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When Everything Fails

Surviving Any Disaster
Guidebook

Professor Stephen Owen

Radford University
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Professor Biography

Stephen Owen, PhD

Professor of Criminal Justice
Radford University

i
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Stephen Owen is a Professor of Criminal Justice at Radford University.

He earned his PhD in Political Science from the University of Missouri–
St. Louis (UMSL). He also holds a BS in Criminal Justice from Southeast
Missouri State University and an MA in Political Science from UMSL.
His studies focused on the links between criminal justice, public
policy, public administration, and urban affairs. Professor Owen has
also collaborated with the professional emergency management
community, including as chair of the New River Valley Regional Local
Emergency Planning Committee, a member of the board of directors
for the Virginia Emergency Management Association, and a planning
team member for the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s
National Tabletop Exercise for Institutions of Higher Education.
Professor Owen has published on a variety of topics related to criminal
justice, including institutional corrections, interpersonal violence,
criminal justice education, law and sexuality, and law enforcement
policy issues. Most recently, his work has focused on issues related to
emergency management, with a particular focus on the public safety
community’s response to active shooter incidents.
Professor Owen has received the Radford University Foundation’s
Distinguished Creative Scholar Award and Distinguished Service Award
as well as Radford University’s College of Humanities and Behavioral
Sciences Distinguished Teaching Award. In addition, he was recognized
by his undergraduate alma mater, Southeast Missouri State University,
with a Young Alumni Merit Award. At Radford University, Professor Owen
regularly teaches the course Emergency Management. He has also
developed unique course offerings, including Active Harmer Incidents
in the United States and Investigating the Kennedy Assassination.
Professor Owen is coauthor of Foundations of Criminal Justice and
has authored or coauthored more than 80 book chapters, articles,
proceedings, encyclopedia entries, and reviews.■

ii
Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Professor Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
Table of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Course Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

LECTURE GUIDES
1. How Prepared Are You for a Disaster? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2. Developing a Preparedness Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3. Identifying Hazards and Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4. Making Decisions in a Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5. Essential Lifesaving Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6. What to Do in a Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7. When the Earth Shakes or Opens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8. Surviving Hurricanes and Other Storms . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9. Coping in an Active Shooter Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
10. Helping Others in a Disaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
11. First Responders and How They Work . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
12. The First Responders Many Never See . . . . . . . . . . . 78
13. How Disaster Response Is Coordinated . . . . . . . . . . . 85
14. The Challenges of Disaster Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
Quiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Image Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

iii
WHEN
EVERYTHING FAILS:
SURVIVING
ANY DISASTER
Course Scope

I
f a disaster were to strike, would you be ready? While disasters
are inherently unpredictable and can shake the very foundations
of a community, personal preparedness efforts can help to
build readiness and manage their impacts. This lecture series
explores strategies for doing so. Drawing on case studies of
past or potential disaster incidents, each lecture examines one
facet of preparedness, building toward the goal of developing
personal resilience.
The course begins with an overview of general principles of disaster
planning. This reflects a concept known as all-hazards preparedness,
recognizing that there are certain basic steps that can aid preparedness
across a variety of incidents. The course discusses a brief history of
preparedness efforts, steps to building a personal preparedness
plan, the importance of building a go kit, the phases of disaster
preparedness, and the preparedness cycle. There is no such thing as
a one-size-fits-all approach to preparedness, so course participants
are encouraged to consider how the various principles apply to their
own unique circumstances.
With general principles comes a recognition that there are certain skills
that become valuable in disaster response. Broadly speaking, these
can be classified into two categories: skills such as critical thinking and
decision making, and action-focused lifesaving techniques. The former
type of skill includes maintaining situational awareness, evaluating
decisions carefully and safely, and being vigilant for compromised
decision making. The latter type includes skills such as CPR, first aid,
bleeding control, use of a fire extinguisher, and more. While a full
consideration extends beyond the reach of this course, maintaining
even a general awareness can go far in building preparedness to act
in a crisis.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

It is also important to consider the unique dynamics of different

types of disaster scenarios. This course explores incidents related to
fire, natural hazards, weather phenomena, and active violence. For
each, lectures will provide an overview of the nature of the threat
and what steps can be taken to understand and prepare for it.
As the course transitions into a discussion of response, focus will
turn to how the public can contribute through volunteerism and
donation management, and the critical role that first responders
play in disaster response efforts. Finally, when a disaster seems
over, it is not truly over. Recovery often takes the longest time, and
it is sometimes never complete. Individuals and communities work
to cope with the short-term and long-term impacts caused by an
incident. The course concludes with a discussion of this critical—
but often unrecognized—aspect of disaster preparedness and
management.■

2
 LECTURE 1
HOW PREPARED ARE
YOU FOR A DISASTER?

I
n the field of emergency management, being prepared leads
to disaster resilience. That is the goal of being able to best cope
with and move forward from disasters. That, in turn, is what this
course is all about. The Federal Emergency Management Agency,
or FEMA, helps to support this. However, it’s not enough to assume
that help will always be here. Our first responders are valiant in their
work during a disaster, as are the scores of volunteers who step in.
Ultimately, though, we all need to personally be prepared, knowing
that sometimes help won’t get here in a hurry.

A CASE STUDY
People who work with emergency planning and disaster
preparedness regularly review what are called AARs, or after-
action reports, which analyze the response to an incident. The goal
is to see what can be learned about preparing for future incidents.
As an example, this lecture profiles the 1997 flood in the Red River
valley, particularly in Grand Forks, North Dakota, and East Grand
Forks, Minnesota.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

It was April of that year, and meteorologists had already predicted

that it was going to be a rough year for floods. The weather leading
up to that month brought a combination of heavy rains in the fall that
saturated the ground, followed by heavy snow in the winter, a rapid
temperature increase that led to large amounts of snowmelt, and
additional spring rain. That’s enough to challenge any river basin, and
flooding was inevitable.
Grand Forks had a population of approximately 52,000 at the time, and
90 percent of the people had to evacuate. The entire town of East Grand
Forks also evacuated 100 percent of its 9,000 residents. This was an
enormous undertaking. A neighboring Air Force base accommodated
some of the displaced people; others went to stay with family and
friends. As for people who were hospitalized, for about three weeks,
the local hospital was closed. Its patients were airlifted to other facilities,
and arrangements were made for those with chronic conditions who
needed specialized care.
Then the fires came. While the cause is uncertain, they were possibly
ignited by electrical equipment that was short-circuited by the
floodwaters. The fire spread from one downtown building to another.
Eleven buildings were destroyed by fire.

4
1. How Prepared Are You for a Disaster?

The waters receded, as flood waters eventually do. The damage was
estimated at $4 billion. There was no potable water for three weeks.
However, 20,000 volunteers came to help.
In the aftermath, $1 billion in flood control measures were implemented.
This included levees and creating a greenway. Creating a greenway
involves identifying an area that is known to flood, buying out the
properties, and helping people relocate elsewhere.
The greenway can absorb flood waters, and cleared of properties,
there are no longer structures there that would be flooded. And that
worked. In 2009, there was an even higher flood, and Grand Forks and
East Grand Forks stayed dry.

PAYING ATTENTION TO PREPAREDNESS

Until recently, there has not been that much public attention
to preparedness. Douglas Paton is a professor who developed
a theoretical model that helps to explain why. The following are some
of the highlights of his model, framed
as questions. The answers people give
to them tend to predict their levels
of preparedness.
First: Do you know the hazards that
surround you on a regular basis? If you
answered yes, you’re more likely to be
prepared. However, many people do
not think about hazards because it’s not
a pressing topic in their day-to-day lives.
Second: Do you have any level of anxiety or
worry about disasters? If you answered yes, then
you’re actually less likely to be prepared. Being
afraid can actually make people motivated to
dismiss looking at preparedness activities.
Third: Do you think that preparedness
can actually make a difference?
If not, why would you do it? The
less persons think what they do
matters, the less likely they are to
do it. This holds for preparedness.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

INITIAL PLANNING STEPS

An excellent resource for preparedness is the ready.gov website. Ready.
gov identifies four questions as the first to be answered in the planning
process. Those questions are:
w How will you receive emergency alerts and warnings? While some
emergencies are obviously and immediately felt by the public, like
the ground shaking in an earthquake, there are others that you
might not be aware of until someone warns you.
w Alerts for imminent threats may be transmitted across the national
wireless emergency alert network, which includes messages sent
to cell phones in the location of concern. Check with your provider
to see if your phone can receive these alerts and if you need to
adjust settings to do so.
w Information can also be provided through the older emergency
alert system, which includes announcements on television and
radio. Also be sure to check with your local government to see if
they have an emergency alert system.
w In addition, think about any members of your household or family
who may not have access to emergency notifications. You may
need to relay messages to ensure that they receive the same
warnings that you do.
w What is your shelter plan? What if you have to evacuate, as in the
Grand Forks flood? Where would you go? Your answer would likely
depend on how far you had to evacuate, but give it some thought.
w In evacuations, local governments or nonprofit organizations, like
the Red Cross, often open public shelters. Shelters may also be
opened for weather extremes, such as heatwaves and extreme
cold temperatures, for those who don’t have air conditioning or
sufficient heat.
w Research actually suggests that most people don’t go to public
shelters, though. Instead, they more commonly turn to friends and
family. Knowing where you might be able to turn, and considering
that now, is easier than attempting to make phone calls on the way
out of town, trying to decide whether to head toward the shelter
or continue to another person’s home.

6
1. How Prepared Are You for a Disaster?

w What route will you use to evacuate? Evacuations can be called for
many reasons: floods, hazardous materials, nuclear plant accidents,
tsunamis, wildfire, landslides or sinkholes, and more. The route that
you take out of town matters. Some streets may be passable; others
may not. A quick list of alternate routes is something that you can
store on your smartphone or keep in writing with other essentials
you would take if evacuating.
w What is your communication plan? This is one of the most important
aspects, as you’re going to need a way to keep in touch with your
family and friends and to coordinate with other members of your
household if you are separated.
w Keep in mind that during a disaster, it is common for cell phone
communications to be intermittent at best and unavailable at
worst. This can be because cell phone towers are damaged or
overloaded with call volume. The good news is that persons with
smartphones can text, which holds up much better in a disaster,
and also use social media apps that can allow status updates.
w You may also consider identifying a person outside of the
immediate area that everyone in your household knows as
a contact. This person can serve as a communication broker,
receiving and relaying messages.
w Finally, be sure that your contacts are updated in your phone.
Consider developing text or chat groups for those you would need
to reach in an emergency.

RESOURCES
Barry, Rising Tide.
Department of Homeland Security, Ready.gov website.
Rubin, Emergency Management.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER:
1 What most motivates or empowers you to think about your own
preparedness for a disaster?
2 How would you answer the four questions posed at the
conclusion of this lecture about alerts and warnings, shelter
plans, evacuation routes, and communication plans?

7
LECTURE 2

DEVELOPING
A PREPAREDNESS PLAN

T
here are some basic, first steps that everyone can take toward
preparing themselves, their families, their pets, and others
for the possibility of a disaster. This includes building a basic
disaster plan and assembling physical and digital go kits.
Before diving into that, this lecture clarifies some basic concepts.
The first is understanding what distinguishes an emergency,
a disaster, and a catastrophe, and how that impacts the way we need
to think about preparedness. The second is to make the psychological
turn that allows us to recognize when disasters are occurring.

EMERGENCIES, DISASTERS, AND CATASTROPHES

The categorizations of routine emergency, disaster, and catastrophe
come from E. L. Quarantelli, one of the foremost disaster scholars
in the United States.
2. Developing a Preparedness Plan

A routine emergency is something that could happen every day. With

the exception of the persons directly impacted, whether victims or
first responders, there is not likely to be a broad community impact.
For instance, imagine that a train struck a car stalled on the tracks.
The driver escaped, so there were no injuries, but the scene would need
to be investigated and cleared, and traffic delays managed. This is
a routine emergency.
Compared to emergencies, disasters require significantly higher levels
of response, usually involving multiple agencies with many personnel
working together. Disruptions to daily life occur as persons are given
directions outside the norm, like to immediately leave their homes.
Organizations work together in ways they may not ordinarily, such as
by having high schools serve as shelters.
A catastrophe is not just a big disaster. It is something different entirely.
In catastrophes, the infrastructure of an area—including buildings,
roads, levees, and utilities—may be significantly damaged or destroyed.
Local response efforts will be insufficient, requiring national aid.
Everyday activities—such as work, school, recreation, and others—will
stop for long periods of time, disrupting the very fabric of a community.
Hurricane Katrina, which devastated New Orleans in 2005, was an
example of a catastrophe.
Plans have to take these degrees of disruption into account. Responders
need to know they will have to work together with regional partners
and ask residents to temporarily disrupt their activities in a disaster.
They also need to know that catastrophes may require a full rethinking
of how response and social necessities are provided. Everyday people
need to know that, too.

PROCESSING DISASTERS
Another framework, this one developed by Ronald Perry and Marjorie
Greene, addresses the mental processing we undertake as a disaster
occurs. Perry and Greene suggest that this happens in three steps.
The first step is risk identification, which is acknowledging that a risk
of some type exists. The presence of a warning message does not mean
that members of the public will acknowledge it. It’s common for persons
to look around, talk to friends and family, consult other sources, and
engage in other confirmations before deciding that a warning is real.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The second step is risk assessment, in which people ask if the threat
will affect them. Again, there is often an internal thought process that
shapes this consideration, as people may think about what information
they have been provided, how trustworthy the information is, how that
fits their personal context or location, and what has happened with
similar issues in the past.
The final step is risk reduction, in which persons decide what to do to
protect themselves. This, too, includes several considerations, including
an awareness of what alternatives are available and whether they are
likely to be effective and feasible.
Sometimes this is all done very
quickly, especially for disasters that
occur with no or little notice. Other THE JOPLIN TORNADO
times, there may be lengthier A 2011 tornado in Joplin,
considerations. This is especially Missouri, resulted in 161 deaths
the case if there is an impending and significant damages
disaster, such as a hurricane, that to the local community and
allows for more reflection time. its infrastructure. This was
a catastrophe. A study of
survivors found that 78 percent
received information about
the threat of a tornado, but
only 17 percent immediately
took protective actions.

10
2. Developing a Preparedness Plan

When the mandatory evacuation was ordered, it was perceived as an

effective and important risk reduction, and residents complied with it.
It was unlike any other incident that the area had experienced, the
information was perceived as credible, and it was able to be confirmed
by multiple sources, including the media, friends and family, reverse 911,
and even individual observations. In fact, in addition to the one-mile
radius where an evacuation was ordered, persons further away also
evacuated; this is known as a shadow evacuation and suggests that
safety concerns for personal safety were widely felt.

ALL-HAZARDS PLANNING
This lecture now turns to all-hazards planning, meaning plans that
can apply in a wide variety of circumstances. This is what FEMA
recommends even for the emergency operations plans that are
developed by organizations, cities, and states. It is more efficient to
develop an all-hazards plan than it is to develop a separate fire plan,
storm plan, earthquake plan, and so on.
The previous lecture introduced the four key considerations that can
start to shape a plan: how to receive notifications, where you would
shelter, what route you would use to evacuate, and how you would
maintain communication. To build on that foundation, some additional
questions are helpful:
w Other than family and friend networks, who might you need to
contact in a disaster, and do you have their information recorded?
w What could go wrong, and who would you need to talk to about that?
w Where should you plan to meet in the event of a disaster? Consider
establishing a designated meeting place that everyone in your
household knows and has recorded.
w How does your plan fit with those of schools, workplaces, long-term
care facilities, or other institutions that you interact with regularly?
How do they make decisions about early closure or evacuation, for
instance, and how will they notify you?
w What special needs of people you care about require accommodation
in your household plan? For example, are there any unique medical
or dietary needs that anyone in your household has?
w Do you have a plan for companion animals? For instance, do you
have sufficient supplies in terms of food, water, and medications? Is
your pet wearing a collar with an ID?

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

EVACUATION KITS
It’s possible that you may need to leave in a hurry. In that situation, it will
be helpful to have a collection of items you need to take on hand—that
is, a go kit. Envision this as a bag that is hopefully ready to go, and if not,
it should be one that can be packed in just a matter of a few minutes.
You may have some nonperishables or supplies already stored in the
kit. In that case, all you have to do is add a few more necessities. If you
keep water, medications, or food items in a preassembled go kit, be
sure to rotate new stocks in and out periodically so they don’t go bad.
You can also create a digital go kit that records some of the information
that will be helpful to have accessible, such as evacuation plans. The
benefit of a digital go kit is that the information included can be shared
with others in your household and loaded onto a phone or other
electronic device. If it is sensitive information, take steps to properly
secure it so that it does not leave your control. Options include password
protection, keeping it in a secured container, and so on.

THE FIVE PS
FEMA has identified five categories of things to keep in mind during an
evacuation. They are known as the five Ps:
w People and pets: Take care of these first. Make sure that you include
not only the human members of your household but also your
companion animals.
w Prescriptions and medications that are necessary. Also take care
of any medical equipment, glasses, hearing aids, and similar items.
w Papers and information, including personal identification, such as
a driver’s license, and any other important documentation.
w Personal needs, which includes food and water as well as a first aid
kit, hygiene items, a change of clothes, and perhaps a flashlight or
an old-fashioned radio (with charged batteries). Other items in this
category are electronic devices and their chargers, money, credit
and debit cards, and supplies for companion animals.
w Priceless items, such as family heirlooms, photo albums, and other
property that you want to take with you. While this is a priority, do
not delay evacuation and endanger yourself or others for items in
this category.

12
2. Developing a Preparedness Plan

Give some careful thought to your go kit and practice assembling

necessities to determine the best approach for you and your household.
This will allow you to have necessary items where they can quickly be
picked up in the event of an unanticipated evacuation.

RESOURCES
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals,
“Disaster Preparedness.”
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Preparedness 101.
Thomas, Phillips, Lovekamp, and Fothergill, Social Vulnerability
to Disasters.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What are the most important items that you would include in a
physical go kit or a virtual go kit?
2 What can be done to improve on risk identification, risk
assessment, and risk reduction processes, enhancing overall
preparedness?

13
LECTURE 3

IDENTIFYING HAZARDS
AND RESPONSES

T
his lecture discusses two pieces of doctrine from FEMA that
can help to put preparedness in context. These documents
help to build a framework that is useful for structuring
disaster planning. They are the National Preparedness Goal and
the Preparedness Cycle.

THE NATIONAL PREPAREDNESS GOAL

After the September 11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina,
national leaders recognized that additional work toward
preparation was necessary. When President Barack Obama took
office, he issued a directive that called for the creation of a goal of
national preparedness. The goal was released not long after. It is
written as an outcome, or a goal to be achieved:
A secure and resilient Nation with the capabilities required
across the whole community to prevent, protect against,
mitigate, respond to, and recover from the threats and
hazards that pose the greatest risk.
3. Identifying Hazards and Responses

Note that the focus is on “the threats and hazards that pose the
greatest risk.” This means that we shouldn’t randomly assume which
threats a given location is going to experience. Instead, we should
study the location to understand what threats are actually likely to
occur there.
The answer to which threats are likely in an area lies in two documents,
which are often combined into one. The first is a threat and hazard
identification and risk assessment, commonly known by the acronym
THIRA. It is the result of a scientific study of the location to map known
hazards. The second is a hazard mitigation plan, which explores actions
related to each hazard identified that can reduce their impacts or
enhance safety. Taken together, the THIRA and hazard mitigation plan
identify what needs to be addressed.

