Chapter 2: Analytic Geometry of Space

AM
PH
Duong T. PHAM

T.
g. CALCULUS II
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 1 / 64

Outline

1 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

AM
2 Vectors

PH
3 Vectors in R3

T.
4 Cross Product g.
on
5 Lines and Planes
Du

6 Vector Functions and Space Curves

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 2 / 64

Three-Dimensional Coordinate Systems

AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 3 / 64

Example. Illustrate the points (−4, 3, −5) and (3, −2, −6).

AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 4 / 64

Example. What surface in R3 is represented by the following equation?

z = 3.

Ans. The equation z = 3 represents the set {(x, y , z) : z = 3}, which is

AM
the set of all points in R3 whose z-coordinate is 3.

PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 5 / 64

Example. Which points satisfy the equations

x2 + y2 = 1 and z = 3?

Ans. Since z = 3, the points lie in the horizontal plane z = 3. Since

x 2 + y 2 = 1, the points lie on the circle with radius 1 and center on the

AM
z-axis.

PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 6 / 64

 Example. What does the equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 represent as a surface in
R3 ?
Ans. Given that x 2 + y 2 = 1, with no restrictions on z, we see that the
point (x, y , z) could lie on a circle in any horizontal plane z = k
=⇒ the surface x 2 + y 2 = 1 in R3 consists of all possible horizontal

AM
circles x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = k, and is therefore the circular cylinder with
radius 1 whose axis is the z-axis.

PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 7 / 64

Euclidean Distance

Definition.
In R3 , let P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ). The distance between

AM
P1 and P2 is
q

PH
|P1 P2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

T.
Example. The distance from the point P1 (2, −1, 7) to the point
g.
P2 (1, −3, 5) is
on
Du

q
|P1 P2 | = (1 − 2)2 + [−3 − (−1)]2 + (5 − 7)2
√
= 1+4+4
= 3.

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 8 / 64

Equation of a Sphere
Example. Find an equation of a sphere with radius r and center
C (h, k, `).

The sphere is the set of all points P(x, y , z)

AM
whose distance from C is r . Thus, P is on
the sphere if and only if |PC | = r . Squaring

PH
up, we have |PC |2 = r 2 ,

T.
(x − h)2 + (y − k)2 + (z − `)2 = r 2 .
g. Equation of the sphere of radius r and center
on
at C (h, k, `).
Du

In particular, if the center is the origin O(0, 0, 0) and the radius is r , then
an equation of the sphere is

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2.

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 9 / 64

 Example. Show that x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 4x − 6y + 2z + 6 = 0 is the equation
of a sphere, and find its center and radius.
Ans. We rewrite
(x 2 + 4x + 4) + (y 2 − 6y + 9) + (z 2 + 2z + 1) = −6 + 4 + 9 + 1

AM
(x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 + (z + 1)2 = 8.
√

PH
This is an equation of the sphere centered at (−2, 3, −1) and of radius 8

Example. What region in R3 is represented by the following inequalities

T.
1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4, z ≤ 0.
g.
on
p
1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4 ⇐⇒ 1 ≤ x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 2.
Du

The inequalities represent the region that lies be-

tween (or on) the spheres x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 and
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 and beneath (or on) the xy -
plane.
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 10 / 64
Vectors

The vector u = CD ~ has the same length and the

same direction as v = AB ~ even though it is in
a different position. We say that u and v are

AM
equivalent (or equal) and we write u = v .

PH
Combining Vectors. If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point
of v is at the terminal point of u, then the sum is the vector from the

T.
initial point of u to the terminal point of v .
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 11 / 64

Length of vectors
−→
In three dimensions, the vector a = OP = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is the position
vector of the point P(a1 , a2 , a3 ).
Let two points A(x1 , x2 , x3 and B(y1 , y2 , y3 ). The vector connecting

AM
−→
the two points is given by AB = (y1 − x1 , y2 − x2 , y3 − x3 ).

