Prepared according to the new syllabus prescribed by Maharashtra State Secondary

and Higher Secondary Education Board, Pune effective from 2013 - 14 onwards.

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PHYSICS
STANDARD XI

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 PREFACE
With immense pleasure, we introduce Chetana’s Master Key Series which is designed for F.Y.J.C. (Std. XI)
Science. The series follows the guidelines set by Maharasthra State Board of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education,
Pune, Maharashtra.
The main purpose of the Master Key is to enable every student to prepare himself/herself thoroughly for the Board
Exams.
In Physics, deviating from usual method of question answers and MCQs from the chapter, we have introduced a
different method of unitwise bifurcation of each chapter. The sub-units of each chapter and the topics are illustrated and
covered through adequate textual and additional exercises, MCQs, diagrams and Points to Remember gives an eagle-
vision towards the chapter.
Alongwith the solved problems (numericals) from the text, we have also included additional numericals which
empowers to appear for other qualifying students, with extra logic.
This method not only enables the students to understand the topics easily but also to divide their study time into
short durations and grasp the whole chapter serenely and thus making our Master Key Series a new generation student
friendly way of learning.
Additionally we have assigned marks for all questions so that students can get an idea about important points to be
written to score maximum marks for exams.
Understanding the needs and study environment of the new generation students, we have researched and accomplished
this task by the co-ordination of highly experienced teachers, educationists and experts and made this series a PERFECT
Key to every subject.
Chetana assures to build confidence and trust in every student to face the challenges to unlock the doors of doubts
and fears in educational field.
We are grateful to educationists, teachers, students who have nourished us with ideas and advice to improve and
helped us to grow in the educational sector. At the same time we heartily welcome all your suggestions in future.
We wish you Good Luck and grace that you may succeed in all your future endeavours.
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(ii)
 Paper Pattern

General Instructions:
(1) All questions are compulsory.
(2) Section B contains Q. No. 1 to 4 of multiple choice type of questions carrying one mark each. Q.
No. 5 to 8 are very short answer type of questions carrying one mark each.
(3) Section B contains Q. No. 9 to to 15 of short answer type of questions carrying two marks each.
Internal choice is provided to only one question.
(4) Section C contains Q. No. 16 to 26 of short answer type of questions carrying three marks each.
Internal choice is provided to only one question.
(5) Section D contains Q. No. 27 to 29 of long answer type of questions carrying five marks each.
Internal choice is provided to each question.
(6) Use log - Table if necessary. Use of Calculator is not allowed.

Type of Questions

MCQ 1 Mark each Q. No. 1 to 4 4 Marks

VSA 1 Marks each Q. No. 5 to 8 4 Marks
SA - I 2 Marks each Q. No. 9 to 15 14 Marks
SA - II 3 Marks each Q. No. 16 to 26 33 Marks
LA 5 Marks each Q. No. 27 to 29 15 Marks

Weightage to Objectives

Knowledge 21 Marks
Understanding 30 Marks
Application + Skill 19 Marks

Difficulty Level of the Question Paper

Easy 21 Marks
Average 34 Marks
Difficult 15 Marks

(iii)
1 Measurements

Points to Remember:
• Mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of motion of a particle.
• Physics is a basic discipline in the category of Natural Sciences which also includes other
disciplines like Chemistry and Biology.
• Basically there are two domains in the scope of physics: Macroscopic and Microscopic.
• The macroscopic includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial and astronomial scales.
• The macroscopic phenomena deals mainly with the branch of classical mechanics which
includes subjects like mechanics, electrodynamics, optics and thermodynamics.
• The reference standard used for the measurement of a physical quantity is called a unit.
• A set of fundamental and derived units is called a system of units.
• In October 1960, at the Eleventh International General Conference of weights and measures
in Paris, a common system of units was accepted.
This system of units called “Systeme Internationale d Units.” is the modern metric system of
unit measurement.
• The physical quantities which do not depend on any other physical quantities for their
measurements are known as fundamental quantities.
• The units used to measure fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
• Physical quantities other than fundamental quantities which depend on one or more
fundamental quantities for their measurements, are called derived quantities. e.g. force,
density, speed, etc.
• The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which fundamental units must be
raised in order to obtain the unit of a given physical quantity.
• Order of magnitude of a physical quantity is defined as the value of its magnitude rounded
off to the nearest integral power of 10.
• Significant figure can be defined as a figure which is of some significance but it does not
necessarily denote a certainty.
• The difference between the true value and measured value of a physical quantity is called an error.
• The mean value, i.e. the arithmetic average of a large number of readings of a quantity, is called
the most probable value of that quantity.
• The magnitude of the difference between most probable value (mean value) and each
individual value is called an absolute error.
• The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is called mean absolute error in the measurement
of the physical quantity.