HANDLING THREATS
In response to threats, the National Preparedness Goal calls for people
“to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to, and recover.” To meet
the first two goals—prevention and protection—this question is helpful
as a guide: Are we ready to respond if this were to happen? For example,
a town might have a plan to notify residents of a risk and measures
like safety shelters, while
individuals need a plan
to receive and respond to INDIVIDUAL MITIGATION
such messages. For some types of disasters, individuals
Mitigation asks the can take part in mitigation. For instance,
question: If this incident in hurricane-prone areas, hurricane
was to occur someday, is shutters for windows are helpful.
there anything we could
do now to minimize the
damage? For instance, in a tsunami-prone area, officials could put
in building codes for tsunami-resistant construction features. Some
buildings could be required to meet thresholds that would allow them
to serve as vertical evacuation facilities, where persons could move to
a floor above the water level and be safe.
Response is what people do during an incident. For a tsunami, this could
include picking up a go bag that allows for evacuation at short notice.
It could include contacting family members who might not be at home
and transporting people and pets away. In other words, response is
what occurs during the heat of the moment as the incident is unfolding.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Finally, recovery is moving forward after the incident. This does not
mean that everything will be the same. For example, after a tsunami,
if buildings are destroyed, they may or may not be rebuilt exactly the
same. Residents and businesses may or may not return to the area.

THE PREPAREDNESS CYCLE

The second FEMA doctrine—
the Preparedness Cycle—
provides a framework for
putting plans into action.
The cycle’s steps are to plan,
equip, train, exercise, and
evaluate. Let’s take a look
at each of these activities.
Once you have a plan, the
first question to ask is if
you need any equipment or
supplies to make this plan
work. Equally important is
asking if those resources
are easily accessible. If you
don’t have the needed
equipment or supplies in an
easily accessible location,
remedy the situation.
Next, determine if there is any training that is necessary to activate your
plan or to use the supplies that you have. For example, if you have a go
bag with a first aid kit, you may need training on how to deliver first aid.
After you obtain the necessary training, it is time to put the plan in
action through practice. For example, if your plan has determined an
evacuation route, you can practice driving on it.
After this cycle—planning, equipping, training, and exercising—think
about what has worked well, what could be improved, whether
anything’s missing, if anything needs to be revised, and so on. Then,
adjust your plan accordingly. It is a good idea to go through this cycle
yearly, both to be familiar with it and to consider how it can continuously
be developed and improved.

16
3. Identifying Hazards and Responses

FIRST STEPS
Preparing for a disaster is a potentially lifesaving activity. There are
several first steps you can take to begin the process.
First, check in with your local emergency management office. This could
be at the town, city, county, or even state level. The people in these
offices are usually happy to share their expertise. They may also have
copies of their THIRA or hazard mitigation plan to share.
Second, start to keep a preparedness log, which can turn into
a preparedness plan. List the known hazards. For each, consider what
can be done to prepare, mitigate, respond, and recover, while also
noting any special needs that individuals may have. Here, nonprofit
organizations can also be of assistance. An example is the Red Cross,
which has a disaster relief and recovery section.
Third, think about how you can apply the preparedness cycle.
This involves planning, securing necessary supplies and equipment,
getting training and education, practicing, and evaluating results.

RESOURCES
Federal Emergency Management Agency, A Whole Community
Approach to Emergency Management.
Phillips, Neal, and Webb, Introduction to
Emergency Management.
Schulz, “The Really Big One.”

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What are the most significant hazards facing your location?
How would preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery
apply to them?
2 For one potential hazard that could occur in your location, how
would the preparedness cycle apply to your personal or family
preparedness efforts?

17
Disaster Planning List
Example: Possible Planning Issues for a Tornado

Hazard Preparedness Mitigation Response Recovery

Tornado Subscribe Build safe Seek shelter Alternate

to weather room shelter? Does
alerts insurance
cover storm
damage?

Complete the Table for Potential Hazards in Your Area

Hazard Preparedness Mitigation Response Recovery

Hazard Preparedness Mitigation Response Recovery
Special Considerations
Hazard Recovery
Example: Adam Example: Asthma inhaler
Example: Fido (Pet) Example: Prescription dog food
Special Considerations
Hazard Recovery
LECTURE 4

MAKING DECISIONS
IN A DISASTER

T
his lecture discusses what research reveals about how people
behave in disasters. The lecture also discusses the SORT
model of crisis decision making: S for size up, O for objectives,
R for respond safely, and T for think carefully. Nothing is perfect, and
disasters are frequently accompanied by emotions such as fear,
a desire for urgent action, and incomplete information. However,
the SORT model can help in identifying some best practices that
can promote effective decision making and responses.

THE MIRACLE ON THE HUDSON

On January 15, 2009, US Airways flight 1549 took off from LaGuardia
Airport in New York City, heading for Charlotte, North Carolina. The
flight crew, Captain Chesley Sullenberger and First Officer Jeffrey
Skiles, piloted the aircraft over the New York City skyline when,
suddenly and unexpectedly, there was a bird strike less than two
minutes into the flight. This resulted in the aircraft losing power in
both engines.
4. Making Decisions in a Disaster

The subsequent exchanges between Captain Sullenberger and air

traffic control revealed a dire situation, as options for returning to
an airport were progressively ruled out. The aircraft had no engine
power, and the only viable option was to land the aircraft in the Hudson
River, which Captain Sullenberger did masterfully, saving the lives of
all passengers and crew on board.
The only notice to the passengers of what was happening, other than
their own observations of the aircraft clearly losing altitude, was the
captain’s announcement over the public address system to “brace
for impact” and the flight attendants’ instructions to do so. When
the aircraft landed in the river, it was evacuated quickly. Captain
Sullenberger walked the center aisle twice to make sure no one was
left behind. As soon as the plane made its emergency landing, boats
were already heading in its direction to assist with rescue operations,
and all persons had been picked up within 20 minutes.

LESSONS FROM THE HUDSON INCIDENT

There is much to learn about crisis decision making from this incident.
First, the flight crew and air traffic controllers were in control, reviewing
information as it was known, and they maintained a calm and collected
demeanor. Looking at the passengers, while the urgency of the situation
was clear, there was minimal panic. There was altruism. Passengers
assisted one another, and bystanders, in the form of boat and ferry
pilots, rushed to the scene to help. This tells us something about how
people tend to behave in a crisis, and it is generally positive.

23
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The second is that this landing could only be accomplished with a strong
sense of awareness about what was going on—also called situational
awareness—and with an ability to quickly assess the situation, the
available options, and to decide about the best available resolution.
That takes careful and deliberate critical thinking.

RESEARCH FINDINGS
Public behavior in a disaster is usually good. Numerous research
studies have confirmed this finding. Disaster movies and some media
reporting patterns may suggest the opposite, implying widespread
panic and deviant public behaviors, but this is not usually the case. Let’s
look at the conclusions that research suggests. For example, while panic
may sometimes genuinely occur, the label is often misused: People who
appear to be panicking—for instance, by rapidly fleeing a building—
may actually be acting rationally in response to danger.
Another common belief is that in a disaster, people freeze and become
unable to function because they don’t know what to do. This has been
called disaster syndrome. This is very rare, and when it does occur,
it tends to be associated with witnessing significant physical trauma
to a person or significant destruction to a building. Even then, it is
not widespread.

24
4. Making Decisions in a Disaster

Instead of freezing, people often look for ways to help. Volunteers

spontaneously mobilize to see what they can do. Search and rescue
efforts may be undertaken by the public. This is called emergent
behavior, as the public looks for new ways, separate from their ordinary
day-to-day activities, to be of help. For example, consider how New
Yorkers came together on and after September 11, 2001, and the heroes
on Flight 93 who made the decision to fight back against the terrorists
on the same day.

SORT: SIZING UP
Helpful guidelines for behaving in a disaster can be remembered
with the SORT mnemonic: size up, objectives, respond safely, and
think carefully.
When professional responders arrive on a scene, their first step is to
quickly assess what’s going on. This is known as a size up, and it helps
to determine the appropriate response. This is often done quickly, but
a sampling of the type of questions that may be asked follows:
w First, what exactly is happening? What threats are there? What are
the weather conditions? Is there any damage? Are there any injuries?
What resources are available?
w Next, where is the incident location? Is it small and localized, or so
large that the entire area is impacted? Are there any safe spaces
within the area, or is the entire space at risk? Do you need to move
from one place to another, and is the area passable?
w Then, who is affected? How many people? Do they have any special
needs? Is there a need for any kind of emergency care, sheltering,
or life necessities? Do affected populations include children or the
elderly? Are there animals that need care?
w Next, consider: When do you need to act? How urgent is the
situation? Are there any issues that must be handled now, and are
there others that can wait? How long ago did the situation develop,
and is it continuing to develop, or are you primarily dealing with the
aftermath at this point?
w The question of why may or may not be relevant. For example,
if it’s coming from a place of frustration, trying to figure out why
something happened may not be the most helpful use of energy.
On the other hand, if there is an active threat present and you can
identify the cause, then this is useful information, especially if it
can be communicated to responders.

25
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

w Considering impacts helps you to identify the results of the disaster.

Are people being hurt? Are situations likely to cause injury, even if
none has occurred yet? Are buildings at risk of damage or collapse?
This can inform how rapidly a response must be made and what
form it might take.
w And all of this leads to the cumulative question: With all of this
information, how will you respond? Recognize that calling for help
is a legitimate response. To help guide the how, or the response, we’ll
borrow another page from professional emergency management
decision making by having an orderly process for thinking about
what to do.

SORT: DEVELOPING OBJECTIVES

After completing the size up, the next step is to develop objectives.
This step asks: What needs to be accomplished, by whom, and when?
Objectives should reflect the priorities that emergency managers know
by the acronym LIP, which stands for life safety, incident stabilization,
and property preservation.
For instance, in an incident where a major landslide has occurred,
life safety would refer to the rescue of persons who had been
injured or trapped. Incident stabilization would refer to cleaning up
the landslide and taking measures to stabilize the slope. Property
preservation would refer to the restoration of buildings or vehicles that
may be damaged.
In developing a plan of action, approach it by considering what
steps need to be accomplished, with life safety as the primary
focus. Directly addressing the cause of an incident is a role for
professional responders.

SORT: RESPOND SAFELY

Next comes the exhortation to respond safely. It is critical to ensure that
a scene is safe and that an action is safe. Do not put yourself or others
at risk as you are working to respond to a crisis.
This can be challenging. How can we assume a climate of safety
and be comfortable to question actions that are unsafe? A helpful
concept here is called crew resource management (CRM), which is
utilized in the fire service and had its origins in commercial aviation.

26
4. Making Decisions in a Disaster

The CRM doctrine is fairly detailed, but there are several valuable
points to keep in mind. These are all addressed by the International
Association of Fire Chiefs in their CRM guidance.
One is the importance of effective communication when challenging
a potentially unsafe or unwise action. Here is the approach the CRM
recommends: Address the person by name, express your feeling,
identify the problem, propose an alternative, and ask for feedback.
It’s important to be willing to communicate and to avoid the presence
of groupthink, in which no one is willing to speak out and challenge or
question a decision. If it only looks like everyone is in agreement when
they’re in reality not, that can lead to lingering doubts and not having
a full commitment to the response that is underway. Groupthink also
tends to minimize situational awareness and lead to safety risks.
When thinking about safety, there are a number of attitudes that can
promote unsafe practices and that need to be challenged. Some of these
may occur because someone is trying to help, but the implementation
of that help is flawed. If you see signs of these attitudes, it may be
necessary to intervene:
w Going rogue. This is when someone flouts rules and is not
a team player.
w Acting first and thinking later. Running into a scene without knowing
what’s going on, or without thinking about how to address any
threats, poses safety risks.
w Hero complex. This is assuming that nothing will go wrong, and
heroes don’t have to take time to think. In reality, things can go
wrong, and quickly.
w Showing off. This is the belief that a person has to prove
themselves, even if it means going out on a limb. This can result in
unnecessary risks.
w Giving in. This is a concept of going along to get along, but with
the underlying premise that it doesn’t matter anyway. In addition
to being potentially fatalistic, this lets possibly unnecessary safety
risks go unchallenged.
w Wanting to hurry up. This occurs when the perceived goal is to just
get something done so everything can get back to normal. In other
words, this attitude follows the idea that the sooner the problem
is resolved, the sooner normal will be here. However, it may be
a while before normal gets here, and some situations aren’t so
easily resolved.

27
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

SORT: THINK CAREFULLY

Finally, after sizing up a situation, thinking through objectives,
and responding safely, it is important to think carefully. This means
avoiding the pitfalls that can detract from recognizing the big picture
of what’s happening.
Joseph Pfeifer was a battalion chief in the New York City Fire Department
on September 11, 2001. He was the first battalion chief to arrive at the
World Trade Center and initiate incident command. In a provocative
paper on crisis leadership, there are two barriers to effective crisis
leadership that he described. Each of these represents a pitfall to avoid.
The first is what Pfeifer calls operational addiction. This occurs when
leaders become so involved in the details of how something will get
done that they miss the forest for the trees. Planning is important, but
you should never lose sight of the big picture.
The other barrier is normalcy bias. Normalcy bias can cause someone
to fail to see a disaster or crisis for what it is, instead treating it like
a situation that would be handled just as any other routine circumstance
would be. Disasters are different from everyday emergencies. It’s
important to be able to recognize that and not to be lulled into the
false sense of security that the normalcy bias can bring.

RESOURCES
Auf der Heide, “Common Misperceptions about Disasters.”
Pfeifer, Crisis Leadership.
Survivors of Flight 1549, Prochnau, and Parker, Miracle on
the Hudson.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What do you think are the most important lessons learned about
crisis decision making that can be drawn from this lecture?
2 What are the most notable challenges to effective crisis decision
making, and how can they be overcome?

28
 LECTURE 5
ESSENTIAL
LIFESAVING SKILLS

O
ne part of preparedness is seeking training about practical
skills that you can use to help others or to help yourself.
This lecture provides an overview of some of those skills.
For more detailed demonstrations of the skills, refer to the video
or audio lecture.

CPR AND AEDS

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a technique for providing
assistance to persons who are in cardiac arrest. This includes people
who are not breathing and have no heartbeat.
There are multiple historical origins for CPR, but CPR as we now
know it was largely based on the work of two teams of scientists.
One team consisted of Peter Safar and James Elam, who had
put forward the idea of rescue breathing—that is, the pulmonary
component of CPR. On the other team were William Kouwenhoven,
Guy Knickerbocker, and Jim Jude, who put forward the idea of chest
compressions—that is, the cardio part of CPR.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

There are some slight variations in how CPR is presented. The most
notable distinction is between layperson CPR and CPR for health-care
providers. Layperson CPR teaches protocols for individuals rather than
teams, without the distraction of trying to locate a pulse, and without
the use of specialized medical equipment other than perhaps a basic
protective face shield.
There are many organizations that can provide certification in CPR,
including the American Red Cross, American Heart Association,
Emergency Care and Safety Institute, American Safety and Health
Institute, National Safety Council, and others. The same organizations
that teach CPR generally also teach the use of automated external
defibrillators, or AEDs. Many public buildings now have AEDs positioned
in common areas. If doing CPR in a public building, in addition to having
someone call 911, direct someone to locate and bring an AED.

GENERAL TIPS: CHOKING

There are other cases in which a person is not in cardiac arrest but still
requires assistance. This is the realm of first aid. The same providers
who offer CPR and AED training also offer first aid training. Learning
first aid can require extensive study, but this lecture provides a look at
some broad types of first aid.
In 1974, a physician named Henry Heimlich developed the Heimlich
maneuver, which is an emergency intervention for persons who
are choking. The signal accepted as universal to indicate choking is
crossing the hands over the neck. You can also ask, “Are you choking?”
to a person who appears to be in distress. If someone is able to cough
strongly, then encourage them to do so, but be vigilant in case their
status changes.
If a person is having difficulty breathing, coughing, or speaking,
or if their airway is fully blocked, the Heimlich maneuver may clear
the blockage. Ask someone to call 911 and put it on speaker phone
if possible.
To begin, stand behind the person, with them leaning ever so slightly
forward. Make a fist and place it against the person’s abdomen
just above the navel, with the thumb side of your fist inward.
Grasp your fist with your other hand and give abdominal thrusts to
dislodge the object. Repeat until the object is dislodged. If the individual
becomes unresponsive, then begin CPR.

30
5. Essential Lifesaving Skills

THE ORIGINS
OF FIRST AID
The first public class in
first aid was offered in
London in 1878. In the
United States, the
American Red Cross
helped to popularize
first aid training and
services, especially in
the early 20th century.
Sometimes you may encounter a person
who is breathing, but who is unresponsive.
A standard practice is to make sure these persons are in the rescue
or recovery position, which helps to make sure they will maintain their
breathing. Again, have someone call 911 or, if no one is present, do it
yourself. An unresponsive person needs immediate care.
One critique that has been made against the recovery position is that it
leads to the presumption that the person is breathing, just because they
were when they were put into the position. Keep in mind that a person’s
health status can change, meaning careful monitoring is necessary.

GENERAL TIPS: SHOCK

It is helpful to learn to recognize the signs of other life-threatening
conditions, all of which require immediate treatment. Call 911 and seek
assistance. Shock is a condition that exists when there is not enough
blood flow to deliver the oxygen that bodily systems require. Injuries,
infections, allergic reactions, dehydration, and a number of other
factors can cause shock. One of the impacts of shock is a significant
drop in blood pressure, which can lead to death.
It may be difficult to fully determine whether a person is in shock, so
err on the side of caution and seek medical treatment if you think it is
occurring. Persons in shock may appear confused or not fully alert.

31
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

To judge a person’s health status, the medical community will sometimes

use the standard of conscious, alert, and oriented times three.
This means the person is conscious, responsive to the environment,
and can answer three orientation questions by indicating their name,
their current location, and the date or time.
Persons who are not conscious, alert, and oriented times three may be
in shock or may have other conditions that require care. In addition,
persons in shock may be pale and have cool extremities, a quick
breathing pattern, and a rapid pulse. Sixty to 100 beats per minute is
usually in the ballpark of a normal heart rate.
Persons in shock may also feel sick, be nauseous, or be sweating.
In some cases, they may be unconscious. Keep the person warm in
a reclining position and get help.
Food allergies, bee or other insect stings or bites, certain medications,
and other triggers can cause anaphylaxis—that is, an allergic
reaction. One key concern here is that anaphylaxis can
cause respiratory distress if it is untreated. Some
persons carry injectable epinephrine, which is
an emergency treatment for anaphylaxis.
It does not replace the need to seek
medical attention, but it can provide some
immediate relief.

GENERAL TIPS: STROKE

Another emergency condition is a stroke. OPIOIDS
A stroke occurs when the brain does Opioid drug use is
not receive enough oxygen because of widespread in the
insufficient blood flow. Signs of a stroke US as of this course’s
include problems with vision, speech, taping. This includes
or balance, severe headache, nausea, heroin, fentanyl, and
a feeling that one side of the body is weak prescription opioid
or numb, and disorientation. painkillers. A product
There is a test for stroke known as FAST, called naloxone is
standing for face, arms, speech, and available in a variety
time. For the face, ask the person to smile of forms, including
and look for whether one side of the face a nasal injection,
droops. For the arms, ask the person to raise which can help to
both arms and watch to see if one arm is reverse an opioid
less responsive. overdose.

32
5. Essential Lifesaving Skills

To test speech, ask the person to repeat a sentence. Can the person do
it, or is there confusion or slurring? Finally, the time component means
help is needed as soon as possible.

GENERAL TIPS: BLEEDING CONTROL

When it comes to bleeding control, a helpful program is called Stop the
Bleeding. There are certified Stop the Bleed trainers across the country,
and you can learn more at Bleedingcontrol.org. You can also check in
with your local public health or EMS office, which may be able to direct
you to bleeding control classes.
Serious blood loss can quickly become fatal. Stop the Bleed teaches
several techniques. One is the use of direct pressure, which is simply
pressing down on a wound with a gauze. Even better is hemostatic
gauze, which contains clotting agents to slow the bleeding.
Sometimes this will not be enough, and it may not be possible to apply
sufficient pressure to stop bleeding in all areas of the body or to control
internal bleeding. If the wound is on an arm or leg, use a tourniquet if
you have access to one. If the wound continues bleeding, the tourniquet
is not tight enough. Sometimes you might even need to use multiple
tourniquets, the second placed further up the extremity than the first.
Make a note of when you placed the tourniquet; it will be important for
hospital staff to know how long it has been on. Rapid medical care is
essential for treatment of the underlying cause of the bleeding.
There are two additional measures also taught to laypersons but which
take additional training. They are packing a wound and the use of
chest seals.