PH
The length of the two-dimensional vector a = (a1 , a2 ) is
q

T.
|a| = a12 + a22 .
g.
The length of the three-dimensional vector a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) is
on
q
|a| = a12 + a22 + a32 .
Du

If a = (a1 , a2 ) and b = (b1 , b2 ) in R2 , then

a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ) a − b = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 )
ca = (ca1 , ca2 )
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 12 / 64
Vector Operations

Similarly, for three-dimensional vectors

(a1 , a2 , a3 ) + (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 )

AM
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) − (b1 , b2 , b3 ) = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 )

PH
c(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (ca1 , ca2 , ca3 ).

Example. If a = (4, 0, 3) and b = (−2, 1, 5), find |a| and the vectors

T.
a + b, a − b, 3b and 2a + 5b.
p g.
√
|a| = 42 + 02 + 32 = 25 = 5,
on
a + b = (4, 0, 3) + (−2, 1, 5) = (4 + (−2), 0 + 1, 3 + 5) = (2, 1, 8)
Du

a − b = (4, 0, 3) − (−2, 1, 5) = (4 − (−2), 0 − 1, 3 − 5) = (6, −1, −2)

3b = 3(−2, 1, 5) = (3(−2), 3(−1), 3(5)) = (−6, −3, 15)
2a + 5b = 2(4, 0, 3) + 5(−2, 1, 5) = (8, 0, 6) + (−10, 5, 25) = (−2, 5, 31)

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 13 / 64

Rn

Definition.
In Rn , an element x ∈ Rn is denoted by

AM
x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )

PH
x is called a point or a vector

T.
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) is coordinates of x
g.
on
Definition.
Du

In Rn ,
Vector addition: (x1 , . . . , xn ) + (y1 , . . . , yn ) = (x1 + y1 , . . . , xn + yn )
Scalar multiplication: α(x1 , . . . , xn ) = (αx1 , . . . , αxn )

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 14 / 64

Properties of vectors

AM
Let a, b and c be vectors in Rn . Let α and β be real numbers. There hold

PH
a+b =b+a α(a + b) = αa + αb
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

T.
(α + β)a = αa + βa
a+0=a (αβ)a = α(βa)
a + (−a) = 0
g. 1a = a
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 15 / 64

Standard basis vectors
In R3 , let
i = (1, 0, 0) j = (0, 1, 0) k = (0, 0, 1).
These vectors i , j and k are called the standard basis vectors.

AM
Let a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) ∈ R3 . We can write

PH
a = (a1 , a2 , a3 )
= (a1 , 0, 0) + (0, a2 , 0) + (0, 0, a3 )

T.
= a1 (1, 0, 0) + a2 (0, 1, 0) + a3 (0, 0, 1)
= a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
g.
on
Example. If a = i + 2j − 3k and b = 4i + 7k, express the vector 2a + 3b
in terms of i , j and k.
Du

Ans. We have
2a + 3b = 2(i + 2j − 3k) + 3(4i + 7k)
= 2i + 4j − 6k + 12i + 21k = 14i + 4j + 15k
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 16 / 64
Unit vectors
A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1. For example, i , j and k
are unit vectors.
If a 6= 0, then the unit vector that has the same direction as a is

AM
1 a
u= a= .
|a| |a|

PH
Indeed,
 
a  1
|u| =   = |a| = 1

T.
|a| |a|
g.
Example. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector 2i − j − 2k.
on
Ans. The length of the vector is
Du

q √
|2i − j − 2k| = 22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 9 = 3.
The unit vector with the same direction is
1 2 1 2
(2i − j − 2k) = i − j − k.
3 3 3 3
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 17 / 64
Dot Product

Definition.
Given x(x1 , x2 , x3 ), y (y1 , y2 , y3 ) ∈ R3 ; the dot product (or inner

AM
product) of x and y is defined by
3

PH
X
x ·y = xi yi = x1 y1 + x2 y2 + x3 y3
i=1

T.
Notation: The dot product can also be denoted by hx, y i = x · y .
g.
on
Example. Given x ∈ R3 ;
Du

3
X
|x|2 = xi2 = hx, xi
i=1

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 18 / 64

Properties
Proposition.
Given x, y , z ∈ R3 and α ∈ R. There hold:

