse and erosion of armour layer Sines Breakwater, Portugal (Sensen, 1984) 1armour layer is 48 t Tetrapods on the slope 1:1.39 Failure stated from breakage of Tetrapads and erosion of armour layer Port d’Azzew-EL-Diedid, Algeria4 VERTICAL BREAKWATERS 4.1 Introduction ‘Vertical breakwaters are used to protect. harbours against wave actions. The round- head of rubble mound breakwaters are also often built of a vertical breakwater The energy of incident waves are partly refiected back to the sea, partly dissipated by wave breaking in front of vertical breakwaters and partly transmitted into harbour by penetration and overtopping, cf. Fig.1 a eanaey et] se Fig.1. Ilustration of incident wave energy deformation in front of a vertical breakwater 2) renag 4.1.1 Components of a vertical breakwater A vertical breakwater is normally composed of rubble mound foundation, substruc- ture and superstructure, cf. Fig.2. In-sits cast concrete cep supeeaiructar: |] outer wait suvstructure [ perttion watt ieee [sana eat ieee \ Bottom stab feute maund J Footing Bamedae as Ra S core wits Outer ll > Partition wal Sea side ength Pian view of caisson Fig.2. Components of a vertical breakwater 3‘The rubble mound foundation functions like a buffer between the substructure and the sea bed. It spreads the vertical load from the substructure over a wide arca of sea bed. The rubble mound foundation consists of the armour layer, core ani necessary, filter layer. ‘The substructure can be composed of layers of rectangular rocks, of layers of solid concrete blocks, or of eaissons. A caisson is an open reinforced conerete box with a bottom slab and outer walls. A large caisson is usually divided into several inner cells by partition walls in order to reduce the span length of the outer walls. Moreover, the partition walls reduce the pressure of sands filled in caisson. A caisson has footings at the front and back heels in order to transfer the vertical loads to the foundation. ‘The super structure is composed of a parapet wall and deck. ‘The parapet wall reduces water overtopping over the structure. The deck serves as a roadway. Oil and water pipeline ace installed inside or under the deck. In the analysis of overall stability, the superstructure and the substructure are called vertieal structure. 44.1.2. Types of vertical breakwaters Various cross sections of vertical breakwaters have been invented in order to improve the stability of the structure and reduce overtopping, but often structural measures in favor of the one criterion will worsen the other. Traditionally the parapet wall has a vertical face, Fig.2-al. It might be given a slope in order to reduce the horizontal impulsive wave forces, Fig.3-a2, but the amount of overtopping increases. Because the first rational consideration of this shape is related to the Hanstholm breakwater in Denmark this type is sometimes referred to in the literature es the Hanstholm type. A seaward curved parapet reduces overtopping by leading water jetting back to the sea, but the upward pressure causes the reduction of stability, Fig.3-a3. Fig.d-a4 reduces overtopping by entrapping water in the reservoirs. The water leaks back into the sea by the drainage system under the reservoirs. Fig.3-b1 is the conventional type with an impermeable seaward face and is most often constructed of reinforced concrete caissons filled with sand or quarry rock and capped with in-situ cast concrete, Many old structures of this type were constructed of stacked precast mass concrete blocks, Fig.3-b2 Fig.3-1 is a dissipative type caissons with holes or slots in the front face and a wave chamber bebind. Wave energy is dissipated by the turbulence created during in and out flow. The advantages obtained are the reduction of the overtopping and of the wave forces, especially of the large forces from waves breaking on the structure. Another advantage is the reduced reflection, often desirable from a navigational point of view. The same positive effects can be obtained by placing a mound of armour units in front of the wall, Fig.3-c2. This solution is suitable mainly in shallow water wave situations for combatting frequent high loads from breaking waves. It is a common structure in Japan where the armour units are called wave dissipation blocks, It is sometimes referred to as the Japanese type breakwater. If sea bed is formed of clay, it must be removed before the foundation is built, Fig.3-d2. The skirt type is similar to the foundation method applied for the offshore reinforced concrete gravity structure in the North Sea in the water depth of 70—150 meters, Fig 