SKILLS FOR HOME USE

This lecture concludes with some practical skills for use in the home.
Everyone should know how to shut off utilities in their home, including
electricity, water, and natural gas. For example, in some situations,
electricity may become a fire hazard. If electrical wires are exposed,
it is also an electrocution hazard. Most homes have a circuit box with
a control for individual circuits and for power to the home as a whole.
Ready.gov, the US government’s emergency preparedness site,
recommends turning off the individual circuits and then the switch for
the home as a whole.

33
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

If there is a natural gas leak in the home, it could lead to a fire or

explosion. If you believe that there is a leak, leave a window open and
evacuate the house. If you can shut off the flow of gas from the outside,
do so, and call the gas company. There are different types of shutoffs, so
check with your gas company on how to do so and for general natural
gas safety issues.
There may be circumstances where a water supply has been
compromised such that it is not safe to use. Leaks can also be a problem.
If you need to shut off the water, make sure you know where the shut-
off valve is located. This will vary by location, so you should check with
your water company.
Finally, every home should have a fire extinguisher, and residents
should know how to use it. Local fire departments often provide classes
on fire extinguisher use and the opportunity to practice. To begin, take
a look at the type of fire extinguisher you have. There are different
classes: A, B, C, D, and K. Class A fire extinguishers are for solids that
burn, like paper, wood, and other items. Class B fire extinguishers are
for flammable liquids, like grease or gasoline. Class C fire extinguishers
are for electrical fires.
Class D fire extinguishers are for certain metals that may burn, and
Class K extinguishers are for cooking oils and grease. Homes typically
have ABC combination extinguishers, which work on A, B, and C fire
sources. Class D and K are less likely found in homes, as they are more
likely used in industrial and commercial locations.

34
5. Essential Lifesaving Skills

Be sure that your fire extinguisher remains charged, so the needle is in

the green. If not, it will need to be recharged. Some fire departments
may do this, or you may need to take it to a fire service company. In the
event of a fire, someone needs to call 911. Only use a fire extinguisher
if the fire is small and has not spread from its point of origin, is not
producing high levels of smoke or fumes, is not obscuring visibility, is
not preventing you from breathing, and is not overheating the room.
Make sure you have an evacuation route behind you. If the fire
extinguisher does not put the fire out, evacuate; if it does put the fire
out, be aware that reignition is possible, so maintain a safe distance in
the event that occurs.
To use the extinguisher, remember the acronym PASS. The P is for
pulling the pin from the extinguisher, which allows you to use it. The A is
for aiming the hose. Aim at the base—not the top—of the fire. The first
S is for squeezing the handle to allow the extinguishing agent to flow
through the hose. The second S is for sweeping the hose back and forth
at the base of the fire until it is out. Stand by at a safe distance to make
sure it doesn’t reignite. Be prepared for the extinguisher to make a noise
and to give a small amount of pushback as you use it.

RESOURCES
American College of Emergency Physicians, First Aid Manual.
Department of Homeland Security, “Safety Skills.”
US Fire Administration, “Choosing and Using Fire Extinguishers.”

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What agencies or organizations in your area provide formal
training or certification in the skill sets described in this lecture?
2 In what instances do you think members of the public should be
encouraged to render aid during a crisis?

35
LECTURE 6

WHAT TO DO IN A FIRE

F
ire is a real threat. Its annual impacts are substantial in terms
of property loss, financial impact, and safety of people.
This lecture serves as a beginning for investigating fire safety.
The preparations it discusses can help save lives and property.

THE COMPONENTS OF FIRE

The components needed to produce fire are fuel, heat, oxygen,
and a chemical reaction, known collectively as the fire tetrahedron.
Fuel is what is burning. A heat source is required to elevate the
temperature to the point where something burns. Two
ways this can be conceptualized are the flash point and
the autoignition point of a substance.
The flash point is the temperature at which
something will burn when a flame is introduced,
and the autoignition point is the temperature
at which something will burn when it simply
reaches that necessary level of heat, even
without a flame being introduced. If the
levels of heat are not high enough, a fire
will not start.
6. What to Do in a Fire

Oxygen is required to sustain fire. If oxygen is removed, the fire goes

out. Finally, fire is best viewed as a chemical reaction that occurs when
the other three elements are present. There are some chemical agents
that are designed specifically to disrupt the chemical reaction, which
then extinguishes the fire.

FIRE SUPPRESSION AND PREVENTION

The fire tetrahedron underlies much of fire prevention—that is, trying to
keep fires from occurring—and suppression, which is putting out fires
that do occur. For suppression, water—whether from a sprinkler, hose,
or water-based extinguisher—can remove heat and possibly smother
the fire from oxygen. Chemical extinguishers can also smother the fire.
For prevention, it’s important to keep easily combustible materials—
fuels with a low flash point or autoignition point—away from flames
and heat sources. In situations where flames or hot fuels are already
present, such as with cooking, one of the best forms of prevention is
being vigilant.
Two of the most dangerous and dramatic effects in structural fires,
in particular, are a direct product of the fire tetrahedron. These are
the flashover and backdraft. Imagine that an object in a room begins
burning, and superheated gases are unable to vent out from the room.
They collect toward the ceiling because heat rises. As they remain and
grow, they radiate heat back into the room. If they continue to do so,
and the autoignition point is reached, the entire room may nearly
simultaneously combust, escalating the fire dramatically.
If the gases are able to roll into another space, even if it is not the
same room as the fire, they can similarly radiate heat that leads to
a flashover. This is a product of heat and fuel in an environment with
oxygen present.
The backdraft occurs in an environment where oxygen is absent. If a fire
burns in a closed space, it may burn out the available oxygen, making
it appear that the fire is out and only smoldering. However, if oxygen is
then introduced because a door or window is opened to allow oxygen
in, then the fire can explosively reignite.
These phenomena illustrate the complexity of fire. What appears to
be a fire burning out may be a fire capable of producing a backdraft.
What appears to be a fire confined to one piece of furniture in a room
may flashover and unexpectedly and rapidly consume the entire room,
or other rooms, in a structure.

37
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

A UNIQUE CLOUD
In some wildfires, a unique type
of cloud called a pyrocumulus
sometimes develops. As fuel is
burning, upward drafting air
currents pull oxygen into the
fire, helping to sustain it. A cloud
forms above as evaporated
moisture condenses on smoke
particles. These clouds, which
build rapidly, can actually
produce rain to help put the fire
out, but they can also generate
lightning, which can ignite
more fires, and air currents
RESIDENTIAL FIRES that spread burning embers.
There are some trends in the
causes of residential fires, and
for each, there are some recommendations for prevention. Cooking-
related fires make up approximately half of all home fires. To prevent
cooking-related fires, it’s important to be sure that your cooking area
is free of items that could catch on fire, such as towels placed by the
burner, a container that ignites, the recipe you’re working from, and
even some food items and oils.
Whether from direct contact with a pot, pan, burner, or heat radiating
from them, a fire can begin. Remember that heat by itself is enough to
reach an autoignition point that can start a fire. In addition to keeping
flammable items away, be sure to wipe down surfaces where the
contents of a pan may have splattered or bubbled over.
In addition, never leave pots and pans unattended. If a fire were to
start, there may only be moments in which action can be taken before
it grows out of control, such as using a properly rated fire extinguisher.
This is particularly a concern for grease fires or oil fires. They can ignite,
and quickly.
38
6. What to Do in a Fire

The second most common cause of residential fires is

related to heating devices. This is usually attributed
to something like a space heater that does not
have enough clearance between it and flammable
materials. Three feet is generally recommended, as is
only using heaters that are rated by a national ratings
service and those that have a feature that causes
them to automatically shut off if tipped over. If you use
a fireplace, having an annual inspection and cleaning of
the flue can avoid flue fires.
The third most common cause of residential fires is electrical equipment.
It is very important that wiring systems meet code standards. Likewise,
all appliance cords should be in good condition, and extension cords
should be used only minimally. Extension cords should
never be in a chain sequence, used permanently, or
used for large appliances. Surge protection power
strips, rated for safety, are preferable. Bear in mind
that cords can also pose a trip-and-fall hazard,
but at the same time should not be stapled to walls or
concealed under carpets.
Smoking, while not one of the top three causes of home fires, is actually
the leading cause of deaths in residential fires. Almost a quarter of home
fire deaths are attributed to it. Smoking should be done
outside, and ashtrays should not tip or be emptied into
trash canisters that can burn or contain flammable
items. Candles should be used only with caution in
stands that will not tip, and they should never be left
unattended or placed near flammable materials. If
a clothing dryer is located in the home, ensuring that the
lint trap remains clean and that the vents are regularly
cleaned is also important for fire prevention.

FOUR EXCELLENT STEPS

This lecture now turns to four of the best steps you can take to prepare
for a residential fire. Three of the four are easy and inexpensive.
The other one is neither easy nor inexpensive, but it is tremendously
effective. That recommendation is to install a sprinkler system in new
home construction. Sprinklers are designed to activate when a sprinkler
head reaches a certain temperature, and then they very quickly douse
a room with water.

39
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The first easy, affordable step is to install smoke detectors if your home
doesn’t already have them. Smoke detectors save lives. Make sure
that the batteries are changed on a regular basis. They
should be present on every level, and the National Fire
Protection Association particularly recommends that
they be located inside each bedroom in the home,
in the halls or other areas outside bedrooms, and
near stairways on levels that do not have bedrooms.
In addition to smoke detectors, carbon monoxide
detectors should also be placed on each level of the house,
including bedrooms.
Second, buy a fire extinguisher. This course
recommends one for each level of the house.
Make sure everyone knows where they
are and how to use them. There should
be a fire extinguisher in the kitchen at
an absolute minimum.
Third, develop a home fire safety plan. Fires can happen
suddenly and unexpectedly, and they may escalate quickly.
During a fire is not the time to wonder what to do. For each room
in the house, identify two ways out. Most homes are now designed to
have two points of egress, or escape, from a room, including windows.
Identify a meeting place outside of the home where you and any other
persons residing there can meet. Once you are out, make sure that
someone calls the fire department. Dial 911 and be prepared to report
where you are and what is going on. Don’t go back inside.
Finally, practice. This helps make sure that you know the plan and are
ready to use it. In thinking about the plan and practicing it, be sure to
keep in mind that fires may happen during the daytime or nighttime,
in different seasons, and with heavy smoke that may block your views
and require you to stay low to the ground to get to the closest exit.
When evacuating, a hot door or doorknob means there may be fire
on the other side. In this case, it’s best to use an alternate exit. When
a fire notification like an alarm or smoke detector sounds, it’s time to
evacuate with your family and pets. There won’t be time to pack a bag
or gather your valuables.
If you are exposed to fire and your clothing catches on fire, use the
stop, drop, roll, cool, and call protocol. While it may be a first instinct to
move or run, stop and drop to the floor, roll to put the fire out, cool any
burned area, and call for help as soon as possible.

40
6. What to Do in a Fire

WILDFIRES
When there is a wildfire, the outside environment itself is the source of
the danger. If a wildfire is approaching, the goal should be to evacuate
the entire area, even if that means leaving your home behind. In 2017,
71,500 wildfire incidents burned across 10 million acres. As a result of
these fires, more than 12,000 structures burned, and 10 firefighters lost
their lives battling the blazes.
The wildland-urban interface is critically important to wildfire
preparedness. The wildland-urban interface essentially refers to the
boundary between true wildlands and lands that have been developed
for human habitation and commerce.
There is rarely a fine line, but rather
a blurring of one into the other. A PAIR OF RESOURCES
Because wildfires are a significant Two excellent resources for
problem addressing large areas, fire preparedness are your
several programs have been local fire department and
established to help prepare for them. the National Fire Protection
These include programs like Firewise Association.
USA, sponsored by the National Fire
Protection Association; Ready, Set,
Go!, developed by the California
Department of Forestry and Fire Protection; and the Fire Adapted
Communities Learning Network, a program of the National Wildfire
Coordinating Group. Further information about each is available online.

WILDFIRE PREPAREDNESS
There are several wildfire preparedness steps you can take. First, if you
are told to evacuate because of a wildfire, go. Monitor local conditions
to be aware of the fire risk or of any fires active in the area. Have
your go kit prepared, gather family and pets, and move out quickly
if necessary.
Second, meet regularly as a community with fire officials. They can
help you best understand preparedness measures and how home or
landscape design can help prevent fire.
Third, be aware of issues pertaining to air quality. This is particularly
true if you or anyone in your household has respiratory challenges, but
even for persons who have no history of respiratory illnesses, the smoky
air that can come with a wildfire can make breathing difficult. This may
require evacuation or the use of air and breathing filters.

41
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Fourth, know your geography, including egress routes. Neighborhoods

should have at least two roadways that provide points of exit.
For  example, certain roads might become blocked because of debris
or downed power lines, requiring alternative ways out of the area.
As fires grow and evolve, access may change, and evacuations may
change as well. Remember that GPS probably doesn’t know where
the fire is.
Fifth, consider how design can contribute to fire protection. While
some fires cannot be prevented, there are steps that property owners
can take to enhance protections. These include following construction
codes that specify the use of fire-resistant materials. Another measure
is keeping a clear zone free of flammable materials, trees, leaves,
mulch, and shrubbery around the home, grass excepted. Other steps
include monitoring to ensure that there is a minimal amount of ignitable
material (such as deck furniture) and minimizing points where embers
could enter the home or vehicles.

RESOURCES
American Red Cross, “Home Fire Safety.”
Guthrie, Finucane, Keith, and Stinnett, After Action Review of the
November 28, 2016 Firestorm.
National Fire Protection Association, “Preparing Homes for
Wildfire.”

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What specific elements would you include in your home fire
safety plan?
2 What do you see as the key distinctions between prevention
and preparedness for a wildfire compared to a residential fire?

42
 6. What to Do in a Fire

Fire Safety Checklist If there is a fire, you may have less than
3 minutes to get out of your home. Talk
for Homeowners about what you should do to be safe.
Make sure everyone in your home knows
and Renters what to do if there is a fire.

Put a check in front of each statement that is true for your home.

Smoke Alarms Carbon Monoxide Alarms

{{ Smoke alarms are on every level of the home.
{{ Carbon monoxide alarms are located on each level
{{ Smoke alarms are inside and outside sleeping areas.
of the home.
{{ Smoke alarms are tested each month.
{{ Carbon monoxide alarms are less than 7 years old.
{{ Smoke alarm batteries are changed as needed.

Electrical and Appliance Safety

{{ Smoke alarms are less than 10 years old.

{{ All electrical cords are in good condition and not

broken or cut.
{{ People clean the dryer of lint after every use.
Test your alarm regularly. {{ All plug outlets are safe and do not feel warm when
Your smoke alarm is working you touch them. (If they are warm, call the landlord
if it makes a noise when you or an electrician.)
press the “test” button.
Candle Safety
{{ Candles are in sturdy fire-proof containers that
won’t be tipped over.
Cooking Safety {{ Adults blow out all candles when leaving the room
or going to bed.
{{ The cooking area has no items that can burn.
{{ Candles are kept out of reach from children and pets.
{{ People stay in the kitchen when they are frying,
grilling, boiling, or broiling food.
{{ Pot handles are always turned toward the back of
the stove. Children are sometimes
curious about fire.
Escape Plan If you have children in your
home, lock up any items that
{{ There is a fire escape plan that shows 2 ways out can start a fire (matches,
of every room. lighters, cigarettes, etc.) and
{{ Everyone knows where the safe meeting place is make sure children cannot
outside the home. reach candles.
{{ Everyone living in the house practices the escape
plan 2 times a year.

Source:
Learn US
moreFire Administration
about fire prevention:
www.usfa.fema.gov
Federal Emergency Management Agency
www.usfa.fema.gov

43
LECTURE 7

WHEN THE EARTH

SHAKES OR OPENS

E
arthquakes can happen in many places, and humans can’t
predict them. After years and years of work, the most
advanced warning systems can provide notice in the range
of minutes and seconds, but not much beyond that. Even that is
not a fully developed science. Earthquakes can be devastating,
and preparation for them is necessary. This lecture examines
what earthquake preparedness looks like, and it also examines the
issues of volcano preparedness and sinkholes.

THE BASICS
When it comes to earthquake preparedness, basic measures
such as a go kit, a family communication and meeting plan, and
knowledge of local geography can help. Water and nonperishable
food are also helpful. Rotate the water supply periodically, as it
can go bad.
7. When the Earth Shakes or Opens

The most likely cause of injury during an earthquake is falling objects.

If you live in an earthquake-prone area, one key preparedness measure
is to make sure that heavy furniture is affixed to the wall, which can
be done with straps or braces. The same goes for heavy light fixtures
or shelving, and the hot water heater or appliances that are powered
by natural gas.
Another hazard that accompanies earthquakes is fire. As natural gas
lines are disrupted and power lines are downed, fires can start, and it
may take some time for fire departments to respond. Learn where your
natural gas shutoff is located and how to operate it; the utility company
can help in providing that information.

DURING AN EARTHQUAKE
During an earthquake, you may hear a low rumbling sound as the
earthquake begins. Furniture may begin to shake, and items in
a building may begin to rattle. If it’s a small earthquake, you might not
even realize it has happened, instead thinking that a large truck must
have driven by. If it’s a large enough earthquake, you will feel it, and it
may be disorienting.
The advice that is given for protection during an earthquake is to drop,
cover, and hold on. Dropping means to get on your hands and knees.
Otherwise, you may be knocked down, which can cause injury. Covering
refers to getting under sturdy furniture. If there is nothing for you to take
shelter under, or if you aren’t physically able to do so, cover yourself with
your hands and arms. An alternative is to use something like a pillow
or sturdy book to protect your head and neck first, but also your chest
and abdomen.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

DOORWAYS
Many people have heard the
advice to stand in a doorway
during earthquakes. Unless
the building is particularly
weak, this is not good advice.
In contemporary structures
built to codes, the doorway
is not necessarily stronger
than other areas. If you are
standing in the doorway,
you are exposed to the most
significant danger in an
earthquake: flying or falling
objects.
Being close to an interior wall is
usually safer than an exterior wall,
but be careful around windows, as
the glass may break. If you’re in bed, use a pillow to protect your head.
The third step, holding on, refers to holding on to the furniture you are
sheltered under, or holding on to protect your head and neck if you
don’t have a shelter.
If you’re outside, stay there. However, try to move away from risks. Get
away from buildings, because exterior walls are the most vulnerable,
especially if they are adorned with decorative features. Power lines
and gas lines are dangerous as well. As a general rule, an open area
without utilities and with no visible sinkholes is the best.
If you’re in a car, stop and stay in your car. Again, avoid visible
hazards, like overpasses, underpasses, or power lines. Try to pull to
the curb, if possible and if safe. If you continue driving, watch very
carefully for damages and hazards. This not only includes roadways,
but also locations where you stop. For instance, a gas station may
be dangerous if gas is leaking and power lines are down. If a power
line comes in contact with your car, stay inside until help arrives and
the line is de-energized. This is a high-risk situation, but rescuers are
trained to help.

46
7. When the Earth Shakes or Opens

Don’t run outside during the actual earthquake. If you’re inside, stay
there. You may actually increase your risk of injury. However, there
are some exceptions to this, including if the building is made of an
unreinforced material, such as adobe, or if the building was built
without engineering protocols. If you have questions about this, it’s
best to consult a licensed engineer.
As with any other emergency response, practice. Have a home or
workplace earthquake drill. Think about how you would drop, cover,
and hold on. Realistically, it would be impossible to practice every single
contingency of where you might be when an earthquake occurs, but it
is a good idea to give it some thought so the idea of drop, cover, and
hold on becomes familiar.

AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE
After an earthquake, first make sure that everyone is safe, including
yourself, family or friends who are with you, and pets. Look for dangers.
Remember that fires may occur. Be cautious and maintain a long
distance from downed power lines.
If you live near a body of water, and especially the ocean, the
earthquake could trigger a tsunami. This adds a second immediate
crisis on top of the first, as getting to high ground is the essential
response to a possible tsunami.
Buildings may or may not be safe to enter. Look for damage to the
building. This could include disrupted utilities, visible damage to the
structure, broken glass, damage to roofs or chimneys, debris, and more.
As you do this, use caution. You may need protective equipment, such
as work boots or gloves. You may need to turn off power or gas.
If you have any questions about whether your home is safe to enter,
contact local officials for assistance. If utilities are disrupted, only
drink water that is safe, and never use stoves or any equipment that
discharges carbon monoxide within an enclosed structure.

VOLCANOES
Volcanoes are very dangerous. Both earthquakes and volcanoes
are likely to occur along the boundaries of the earth’s plates, but for
volcanoes, the Pacific Ring of Fire is particularly active. There are also
some locations, such as Hawaii, that have examples of volcanoes that
occur in the middle of a plate.

47
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Different volcanoes behave differently. In some cases, the liquid

rock—called magma before it reaches the earth’s surface and lava
afterward—flows gently down the slope of the volcano. In other cases,
the volcano erupts and explodes violently, throwing a shower of ash,
gasses, lava, rock, and other materials into the sky. This was the case
with Mount Saint Helens, a volcano in Washington state that erupted
in 1980.
Regardless of the specific volcano’s behavior, all volcanoes are
dangerous. Lava can flow at temperatures exceeding 2,000 degrees
Fahrenheit. Volcanoes can produce a variety of mass movements such
as mudflows, also known as lahars. Precipitation or snow and ice melt
from the volcano’s heat can wash away ash or other materials on the
slope, sending it downhill in a rapid and destructive flow.

MONITORING AND PREPARING FOR VOLCANOES

The United States Geological Survey monitors volcanic conditions in
its Volcano Hazards Program. Volcanoes are ranked on a scale from
normal, to advisory, to watch, to warning. A warning is the most severe
indicator that danger is likely. The system notes differences between
dangers to persons on the ground and to aviation. This is important
because the emission of volcanic ash can pose a significant hazard
to aircraft.

48
7. When the Earth Shakes or Opens

There is not much preparation you can do for volcanoes, other than
monitoring conditions and evacuating if told to do so. Note that
evacuating is extremely important. Also keep in mind that you don’t
have to be particularly near the volcano for it to pose deadly effects.
When Mount Saint Helens erupted in 1980, there were lahars and flash
floods, pyroclastic flows, ash fall, and a blast zone that leveled trees
for miles.
Volcanoes are devastating, but there is some advance warning, and
knowledge of impacts and the scope of evacuations has increased
over time. Monitor the news, watch the warning conditions, and listen
to instructions from emergency managers or government officials. Be
prepared to take your go kit, important records, your family, and your
pets, and leave the area if instructed to do so.

SINKHOLES
Karst topography refers to the presence of water-soluble rock beneath
the ground, often limestone. The water can, in turn, dissolve the rock,
especially if the water has acidic properties. If this type of rock and karst
features are present, then not much can change that.
If rock beneath the ground is dissolved, the ground above it can subsist,
or sink. Sometimes this happens gradually. For instance, water may
filter down to the rock, or soil may spill down into crevices in the rock,
and the ground level slowly and gently becomes depressed. This is
detrimental to any structures that are built above. The United States
Geological Survey estimates damages of $300 million per year, a figure
they suggest is probably an underestimate of actual costs.
The more dangerous situation occurs when the ground doesn’t just
subside but collapses into an open sinkhole. This can occur when
a cavern exists within the rock, and the ceiling of the cavern can no
longer support the ground above. When structures are built on top of
this type of cavern, they add to the weight and may create additional
pressure that leads to a sinkhole opening.
When a cavern collapses, it is sudden and dramatic. A sinkhole in
Kentucky made news in 2014 when it opened beneath the National
Corvette Museum, taking eight of the museum’s cars with it. Sinkholes
can cause more than property damage: While rare, injury and death
can occur. In 2013, a sinkhole opened suddenly beneath a Florida home,
causing part of the home to collapse into it. The body of the resident,
who was asleep at the time, was never recovered.

49
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Sinkholes are unpredictable in terms of when they will open and how
large they will become. However, there are geological markers that
signal areas with karst topography that could be at risk for sinkholes,
and some professional geologists make this their area of study.
Different jurisdictions vary, but you may be able to learn about the
presence of karst topography and the risk of subsistence and sinkholes
from agencies such as emergency management offices, planning
commissions, natural resource or geological agencies, or others.
A national-level starting point for karst issues—as well as earthquakes
and volcanoes—is the United States Geological Survey, which provides
useful information.
If a sinkhole does open in your area, as always, consider safety first.
As with earthquakes, there may be downed power lines, broken gas
lines, broken glass, damaged roads, and unstable structures. You may
consider consulting with engineering and geological specialists to see
if your property is at risk.

RESOURCES
Feldman, When the Mississippi Ran Backwards.
Olson, Eruption: The Untold Story of Mount St. Helens.
Hyndman and Hyndman, Natural Hazards and Disasters.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What natural hazards have impacted your local area in the past
10 years or so? What can you do to prepare for them?
2 What are the most significant challenges that natural hazards
pose for preparedness, and how might they be addressed?

50
 LECTURE 8
SURVIVING HURRICANES
AND OTHER STORMS

L
ouis Battan was a distinguished meteorologist who served as
president of the American Meteorological Society. In his book
Weather in Your Life, he wrote, “The weather affects the lives of
everyone—sometimes in subtle, barely discernible fashions, at other
times in dramatic, violent ways.” This was written in 1983 but still
holds true today. We can’t prevent the weather, but we can prepare
for it. This lecture discusses thunderstorms, lightning, tornadoes,
floods, hurricanes, and blizzards, and how to prepare for them.

HURRICANES
Hurricanes can cause immense damage through winds or by
flooding. Meteorologists refer to hurricanes by a category, numbered
1 through 5. These categories are based on wind speed. A category 1
hurricane has winds up to 95 miles per hour. A category 5 hurricane,
on the other hand, has winds at 157 miles per hour and higher.
Flooding can be caused by a number of factors, including the rain
that is produced; the rise in sea levels, known as a storm surge; and
the force of wind that can push water inland.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

If you live in a hurricane-prone area, such as along a coastal region of

the Gulf of Mexico or Atlantic Ocean, you are at risk. While it is important
to understand risks and potential flooding patterns that can result
from a hurricane, this is the most important aspect of preparedness:
Be ready to leave. That means
being prepared to secure your
valuable items and your home, WATCHES AND WARNINGS
such as with hurricane shutters, Take every opportunity to follow
and depart. weather news and alerts. Modern
Be prepared for delays on the forecasts can provide specific
roads as you move inland, and indications of where dangerous
be sure that your vehicle is in weather is likely to occur.
mechanical working order and It is important to understand
has a full tank of gas. If you don’t the distinction between watches
have transportation, contact and warnings. A watch—whether
your local emergency services, it’s a  thunderstorm watch,
which can likely advise on tornado watch, flash flood
alternate options. Have a shelter watch, or another type—means
plan identified. Leave well that conditions are sufficient
before the storm arrives. to produce the hazard. When
a watch is in place, it’s a good
idea to monitor weather and
news reports more closely, to
keep an eye on the sky, and to
think about what actions might
become necessary. A warning
is more serious, as it indicates
that the hazard is present.
When a warning occurs, take
immediate protective actions if
the hazard is in your area.

52
8. Surviving Hurricanes and Other Storms

BLIZZARDS
Blizzards are a hazard associated with regions that experience snowfall,
which includes much of the United States. A blizzard is a situation in
which there is not only snowfall but also strong wind, which has the
effect of reducing visibility. This creates a hazardous situation because
it is easy to become disoriented in a blizzard, which in turn can increase
the risk of exposure-related injury such as frostbite or the potentially
fatal condition of hypothermia.
If blizzard conditions are present or predicted, it is best to stay inside.
Be prepared for power outages, as ice can weigh down power lines,
and never use outdoor cooking stoves on the inside of your residence.
They pose a risk of fire and of carbon monoxide poisoning.
If you must be outside, be sure to dress warmly. If you are driving, make
sure you have plenty of gas and carry an emergency kit in your car,
with water, nonperishable food, a flashlight, blankets, and any other
necessities. Be very careful driving and especially vigilant for unseen
black ice that can send a car spinning.
If you start to feel numbness in your extremities, see color changes
in your skin, have shivering, difficulty thinking or speaking, and the
sensation of a loss of control of your hands, you may be approaching
frostbite or hypothermia. Frostbite is serious and hypothermia is life-
threatening. In both cases, it’s important to get to a warmer environment
and to seek medical attention.

THUNDERSTORMS
A hazard that can occur anywhere is a thunderstorm. One well-known
thunderstorm danger is lightning. Each year, several hundred people
are struck by lightning. In some cases, this is deadly; in others, it causes
injury. The best guidance is to stay inside and to follow the 30/30 rule. If it
takes less than 30 seconds to hear the thunder after you see lightning,
you are potentially at risk, so take shelter. Then, wait 30 minutes after
the last round of thunder before resuming your outdoor activities.
The electrical charge of lightning can travel some distance across the
ground, so you don’t have to experience a direct strike to be hit by
lightning. Lightning can go indoors, conducted through pipes, wires,
and across concrete, so avoid using water, wired appliances, and, to
the extent possible, concrete interior floors.

53
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

If you are caught outdoors, a car can provide some shelter, but make
sure the windows are rolled up. There is simply no safe place outside.
Try to maintain a low profile, though this still will not make you safe.
If someone is struck by lightning, you may need to perform CPR or use
an automated external defibrillator, but be cognizant of your safety in
doing so. Persons who have been struck by lightning are not themselves
electrified, so you will not get shocked by touching them.
Another hazard from thunderstorms is the development of dangerous
wind systems. Some winds are called straight-line or nonrotational
winds. These winds don’t spin, but they can do substantial damage to
property. A line of these winds is sometimes called a derecho. In 2012,
a 600-mile derecho struck, moving from Illinois to the Virginia coast and
impacting multiple states. This derecho resulted in 22 deaths.

TORNADOES
Tornadoes are rotational winds, sometimes marked by the presence of
a funnel cloud. Tornadoes have occurred in every state in the continental
United States, although they are most prevalent in the Midwest and to
the south. Like hurricanes, they are storm systems with rotating, high-
speed winds, but they are much more concentrated in space. In fact,
tornadoes are sometimes spawned by hurricanes.

54
8. Surviving Hurricanes and Other Storms

Tornadoes can range from SKYWARN

a few hundred feet in diameter
A great online resource that can
to a  mile across, although
help build your preparedness
tornadoes that large are
is the SKYWARN Storm Spotter
rare. Another comparison to
Program. Created by the
hurricanes is that tornadoes
National Weather Service, it does
are of a much shorter duration,
two things. First, it provides free
some lasting only minutes,
training—online or in person—
compared to the hours or days
about the recognition of severe
that hurricanes are in motion
weather and associated hazards.
over land. Finally, the track and
Second, when severe weather is
damage of a tornado is perhaps
anticipated, National Weather
more unpredictable than that of
Service offices may request that
a hurricane.
storm spotters report—if it is safe
One challenge in preparing for to do so—their observations about
tornadoes is that they develop weather patterns and damages.
quickly. Advance notice is You can find SKYWARN at
measured in minutes rather
www.weather.gov/chs/skywarn.
than hours or days. Additionally,
tornadoes may not be visible to
the naked eye. In some cases,
there is the classic funnel cloud, but in other cases, meteorologists
declare a tornado based on its signature pattern on weather radar:
the hook echo, which looks like a hook looping into itself.
Tornado safety can be a mixed bag. If there is an EF-5 tornado—that is,
a very strong tornado on the Enhanced Fujita scale—heading your way,
a direct hit would result in catastrophic structural damage to all but
the most solid structures. Still, there are precautions—short of having
a specially engineered safe room in the home—that can promote safety
and increase the possibility of survival.
Seek shelter in the basement of a building, or if one is not available,
in an interior space on the lowest floor. It’s particularly important to
move away from windows, as they may blow out or be broken by flying
debris. Mobile homes are very susceptible to tornado-strength winds,
so a shelter in a permanent structure is typically safer.
Another high-risk location is anywhere that has a roof over a wide-
open area, such as a gymnasium, theater, large store, or similar space.
These types of roofs are easily blown away, which can then make the
walls unstable. Highway underpasses may seem safe, but they’re not,
as they can generate a wind tunnel effect.

55
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

If you’re driving, find a building to seek shelter. Alternatively, if you have

to abandon your car or are outside, seek a ditch that is away from
hazards such as power lines that might fall. There is some debate as to
whether it’s advisable to stay in a vehicle or try to outrun the tornado in
a car, but as with lightning, anywhere outside is not safe.

FLOODS
Floods occur for many different reasons and at different speeds. Floods
that happen quickly are known as flash floods. Pay careful attention
to flash flood warnings, because they can happen even if it is a clear
day where you are. Flooding upstream from your location can quickly
raise water levels to dangerous conditions.
Seasonal floods, meanwhile, occur with enough regularity that their risk
can be projected. FEMA produces flood maps, also known as FIRMs,
which stands for flood insurance rate maps. These maps show the
likely extent of a 100-year and 500-year flood. A 100-year flood has
a 1 percent chance of happening annually, and a 500-year flood has
a 0.2 percent chance of happening annually.
If a flood occurs, you may be asked to evacuate to higher ground. This
may need to be an immediate evacuation, as in a flash flood, or you
may have a day or two of notice for slower-developing floods. As with
hurricanes, if told to evacuate, do it. Know where flood-safe locations
in your community are and how to get there. Be prepared to leave
quickly if necessary.

56
8. Surviving Hurricanes and Other Storms

Part of the reason you don’t want to remain behind is because of the
sheer power of moving water. It takes only about six inches of water
to make walking difficult to the point where you can lose your balance
and be swept away. For cars, as little as 12 inches can push a vehicle
off the road.
There are other reasons for avoiding flood waters as well. They are
sometimes polluted, depending on where they have been upstream.
The waters can hide obstacles, such as debris below the water line,
sinkholes or washed-out areas, unpredictable drop-offs, and more.
Electrical lines downed into water can also pose dangers.
If your property is flooded, when you return, be prepared to see a lot
of damage. Structures may be unstable and shifted off foundations.
Mold may develop. Furnishings may be irreparably damaged. Walls
may be saturated and lose their integrity.
Be aware that homeowner’s insurance often does not cover flood
damage. Depending on where you live, you may be eligible for FEMA’s
National Flood Insurance Program or flood insurance through private
carriers. Additionally, depending on the location, it is possible that flood
insurance may be required for you to purchase a home.

RESOURCES
Ahrens, Essentials of Meteorology.
Bechtel, Roar of the Heavens.
Neufeld, A.D.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What weather phenomena have impacted your local area in
the past 10 years or so? What can you do to prepare for them?
2 What are the most significant challenges that weather
phenomena pose for preparedness, and how might they be
addressed?

57
LECTURE 9

COPING IN AN ACTIVE
SHOOTER SITUATION

T
he word disaster is often taken to imply a natural disaster
or accident. However, it can also include human-created
activity—acts of violence, specifically—that require emergency
response, with an example being the tragic 2016 Pulse nightclub
shooting in Orlando, Florida. The Federal Bureau of Investigation
defines an active shooter as “an individual actively engaging in
killing or attempting to kill people in a populated area.”
A sad reality is that active shooting incidents can occur anywhere
and with myriad motivations. While there is value to studying motives
and what is known about offenders, to persons in the midst of an
act of violence, these are hardly the most important concerns. First
and foremost is the hope to escape the threatening situation and to
minimize injury. This lecture considers preparedness and response
to active shooter incidents as well as some policy debates that they
pose. (Note that the principles also can apply to attacks with types
of weapons other than guns.)
9. Coping in an Active Shooter Situation

THREE CONCEPTS
There are three key concepts regarding active shooter incidents. The first
is the importance of situational awareness. This refers to an awareness
of your surroundings. Particularly in public places, take a moment to
glance at your environment. Ask yourself questions such as:
w Do you know where the exits are?
w What is the evacuation plan?
w Is there a designated meeting area?
w Are there any hazards in your field of vision?
w Are you in a space with a door, and if so, can it be closed and locked?
w If you’re outdoors, where is the nearest shelter? Are there areas that
provide concealment and cover?
Concealment is a place where you can hide from view. Cover is
a place that is likely to stop a bullet. As such, concealment is not the
same as cover. A thin sheetrock divider may provide concealment, but
not cover.
The second point of preparedness is noting that the environment is not
the only thing to watch. Another is potentially troubling behaviors from
persons who you believe might pose a potential threat. Most shooters
commit the offense at a location with which they are familiar. It is
common for shooters to have engaged in any number of what the
Federal Bureau of Investigation calls concerning behaviors prior to
the incident.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

One type of concerning behavior is known as leakage, in which

a shooter or potential shooter expresses to others that he or she is
planning to commit an act of violence. Most offenders don’t snap but
rather plan their attacks in advance. For example, J. Reid Meloy, one of
the leaders of a field called threat assessment, and his colleagues found
that prior to their attacks, school shooters demonstrated a variety of
warning signs.
These included the development of their ideas along a pathway from
fantasy to planning to preparation, an obsessive preoccupation with
a particular idea or person, and developing a perception that violence
is the only answer to a grievance or concern. Leakages or unusual
behaviors may serve as indicators for these warning signs.
The third aspect of preparedness related to events of active violence is
to avoid the normalcy bias. The normalcy bias, as the name suggests, is
treating potentially dangerous situations as though they are not really
a threat. Another example is trying to explain threatening behavior
as something perceived as normal or innocent in nature. The sooner
a threatening situation is recognized, the sooner that protective actions
can be taken.

RESPONSE STRATEGIES: OVERVIEW

This lecture now transitions from preparedness to response. First,
though, two notes are important. One is that there are a number of
different ideas about how the public should respond to an active
shooter event. This lecture provides an overview of some common
themes, but in your school or workplace, you may receive training that
differs slightly. It’s important to recognize that the law enforcement
officers and emergency planners who work directly with your facility
and its needs are best positioned to give you specific advice.
The second note is that each active shooter situation is different,
and responses may even differ between persons experiencing the
same event, based on where they are, the nature of the threat, or
other factors. Ultimately, adrenaline and a situational focus will likely
take over, and it becomes a very individualized decision as to the most
appropriate action. That is another reason to be prepared for the
possibility of such a situation in advance.

60
9. Coping in an Active Shooter Situation

RUN, HIDE, FIGHT

For active shooter situations, both the Department of Homeland
Security and the federal government’s public preparedness website,
Ready.gov, recommend a model of response called run, hide, fight.
This perspective suggests three different options for a response.
These are not necessarily sequential, meaning that you don’t have to
go through all three in order.
The first option is to run: get away from the scene if it is safe to do so.
In following this option, it’s important to move quickly but safely. That
means leaving belongings behind and leaving other people behind if
they are unwilling or unable to leave.
The second option is to find a place to hide from the attacker. This is
where the distinction between concealment and cover becomes
important: Recall that concealment hides. Cover provides protection
from gunfire. If hiding, it is important to remain silent, both to avoid
potential detection by the attacker and to be able to maintain
awareness of what is going on. Silence your cell phone. Close doors and
cover windows; lock and blockade the doors if possible. You may also
consider identifying possible weapons that you could use if the attacker
is able to get into the area. One misconception is that everyone should
gather in a corner of the room, huddled together. It’s more effective to
have persons spread out, being able to fight back from different angles,
and not presenting a single target.
Law enforcement officers who respond to the scene will clear
rooms and evacuate survivors, including those who need medical
treatment. However, be aware that the first officers on
the scene will probably move right past persons, even
those who are injured, as their goal is to find and stop
the shooter. After the shooting has been stopped, rescue
efforts will move forward. When law enforcement
arrives, follow their instructions exactly.
If you have escaped the scene or if you are hiding at
the scene, notify 911 if it is possible to do so safely.
In an active shooting situation, 911 centers will be
overwhelmed with calls. Let the 911 call taker know
the information you have, but also be prepared
for them to take your information quickly and
then disconnect.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The last resort is to fight, which means attacking the attacker. This would
only occur if the attacker is in the area where you are. If not, do not seek
out the attacker. Use one of the other response options. If you find that
you have to fight back, fight hard and fight dirty. Go for the face and
try to disorient the attacker, throwing the person off balance. Use any
available weapon.
If you have a firearm or take the attacker’s firearm, do not have it out
when law enforcement arrives, as they may plausibly mistake you for
the attacker. Some suggest covering firearms with an upside-down
trash can and notifying law enforcement to their presence.
If you are aware of an active shooter event in your area but are not
actually at the scene, do not go to the scene, even if you have loved ones
at the location. The location will likely be blocked off, and nonresponders
attempting to get through add more to do for the responders who are
trying to manage the incident. There will likely be a family reunification
center established to help families reunite with or receive status updates
about their loved ones.