(5)
6 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• The ratio of the mean absolute error in the measurement of a physical quantity to its most
probable value is called relative error.

• The relative error multiplied by 100 is called the percentage error.

Define unit and state the characteristics of a

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 1
unit. (3 marks)
1.1 Need for Measurement Ans. The reference standard used for the measure-
*Q.1. Explain the need for making measurements. ment of a physical quantity is called a unit.
OR For selecting a unit, following factors are
What is the need for measurement of a needed to be taken into consideration :
physical quantity? (2 marks) (i) Reproducibility: The unit used should be
Ans. such that it can be easily reproduced (copied)
(i) Physics is concerned with study of matter and in any laboratory on earth and that it can be
energy in its different forms. We have various permanently preserved.
definitions, laws and theories to check their validity (ii) The unit should be invariable. The magnitude
so that they are acceptable, they should be verified and size of unit should not change with time
experimentally. The experimental verification is and place.
done by measurement of quantities involved.
(iii) The unit must be universally accepted.
(ii) The purpose of experiment is to establish the (iv) A physical unit must be of suitable size and
laws. Thus accurate measurement of different
well defined.
physical quantities is extremely important.
(v) It should be easily available at any place.
(iii) Improvement in method of measurement
(vi) It should not be perishable.
advances our knowledge of the laws of physics.
Thus, there is need for making measurements. 1.3 System of Units
*Q.4. Explain system of units and state some
Q.2. Define physical quantity and give a few
systems of units. (2 marks)
examples. (1 mark)
Ans. Units are classified into two groups:
Ans. A quantity that can be measured is called a
fundamental units and derived units. A set
physical quantity. e.g. mass, area, force etc.
of fundamental and derived units is called a
1.2 Units for Measurements system of units.
In 1832, Gauss suggested to select any three
*Q.3. Define unit and state the factors to be taken
physical quantities as fundamental quantities.
into consideration while selecting a unit.
Accordingly, many systems of units came into
OR existence.
Measurements 7

Following are some examples of system of Ans. The physical quantities which are expressed in
units used in which the base units of length, terms of more than one fundamental quantities
mass and time were as follows : are called derived physical quantities.
(i) C. G. S. means centimetre - gram - second
Sr. Derived Physical SI Unit Symbol
system. No. Quantity
(ii) M. K. S. means metre - kilogram - second 1 Velocity metre per m/s
system. second
(iii) F. P. S. means foot - pound - second system. 2 Acceleration metre per m/s2
(iv) S. I. system: A common system of units called second
“Systeme Internationale d’ Units” (S.I. Units) was square
accepted. 3 Force newton N
This international system of units called S.I. 4 Work (Energy) joule J
units consist of seven fundamental units, 5 Power watt W
two supplementary units and large number
of derived units. This system is also called as Q.7. What are the conventions to be followed
modern M.K.S. system. while writing S.I. units? (3 marks)
1.4 S.I. Units Ans. Some conventions to be followed while writing
*Q.5. Define fundamental quantity and state them S.I. units are given below :
with SI units. (2 marks) (i) Full name of unit always starts with small letter
Ans. The physical quantities which do not depend even if named after a person.
on any other physical quantities for their e.g. newton, joule and not Newton, Joule.
measurements are called fundamental physical (ii) Symbol for unit named after a person should
quantities. be in capital letters e.g. ‘N’ for newton, ‘J’ for
joule, ‘A’ for ampere etc.
Sr. Fundamental SI Unit Symbol
(iii) Symbols for all other units are written in small
No. Physical Quantity
letters e.g. ‘m’ for metre, ‘s’ for second, etc.
1 Length metre m
(iv) Symbols of units are not to be expressed in
2 Mass kilogram kg
plural form e.g. 25 m and not 25 ms.
3 Time second s
(v) Full stop and any other punctuation mark
4 Temperature kelvin K should not be written after the symbols.
5 Amount of mole mol e.g. kg and not (kg.) or N and not (N.).
substance
Intext question textbook page no. 4
6 Electric current ampere A
*Q.8. How to determine the distance of different
7 Luminous candela cd
stars from the earth?
intensity
OR
Sr. Supplementary SI Unit Symbol Explain method for measurement of length.
No. Physical Quantity (3 marks)
1 Plane angle radian rad Ans.
2 Solid angle steradian sr (i) Large distances such as the distance of a planet
or a star from the earth cannot be measured
directly with a metre scale. An important
1.5 Fundamental and Derived Units
method in such cases is the parallax method.
*Q.6. Define derived quantity and give some
(ii) To measure the distance D of a far away planet
examples with S.I units. (2 marks) S by the parallax method, we observe it from
8 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