AM
hx, y i = hy , xi
hx, y + zi = hx, y i + hx, zi

PH
hx, αy i = hαy , xi = α hx, y i

T.
3 3
Proof. X X
hx, y i = xi yi = yi xi = hy , xi ,
g.i=1 i=1
on
proving (19). Note that y + z = (y1 + z1 , y2 + z2 , y3 + z3 ). We have
Du

3
X 3
X 3
X 3
X
hx, y + zi = xi (yi + zi ) = (xi yi + xi zi ) = xi yi + xi zi
i=1 i=1 i=1 i=1
= hx, y i + hx, zi ,
proving (19).
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 19 / 64
Orthogonality

Definition.
Vectors x, y ∈ R3 are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular) if

AM
x ·y =0

PH
T.
Example. Given x, y ∈ R3 ; If x ⊥ y (perpendicular), then
g.
|x − y |2 = hx − y , x − y i
on
= hx, xi − hx, y i − hy , xi + hy , y i
Du

= |x|2 − 2 hx, y i + |y |2
= |x|2 + |y |2 since hx, y i = 0 (orthogonality)

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 20 / 64

Schwarz Inequality

Proposition (Schwarz Inequality).

For any x, y ∈ Rn , there holds

AM
|hx, y i| ≤ |x| |y | (?)

PH
Proof. We have

T.
 3  v v
X  u 3 u 3
uX uX
|hx, y i| = 

xi yi  ≤
 t 2
xi t yi2 = |x| |y | 

i=1
g.
i=1 i=1
on
xi
Du

Remark. (?) is an equality when = constant , i = 1, . . . , n. In

yi
other words,

|hx, y i| = |x| |y | ⇐⇒ x = αy for some α ∈ R

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 21 / 64

Triangle Inequality

Proposition (Triangle Inequality).

For any x, y ∈ Rn , there holds

AM
|x + y | ≤ |x| + |y |

PH
T.
Proof. We have
g.
|x + y |2 = hx + y , x + y i = |x|2 + 2 hx, y i + |y |2
on
≤ |x|2 + 2 |hx, y i| + |y |2
Du

≤ |x|2 + 2 |x| |y | + |y |2
= (|x| + |y |)2 

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 22 / 64

In R3

Proposition.

AM
Given x, y ∈ R3 . Assume that θ is the angle between x and y . There holds

PH
x · y = |x| |y | cos θ

T.
Corollary. g.
The θ angle θ between x and y in R3 is
on
Du

hx, y i
cos θ =
|x| |y |

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 23 / 64

In R3

Example. Find the angle between a = (2, 2, −1) and b = (5, −3, 2).

AM
Ans. We have
q q √

PH
|a| = 2 + 2 + (−1) = 3 and |b| = 52 + (−3)2 + 22 = 38.
2 2 2

T.
Furthermore, a · b = 2 · 5 + 2 · (−3) + (−1) · 2 = 2. Thus
g.
cos θ =
a·b 2
= √ .
on
|a| |b| 3 38
Du

So
2
θ = cos−1 √ ' 1.46
3 38

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 24 / 64

Projections

AM
PH
T.
Definition.
g.
In R3 , let a and b.
on
Scalar projection of b on a is:
Du

a·b
compa b =
|a|
Vector projection of b on a is:
a a·b
proja b = (compa b) = a
|a| |a|2
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 25 / 64
Projections

Definition.
In R3 , let a and b.
a·b

AM
Scalar projection of b on a is: compa b =
|a|

PH
a a·b
Vector projection of b on a is: proja b = (compa b) = a
|a| |a|2

T.
Example. Given a = (−2, 3, 1) and b = (1, 1, 2).
g. √
on
p
|a| = (−2)2 + 32 + 12 = 14
Du

a·b (−2)1 + 3(1) + 1(2) 3

compa b = = √ =√
|a| 14 14
 
3 a 3 9 3
proja b = √ = − , ,
14 |a| 7 14 14
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 26 / 64
Applications of projections
Imagine a constant force F moves an object
from P to Q. The work done by this force is
defined to be the product of the component of
the force along D and the distance moved:

AM
W = (|F | cos θ) |D| = |F | |D| cos θ = F · D

PH
Example. A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along a horizontal path

T.
by a constant force of 70 N. The handle of the wagon is held at an angle
of 35◦ above the horizontal. Find the work done by the force.
g.
on
Ans. Denote by F and D the force and dis-
Du

placement vectors. The work done is

W = F · D = |F | |D| cos 35◦

= 70 · 100 · cos 35 ' 5734J

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 27 / 64

Direction Angles and Direction Cosines
The direction angles of a nonzero
vector a are the angles α, β, and γ
(in the interval [0, π]) that makes
with the positive x-, y -, and z-axes

AM
The cosines of these direction

PH
angles, cos α, cos β, and cos γ, are
called the direction cosines of the
vector a. We have

T.
a·i a1 g. a2 a3
cos α = = . Similarly, cos β = , cos γ = .
|a| |i | |a| |a| |a|
on
Du

We can also write

a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (|a| cos α, |a| cos β, |a| cos γ) = |a| (cos α, cos β, cos γ)
1
=⇒ a = (cos α, cos β, cos γ)
|a|

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 28 / 64

Cross Product
Definition.
If x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and y = y1 , y2 , y3 ), then the cross product of x and y is

AM
x × y = (x2 y3 − x3 y2 , x3 y1 − x1 y3 , x1 y2 − x2 y1 )

PH
Remark. 
i j k


 
x × y = x1 x2 x3 


T.
y1 y2 y3 
Example. x = (1, 3, 4) and y = (2, 7, −5). Find x × y .
g.
on
 
i j k 
Du

     
  3 4  1 4  1 3 
x × y = 1 3 4  = 
    i −
  j +
 k
2 7 −5 7 −5 2 −5 2 7

= −43i + 13j + k
Hence, x × y = (−43, 13, 1).
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 29 / 64
Cross Product

Example. Show that a × a = 0 for any a ∈ R3

AM
We have

PH
 
i j k       
 a2 a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 

T.
a × a = a1 a2 a3  = 
  
 i − a1 a3  j + a1 a2  k
    
a1 a2 a3  a 2 a3

= 0i − 0j + 0k.
g.
on
Du

Hence, a × a = (0, 0, 0).

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 30 / 64

Cross Product

Theorem.
The vector a × b is orthogonal to both a and b

AM
Proof. We have

PH
   
a2 a3  a1 a3 
(a × b) · a =  a − a
b2 b3  1 b1 b3  2
  

T.
 
a1 a2 
+ a
b1 b2  3

g.
on
 
a1 a2 a3 
Du

 
= a1 a2 a3 
b1 b2 b3 
=0 it has two equal rows

Similarly, (a × b) · b = 0. 
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 31 / 64
Cross product

Theorem.
If θ is the angle between a and b (0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then

AM
|a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ

PH
Proof. We have

T.
|a × b|2 = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2
g.
= (a12 + a22 + a32 )(b12 + b22 + b32 ) − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
on
= |a|2 |b|2 − ha, bi2 = |a|2 |b|2 − |a|2 |b|2 cos2 θ
Du

= |a|2 |b|2 sin2 θ.

Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, sin θ ≥ 0. |a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ. 

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 32 / 64

Cross Product
Proposition.
|a × b| is equal to the area of the parallelogram determined by a and b.

AM
Proof. |a × b| = |a| |b| sin θ

PH
B C

T.
b
g.
θ
on
O H a A
Du

1
Area(OACB) = 2 × Area(OAB) = 2 × OA × BH
2
= OA × OB × sin θ = |a| |b| sin θ
= |a × b| .
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 33 / 64
Cross Product
Example. Find vector x ∈ R3 such that |x| = 1 and x is perpendicular
to the plane passing through P(1, 4, 6), Q(−2, 5, −1) and R(1, −1, 1).