POLITICAL RESPONSES
Active shooter incidents are a common topic of conversation among
politicians who are seeking to reduce their frequency. There has been
much debate about policy development to address this type of violence,
and the discussion frequently flares up in the aftermath of an incident.
Debates frequently center on the issues of guns and mental health. Both
of these are complex social issues that defy quick-fix solutions. Acts of
violence are complex problems that likewise defy easy solutions. Every
incident brings with it a thorough investigation.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation completed an in-depth study
of active shooters from 2000 to 2013. Most offenders did not have
a criminal history, but they did have a history of what the FBI described
as “acting in an abusive, harassing, or oppressive way.” Most were
not formally diagnosed with a mental illness, but they did experience
stresses about mental health issues.
Most were not loners. Most either already had a firearm or acquired
one legally. Most had some sort of grievance, but less than half
experienced what the FBI describes as “a precipitating or triggering
event related to the grievance.” However, most persons with mental
illness, most persons with firearms, and most persons with grievances
do not engage in this type of incident.

62
9. Coping in an Active Shooter Situation

Some policies that have been proposed focus on prevention and

preparedness, such as by providing training both to the public and
to first responders about how to respond to incidents. One other
prevention measure is called the Don’t Name Them campaign.
It is not unusual for active shooters to have studied prior incidents
and prior offenders. Research suggests that there is a window
of approximately two weeks after each active shooter incident
during which it becomes more likely that another incident will occur
somewhere. This is a phenomenon known as contagion, or more
colloquially, copycatting.
The Don’t Name Them campaign advocates that, unless the offender
is at large and not yet captured, news outlets should not report the
name or picture of the offender. The hope is that doing so will reduce
the attention given to the offender, and in turn will reduce the likelihood
of copycatting.

RESOURCES
Department of Homeland Security, “Active Shooter
Preparedness: Private Citizen.”
Meloy and Hoffmann, International Handbook of
Threat Assessment.
Straub, Cambria, Castor, Gorban, Meade, Waltemeyer, and
Zeunik, Rescue, Response, and Resilience.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 When do you think the most appropriate response is to run?
To hide? To fight? What factors enter into your considerations?
2 Based on the information presented in this lecture, what
strategies would you recommend to safeguard locations or
prevent acts of mass violence?

63
LECTURE 10

HELPING OTHERS
IN A DISASTER
“
H
ow can I help?” is a refrain often heard in the aftermath
of a disaster. It signals a truism that has been found in
incident after incident: Humans are altruistic, seeking ways
to help one another. This lecture goes over ways to be effective
if you feel the urge to help during or after a disaster. In particular,
the lecture focuses on three concepts: the role of volunteers, the
importance of credentialing, and how donations should and should
not be handled.

THE ROLE OF VOLUNTEERS

In some disasters, volunteers are on the scene before first responders
arrive. This was the case in the Boston Marathon bombing of 2013,
as medical aid volunteers were already stationed to help runners
in need of aid at the finish line near where the bombs exploded.
Volunteers can and do make a difference during and after
a disaster event.
10. Helping Others in a Disaster

There are two primary types of volunteers. The first are spontaneous
volunteers, who are usually individuals unassociated with a formal
volunteer group. Neighbors helping neighbors would be an example;
the first deployment of the Cajun Navy, before it was recognized as
such, would also be an example.
The second are known as VOADs, which stands for voluntary
organizations active in disasters. These are usually national
organizations that are recognized for their disaster work.
There is a group called the National Voluntary Organizations Active in
Disaster (or National VOAD), which is an umbrella organization that
includes as its members the numerous groups that provide disaster
services. Examples include groups like the American Red Cross, the
Amateur Radio Emergency Service, Feeding America, the Humane
Society of the United States, United Way, many religious organizations,
and more.
Organizations that are recognized as VOADs are frequently included
in large-scale disaster responses because they are known entities.
In some cases, they are even included in a jurisdiction’s emergency
operations plan. To use one example, the American Red Cross often
assists with providing shelters to persons who have been displaced
from their homes, and also in providing food and water to responders.
Spontaneous volunteers, on the other hand, are well meaning and may
have services to offer, but they are not always included in a formal sense
within disaster operations. They are not included within emergency
operations plans. They have not exercised and trained alongside
other responders, and they may not have been formally vetted or
credentialed. However, they may still have a critical role to play in
some incidents.

ORGANIZED VOLUNTEERING
If you find that you have a passion for volunteer work and assisting
during disasters, one very straightforward approach is to affiliate with
an organization recognized by the National VOAD. It’s important to
do so before a disaster strikes so that you can become familiar with
the organization and receive training that they offer to prepare for
actual deployments. It’s also important to acknowledge that affiliating
with a recognized VOAD or other disaster response group implies
a commitment to respond.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

There are also other recognized groups. You may wish to see if your
profession has opportunities for volunteer work in disasters. Across the
nation, for instance, the Medical Reserve Corps bring together medical
professionals who can provide a variety of services in a disaster. In
fact, they are associated with the federal Department of Health and
Human Services.
There are also teams, again associated with the Department of Health
and Human Services, focused on animal care (the National Veterinary
Response Teams) and on assisting victims (the Victim Information
Center Team). These are just a few of the options.
Laypersons may also participate on a local community emergency
response team, or CERT. Not all localities have these, but those that do
have found them to provide valuable assistance both at emergency
situations and during planned events.

SPONTANEOUS VOLUNTEERING
If you are a member of a volunteer organization, they will tell you when,
where, and what types of response are needed for any given incident.
Spontaneous volunteering is a bit different.
There are good Samaritan opportunities that may arise when first
responders are not present yet. In those cases, you have to use your
judgment about what responses might be appropriate. Always consider
and take steps to ensure your own safety. You don’t want to become an
additional casualty for first responders to address.

66
10. Helping Others in a Disaster

Once first responders are already on the scene of an incident and

addressing it, the general rule for volunteers is to not come unless
you’re invited. Appearing at a scene without having been dispatched
or asked to assist is known as self-deployment, and with few exceptions,
it is generally frowned upon.
If you do go to the scene of an incident, there are some ground rules that
everyone is expected to follow. First, only go if you or your organization
have been requested or if there has been a call for volunteers.
Second, don’t go without telling someone, such as a family member or
trusted friend, that you are going, where you are going, how you can
be reached, what vehicle you are taking, and so on.
Third, don’t go directly to the site of the incident. Be sure to find out
where check-in, also called staging, is located. There will be a person
there keeping track of who is on the scene. They may tell you that your
services are not required. Do not be offended if this occurs. Alternatively,
they may have a task for you to accomplish.
Fourth, if you are assigned that task, be sure you understand that task,
know who your supervisor is, and know how to contact him or her.
If you don’t feel qualified or prepared to do that task, be honest about
that. A description of task expectations may be provided verbally or in
writing on what is known as a 204 form. Keep focused on your task and
let your supervisor know if the situation changes.
Fifth, be conscious of safety at all times, and also of your own needs
for food, hydration, and rest. Working multiple shifts without a break
reduces your own effectiveness and heightens safety risks. Sixth, when
it’s time to leave, make sure you’re checked out of the scene.

CREDENTIALING
Credentialing is your ability to document that you have completed
training that will enable you to safely and effectively assist with
a situation. There will often be a set of credentials that volunteers
are expected to have to participate in an operation. The National
Incident Management System, which guides virtually all emergency
response in the United States, strongly emphasizes the importance of
credentialing to ensure that the most qualified persons are available
and that any licensing requirements are met.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Some credentials are professional. Volunteers providing medical

services, for instance, will be expected to have the appropriate
medical training, and different levels of training will be appropriate to
different circumstances. If you hold professional credentials that may
be relevant to your volunteer goals and activities, keep a printed copy
of any documents handy.
Additionally, people who volunteer through organizations often
receive training as part of these groups. For instance, the American
Red Cross provides disaster and sheltering operations training to
volunteers who will be filling these roles. Each organization sets its own
requirements, and you may be required to fulfill them before an actual
disaster deployment.
If you are a spontaneous volunteer, one of the first questions you may
receive from a volunteer coordinator or staging area manager is what
qualifications you have. There are some credentials that everyone can
get which can help prepare you not only to volunteer, but also to be
more prepared, yourself, in the event that a disaster strikes.
Here are some examples.
w Basic first aid and CPR.
w Bleeding control. The Stop the Bleed campaign teaches the use of
various techniques to address circumstances in which an injury has
resulted in extensive bleeding. This type of class, as well as those
on first aid and CPR, may be available in your area. Your public
health or emergency management offices can likely point you in
the right direction.
w Fire extinguisher use. Your local fire department can help you find
training opportunities, and they may even offer their own public
training courses.
w Incident command. FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute offers
an online course called Introduction to the Incident Command
System. This is the same course that first responders are required
to take. While there are more advanced courses available, this
one provides a valuable starting point and an introduction to
important terminology.
w If you live in a storm-prone area, consider the National Weather
Service’s Storm Spotter program.
w If you have pets, animal first aid classes may be of value.

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10. Helping Others in a Disaster

This is not an exhaustive list. If you are committed to disaster-

related volunteer work, seek out classes, presentations, trainings,
demonstrations, and other opportunities to continue to learn. Doing
so will help in your preparedness, in your volunteer work, and in your
general awareness of disasters and how they are managed.

DONATIONS
Donations show how willing individuals are to contribute, empathizing
with people and communities impacted by disaster. With this, however,
comes some important observations.
The first is to beware of scams. Do some research before giving
a donation. Established organizations often provide giving
opportunities, but sometimes, new funds specific to an incident are
established. News outlets will sometimes provide information about the
funds that are being collected in the aftermath of a particular incident.
The Better Business Bureau, through its Wise Giving Alliance, can also
be a source to check the credibility of requests for charitable gifts.
Money is usually the best gift that can be given in the aftermath of
a disaster, because those funds can then be used to provide the specific
needs that emerge. As a general rule, unless there is a specific request
for certain types of items, go with financial gifts. If there is a specific
request for certain items, stick to what’s on the list, and before giving,
see if you can verify with the group collecting those items that they are
still what’s most needed.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Don’t give perishable items, as they may spoil before delivery, and don’t
give items that you wouldn’t use. Sometimes, those collecting donations
see items that appear as though they were being discarded rather than
given for the benefit of persons in need. Finally, give what is needed,
not what you think is needed.

RESOURCES
Barton, A Story of the Red Cross.
DeFede, The Day the World Came to Town.
Maynor, The Story of the Stuff.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What volunteer opportunities exist in your area for assisting in
disaster response and recovery?
2 What factors do you think had to come together to allow the
town of Gander, Newfoundland, to successfully respond to the
influx of population as planes landed on September 11, 2001?

70
 LECTURE 11
FIRST RESPONDERS
AND HOW THEY WORK

T
his lecture explores the community of first responders. These
are the men and women who work together to provide
emergency services for incidents as small as a no-injury
fender-bender and as large as a hurricane devastating a populated
coastline. Their work is heroic, but it is also often something of
a mystery to the general public. As for disaster preparedness, there
is value in understanding how they are organized and what they do.

QUALITIES OF RESPONDERS
Response agencies have to demonstrate a variety of qualities.
First, they must be prepared for anything, including the unexpected.
They must be ready to take the actions needed to help the public
find safety. This often means engaging in rescue efforts, confronting
danger, and putting their safety on the line to help others.
Second, they must work well together. They utilize mutual aid, in
which one department can call on the assistance of another even
if it is out of their jurisdiction. They also utilize incident command,
meaning a set of principles to ensure that each responder knows
what his or her role is at the scene.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Third, they must have the resources necessary to do their jobs, even in
what are called surge situations in which demand is significantly higher
than normal. This is why public safety agencies have a very wide variety
of vehicles and tools.

911 DISPATCH CENTERS

This lecture now turns to specific first responders and how they do
their jobs. It begins with 911 dispatch centers, which are also known
as PSAPs. PSAP is an acronym for public safety answering point.
Where you live, 911 may be operated out of a police department,
or it may be operated out of a regional authority that serves
multiple jurisdictions.
Do not call 911 unless there is an emergency. If you do call, the most
important piece of information that they will need is the location of
the emergency. Without that, they simply can’t send a response. Be
sure to give that location, which may or may not be where you’re
actually calling from. Also be ready to give specific information; for
example, if it’s an apartment, it will be helpful to know the number of
the apartment.
The second most important piece of information to reveal is what is
going on. Emergency situations are stressful, but do your best to give
whoever answers the phone a good description, including whether
anyone is hurt or in danger or if any weapons are involved. Often, there
is another operator listening in on the call who is actually dispatching
responders to your location as you’re talking.
Finally, the dispatcher may ask you to stay on the line or may give you
instructions for actions to take. If they do, listen carefully, and respond
accordingly. Don’t look at 911 operators only as call takers; look at
them as your first responders who will be helping with the incident
until someone arrives personally at the scene.

THE POLICE
Police departments often arrive at a scene more quickly than other
agencies because they are already in cars in the community waiting to
receive calls for service. There are several things to recognize about
policing in the United States. First, policing is very fragmented. There
are close to 18,000 law enforcement agencies, and almost three-
quarters of those are relatively small, with fewer than 25 full-time
sworn officers.
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11. First Responders and How They Work

Training covers a broad variety of topics, and for most police agencies,
officers are generalists. They have to do traffic stops, disaster and crisis
response, crime prevention, initial crime scene investigations, and more,
moving seamlessly from one task to the other, while working what is
often a 12-hour shift.
With the fragmentation of policing, there are many different agencies,
some of which have overlapping jurisdictions. In your area, you may
find that there is a municipal police department, a county police
department or sheriff’s office, a state police presence, and perhaps
specialized agencies. Generally speaking, when there are multiple
agencies in an area, they regularly work together and are prepared
to do so in the event of a large-scale incident.
Law enforcement personnel play a key role in disaster response.
They may work alongside rescue units transporting injured persons,
help with evacuations, assist with search and rescue, or perform other
tasks. It is not unusual to see police officers at disaster scenes taking
a variety of roles.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

FIRE DEPARTMENTS
You are also likely to see a fire department presence at a disaster, and
for more than just fires. Like policing, firefighting is fragmented; there are
almost 30,000 fire departments nationwide. Unlike policing, firefighting
tends to be centered at the local level—such as cities, towns, and
counties—rather than having state or federal firefighting organizations.
Of those almost 30,000 fire departments, only about 9 percent are
fully staffed by full-time, paid career firefighters. Roughly 71 percent
are entirely volunteer. The remainder are a blend of career and
volunteer firefighters. Whether volunteer or
full-time, firefighters are usually certified
with a minimum of two courses, referred to as TAKING A TOUR
Firefighter I and Firefighter II. Taken together,
they comprise close to six weeks of full-time Fire departments
training. Many advanced training courses are tend to have open
available, as well. houses during Fire
Prevention Week
in October. If there
are tours, stop by. It
is a great way to get
to know your local
first responders.

74
11. First Responders and How They Work

The fire service is very conscious of safety. They respond quickly but
safely to scenes to address a variety of different types of calls for service.
A primary fire department task is responding to a fire to extinguish it.
This is usually done by a fire engine, or pumper, with a three- or four-
person crew.
There are also fire trucks, or ladders, which carry a variety of ground
ladders that can be set up against a building, a wide variety of rescue
tools, and a large aerial ladder attached to the truck. The aerial ladder
is approximately 75 to 100 feet tall, although some may reach as high
as 137 feet. The truck or ladder company, which is also usually staffed
by a three- or four-person crew, helps with ventilation of a building on
fire, conducts interior search and rescue, assists with forced entries that
may need to be made, and assists with other types of incidents, like
elevator rescues. This crew also provides elevated hose streams from
the top of the ladder to attack the fire from above.
Fire departments also have specialized equipment and other
specialized vehicles to do a variety of functions. This can include rescue
engines, specialized units to respond to hazardous materials calls, units
to respond to confined space calls, and more. Because of their extensive
training and wide range of tools, fire departments can be an asset in
many types of incidents, whether they involve a fire or not.

MEDICAL FIRST RESPONDERS

Police and fire resources are two of the three primary first responders.
The third is for medical emergencies. In the case of a medical
emergency, these are the agencies ready to go. The goal is to begin
treatment as soon as a medical team arrives in a vehicle and to sustain
that treatment until arrival at a medical center.
Emergency medical services vary in their organization. Some are paid;
others are volunteer. Some are provided as part of a fire department;
others are standalone agencies or private companies. Regardless of
the variations in how emergency medical services are delivered, the
goal of providing quality medical care is consistent.
There are essentially three types of emergency medical vehicles.
They are basic life support, or BLS; advanced life support, or ALS; and
airborne units, such as helicopters. The difference between BLS and ALS
is essentially one of the scope of care. ALS vehicles can provide more
complex care for more serious cases than BLS vehicles. For instance,
ALS vehicles can deliver IV lines, medications, respiratory therapies,
and advanced procedures that BLS vehicles cannot.
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

There are also personnel differences. BLS vehicles are often staffed
by EMT-Basic personnel, who receive up to 150 hours of training.
ALS vehicles are often staffed by paramedics, who receive up
to 1,800 hours of training. Depending on the state, there may also be
intermediate ranks.
Helicopters are usually used to either transport patients from a lower-
level hospital to a more advanced facility, or to be deployed to the
scene of serious incidents to allow more rapid transport to a hospital. In
addition to a pilot, they may be staffed with a flight nurse, a respiratory
therapist, or other specialists.
Just as there are different levels of emergency medical response, there
are different levels of hospital emergency departments (EDs). There are
five levels of EDs, or trauma centers. Rankings are based on resources
available and services provided.
Level five is the lowest, but at a minimum has emergency physicians
and nurses, and can provide critical stabilizing care before transferring
patients to other hospitals. Level one is the highest, with quick access
to a variety of specialty care teams and what the American Trauma
Society describes as “total care for every aspect of injury—from
prevention through rehabilitation.”

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11. First Responders and How They Work

The field of emergency medicine has developed over time. Residencies

for emergency medicine provide advanced training just as other
medical specialties require after the completion of medical school. They
date only to 1970. Even after that time, it was not uncommon for EDs to
be staffed by physicians with specialties in other areas. Today, there
are many emergency medicine residencies throughout the country,
and physicians, nurses, and other ED staff are specially prepared for
the unique demands that their unit requires.

RESOURCES
Bennett, Cross-Training for First Responders
Creed and Newman, Firefight.
Leonard, Cole, Howitt, and Heymann, Why Was Boston Strong?

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What types of challenges might police departments, fire
departments, emergency medical service agencies, and
hospitals face when responding to a disaster?
2 How does an understanding of first response agencies and their
work help to inform your personal preparedness?