3-d3. In the case of deep water an economical design often consists of caissons placed on a rubble mound foundation, Fig.3-. This type is now referred to as a composite breakwater although this name was originally related to the functional circumstances where waves are reflected from the vertical face at high water and break on the rubble slope at low water. However, this idealized functional description is not realistic because the slope will increase the wave brealking and thereby the loads on the vertical wall ‘The shape of caisson can be cylindrical or rectangular. The maximum horizontal wave force on the cylindrical caisson is only about half of that on the rectangular caisson, because the ventilated shock pressure does not occur with the eylindrical caisson 1a1) Vertioat 42) Slope 68) Water deflecting ef) Weter entrapping a DI) Conventional ealsson 40} Conventional block Inasite oxst Feinforced concrete ‘concrete ep i Bedding taper co) Pertorated matt 2) lopenese Concrete armeur unite a) Above ground 42) Undergroune 9) Set _ ru fo = Fig.9. Various kinds of vertical breakwater cross sections. 764.2 Construction of vertical breakwaters ‘The construction of vertical breakwaters start from the land side. The construction procedure is 4) 2) Production aud transport of caissons. Design and production of caissons cannot be started before it is known how to transport the caissons from the production site to the breakwater. With respect to transport there are two types of caissons i) Non-floating caissons. Such caissons are normally rather small because they have to be transported by a crane. Non-floating caissons have the advantage of accurate and easy placement. Moreover, the placement can take place in a worse wave conditions than floating caissons, Non-floating caissous are produced on land, transported by trucks and placed by a crane standing at the temporary end of the breakwater. ii) Floating caissons. Ploating caissons are towed from the production site to the construction site. Floating caissous are produced in an easy-launching place, such a3 in docks, on slipway, on platforms or on pontoons. [As far as the construction time is involved, it is of importance that the average rate of production of caissons equals the average rate of place ment. In most cases, the bottleneck is the placement of caissons and subsequent armour blocks for the foundation, because both operation re- quire good weather conditions. Because floating caissons are very large, slip forms can be applied. If one set of slip forms is used for the production of all caissons, the rate of the production is greatly influenced by the strength of concrete required when the form is removed. Sometimes, caissons are stored afloat in a basin for further concrete curing Preparation of caisson foundation, Caissons are sitting either on the filier layer or on the core of the foundation, Foundation materials are dumped either from barges or from the breakwater. However, the final supply of materials and the elevation of the foundation top must be controlled by divers, who build two horizontal guide rails at the de- signed elevation of the foundation, and follow a beam setting on and moving along the rails. It is customary to advance the foundation 10 to 30 meters further than the caisson to be placed in order to avoid erosion around the temporary end of the breakwater (scouring). If temporary scour protection is needed, the conirac- tors must be prepared to place and remove such protection for each caisson, subsequent to the weather forecast information. 73) Placement of caissons. A floating caisson is sunk by filing it with water. During the sinking process, the near end of the caisson must be held tight against the preceding one, and the far end moored. If the caisson is not in the correct position when it reaches the sea bed, the water must be pumped out and the procedure repeated. When the caisson is in its right position on the foundation, its compartments are filled with sands or gravels, and the armour blocks are placed by @ crane ‘The small caisson lowered from a crane can be sunk directly by filling sands and gravels. 