AM
−→ −→
Ans. PQ = (−3, 1, −7); PR = (0, −5, −5). Then

PH
 
 i j k 
−→ −→  
PQ × PR = −3 1 −7 = (−40, −15, 15)

T.
 0 −5 −5
g.
√
on
−→ −→ q
PQ × PR  = (−40)2 + (−15)2 + 152 = 2050.
 
Du

Vector  
40 15 15
−√ , −√ ,√
2050 2050 2050
is the required vector.
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 34 / 64
Cross Product

Theorem.

AM
Let a, b, c ∈ R3 and α ∈ R. There hold

PH
a × b = −b × a
(αa) × b = α(a × b) = a × (αb)

T.
a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
g.
(a + b) × c = a × c + b × c
on
a · (b × c) = (a × b) · c
Du

a × (b × c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 35 / 64

Triple product

Definition.
The product a · (b × c) is called the scalar triple product of the vectors

AM
a, b, and c. There holds

PH
 
a1 a2 a3 
 
a · (b × c) = b1 b2 b3 

T.
 c1 c2 c3 

g.
on
The volume of the parallelepiped de-
termined by the vectors a, b, and c
Du

is the magnitude of their scalar triple

product

V = |a · (b × c)|

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 36 / 64

Lines

AM
PH
T.
Definition. g.
on
Let L be a line which passes through a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to
a vector v = (a, b, c). Then the parametric equation of L is
Du


x = x0 + ta
     
x x0 a 
y  = y0  + t b  , t ∈ R, or y = y0 + tb , t ∈ R.
z z0 c

z = z0 + tc


Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 37 / 64

Lines

Example.
1 Find a parametric equation of the line L which passes through the

AM
point P0 (5, 1, 3) and is parallel to vector v = (1, 4, −2),
2 Find two other points on L.

PH
Sol.

T.
1 The parametric equation of L is

x
g.
   
5
 
1
on
y  = 1 + t  4  , t ∈ R.
Du

z 3 −2

2 Choose t1 = 1, we have P1 (6, 5, 1) ∈ L

Choose t2 = 2, we have P2 (7, 9, −1) ∈ L

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 38 / 64

Lines

Parametric equation of L
 
x = x0 + ta
 x − x0 = ta


AM
y = y0 + tb ⇐⇒ y − y0 = tb
 
z = z0 + tc z − z0 = tc
 

PH
T.
If none of a, b, c is 0, we obtain
x − x0
g. y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
on
Du

It is called symmetric equations of L

If e.g. a = 0, then
y − y0 z − z0
x = x0 , =
b c

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 39 / 64

Lines
Example. Line L passes through points A(2, 4, −3) and B(3, −1, 1).
1 Find parametric and symmetric equations of L.
2 Find the intersection between L and xy -plane.

AM
Ans.
−→

PH
1 AB = (1, −5, 4): directional vector of L.

Parametric equ.

T.
symmetric equ.
     
x 2 1
g.
y  =  4  + t −5 x −2 y −4 z +3
= =
on
1 −5 4
z −3 4
Du

2 xy -plane is z = 0. Intersection between L and xy -plane is

x −2 y −4 3
= =
1 −5 4

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 40 / 64

Line Segment
Proposition.
Given two points A(a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B(b1 , b2 , b3 ). The line segment from A
to B is

AM
     
x1 a1 b1
x2  = (1 − t)a2  + t b2  0 ≤ t ≤ 1

PH
x3 a3 b3

T.
−→
Proof. AB = (b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 , b3 − a3 ).
g.
Let X (x1 , x2 , x3 ) be a point in line segment AB.
on
−→ −→
Then AX = t AB for 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
Du

−→
We have AX = (x1 − a1 , x2 − a2 , x3 − a3 ). Thus
         
x1 − a1 b1 − a1 x1 a1 b1
x2 − a2  = t b2 − a2  =⇒ x2  = (1 − t) a2  + t b2 
x3 − a3 b3 − a3 x3 a3 b3

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 41 / 64

Plane

Let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point on a plane and

n = (a, b, c) be a vector which is perpendicu-

AM
lar to the plane. For any point P(x, y , z) on the
plane, we have

PH
−−→ −−→
P0 P ⊥ n ⇐⇒ P0 P · n = 0.