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LECTURE 12
1

THE FIRST
RESPONDERS MANY
NEVER SEE

T
he work of fire service personnel, law enforcement personnel,
emergency medical personnel, and dispatchers is critical, but
it is important to recognize the numerous others who also
contribute to disaster and crisis relief efforts. This lecture looks at the
work of scientists; local, state, and federal emergency management
agencies; public works agencies; public health offices; community
counseling services; and the role of the National Guard and military.

DEBRIS FLOWS
John McPhee, a Pulitzer Prize–winning author, wrote a book called
The Control of Nature in which he describes the constant struggle
between nature and geological forces and the efforts of humankind
to control them. One chapter is titled “Los Angeles against the
Mountains” and describes a phenomenon known as a debris flow,
which, while rare, can be devastating.
12. The First Responders Many Never See

McPhee describes it as follows: “Debris flows amass in stream valleys

and more or less resemble fresh concrete. They consist of water mixed
with a good deal of solid material, most of which is above sand size.
Some of it is Chevrolet size.”
Debris flows are highly destructive and can obliterate almost anything
in their path. In his book, McPhee relays the stories of some survivors
of debris flows, but sadly, the ending is not always so fortunate.

THE 1/9 DEBRIS FLOW

This lecture focuses on one debris flow in particular to illustrate the role
of different personnel. In December of 2017, a California wildfire known
as the Thomas Fire began and quickly grew to more than 90,000 acres.
The fire was contained in January of 2018.
There was a concern about the possibility that a debris flow could
follow, depending on weather conditions, in the area of Montecito
and Carpinteria, California, both due east of Santa Barbara. Scientific
knowledge of the potential for a debris flow led local responders to
monitor the weather conditions, and when it became clear that a large
storm was likely, evacuations were ordered.
The storm was a disaster in its own right, prompting flash flood warnings
as more than two inches of rain fell. The Santa Barbara County Office
of Emergency Management prepared a report on the incident, which
came to be known as the 1/9 Debris Flow. Part of their report reads,
“Millions of tons of mud and rocks flowed out of the mountains toward
the ocean creating destruction along the way.” Homes were destroyed,
infrastructure was damaged, utilities were unavailable, and lives were
disrupted. Between 23 and 25 lives were lost.

SCIENTISTS’ ROLE
Scientists recognized the risk of a debris flow. The National Weather
Service provided weather information related to the potential for
rainfall, including not only the debris flow but also flash flooding
possibilities. The US Geological Survey prepared a map showing
locations where debris flow hazards were highest. This helped to inform
efforts to prepare for the incident. Other scientists attended emergency
planning meetings as the possibility of a debris flow became clearer.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCIES

Emergency management agencies played a role in the 1/9 Debris Flow.
There are emergency management agencies at the federal, state, and
local level. Take, for example, FEMA.
FEMA was created in 1979 and is currently a part of the United States
Department of Homeland Security. FEMA performs many functions,
mostly in support roles. During the 1/9 Debris Flow, local officials
were in contact with FEMA. Approximately $168 million in funding was
disbursed through FEMA programs in the aftermath of the disaster.
State governments also have emergency management agencies.
Like FEMA, these are also focused on providing support to localities.
They may be more hands-on than FEMA, helping localities develop
their own plans and helping to keep local emergency management on
the same page.
Local emergency managers carry many responsibilities. They are
involved in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from incidents.
They are on the ground level,
directly in the mix of anything
that happens. In the 1/9 Debris LEPCs
Flow, the local emergency Local Emergency Planning
manager sought information Committees, or LEPCs, exist in
from experts about what might most jurisdictions. Originally
happen, examined the impacts designed to address hazardous
of incidents that happened in materials issues, LEPCs can work
the past, briefed city officials, toward addressing a  variety
liaised with FEMA, assisted with of hazards and can provide
locating and placing supplies, briefings, trainings, exercises, and
and performed other tasks. opportunities for collaboration.
Additionally, in a  major LEPCs include representatives
incident, there may be an from a wide variety of response
emergency operations center, agencies and also may include
or EOC. The EOC is the location elected officials, representatives
where representatives from from local industries and the
multiple agencies gather to community, media spokespersons,
help coordinate or support the subject matter experts, and
response to a disaster. Having others. They are a great way to
everyone in one room keeps ensure regular contact between
lines of communication open responders, outside of incidents,
and can streamline requests to help promote readiness.
for assistance and resources.

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12. The First Responders Many Never See

PUBLIC WORKS AGENCIES

Public works agencies have two things that are very important in
disaster management: people and equipment. Human resources are
vital. The equipment includes useful vehicles and tools like dump trucks,
excavators, road signs, electronic lifts, and much more.
During the 1/9 Debris Flow, 50 miles of roads and 20 bridges were
affected, thousands of people were without natural gas, water systems
were damaged, and thousands of tons of debris had to be removed,
and a large amount of damage needed to be repaired. The local public
works office helped with this.
The public works office took a three-part approach. First, they worked
to clear one lane on the roadways in areas that required emergency
response and rescue efforts to allow necessary equipment through.
Second, they worked to open the full width of the street, which in turn
allowed utility companies access to reestablish connections. This was
done by January 24—that is, slightly more than two weeks after the
debris flow. Third, they worked to repair damages to infrastructure,
including those roads and bridges that were impacted.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

PUBLIC HEALTH OFFICES

As the name suggests, public health offices address a wide range of
health interests. As a general rule, there are state public health offices
and local public health offices. Sometimes the local offices are parts
of the state office, but sometimes they are separate.
In the 1/9 Debris Flow, there was a demand for medical care delivery,
which health agencies worked to facilitate. In many jurisdictions,
electronic systems allow for monitoring of available beds in hospital
emergency departments, for instance, to better facilitate patient
management. In the after-action report prepared by the county
emergenc y management
office, the broader public
health response to the debris COORDINATION
flow and the fire that preceded
Agencies that plan together,
it identified as one of the key
train together, and conduct
strengths of the response.
emergency exercises together
Public health personnel engaged create relationships and shared
in a wide variety of activities. understandings that can make
For instance, during the fire, responses more seamless.
they monitored air quality and
provided 350,000 masks to help
members of the public breathe
safely as smoke from the fire settled into the area. They also helped
ensure that persons and companion animals had necessary medical
care at public shelters.

COMMUNITY COUNSELING SERVICES

It is important to consider psychological health for all persons involved
in an incident. Meeting that need is a fifth group of responders: the
counseling service providers. Because of the fire and 1/9 Debris Flow,
a community wellness team was created. The scope of mental health
services provided in this incident was impressive.
Wellness team services were delivered in shelters, the assistance
centers where members of the public could seek a variety of resources,
and even in the emergency operations center where response efforts
were coordinated. Within the three months immediately following the
incident, there were almost 6,000 cases in which mental health services
were provided.

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12. The First Responders Many Never See

THE MILITARY
The final group of responders comes from the ranks of the United States
military services. Coast Guard and National Guard helicopters assisted
in search and rescue, and the Army Corps of Engineers assisted with
debris removal. It is not unusual for the National Guard, in particular,
to be utilized for disaster response. Overall, there are exceptions and
nuances to how military personnel operate during disasters, but there
are some general trends.
The National Guard reports to and can be activated by the governor of
a state. National Guard units can be activated to do a number of tasks,
including law enforcement activities. The Army, Navy, Air Force, and
Marines report to and can be activated by the president of the United
States. When these branches of service are charged with assisting
in disaster response, they cannot—as a general rule—engage in law
enforcement activities.
This is because of the Posse Comitatus Act, which was passed after
the Civil War and which limits the powers of the military to police
civilian populations. Also, unlike the National Guard, where full units
can be deployed to assist with incidents, the federal military forces
often function in a more specialized support role. For instance, they
may deploy technically skilled personnel and resources to supplement
response efforts, providing services and capabilities that would
otherwise be inaccessible to local responders.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The Coast Guard is a branch of the federal military service, but it is

housed under the Department of Homeland Security rather than the
Department of Defense. While it has a military service mission, it also
engages in maritime rescue work and also in domestic law enforcement
efforts in national waterways. In that regard, it is exempt from the Posse
Comitatus Act. The Coast Guard is something of a hybrid, delivering
military, rescue, and law enforcement service.

RESOURCES
Fine, Authors of the Storm.
McPhee, The Control of Nature.
Saul, Collective Trauma, Collective Healing.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 Identify a hazard that could impact your local community. For
that hazard, how might each of the agencies discussed in this
lecture assist in the response?
2 What agencies, organizations, or institutions, other than those
listed in this and the prior lecture, might also play a role in
disaster response or recovery?

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 LECTURE 13
HOW DISASTER
RESPONSE IS
COORDINATED

T
his lecture focuses on the Incident Command System, or what
practitioners in the field call the ICS. The lecture explains
the basics of the ICS so you can appreciate the clear and
organized response framework that it provides. Even though
the ICS is designed for first responders, its principles of incident
command are valuable for thinking about disaster and organizing
any large activity.

BASICS OF THE ICS

The ICS is designed to provide a common set of vocabulary,
structures, and processes that can be applied to any incident,
regardless of size or location. Everyone who has been trained in
ICS principles uses the same vocabulary, the same structures, and
the same processes for each incident.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The ICS had its origins among wildland firefighters in California in the
1970s. Given the nature of wildland firefighting, they had to regularly
work with a variety of agencies from different locations and needed
a mechanism to organize it all. The terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001, and the devastation of Hurricane Katrina in 2005 led to widespread
national adoption of what we now know as the ICS. Today, ICS training
is universally required for first responders, and many others in public
sector and service organizations also complete it.

THE 2009 METRO ACCIDENT

The ICS was applied on June 22, 2009, to respond to a Washington DC
Metro accident in which two trains collided. Both trains were moving in
the same direction on the same track, and the front of train 112 collided
with the end of train 214.
The interior of the first car of train 112 was compressed to 16 percent of
its usual space, and its outer body was dislocated and came to rest on
top of the rear car of train 214. The first two cars of train 112 derailed,
and some sections of track were damaged. Nine people, including the
operator and eight passengers, were killed. Approximately 90 were
evaluated for injuries at the scene. Of those, 52 were taken to hospitals
for treatment. The first 911 calls came from persons on the trains.

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13. How Disaster Response Is Coordinated

Fire service, rescue, and police responders were dispatched to the

incident. The fire service, in particular, is trained to provide a size up
of a scene. This is a good practice because it allows the responder
to take in what has happened, quickly note the status of the incident,
and gather information that will shape a response strategy. The first
transmission from a responding fire company was short but to the
point: “Engine 26 is on the scene of a Metro train derailment with one
car resting on top of another.”

STRATEGIZING
After the first unit on the scene has done a size up and has clearly
communicated what they have seen, the next step is to decide what to
do. The ICS uses management by objectives. Here are some sample
objectives following the Metro collision: Shut down the electricity on the
third rail, which powers trains on the track, and stop other Metro trains
on this section of track. Commercial freight railroad traffic also used
adjacent tracks, so that also needed to be stopped. Another objective
was to gain access to the train and conduct search and rescue.

THE CHAIN OF COMMAND

The incident commander (IC) is the person who oversees all of these
operations. Sometimes there is a single IC, and other times multiple
people, usually from different agencies, share the role as a group in
unified command. In this lecture’s case study, the incident commander
was the assistant chief of operations of the District of Columbia
Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department. The IC isn’t always
the highest-ranking person in an agency. It is the person on scene with
the most expertise, and it is not unusual for that to change over time.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The IC works from a command post that is close enough to monitor the
incident but is not directly on top of those who are working. In this case,
it was a street overpass that looked down onto the tracks at the incident
site. The IC also needs to think about where to put various facilities that
help to support the response, such as staging areas.
In the ICS, there are seven positions that report directly to the IC, each
with its own role. The following is a look at the responsibilities of each,
along with how they contributed to this response effort.
w The operations section chief oversees the people who are primarily
responsible for accomplishing the objectives. In this case, that
included teams assigned to gain access to the site, which they did by
cutting through fences. Once access was obtained, attention turned
to assisting the victims.
w The job of the planning section chief is to keep track of all decisions
that are made as well as to monitor information about the incident.
At the Metro train incident, all responders entering the area were
monitored. It’s important to know where people are at any point
in time.
w The work of the logistics section chief includes helping to obtain
necessary resources, providing incident facilities, and providing for
medical care for responders, among other tasks. Logistics roles for
the Metro incident included locating equipment such as portable
lights and a large crane.
w The finance and administration section chief is responsible for
tracking work hours and finances. This was handled at a space
located offsite to provide support to ongoing incidents. They worked
diligently to prepare the necessary expense reports for the incident.
w The public information officer gets the word out to the public
and provides media briefings. This person works behind the
scenes, helping to arrange media contacts and craft messages.
The Metro incident involved media briefings from the Washington
DC mayor, police chief, and fire and EMS chief. They provided
media briefings and also appeared on live television reports as the
incident evolved.
w The safety officer monitors the overall safety of the scene. There
were a number of risks present in the Metro incident associated
with train operations. For example, one concern was whether
the wreckage was stable, so some responders were assigned to
make sure that it was.

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13. How Disaster Response Is Coordinated

w Finally, the liaison officer’s job is to be a go-between, connecting

the incident commander and the overall incident operations to other
agencies that might need to either be aware of or be involved in the
response. In the Metro incident, mutual aid services were utilized.
Mutual aid is when agencies have agreements to assist one another
in large scale incidents. In this case, fire units from Washington DC,
Maryland, and Virginia assisted in the response.

ICS PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE

This lecture closes by asking you to consider how you can use ICS
principles. Unlike first response agencies, you may not have the luxury
of multiple persons to whom you can delegate tasks, but the building
blocks of ICS can help you handle a wide range of difficult situations:
w Do a size up. When something unusual happens, pause, even if
for a brief moment, to survey the scene, understand the situation,
appreciate the hazards, and consider what needs to happen.
w Communicate information about what’s going on. There are some
incidents that can be resolved quickly and without assistance, but if
it looks like it could need professional assistance, call for help. Give
a brief and clear description of what’s going on.
w Determine what needs to be done. Set your objectives. This can be
done mentally, verbally, or in writing.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

w Next, drawing on the various positions in the ICS, think about

these questions:
w How can you accomplish your objectives? That’s operations.
w What do you need to accomplish them? That’s logistics.
w How are you going to monitor the situation and the response as
it continues? That’s planning.
w How are you going to pay for it? That’s finance and administration.
w At all times, think about safety. What are the risks? Are they
changing? Do you need to take any precautions as part of
the response?
w Also consider if anyone else needs to know what’s going on.
This would be the liaison role.
w Consider this as well: If you have to talk to the media or the public
about what’s going on, are you ready? That falls under public
information.

RESOURCES
Federal Emergency Management Agency Emergency
Management Institute, IS-100.C.
Rubin, “DC Metro Wreck.”
Walsh, Christen, Callsen, Miller, Maniscalco, Lord, and Dolan,
National Incident Management System.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 How would you critique or modify the incident command system
(ICS) that public safety agencies utilize when responding to
an incident?
2 What do you think are the most important qualities of an
effective incident commander?

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 LECTURE 14
THE CHALLENGES OF
DISASTER RECOVERY

W
hen a disaster is over and when emergency operations
have concluded, the world moves forward. However, the
initial response to a disaster is just the beginning. Disasters
inexorably change communities and the people who live in them,
and as first responders are packing up and leaving the scene, a long
road of recovery lies ahead. In fact, recovery poses challenges that
sometimes can’t be easily addressed.

THREE MAXIMS
Several maxims about recovery hold true. The first is that recovery
does not always mean a return to the way things were before the
disaster occurred. Disasters change communities, and they may
look different afterward. Following Hurricane Katrina, which flooded
over 80 percent of the city of New Orleans in 2005, there was serious
debate about what a post‑Katrina New Orleans should look like. As
of 2015, New Orleans still had not regained its full population, rebuilt
all homes, or reopened all businesses. The city had changed.
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Second, the impacts of a disaster may be more widespread than we

initially presume. There may be hidden wounds that are not easily
detected. It’s important to remember that there may be psychological
harms, and not just for those who were in the disaster area.
Third, recovery is political. Determining how to prioritize post-disaster
recovery needs often involves discussions among and between
politicians, local leaders, and members of the public. Additionally,
disasters can lead to political advocacy.

TWO DIMENSIONS
We can understand recovery along two dimensions. The first dimension
is time, with both short-term or immediate recovery needs and long-
term or extended recovery needs. There’s no formal timeframe that
distinguishes the two, so consider the dimension as a conceptual guide.
The second dimension is need, and it can be measured in recovery
efforts that are focused on the needs of individuals and those focused
on the needs of the community as a whole. Again, it can sometimes be
difficult to draw a clear line, as it is individuals and their needs who
comprise a community, so consider it conceptually.
In all, that means there are four types of recovery: short-term individual
recovery, short-term community recover, long-term individual recovery,
and long-term community recovery. Let’s explore each in turn.

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14. The Challenges of Disaster Recovery

INDIVIDUAL RECOVERY
The first important note about short-term individual recovery is this:
Be very aware of potential safety risks. Don’t enter disaster areas
until you are authorized to do so, and be vigilant for risks like downed
power lines, unstable buildings, standing or moving water, debris, and
anything that could lead to safety hazards.
As part of short-term individual recovery, in the immediate aftermath
of an incident, there are many individuals who will need a wide range
of services. It’s important for localities to have a plan ready to go to
provide these services, which may include temporary housing and
clothing, meal service, medical treatment, and so on.
Long-term individual recovery addresses many of the same concerns
as short-term individual recovery on a more permanent basis. While
a shelter in a local school gymnasium may suffice for temporary
shelter, people whose homes have been lost need a more lasting
solution to rebuild. There may be a need for long-term medical care
in the aftermath of an incident. Long-term recovery needs are often
addressed through state or local funds, or through private insurance
when available.

COMMUNITY RECOVERY
Short-term community recovery is often focused on debris removal and
infrastructure. If a disaster has left behind any debris, it needs to be
cleared so locations may be reopened or repaired. Infrastructure-
focused responses can include restoring damaged roadways, restoring
lights, getting the buses or mass transit systems moving, and ensuring that
critically important facilities are in working condition. In some instances,
when the disaster was actually a criminal event, one or more locations
may be crime scenes, so crime scene processing must be completed
by law enforcement agencies before public access can be restored.
Long-term community recovery involves several distinct aspects. One of
the first things that must happen is a survey of what damages exist, and
if necessary, a prioritization of which needs should be addressed first.
Rebuilding damaged facilities that are necessary to serve community
needs is often a key long-term recovery priority. Sometimes rebuilding
is done in a manner that makes facilities safer should a subsequent
disaster occur.
Another area to consider is the local economy, which can be damaged
in the aftermath of a disaster. In a study of prior disasters, economists
Mark Zandi, Steven Cochrane, Filip Ksiazkiewicz, and Ryan Sweet found

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

that it is important to provide disaster aid to business and industry

quickly after a disaster occurs, such as through direct financial aid,
relaxation of regulations, tax incentives to encourage economic growth,
and ensuring that the area is as safe as possible from future disasters.
Communities also frequently seek to memorialize disasters. It’s common
for memorials to evolve over time, starting with an impromptu display.
The establishment of permanent memorials takes more time, and it
often includes the work of local committees to review possible designs
and to select among them.

FUNDING
Support for recovery is very fragmented, and this is something
that victims of disaster often find frustrating. There is not a single
source that provides all disaster recovery support. At the federal
level, various types of support are available from the Department of
Commerce, Department of Labor, FEMA, US Department of Housing
and Urban Development, Small Business Administration, Department
of Agriculture, Department of Health and Human Services, and the
Department of Transportation.
States also have organizations that may provide funding, and much
support is provided by volunteer organizations. In the wake of major
disasters, there are disaster funds generated
from public donations, which can also bring
their own controversies in terms of how the A COSTLY STORM
funds should be disbursed.
The business impact
of Hurricane Sandy in
2012 was estimated to
generate losses in the
billions of dollars.