4) Superstructure Superstructure is either cast in-situ or prefabricated together with caisson in the yard Fig.4. Placernent of cylindrical reinforced concrete caissons by crane at Hanstholm. Weight: 800 t, diameter: 12.5 m, height: 12 m, wall thickness: 25 om. (Agerschou, et al 1983) 84.3 Wave-structure interaction 4.3.1 Wave reflection ‘Vertical breakwaters reflect large proportion of the incident. wave energy. The inter- action of incident and reflected waves can create a very confused sea with very steep and often breaking waves. It is a well known problem in many harbour entrance areas where it can cause considerable manoeuvring problems to smaller vessels. A strong reflection aloo increases the sea bed erosion potential in front of the structure (scour). Moreover, waves reflected from breakwaters can in some cases create or increase erosion of neighbour beaches. ‘The reflection can be quantified by the reflection coefficient C.= Hyy/Hy w where H, — significant wave height of incident wave iy, significant wave heights of incident wave C,, ranges typically between 0.9 and 1.0. 4.3.2 Wave overtopping ‘There is not much study on wave run-up. It seems that researchers are more inter- ested in overtopping, because the harbour side of vertical breakwaters serves often ‘a3 a berth. Large volume of overtopping causes also big wave agitation behind the breakwaters ‘Wave overtopping is often represented by @, the average volume of water overtop- ping the crest of the breakwater per second per meter length of the breakwater. Like the case in rubble mound breakwater, the dimensionless overtopping is written as By = von(-f) wae = te @ where R is the free board of the breakwater, ie. the vertical distance between SWL and the top elevation of the structure. a and } are empirical coefficients accounting geometries of the structure. For the simple case of a plain vertical wall, a = 0.19 and b = 4.2.4.3.3 Scour in front of vertical breakwaters Due to the high reflective properties of vertical breakwaters, sea bed scour may con- stitute an importance source of damage, cf. Fig.5. su sm BD ttrect en tity ® of rubble mound anthton @ erect on safety Saeinst sup failure Fig.5. Effect of scour on stability of breakwaters, One of the fundamentals for the scour of sea bed is that there are two distinct scour pattems under regular standing wave action in front of vertical structures.ef. Fig.6, namely # A scour pattern for relatively find sand. The scour holes ate located beneath the nodes of the standing wave while the ridges occur at the antinodes. The majority of sands is transported as suspended load. «A scour pattern for relatively coarse sand. The ridges are beneath the nodes while the holes are located about half way between the nodes and antinodes. The majority of sands is transported as bed load. 1) RATELY FINE SIND (emperor) 8) ROUTELY COARSE SUN (exponen) Fig.6. Scour pattern under reqular standing wave.4.3.4 Wave forces It is a traditional approach in wave pressure calculation to classify the wave in front of caisson into standing wave and breaking wave, because the pressure of the break- ing wave is much larger than that of the standing wave. Sainfiou developed the pressure formula of standing wave simplified from the tro- choidal wave theory, Fig.7. sePia Fig.7. Pressure distribution of standing wave by Sainfiou. (n+ posh +65) a = ®) He @ A= © Horoi assume a uniform distribution of breaking wave pressure,cf. Fig.8 P18 pea Ties Fig.8. Pressure distribution of breaking wave by Horoi. 81Minikin proposed the following breaking wave pressure formula which consists of dynamic part py and hydrostatic part ps. Fig.9, Pressure distribution of breaking wave by Minikin. Prac =101 pu gd(1 + £) £ =(1 = 218)? pees € pe = (1-2) ¢ ®) OspgH(-2%) 0 he (e8 © 0 for nt < he a3 PL (10) L[_4rhi/Lp = DBs [im hte | (1) hyd [Hmaz\? : the emaller of “55 ( m ) and (12) i A toa Oe al (18) angle of incidence of waves (angle between wave crest and front of structure, 0? is perpendicular wave) maximum wave height. { 18H, if the structure is outside surf zone Fine Hi. if the structure is inside surf zone ‘The highest of the random breaking waves at a distance SH, seaward of the structure. water depth at a distance of 5H, seaward of the break- water front wall. Deep water wave length corresponding to peak wave period. Although the wave induced uplift pressure, p,, at the front edge of the base plate is equal to ps it is suggested by Goda to use 2 somewhat reduced value Pam 5 (1+ 6088) 0105 Ped Hae aw) ‘This is because analyses of the bebaviour of Japanese breakwaters revealed that the use of p, = pa together with an assumed triangular distribution of the uplift pressure gave too conservative results. 