two different positions (observatories) A and B or location of the object in space. The S.I unit of
on the earth, separated by distance AB = b at mass is kilogram (kg).
the same time as shown in fig. 1.1. We measure (ii) But while dealing with atoms and molecules,
the angle between the two directions, along the kilogram is an inconvenient unit. For
which the planet is viewed at these two points. atomic levels, unified atomic mass is used.
The ∠ASB represented by symbol θ is called the 1 unified atomic mass unit = 1u = 0.8333 × 10–1
parallax angle or parallactic angle. of the mass of an atom of carbon-12 in kg.
(iii) As the planet is very far away, << 1, (iii) Mass of commonly available objects can be
determined by a common balance like the one
and therefore, θ is very small. Then we
used in a grocery shop.
approximately take AB as an arc of length b of
(iv) Large masses in the universe like planets, stars,
a circle with centre at S and the distance D as
etc. can be measured by using gravitational
the radius, AS = BS so that AB = b = D θ where
method based on Newton’s law of gravitation.
θ is in radians. . (v) For measurement of small masses of atomic/
sub atomic particles, we make use of mass
(iv) Having determined D, we can employ a similar
spectrograph in which radius of the trajectory
method to determine the size or angular
is proportional to the mass of a charged particle
diameter of the planet. If d is the diameter of
moving in uniform electric and magnetic field.
the planet and α the angular size of the planet
(the angle subtended by d at the earth), we *Q.10. Explain method for measurement of time.
have α = d/D. (3 marks)
Ans.
(i) The mean solar day on earth is considered to
be duration of 24 hours for which an hour is of
60 minutes and each minute is of 60 seconds.
(ii) A solar day is the interval from one noon to
the next noon. Average of length of a solar day
over a year is considered as a mean solar day.
(iii) To measure any time interval we need a clock.
We now use an atomic standard of time, which
is based on the periodic vibrations produced in
Fig. 1.1 : Measurement of large distance using
a cesium atom. This is the basis of the cesium
Parallax Method
clock, sometimes called atomic clock, used in the
(v) The angle α can be measured from the same national standards. Such standards are available
location on the earth. It is the angle between in many laboratories. In the cesium atomic
the two directions when two diametrically clock, the second is taken as the time needed
opposite points of the planet are viewed for 9,192,631,770 vibrations of the radiation
through the telescope. Since D is known, the corresponding to the transition between the two
diameter d of the planet can be determined hyper-fine states of cesium -133 atm.

using α = . 1.6 Dimensional Analysis

*Q.11. What do you mean by dimensions of a
*Q.9. Explain method for measurement of mass. physical quantity? What is dimensional
(3 marks) equation? Give some examples. (3 marks)
Ans. Ans.
(i) Mass is a fundamental property of matter. It (i) The dimensions of a physical quantity are the
does not depend on the temperature, pressure powers to which fundamental units must be
Measurements 9

raised in order to obtain the unit of a given

physical quantity.
(ii) For determining the dimensions of a physical
quantity, the units of fundamental quantities are
represented by ‘L’ for length, ‘M’ for mass, ‘T’
for time, ‘K’ for temperature, ‘A’ for current, ‘C’
=
for luminous intensity and ‘mol’ for mole. An
expression, which gives the relation between the = [M0L0T0]
derived units and fundamental units in terms of Hence, refractive index is a dimensionless
dimensions is called a dimensional equation. quantity.

e.g. Speed = *Q.12. State the uses of dimensional analysis.