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14. The Challenges of Disaster Recovery

CONCLUSION
It’s important to have a healthy awareness of the challenges involved
in disaster recovery. Hopefully the unthinkable will never occur, and
you will never experience a disaster situation. However, here are some
general guidelines for preparedness:
w Pursue personal preparedness with some degree of vigor.
Preparedness can help move toward recovery by building
resilience—that is, the quality that helps people move forward in
the wake of adversity.
w Acknowledge that there is no such thing as 100 percent security.
Remember the mantra of emergency management: Hope for the
best but be prepared for the worst.
w Be aware that resources may be necessary to assist with recovery.
Needs will vary from incident to incident. Unfortunately, the burden
may be on you to seek these resources out. Think about some
agencies or offices in your community that could assist with shelter,
health care, animal care, and so on.
w You may wish to keep a notebook and pen as part of your go kit.
This can help you keep a log of any recovery needs, information
provided by recovery agencies, a record of requests for assistance
and follow-ups to them, and other information that is necessary
during the recovery process.

RESOURCES
Birch and Wachter, Rebuilding Urban Places after Disaster.
Erikson, Everything in Its Path.
Foote, Shadowed Ground.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
1 What are the most significant challenges to recovery after a
disaster has occurred?
2 Emergency management professionals suggest that planning
for recovery must start before a disaster happens. What can you
do now to better be ready for recovery, should a disaster occur?

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

QUIZ
1. Which of the following is true of preparedness?

a. The public is generally very well prepared for disasters.

b. Cell phones are the most stable form of communication in
a disaster.
c. The government has always provided recovery assistance
after disasters.
d. Disaster planning is individualized, specific to each person’s
unique context.

2. Disasters are ___, and one key preparedness step is ___.

a. Different from daily emergencies; preparing a go kit.

b. Different from daily emergencies; going to the scene of an
emergency to verify that it is real before activating your
emergency plan.
c. The same as daily emergencies, just bigger; preparing a
go kit.
d. The same as daily emergencies, just bigger; going to
the scene of an emergency to verify that it is real before
activating your emergency plan.

3. The National Preparedness Goal is important for all of the

following reasons except:

a. It highlights the importance of knowing likely hazards in

the area.
b. It specifies that FEMA will handle all immediate
disaster responses.
c. It notes the roles that preparedness, mitigation, response,
and recovery all play.
d. It acknowledges that the efforts of the whole community
are important.

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Quiz

4. Factors that can influence decision making in a crisis include all

of the following except:

a. Maintaining careful situational awareness and monitoring

for changes.
b. Recognizing and responding to unsafe actions and
thought patterns.
c. Recognizing that the public will usually panic or display
disaster shock.
d. Identifying objectives to guide response actions.

5. Which of the following is true for home fire prevention

and preparedness?

a. There’s no need to call the fire department if a fire

extinguisher is available.
b. Home sprinklers and smoke detectors are valuable tools to
promote safety.
c. Extension cords should either be stapled to walls or placed
under carpets.
d. Fire grows slowly, so it’s OK to gather possessions
before evacuating.

6. For earthquakes, safety advice includes ___; for volcanoes, the

best approach is ___.

a. Standing in a doorway; to be prepared to shelter in place.

b. Standing in a doorway; to evacuate the area when told.
c. Drop, cover, and hold; to be prepared to shelter in place.
d. Drop, cover, and hold; to evacuate the area when told.

7. A ___ indicates that conditions are present for a weather crisis to

occur; a ___indicates that the weather crisis is occurring and ___.

a. Warning; watch; to take protective actions if in the area.

b. Warning; watch; to watch outside to see if conditions change.
c. Watch; warning; to take protective actions if in the area.
d. Watch; warning; to watch outside to see if conditions change.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

8. All of the following are true of active shooter incidents except:

a. The number of incidents has increased over time.

b. Incidents primarily occur in school settings.
c. The run-hide-fight model is taught for public response.
d. Offenders sometimes reveal their plans to others, and this
information should be taken seriously and reported.

9. For those who wish to assist in a disaster, the best donation is

generally ___. Volunteers should ___.

a. Cash; be prepared to identify their credentials.

b. Cash; always report directly to the scene of the incident.
c. New or gently used clothing, food, and water; be prepared
to identify their credentials.
d. New or gently used clothing, food, and water; always report
directly to the scene of the incident.

10. Which of the following is true of first responders?

a. Most police agencies are large, with more than 250 officers.
b. Most fire departments are staffed by full-time,
paid firefighters.
c. All ambulances and hospital emergency departments offer
the same services.
d. Dispatchers and PSAPs play a critical role in promoting
public safety.

11. All of the following are accurate descriptions of how various

agencies can support emergency response except:

a. Scientists play a critical role by helping to understand the

risks a hazard may pose.
b. Emergency managers help in pre-incident planning and in
supporting a response.
c. The US military helps by supplementing local law
enforcement functions.
d. Counselors play an important role in the aftermath of
an incident.
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Quiz

12. Responses are guided by ___, and the person in charge is the ___.

a. The Incident Command System; highest ranking

agency official.
b. The Incident Command System; incident commander.
c. Ad-hoc structures unique to each incident; highest ranking
agency official.
d. Ad-hoc structures unique to each incident;
incident commander.

13. Which of the following is true of recovery?

a. The goal is to restore the area to just how it looked before

the disaster.
b. Most recovery efforts are short-term initiatives, completed
fairly quickly.
c. Recovery involves significant expenditures and can
become political.
d. The public desires to forget disasters rather than
create memorials.

14. Which of the following is true of developing a personal

preparedness plan?

a. Start with an all-hazards plan, and then consider how to

address specific hazards.
b. Preparedness should only focus on natural hazards, like
earthquakes and storms.
c. It’s best to let professionals handle everything, so no plan
is necessary.
d. If a plan is well developed, there is little need to consider
revising it.

Answers:
1.d, 2.a, 3. b, 4. c, 5. b, 6. d, 7. c, 8. b, 9.a, 10. d, 11. c, 12. b , 13. c, 14. a

99
 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

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Hurricane Camille’s 1969 devastation of Nelson County, Virginia.
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Center of Excellence for Homeland Security— Emergency
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preparedness 101: Zombie

Pandemic. https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/zombie/00_docs/zombie_
pandemic.pdf. A brief graphic novel that challenges readers to think
about disaster response, including evacuation and sheltering.
———. “When Thunder Roars, Go Indoors!” https://www.cdc.gov/
features/lightning-safety/index.html. Safety guidance focused on
weather patterns involving lightning.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “World Trade
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Cities of Promise. “Lewisporte Area Flight 15 Scholarship Fund.” https://
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passengers on one of the flights that landed in Gander, Newfoundland,
on September 11, 2001, to repay the town for its generosity.
Commins, John. “Mercy Readies Tornado-Tough $450M Joplin Hospital.”
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Discussion of the hospital built to replace the facility destroyed in
the Joplin, Missouri, tornado, including numerous safety features to
promote resiliency.
Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. Hurricane
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gov/109/crpt/srpt322/CRPT-109srpt322.pdf. Report from the United
States Senate on preparedness, response, and areas for improvement
as related to Hurricane Katrina in 2005, which struck New Orleans and
the Gulf Coast.
Congressional Research Service. Wildfire Statistics. October 3,
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prevalence of wildfires in the United States.
Connell, Rory. “Collective Behavior in the September 11, 2001
Evacuation of the World Trade Center.” University of Delaware Disaster
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evacuation of the World Trade Center towers on September 11, 2001,

with a particular focus on cognitive decision making and examples of
prosocial behavior.
County of Santa Barbara Office of Emergency Management. Thomas
Fire and 1/9 Debris Flow After-Action Report and Improvement Plan.
October 16, 2018. https://www.countyofsb.org/asset.c/4550. The
official after-action report for the 2017–2018 wildfire and the related
2018 debris flows in southern California.
Cova, Thomas J., David M. Theobald, John B. Norman III, and Laura K.
Siebeneck. “Mapping Wildfire Evacuation Vulnerability in the Western
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Study that highlights the importance of maintaining multiple egress
routes from neighborhoods in areas vulnerable to wildfire.
Creed, Patrick, and Rick Newman. Firefight: Inside the Battle to Save the
Pentagon on 9/11. New York: Ballantine Books, 2008. A comprehensive
discussion of the response to the September 11, 2001, attack on the
Pentagon and how responders came together.
Crew Resource Management: A Positive Change for the Fire Service.
https://www.iafc.org/topics-and-tools/resources/resource/crew-
resource-management. Provides guidance on situational awareness,
decision making, and communication.
Crowder, Stan, and Brent E. Turvey. “911 Emergency Response.” In the
second edition of Forensic Victimology: Examining Violent Crime Victims
in Investigative and Legal Contexts, 67–85. Brent E. Turvey, ed. Waltham:
Elsevier, 2014. Description of 911 emergency telecommunication systems,
including the work of public safety telecommunicators.
Cullen, Dave. Columbine. New York: Twelve, 2009. Comprehensive
discussion of the 1999 Columbine shooting, including the incident itself.
———. Parkland. New York: Harper, 2019. Follows the activism of students
from Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School following the 2018
shooting.
“Deadly Montecito Debris Flow Was Rare Event, but Could Happen
Again.” Santa Barbara Independent, January 16, 2018. https://www.
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Defede, Jim. The Day the World Came to Town: 9/11 in Gander,
Newfoundland. New York: ReganBooks, 2002. The incredible story of
Gander, Newfoundland, where numerous international flights landed
on September 11, 2001, when American airspace was closed. The care
shown in providing shelter to the passengers has become legendary.
Desourdis, Robert I., Jr. “Why We Fail—and How to Succeed: The 25 Pearl
Harbor Deficiencies of Leadership and Planning: Their Pervasive Impact
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In The McGraw-Hill Homeland Security Handbook: Strategic Guidance
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decision making, drawing upon a discussion of the December 7, 1941,
attack on Pearl Harbor and other examples.
Doyle, Charles, and Jennifer K. Elsea. “The Posse Comitatus Act and
Related Matters: The Use of the Military to Execute Civilian Law
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pdf. Provides an overview of the complex law and policy surrounding
the relationship between military and civilian agencies and the law
enforcement function.
Drabek, Thomas E., and David A. McEntire. “Emergent Phenomena and
the Sociology of Disaster: Lessons, Trends and Opportunities from the
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individuals and organizations join together to address the response
and recovery to disasters.
Dunning, A. E., and Jennifer L. Oswalt. “Train Wreck and Chlorine
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transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/docs/DISASTER_RECOVERY_
TrainWreckChlorineSpillGranitevilleSC.pdf. A comprehensive review of
evacuation logistics and decision making for the 2005 train derailment
and chlorine release in Graniteville, South Carolina.
Edwards, Kelly, Kristie Johnson Gregory, Greg Mason, Darryl Nettles,
Lucas Rakovsky, Saundra Reinke, Eric Schweser, Jeane Silva, Katarzyna
Steinka-Fry, Shatareia Stoke, and Jody Wilson. “After the Crash:
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Town.” Georgia Political Science Association Conference Proceedings

(2007): 1–15. A discussion of the impacts of the 2005 train derailment
and chlorine spille in Graniteville, South Carolina.
Elnashai, Amr S., Theresa Jefferson, Frank Fiedrich, Lisa J. Cleveland,
and Timothy Gress. Impact of New Madrid Seismic Zone Earthquakes
on the Central USA. Urbana: Mid-America Earthquake Center, 2009.
http://cusec.org/documents/scenarios/2009_Scenario_MAE_
Center_Vol_I.pdf. A prospective overview of the potential impacts of
a significant earthquake on the New Madrid Seismic Zone, should one
happen today.
Environmental Science Services Administration. Hurricane Camille,
August 14–22, 1969, Preliminary Report. Washington DC: US Department
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“FAA Transcript of Hudson River Plane Landing.” The Guardian,
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us-airways-crash-transcript. Transcript of Flight 1549 (the 2009
“Miracle on the Hudson” landing), providing a good example of careful
but decisive decision making.
FDNYSmart. “Stop Drop Roll Cool Call.” https://www.fdnysmart.org/
stop-drop-roll-cool-call/. Overview of the approach to utilize for fires
on a person or clothing.
Federal Aviation Administration. Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical
Knowledge. Washington, DC: Federal Aviation Administration, 2016.
https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/
aviation/phak/media/04_phak_ch2.pdf. Chapter 2, linked here, is a
valuable overview of decision making and cognitive barriers that may
prevent safe or effective decision making; while intended for aviation,
the lessons also apply to public safety.
Federal Bureau of Investigation. “Active Shooter Resources.” https://
www.fbi.gov/about/partnerships/office-of-partner-engagement/
active-shooter-resources. This page contains numerous resources
pertaining to active shooter incidents.
———. “Quick Look: 277 Active Shooter Incidents in the United States
from 2000 to 2018.” https://www.fbi.gov/about/partnerships/
office-of-partner-engagement/active-shooter-incidents-graphics.
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Provides data about active shooter incidents, including the number of

incidents, number of casualties, and types of locations where incidents
have occurred.
———. “Terrorism.” https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/terrorism. Provides
the definitions of terrorism recognized by the Federal Bureau
of Investigation.
Federal Communications Commission. “911 and E911 Services.”
https://www.fcc.gov/general/9-1-1-and-e9-1-1-services. Overview
of the distinction between traditional 911 and enhanced 911
telecommunication services.
Federal Emergency Management Agency. “1997 Floods: Evacuation
of Grand Forks and Sheltering Evacuees.” https://www.fema.
gov/1997-floods-evacuation-grand-forks-and-sheltering-evacuees.
A brief discussion of evacuation processes related to the 1997 North
Dakota floods.
———. “1997 Grand Forks Flood by the Numbers.” https://www.fema.
gov/1997-grand-forks-flood-numbers. Data about the impacts of the
1997 North Dakota floods.
———. “2018 National Household Survey Results: Preparedness in
America.” https://community.fema.gov/resource/1567712664000/
ICPD_AP_2018_National_Household_Survey. Reports results of a
national survey on preparedness efforts; while there is still some progress,
much of the public remains disengaged with preparedness activities.
———. “Data Visualization: Summary of Disaster Declarations and
Grants.” https://www.fema.gov/data-visualization-summary-
disaster-declarations-and-grants. Data regarding Federal Emergency
Management Agency activity and budgets.
———. “The Disaster Declaration Process.” https://www.fema.gov/
disaster-declaration-process. Provides an overview of the process
required for a disaster declaration and the distinction between major
disaster and emergency declarations.
———. “Disaster Declarations by State/Tribal Government.” https://
www.fema.gov/disasters/state-tribal-government/. Current listing
of declarations of major disasters, emergencies, fire suppression
authorization, and fire management assistance, by state or
tribal jurisdiction.

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———. “Disaster Declarations by Year.” https://www.fema.gov/disasters/

year. A listing of declarations by year, since the disaster declaration
process was initially implemented in 1953.
———. “FEMA Flood Map Service Center: Welcome!” https://msc.fema.
gov/portal/home. Gateway for searching for local flood maps, which
show anticipated 100-year floodplains (flooding with an estimated 1
percent annual likelihood) and other information about flooding risks.
——— Home Builder’s Guide to Construction in Wildfire Zones. https://
www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1728-25045-1351/
home_builders_guide_to_construction_in_wildfire_zones.pdf.
A collection of factsheets related to specific aspects of property design
considerations for wildfire prevention.
———. “How to Prepare for a Wildfire.” https://www.fema.gov/media-
library-data/1409003859391-0e8ad1ed42c129f11fbc23d008d1ee85/
how_to_prepare_wildfire_033014_508.pdf. While focused on wildfire,
provides good advice about evacuations and go bags.
———. “The National Flood Insurance Program.” https://www.fema.gov/
national-flood-insurance-program. Website containing information
about the National Flood Insurance Program, which is a federal
government initiative available to homes and businesses.
———. “Understanding Individual Assistance and Public Assistance.”
https://www.fema.gov/news-release/2015/07/20/understanding-
individual-assistance-and-public-assistance. Provides a brief overview
of the types of post-disaster recovery assistance programs offered
through the Federal Emergency Management Agency and the types
of aid that each provides.
———. A Whole Community Approach to Emergency Management:
Principles, Themes, and Pathways for Action, December 2011. https://
www.fema.gov/media-library-data/20130726-1813-25045-3330/
whole_community_dec2011__2_.pdf. An overview of the Federal
Emergency Management Agency’s “whole community” doctrine, which
advocates for strong connections between emergency management,
responders, and community members; the doctrine offers perspectives
on how to conceptualize relationships with the community.
Federal Emergency Management Agency Emergency Management
Institute. IS-100.C: Introduction to the Incident Command System, ICS
100. https://training.fema.gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-100.c.

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

The standard introductory-level incident command training, which is

completed by virtually all first responders and many others who may
have roles should a disaster occur.
Federal Emergency Management Agency Emergency Management
Institute. IS-120.C: An Introduction to Exercises. https://training.fema.
gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-120.c. Online course providing
an introductory overview of exercises, consistent with the Homeland
Security Exercise and Evaluation Program.
Feldman, Jay. When the Mississippi Ran Backwards: Empire, Intrigue,
Murder, and the New Madrid Earthquakes. New York: Free Press, 2005.
This work blends political and social history within the context of the
1811–1812 New Madrid earthquakes.
Fine, Gary A. Authors of the Storm: Meteorologists and the Culture
of Prediction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007. Describes
the work of meteorologists and how it varies across different offices,
recognizing the variety of forces that may shape scientific inquiry.
Fire Adapted Communities. “Fire Adapted Communities Learning
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the Fire Adapted Communities program for wildfire awareness
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cpr. Article that recounts the historical origins of cardiopulmonary
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Foley, William E. A History of Missouri, Volume I: 1673–1820. Columbia:
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Foote, Kenneth E. Shadowed Ground: America’s Landscapes of Violence
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Explores how sites of disaster or tragedy are remembered, ranging
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

———. “Internal Records Reveal Mixed Messages, Missed Opportunities

Before 1/9 Debris Flow.” Santa Barbara Independent, May 24, 2018.
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Article offers critiques of the response to the 2018 debris flows in
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Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition. https://homefiresprinkler.org/. Multiple
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features that can be incorporated into a home.
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Horwitz, Helen. “Santa Barbara County Public Works Responds to
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net/MYAPWA/About/News___Media/Mudflow/MyApwa/Apwa_
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Hyndman, Donald, and David Hyndman, Natural Hazards and Disasters.
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International Association of Emergency Managers. “Position Statement:
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USA-Position-Statement-Critical-Role-of-EM-in-Climate-Change-
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Managers is a professional organization for practicing emergency

managers. This document links climate change to the potential for
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emergency management.
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Donora Smog Revisited: 70 Years after the Event that Inspired the Clean
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S88. Recounts the 1948 weather inversion at Donora, Pennsylvania,
which caused detrimental health impacts to residents and led to efforts
for clean air legislation.
Janis, Irving L. Groupthink. Second edition. Boston: Wadsworth, 1982. A
classic study of impaired decision making based on a desire to maintain
group agreement at the expense of critically analyzing crisis situations.
Janis explores the causes and consequences of groupthink.
Jonson, Cheryl L., Melissa M. Moon, and Joseph A. Hendry. “One Size
Does Not Fit All: Traditional Lockdown versus Multioption Responses to
School Shootings.” Journal of School Violence. Study reports a series of
simulations that test active shooter public response options, concluding
that offering multiple potential response options is more effective than
responding to all situations in the same way.
“June 29, 2012 Derecho.” https://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/AbtDerechos/
casepages/jun292012page.htm. Discusses the evolution and impacts of
the 2012 derecho straight-line wind event that affected multiple areas
in the eastern United States.
Klinoff, Robert. Introduction to Fire Protection and Emergency Services.
Fifth edition. Burlington: Jones and Bartlett, 2015. Overview of the fire
service and its role in the United States, including the varied tasks fire
departments perform and the equipment they use to do so.
Krajick, Kevin. “Defusing Africa’s Killer Lakes.” Smithsonian, September
2003. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/defusing-
africas-killer-lakes-88765263/. An overview of the science behind
the Lake Nyos carbon dioxide release and similar incidents, including
scientific study of the phenomenon.
Lankford, Adam, and Eric Madfis. “Don’t Name Them, Don’t Show
Them, But Report Everything Else: A Pragmatic Proposal for Denying
Mass Killers the Attention They Seek and Deterring Future Offenders.”