T.
⇐⇒ (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) · (a, b, c) = 0

or
g.
on
Du

a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0

Equation of the plane which passes through P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) with normal

vector n = (a, b, c).

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 42 / 64

Plane

Example. Find an equation of the plane that passes through the

points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6), and R(5, 2, 0).
−→ −→ −→ −→

AM
Ans. PQ = (2, −4, 4) and PR = (4, −1, −2). Then PQ × PR is
perpendicular to the plane. Thus it is a normal vector of the plane.

PH
 
i j k 
−→ −→ 

T.
PQ × PR = 2 −4 4  = 12i + 20j + 14k = (12, 20, 14).
4 −1 −2
g.
on
The plane passing through P(1, 3, 2) with normal vector (12, 20, 14) has
equation:
Du

12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0

or
6x + 10y + 7z = 50

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 43 / 64

Angle between two planes
If two planes are not parallel, then
they intersect in a straight line and
the angle between the two planes is
defined as the acute angle between

AM
their normal vectors

PH
Example. Find the angle between the planes

T.
x +y +z =1 and x − 2y + 3z = 1.
g.
Ans. The normal vectors of these planes are
on
n 1 = (1, 1, 1) n 2 = (1, −2, 3).
Du

If θ is the angle between two planes then

n1 · n2 1(1) + 1(−2) + 1(3) 2
cos θ = =√ √ = √ =⇒ θ ' 72◦ .
|n 1 | |n 2 | 1+1+1 1+4+9 42
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 44 / 64
d(point,plane)
Example. Find a formula for the distance from a point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to
the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0
Ans. Let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be any point

AM
in the given plane. Then,

PH
−−→
P0 P = (x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 ).

T.
The distance D from P1 to the plane
g. is equal to the absolute value of the
−−→
on
scalar projection of P0 P onto the normal vector n = (a, b, c). Thus,
Du

 −−→
n · P0 P 
 
 −−→ |a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 )|
D = compn Po P  = = √

|n| a2 + b 2 + c 2
|(ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) − (ax0 + by0 + cz0 )| |ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
= √ = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2 a2 + b 2 + c 2
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 45 / 64
d(point,plane)
Given a point P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and a plane 4: ax + by + cz + d = 0.

|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|

d(P1 , 4) = √
a2 + b 2 + c 2

AM
Example. Find the distance between the parallel planes

PH
10x + 2y − 2z = 5 and 5x + y − z = 1.

T.
Ans. Two normal vectors of these planes are (10, 2, −2) and (5, 1, −1). To
find the distance D between the planes, we choose any point on one plane
g.
and calculate its distance to the other plane. If we choose y = z = 0 in the
on
equation of the first plane, we obtain 10x = 5. Thus, (1/2, 0, 0) is a point
Du

on the first plane. The distance between this point and the second plane is
 1
 √
5
2 + 1(0) − 1(0) − 1 3
D= p = .
2 2
5 + 1 + (−1) 2 6
√
The distance between the planes is 3/6.
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 46 / 64
Homework Chapter 2

AM
Section 12.1: 2, 4
Section 12.2: 3, 4, 6

PH
Section 12.3: 2, 6, 8
Section 12.4: 1, 3, 16, 34

T.
Section 12.5: 2, 3, 6, 69
Section 13.1: 2, 5, 6
g.
on
Section 13.2 : 3, 6, 10, 12, 24
Du

Section 13.3: 1, 2, 4

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 47 / 64

Vector functions
Definition.
A mapping r : [a, b] → R3 is called vector-valued function (or a vector
function). If f , g , and h are the components of the vector r , then f , g ,

AM
and h are real-valued functions called the component functions of f and
we can write

PH
r (t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k

T.
Remark.
g.
By our usual convention, the domain of consists of all values of t for which
on
the expression for r (t) is defined.
Du

For example, consider the vector function

√
r (t) = (t 3 , ln(3 − t), t).
√
The component functions t 3 , ln(3 − t) and t are well-defined when
3 − t > 0 and t ≥ 0. The domain of r is the interval [0, 3).
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 48 / 64
Limit

Definition.
If r (t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)), then

AM
 
lim r (t) = lim f (t), lim g (t), lim h(t)

PH
t→a t→a t→a t→a

provided the limits of the component functions exist.