83‘The breakwater geometry is of paramount importance for the wave pressure. Fig.11 is an example with a high foundation. Many of the waves become plunging breakers. When a plunger hits the vertical face like a hammer bead, the horizontal pressure on the vertical face is formed of two parts, namely hammer shock which depends on the velocity of the hammer head, and the compression shock which is due to the air pocket enclosed and compressed by the plunging breaker. In most cases the sea bed has a gentle slope and the vertical breakwater has a low foundation. The type of wave breaking is surging. The entrapped air is ventilated upwards, The ventilated shock pressure is relatively small. Hemmer shock f Compreseion chock mmm» me Fig.1!, Types of shock pressure. ‘The coefficient ay of the Goda formula is replaced by a* in order to include the shock pressure. @* reaches a maximum of 2 when 48 = 0.12, £ = 0.4 and 4 = 2 a = the bigger of ay and ay er = anon 4% if Hs < 2d an = 4 2 iH, > 2d ee iff <0 n= 2. (saniswn) #5 > 0 _ 26n iff. <0 1 15 bn ifon > 0 < by 4.9 in if» 3 on if 52 > 0 j= 0.93 (44 0.2) + 0.36 (234) Jn = 0.36 (440.12) + 0.93 (3 844.4 Structural design of vertical breakwaters 4.4.1 Failure modes of vertical breakwaters Failure modes of vertical breakwaters are depicted in Fig.12. The figure indicates a distinction between failure modes related to the overall stability of the vertical structure and failure modes related to the integrity of the structural parts. Failure modes related to overall stability of caissons ‘osk ~ ‘Shoreward sicine on Overturnlag ercund heel Sup foure inthe ground ieddiag Iyer ae te Sonmard siing on ‘ip titres I foundation beading layer = (Merizenta! seston) Fire of font wall Pare ef shear kaye betwoea blocks ané enissons AOS reakaze and dsplacement of armour units Fig.12. Failure modes of vertical breakwaters (Burcharth, 1993).4.4.2 Overall stability of vertical structures The stability of vertical structures relies heavily on the net its net weight, Fy, which is the weight of the structure minus the buoyancy, cf Fig.13. Fy is the horizontal wave pressure on the front of vertical structure and Fis the uplift force on the bottom of vertical structure. They are calculated by Goda for- mula. The horizontal wave pressure on the rear side can be taken as the hydrostatic difference between the mean water level and the wave trough. It is not taken into consideration. ‘The stability against sliding is expressed as Fy Su(Fy~ i) (18) where jris the friction coeificient between the caisson and the foundation. The value of pris usually taken as 0.6. ‘The stability against overturning around the heel of the caisson is expressed as Fra+Rhbshe (a6) It is recommended to apply a safety factor of not less than 1.2 against sliding and overturning. ‘The first step in the assessment of the bearing capacity of the foundation is to caleu- late the magnitude, position and direction of the resultant force on the foundation, ‘The soil mechanics methods of analysing the bearing capacity of a foundation when exposed to eccentric inclined loads are then applied, ie, slip failure analyses or bearing capacity diagrams. Overturning of a caisson implies very high stresses at the point, of rotation. In order to avoid the crush of the stones and caisson around the heel the bearing capacity of the stone around the heel should not be exceeded. As a first estimate of the allowable pressure under the heel values in the range 0.4—0.6 MIV/m? might be used, according to Japanese practice. Fig.19. Forces acting on vertical structure. 864.4.3 Rubble mound foundation It is best to set the height of the rubble mound foundation as low as possible to prevent impulsive wave pressure. However, for the foundation to fulfil the function a8 a buffer between the caisson and the sea bed, the height of the foundation should be at least 1.5 meter. Moreover, the top of the foundation should bot be very deep under water in order to facilitate diver’s underwater operations. Besides, the height. of the foundation depends on the availability of armour blocks and the limited height of caissons set by manufacture ability. ‘The berm in front of caissons provides protection against possible seouring of sea bed. But a wider berm increases cost and may cause impulsive wave pressure on the caisson. The berm at the rear side has the function of transmitting the vertical load to the sea bed. It also provides an allowance of the caisson sliding, The practical berm width ranges 5 to 10 meters, ‘The slope of the rubble mound foundation is usually 1:2 or 1:3 for the seaward side and 1:1.5 or 1:2 for the harbour side. ‘The minimum weight of armour units for the rubble mound foundation is calculated by Hudson formula = Peis ie (# - 2) LS if C<18 Kp = Cc if C218 cs = ang ey A h! Water depth over the berm By Berm width H, Design significant wave height L Wave length at deep water L’ wave length at the water depth of h’ a7