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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

American Behavioral Scientist 62, no. 2 (2018): 260–279. A statement

advocating that perpetrators of mass violence should not be identified
in the mass media.
Lankford, Adam, Krista G. Adkins, and Eric Madfis. “Are the Deadliest
Mass Shootings Preventable? An Assessment of Leakage, Information
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3 (2019): 315–341. Study of the prevalence of observable warning signs
and leakages of plans to engage in mass violence.
Leonard, Harman B., Christine M. Cole, Arnold M. Howitt, and Philip B.
Heymann. Why Was Boston Strong? Lessons from the Boston Marathon
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strong.pdf. A thorough discussion of the response to the 2013 Boston
Marathon bombing.
Leonard, Mary D. “After Great Flood of ’93, Valmeyer, Ill., Retreated to
the Bluffs and Found Its Future.” St. Louis Public Radio, July 30, 2013.
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ill-retreated-bluffs-and-found-its-future#stream/0. Describes the
efforts by which Valmeyer, Illinois, was rebuilt on higher ground to avoid
flooding incidents.
Lewis, Nicole, and Nicole Wallace. “Donations to Help Victims of
Hurricane Katrina Surpass $580-Million.” Chronicle of Philanthropy,
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causes related to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.
Lindblom, Charles E. “The Science of ‘Muddling Through.’” Public
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decision making.
Lutterloh, E. C., Shahed Iqbal, Jacquelyn H. Clower, Henry A. Spillerr,
Margaret A. Riggs, Tennis J. Sugg, Kraig E. Humbaugh, Betsy L. Cadwell,
and Douglas A. Thoroughman. “Carbon Monoxide Poisoning after an
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108–115. Describes an instance of carbon monoxide poisoning related
to a winter storm and the implications for public health professionals.
Markowitz, Miriam. “‘We’ll Deal with the Consequences Later’: The Cajun
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volunteers, as told by a reporter who was embedded with their disaster
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donations that are made in the aftermath of disasters.
McMillan, Tom. Flight 93: The Story, the Aftermath, and the Legacy of
American Courage on 9/11. Guilford: Lyons Press, 2014. Tells the story
of the heroic members of United Airlines Flight 93.
McPhee, John. The Control of Nature. New York: Noonday Press, 1989.
Discussion of several instances of balancing the use of technology to
control natural forces of the environment.
Meloy, J. Reid, and Jens Hoffmann, eds. International Handbook of
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text for threat assessment.
Meloy, J. Reid, Jens Hoffmann, Karoline Roshdi, Justine Glaz-Ocik, and
Angela Guldimann. “Warning Behaviors and Their Configurations Across
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This chapter provides information about pathways to violence and
behavioral indicators.
Mollenkopf, John, ed. Contentious City: The Politics of Recovery in New
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promote rebuilding, recovery, and memorialization after the attacks
of September 11, 2001.
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. The
9/11 Commission Report. New York: W. W. Norton, 2005. The official
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incident and response, how it was planned by the perpetrators, and
policy recommendations developed from the analysis.
National Fire Protection Association. “Fire Loss in the United States.”
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information related to fires, fire losses, injuries and deaths, and further
analyses of fire trends.

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———. “Firewise USA”. https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Fire-

causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Firewise-USA. Information about the
Firewise USA program for wildfire awareness and preparedness.
———. “Home Structural Fires.” https://www.nfpa.org/News-and-
Research/Data-research-and-tools/Building-and-Life-Safety/Home-
Structure-Fires. Statistics related to residential structure fires, causes
of fires, and deaths and injuries at residential fires.
———. “Preparing Homes for Wildfire.” https://www.nfpa.org/Public-
Education/Fire-causes-and-risks/Wildfire/Preparing-homes-for-
wildfire. Preparedness and safety guidance for wildfire events.
———. “Reporter’s Guide: All About Fire.” https://www.nfpa.org/News-
and-Research/Publications-and-media/Press-Room/Reporters-
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chemistry of fire, the fire tetrahedron, and conditions including rollover,
flashover, and backdraft.
———. “Smoke Alarms.” https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/
Staying-safe/Safety-equipment/Smoke-alarms. Multiple resources
related to smoke alarms, which are lifesaving devices that should be
placed in all homes.
National Institute of Standards and Technology. Technical Investigation
of the May 22, 2011 Tornado in Joplin, Missouri, March 2014. https://
nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/NCSTAR/NIST.NCSTAR.3.pdf. Comprehensive
overview of the 2011 tornado that struck Joplin, Missouri, including the
behavior of the storm, the damages it caused, warning and protective
actions, and more.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Centers
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summary-stats. Data pertaining to natural disasters whose costs have
exceeded 1 billion dollars.
National Transportation Safety Board. Aircraft Accident Report, Air
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near Washington National Airport, Washington, D.C., January 13, 1982.
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causal factors, and a discussion of response.

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———. Collision of Norfolk Southern Freight Train 192 with Standing

Norfolk Southern Local Train P22 with Subsequent Hazardous Materials
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RAR0504.pdf. The official report of the 2005 train derailment in
Graniteville, South Carolina, that resulted in a chlorine release; the
report provides an extensive review of the incident, its evolution,
impacts, and response.
———. Collision of Two Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority
Metrorail Trains Near Fort Totten Station, Washington D.C., June 22,
2009. https://www.ntsb.gov/investigations/AccidentReports/Reports/
RAR1002.pdf. The official report of the 2009 Washington DC Metro
accident, including a description of the incident, an analysis of potential
causal factors, and a discussion of response.
———. Loss of Thrust in Both Engines after Encountering a Flock of Birds
and Subsequent Ditching on the Hudson River, US Airways Flight 1549,
Airbus A320-214, N106US, Weehawken, New Jersey, January 15, 2009.
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the Hudson” landing of Flight 1549, including a thorough study and
overview of the incident.
———. Railroad Accident Report, Derailment of Washington Metropolitan
Area Transit Authority Train No. 401 at Smithsonian Interlocking,
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AccidentReports/Reports/RAR8206.pdf. The official report of the 1982
Washington DC Metro accident, including a description of the incident,
an analysis of potential causal factors, and a discussion of response.
National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster. https://www.
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disaster relief services through the N-VOAD system.
National Weather Service. “During a Flood.” https://www.weather.gov/
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tsunamiready/. Guidance relating to the National Weather Service’s
TsunamiReady® program.
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skywarn. Overview of the Skywarn program, in which civilian volunteers
monitor and report on weather conditions.
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

National Weather Service Office of Hydrological Development. Service

Delivery. https://www.nws.noaa.gov/oh/Dis_Svy/RedR_Apr97/
Service.htm. An overview of the weather forecasting and warning
processes related to the 1997 North Dakota floods.
“Nearly Half of Sandy Hook Donations Remain Unspent, Report Finds.”
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report-finds. Information about charitable donations to causes related
to the 2012 Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.
Neufeld, Josh. A.D.: New Orleans After the Deluge. New York: Pantheon
Books, 2009. A graphic novel portraying fictionalized stories grounded
in reality from Hurricane Katrina’s 2005 impacts in New Orleans.
North Dakota Department of Emergency Services. North Dakota
Response to the 1997 Disasters: Presenting an Overview, Chronology
of Events and Summary of Activity from State Agencies in Support of
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des/uploads%5Cresources%5C736%5Cn.d.-response-to-the-1997-
disasters.pdf. Official after-action report for the 1997 North Dakota
floods, including a thorough description of the evolution of the incident
and response actions.
Office of the Surgeon General. U.S. Surgeon General’s Advisory on
Naloxone and Opioid Overdose. https://www.hhs.gov/surgeongeneral/
priorities/opioids-and-addiction/naloxone-advisory/index.html.
Official statement by the United States surgeon general acknowledging
concern about the prevalence of opioid drug overdoses and
recommending administration of the drug naloxone to counteract
potential overdoses.
Olson, Steve. Eruption: The Untold Story of Mount St. Helens. New York:
W. W. Norton and Company, 2016. A thorough account of the days
leading to the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens, the eruption itself,
and the aftermath.
Parrish, Susan S. “The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 Laid Bare the
Divide Between the North and the South.” Smithsonian, April 11, 2017.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/devastating-mississippi-
river-flood-uprooted-americas-faith-progress-180962856/.
An account of the 1927 Mississippi River floods, with a particular focus
on cultural impacts and interpretations of the disaster.

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Paton, Douglas. “Disaster Preparedness: A Social-Cognitive

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emergency preparedness.
Pearn, John. “The Earliest Days of First Aid.” British Medical Journal,
309 (1994): 1718–1720. Article that recounts the history of civilian first
aid training.
Perry, Ronald W., and Marjorie R. Green. “The Role of Ethnicity in the
Emergency Decision-Making Process.” Sociological Inquiry 52, no. 4
(1982): 306–334. Discusses a three-part model of risk identification,
risk assessment, and risk reduction.
Pew Research Center: Internet and Technology. “Mobile Fact Sheet.”
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an overview of mobile phone ownership in the United States.
Pfeifer, Joseph W. “Crisis Leadership: The Art of Adapting to
Extreme Events.” Program on Crisis Leadership Discussion Paper
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files/centers/research-initiatives/crisisleadership/files/Pfeifer%20
Crisis%20Leadership--March%2020%202013.pdf. Paper identifies five
forces of crisis that can impair decision making—the physical, social,
psychological, operational, and political—and offers recommendations
for structuring responses to manage these forces.
Phillips, Brenda D., David M. Neal, and Gary R. Webb. Introduction to
Emergency Management Second edition. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2017.
A strong overview of the phases of emergency management and how
emergency management infrastructure seeks to accomplish them.
“Photos: The Destruction of Hurricane Camille.” The News and
Advance, August 9, 2019. https://www.newsadvance.com/news/local/
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474c-11e5-a0d0-0bcb843378a8.html#1. A newspaper retrospective
containing photographs from Hurricane Camille’s 1969 devastation of
Nelson County, Virginia.
Pielke, Roger A., Jr., Chantal Simonpietri, and Jennifer Oxelson. Thirty
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sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/about_us/meet_us/roger_pielke/camille/
report.html. An overview of Hurricane Camille and its impacts, prepared
30 years after the 1969 storm.

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“Presidential Policy Directive/PPD-8: National Preparedness.” https://

www.dhs.gov/presidential-policy-directive-8-national-preparedness.
Full text of the presidential directive authorizing development of the
National Preparedness Goal.
Quarantelli, E. L. “Emergencies, Disasters and Catastrophes Are
Different Phenomena.” University of Delaware Disaster Research Center
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handle/19716/674/PP304.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. Elaboration
of the distinction between emergencies, disasters, and catastrophes,
recognizing that differences are more than a matter of degree and
have a significant impact on conceptualizations of response planning.
Ready.gov. “Active Shooter.” https://www.ready.gov/active-shooter.
Provides guidance to the public on preparedness for and response
to active shooter events, focused on private citizens who are not
first responders.
———. “Community Emergency Response Team.” https://www.ready.
gov/cert. Description of Community Emergency Response Team
programs, in which civilian volunteers assist in disaster response and
recovery efforts.
———. “Earthquakes.” https://www.ready.gov/earthquakes. Preparedness
and safety guidance for earthquakes.
———. “Hurricane Seasonal Preparedness Digital Toolkit.” https://www.
ready.gov/hurricane-toolkit. Preparedness and safety guidance
focused on hurricanes.
———. “Make a Plan.” https://www.ready.gov/plan. Provides guidance
on developing a household emergency plan, with links to a variety of
resources and information about the key areas of emergency alerts,
sheltering, evacuation, and communication.
———. “Safety Skills.” https://www.ready.gov/safety-skills. Guidance on
recommended safety training, including utility shutoffs.
———. “Snowstorms and Extreme Cold.” https://www.ready.gov/winter-
weather. Safety guidance focused on winter weather conditions.
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———. “Tornadoes.” https://www.ready.gov/tornadoes. Safety guidance

focused on tornadoes.
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safety guidance for tsunamis.
———. “Volcanoes.” https://www.ready.gov/volcanoes. Preparedness
and safety guidance for volcanic activity.
“Remembering the Flood of ’97: Fire Breaks Out in Downtown Grand
Forks, Red River climbs 15 Years Ago Today.” Grand Forks Herald.
https://www.grandforksherald.com/news/2174128-remembering-
flood-97-fire-breaks-out-downtown-grand-forks-red-river-climbs-
15-years-ago. Discussion of the 1997 North Dakota floods, including
the fire that damaged downtown Grand Forks.
Ripley, Amanda. The Unthinkable: Who Survives When Disaster Strikes—
And Why. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2009. A contemporary classic,
this book addresses how individuals cognitively process crisis situations.
Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (42 U.S.C.
5121). https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1519395888776-
af5f95a1a9237302af7e3fd5b0d07d71/StaffordAct.pdf. Full text of
the legislation.
Rogers, A. “How a Mudslide Becomes a Deadly Tsunami of Rocks and
Sludge.” Wired, January 11, 2018. https://www.wired.com/story/post-
wildfire-mudslide/. An excellent overview of the science underlying the
relationship between wildfires and debris flows.
Rose, Kenneth D. One Nation Underground: The Fallout Shelter in
American Culture. New York: New York University Press, 2001. This book
traces Cold War era emergency management and civil defense through
the preparations that were made for nuclear war. There is also a small
discussion of the Bert the Turtle preparedness campaign.
Rusch, Elizabeth. “The Great Midwest Earthquake of 1811.” Smithsonian,
December 2011. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/
the-great-midwest-earthquake-of-1811-46342/. A brief overview of
the New Madrid Earthquakes of 1811–1812.
Rubin, Claire B., ed. Emergency Management: The American Experience.
Third edition. New York: Routledge, 2020. Provides a discussion of how
emergency management and disaster response have evolved since
the start of the 20th century, including discussions of policy, legislation,
and case studies.
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Rubin, Dennis. “DC Metro Wreck.” Firehouse, September 15, 2009.

https://www.firehouse.com/home/article/10470025/unbelievable-
was-the-word-most-often-used-to-describe-the-gruesome-crash-
site-of-the-metro-rail-accident-in-washington-dc-on-monday-june-
22-2009the-daily-commuter-homebound-rush-was-well-underway-
when-the-first-call-for-help-went-out-at-5-pm. Provides an overview
of the 2009 Washington DC Metro accident and response from the
perspective of first responders who worked the incident.
Sankoff, Irene, David Hein, and Laurence Maslon. Come from Away:
Welcome to the Rock: An Inside Look at the Hit Musical. New York:
Hachette Books Group, 2019. The story of the Tony Award–nominated
musical based on the September 11, 2001 story of Gander, Newfoundland.
Saul, Jack. Collective Trauma, Collective Healing: Promoting Community
Resilience in the Aftermath of Disaster. New York: Routledge, 2014.
Discusses the role of counseling efforts to assist in addressing
psychological issues during post-disaster recovery, drawing upon the
author’s varied experiences in the United States and abroad.
Sayre, Michael R., Robert A. Berg, Diana M. Cave, Richard L. Page,
Jerald Potts, and Roger D. White. “Hands-Only (Compression-Only)
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Scarth, Alwyn. Vesuvius: A Biography. Princeton: Princeton University
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Schneider, Mary-Jane. Introduction to Public Health. Fifth Edition.
Burlington: Jones and Bartlett Learning, 2017. Offers a broad overview
of public health issues and the work of public health agencies,
illustrating their activities related to and beyond disaster response
and management.
Schneider, Saundra K. Dealing with Disaster: Public Management in
Crisis Situations. Second Ed. New York: Routledge, 2011. A study of the
development of emergent norms, in which a disaster causes traditional
bureaucratic norms to be displaced with new expectations from the
public, which may or may not easily be met.

122
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 When Everything Fails: Surviving Any Disaster

Straub, Frank, Jack Cambria, Jane Castor, Ben Gorban, Brett Meade,
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Survivors of Flight 1549, William Prochnau, and Laura Parker. Miracle
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effects on individuals, this book considers the impact of social class,
race and ethnicity, gender, age, disability, health status, language,
family status, violence, religion, animals, and efforts to build resilience
among different communities.
US Census Bureau. “New Orleans Metro Area Rebounds from Hurricane
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US Department of Health and Human Services. “Medical Reserve
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the area that marks the boundary between wildlands and developed
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US Geological Survey. “How Much Does Sinkhole Damage Cost
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University of Memphis Center for Earthquake Research and Information.
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Winchester, Simon. Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27,
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Image Credits

IMAGE CREDITS
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3����������������������������������������������David Saville/FEMA news/Public domain.
4����������������������������������������������David Saville/FEMA news/Public domain.
5�������������������������������������������������������� cornishman/iStock/Getty Images.
5������������������������������������������������ filo/DigitalVision Vectors/Getty Images.
8������������������������������������� Techcop50/Wikimedia commons/CC BY-SA 4.0.
10����������������������������������������������������������� Bob Webster/flickr/CC BY 2.0.
14 ��������������������������������������������������������������������� NOAA/Public domain.
22�������������������������������������������� Izno/Wikimedia commons/CC BY-SA 3.0.
23������������������������������� U.S. Army Corps of Engineers/flickr/Public domain.
24����������������������������������������������� LC-DIG-ppmsca-01813/Public domain.
29������������������������������������������������������ KittisakJirasittichai/Getty Images.
31 ��������������������������������������������������� LC-DIG-anrc-07416/Public domain.
32�������������������������������������������������������������� BanksPhotos/Getty Images.
36����������������������������������������������� United States Air Force/Public domain.
38����������������������������������� United States Geological Survey/Public domain.
39���������������������������������������������������������������������� tomch/Getty Images.
39������������������������������������������������������������������ IlexImage/Getty Images.
39���������������������������������������������������������� snyferok/iStock/Getty Images.
40������������������������������������������������������������� mipan/iStock/Getty Images.
40��������������������������������������������������������������� Talaj/iStock/Getty Images.
44������������������������������������������������������������ AscentXmedia/Getty Images.
45����������������������������������������������������������� maroke/iStock/Getty Images.
46����������������������������������������������������������������� JamesBrey/Getty Images.
48����������������������������������������������������������benedek/iStock/Getty Images.
51 ��������������������������������������������������������������������� CHUYN/Getty Images.
52��������������������������������������������������������� ESA/A.Gerst/CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO.
54������������������������������������������������� SVphotography/iStock/Getty Images.
56���������������������������������������������������������������������� FEMA/Public domain.
58��������������������������������������������������������� 400tmax/iStock/Getty Images.
59���������������������������������������������������� Brycia James/iStock/Getty Images.
61������������������������������������������������ AntonioFrancois/iStock/Getty Images.
64������������������������������������������������ Andrea Booher/FEMA/Public domain.

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66���������������������� Center for Diease Control and PRevention/Public domain.

69������������������������ United States Department of Agriculture/Public domain.
71 �������������������������������������������������������� stevecoleimages/Getty Images.
73�������������������������������������������������� BrianAJackson/iStock/Getty Images.
74����������������������������������������������� United States Air Force/Public domain.
76�������������������������������������������������������������� Keith Brofsky/Getty Images.
78������������������������������������������������������������� joey zanotti/flickr/CC BY 2.0.
81 ������������������������������������������������� National Park Service/Public domain.
83�������������������������������������������������� The National Guard/flickr/CC BY 2.0.
85��������������������������� National Transportation Safety Board/Public domain.
86��������������������������� National Transportation Safety Board/Public domain.
87�������������������������������������������������������� Alex Smith/flickr/Public domain.
89����������������������������������������������� United States Air Force/Public domain.
91���������������������������������������������������������������������� tomazl/Getty Images.
92����������������������������������� Office of Governor Dan Malloy/flickr/CC BY 2.0.
94������������������������������������������� The National Guard/flickr/Public Domain.

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