T.
sin t
Example. Find lim r (t), where r (t) = (1 + t 3 )i + te −t j +
g. k.
t→0 t
on
Ans. We have
Du

 
h
3
i h
−t
i sin t
lim r (t) = lim (1 + t ) i + lim te j + lim k
t→0 t→0 t→0 t→0 t

= i + k = (1, 0, 1).

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 49 / 64

Continuity

Definition.
A vector function r is continuous at a if

AM
lim r (t) = r (a).
t→a

PH
Note that r is continuous at a if and only if its component functions f , g ,
and h are continuous at a.

T.
Suppose that f , g , and h are continuous real-valued functions on an
g.
interval I . Then the set of all points (x, y , z) in space, where
on
Du

x = f (t), y = g (t), z = h(t),

and varies throughout the interval I , is called a space curve

If we now consider the vector function r (t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)), then
r (t) is the position vector of the point P (f (t), g (t), h(t)) on C .
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 50 / 64
Space curve

Example. Describe the curve defined by the vector function

r (t) = (1 + t, 2 + 5t, −1 + 6t) .

AM
Ans. The corresponding parametric equations are

PH

x = 1 + t


T.
y = 2 + 5t

z = −1 + 6t.

g.
on
This is parametric equation of a straight line passing through the point
Du

(1, 2, −1) and parallel to the vector (1, 5, 6).

The vector function can also be written as

r = r0 + tv , where r0 = (1, 2, −1) and v = (1, 5, 6).

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 51 / 64

Space curve
Example. Sketch the curve whose vector equation is
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk.
Ans. We have x 2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1. The curve must lie on the

AM
circular cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1. Since z = t, the curve spirals upward around
the cylinder as t increases.

PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 52 / 64

Space curve
Example. Find a vector function that represents the curve of intersection
of the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 and the plane y + z = 2.
Ans.
The projection of C on the xy -plane

AM
is the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1, z = 0. We
can write

PH
x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

T.
g. Equation of the plane gives
on
z = 2 − y = 2 − sin t.
Parametric equation of C is
Du

x = cos t, y = sin t, z = 2 − sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

The corresponding vector equation is
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + (2 − sin t)k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 53 / 64
Derivatives
Definition.
The derivative r 0 of a vector function r is defined by

AM
dr r (t + h) − r (t)
= r 0 (t) = lim
dt h→0 h

PH
if the limit exists.

T.
If the points P and Q have
g. position vectors r (t) and
−→
r (t +h), then PQ represents
on
the vector r (t + h) − r (t).
Du

If h > 0, then r (t+h)−r

h
(t)

has the same direction as

r (t + h) − r (t).
As h → 0, this vector approaches a vector lies on the tangent line. Thus,
the vector r 0 (t) is called the tangent vector to the curve defined by r at P.
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 54 / 64
Derivatives
Theorem.
If r (t) = (f (t), g (t), h(t)) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k, where f , g , and h are
differentiable functions, then

AM
r 0 (t) = f 0 (t), g 0 (t), h0 (t) = f 0 (t)i + g 0 (t)j + h0 (t)k.

PH
Example. Find the derivative of r (t) = (1 + t 3 )i + te −t j + sin 2tk and

T.
find the unit tangent vector at the point t = 0.
g.
Ans. Differentiate each component we obtain
on
r 0 (t) = 3t 2 i + (1 − t)e −t j + 2 cos 2tk.
Du

Since r (0) = i and r 0 (0) = j + 2k, the unit tangent vector at the point
(1, 0, 0) is
r 0 (0) j + 2k 1 2
T (0) = 0
=√ =√ j+√ k
|r (0)| 1+4 5 5
Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 55 / 64
Differentiation Rules

Theorem.
Suppose u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a scalar, and f is

AM
a real-valued function. Then
d
[u(t) + v (t)] = u 0 (t) + v 0 (t)

PH
dt
d
[cu(t)] = cu 0 (t)

T.
dt
d
[f (t)u(t)] = f 0 (t)u(t) + f (t)u 0 (t)
g.
dt
on
d
[u(t) · v (t)] = u 0 (t) · v (t) + u(t) · v 0 (t)
dt
Du

d
[u(t) × v (t)] = u 0 (t) × v (t) + u(t) × v 0 (t)
dt
d
[u(f (t))] = f 0 (t)u 0 (f (t)) (Chain Rule)
dt

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 56 / 64

Integrals

Definition.
Let r (t) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k be a continuous vector function defined

AM
on [a, b]. The integral of r over [a, b] is defined by

PH
Z b Z b  Z b  Z b 
r (t) dt = f (t) dt i + g (t) dt j + h(t) dt k
a a a a

T.
Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus).g.
on
If R(t) is an antiderivative of r (t), i.e. R 0 (t) = r (t), then
Du

Z b b
r (t) dt = R(t) = R(b) − R(a).

a a
R
We use the notation r (t) dt for indefinite integrals.

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 57 / 64

Integrals

Example. If r (t) = 2 cos ti + sin tj + 2tk, then

AM
Z Z  Z  Z 
r (t) dt = 2 cos t dt i + sin t dt j + 2t dt k

PH
= 2 sin ti − cos tj + t 2 k + C ,

T.
where C = (c1 , c2 , c3 ) = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k ∈ R3 is a constant vector. Then
Z π/2
g. π/2
on
r (t) dt = 2 sin ti − cos tj + t 2 k 0

0
Du

π2
= 2i + j + k.
4

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 58 / 64

Length of space curves
• Suppose that the curve in R3 has the vector equation

r (t) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b,

AM
or, equivalently, the parametric equations

PH
x = f (t), y = g (t), z = h(t),

where f 0 , g 0 and h are continuous.

T.
• If the curve is traversed exactly once as increases from t = a to t = b,
g.
then it can be shown that its length is
on
Z bq
Du

L= [f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2 dt

a
s
Z b  2  2  2
dx dy dz
= + + dt
a dt dt dt

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 59 / 64

Remark.
If C is a planar curve (a curve in R2 ) and C has a vector equation

r (t) = f (t)i + g (t)j , a ≤ t ≤ b,

AM
or equivalently, the parametric equations

PH
x = f (t), y = g (t),

the length of the curve is equal to

T.
s 2 2
Z b g. Z b 
dx dy
q
L= 0 2 0 2
[f (t)] + [g (t)] dt = + dt
on
a a dt dt
Du

Note that in both cases, the lengh of a curve can be written as

Z b (p
0 2 0 2
r (t) dt, where r (t) = p[f (t)] + [g (t)] in 2D,
 0   0 
L=
a [f 0 (t)]2 + [g 0 (t)]2 + [h0 (t)]2 in 3D.

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 60 / 64

Length of curves

Example. Find the length of the arc of the circular helix with vector
equation r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk from the point (1, 0, 0) to the point
(1, 0, 2π).

AM
We have r 0 (t) = − sin ti + cos tj + k. Thus,

PH
 0  q √
r (t) = (− sin t)2 +(cos t)2 +(1)2 = 2

T.
g. The arc of the curve from the point (1, 0, 0)
to the point (1, 0, 2π) is defined by the
on
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π . Hence,
Du

Z 2π  0 
Z 2π √ √
L= r (t) dt = 2 dt = 2π 2.
0 0

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 61 / 64

Exercises

AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 62 / 64

Exercises

AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 63 / 64

Exercises

AM
PH
T.
g.
on
Du

Duong T. PHAM August 29, 2022 64 / 64