(2 marks)
∴ To obtain the dimensions of speed, we divide Ans. Uses of dimensional analysis are:
dimensions of distance by dimensions of time.
(i) To find the correctness of physical equation.
(ii) To find conversion factor between the units
Dimensions of speed =
of the same physical quantity in two different
systems of units.
Speed = [M0L1T–1] ... (i)
(iii) To establish the relation between related
Equation (i) can be called dimensional equation
physical quantities.
of speed.
*Q.13. Explain with example how is dimensional
(b) Charge = current × time
analysis used to verify the correctness of a
∴ To obtain the dimensions of charge, physical equation. (2 marks)
we multiply dimensions of current with
Ans.
dimensions of time.
(i) An equation is said to be dimensionally
∴ Dimension of charge = [M0L0T0I1] × [M0L0T1A0] correct, if the dimensions of both the sides of
Charge = [M0L0T1A1] ... (ii) the equation are the same i.e. equation must be
Equation (ii) is the dimensional equation of dimensionally balanced.
charge. (ii) Consider, v = u + at
[v] = [u] + [at]
(c) Temperature gradient =
[M0L1T–1] = [M0L1T–1 ] + [M0L1T–2] [M0L0T1]
∴ Dimensions of temperature gradient = [M0L1T–1 ] = [M0L1T–1 ] + [M0L1T–1]
∴ L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence, the given equation is dimensionally
correct.
= *Q.14. Explain with example, how is dimensional
analysis used to convert the unit of a physical
= [M0L–1T0K1] quantity from one system to another system
of units. (2 marks)
(d) Refractive index = Ans. To find the conversion factor between the units
of force in S.I and C.G.S system.
The dimensions of force = [M1L1T–2]
10 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Let x be the conversion factor between dyne

and newton. ∴ K.E. = (mass) × (velocity)2

∴ x × dyne = 1 newton ∴ K.E. = mv2

∴ x × [M1L1T–2 ] = 1[M1L1T–2]
Intext question textbook page no. 5
∴ x × [g × cm × s–2] = 1[kg × m × s–2]
*Q.16. If two physical quantities have the same
dimensions, do they represent the same physical
∴ × = content? (3 marks)
Ans. Two different physical quantities can have the
× = same dimension. However, they are entirely
different physical quantities.
× = 105 e.g.
(i) Torque : M1L2T–2 (vector quantity)
\ 1 newton = 105 dyne
Work : M1L2T–2 (scalar quantity)
*Q.15. Explain with example, how dimensional (ii) Momentum : M1L1T–1 (vector quantity)
analysis is used to derive the relation between Impulse : M1L1T–1 (vector quantity)
different physical quantities. (3 marks) Intext question textbook page no. 5
Ans.
*Q.17. A dimensionally correct equation need not be
(i) From dimensions we can determine how one actually correct, but a dimensionally incorrect
physical quantity is related to other. equation is necessarily wrong. Justify. (3 marks)
(ii) e.g. Kinetic energy depends on mass and Ans. Due to limitations of dimensional analysis, it is
velocity. true that dimensionally correct equation need not
∴ [kinetic energy] = K [mass]x [velocity]y ... (i) be actually correct. The value of dimensionless
where, K is numerical constant x and y are quantities and numerical constants cannot be
powers to be determined. deduced by dimension analysis.

(iii) Dimensions of kinetic energy = [M1L2T–2] e.g.: s = ut + at2 (correct dimensionally and
mass = [M1L°T°] correct equation)
velocity = [M°L1T–1] s = ut + 7 at2 (correct dimensionally but incorrect
‘K’ is a constant and has no dimension. equation)

(iv) Now, substituting the dimensions in equation But, a dimensionally incorrect equation is an
incorrect equation definitely.
(i) we get,
e.g.: v2 = u2 + 2at (dimensionally incorrect and
∴ [M1L2T–2] = [M1L°T° ]x [M°L1T–1 ]y
equation is incorrect)
∴ [M1L2T–2] = [Mx LyT–y]
By comparison of powers, we get, Q.18. Can two different physical quantities have
same dimensions? (3 marks)
x = 1 and y = 2
Ans. Yes, different physical quantities can have
(v) Substituting values of x and y in equation (i),
same dimensions. Two different quantities
Kinetic energy = K (mass)1 × (velocity)2 like, latent heat and gravitational potential
∴ K.E. ∝ mv2 have same dimensions [M°L2T–2].
(vi) The value of K cannot be determined from the Two physical quantities having same
dimensions. It has to be determined by the dimensions may or may not represent the
experiment. It is found to be ½. same physical content, but if two quantities
Measurements 11

represent same physical content, then they Ans. The order of magnitude of a physical quantity
definitely have same dimensions. is the value of its magnitude rounded off to
e.g. radius of gyration and wavelength both nearest integral power of 10.
represent the same physical quantity. Hence, The number giving the magnitude of a physical
they both have the same dimensions. quantity can be written as the product of a
Q.19.
A dimensionally correct equation need number having only one digit in the integral
not actually be a correct equation but part and an integral power of 10.
a dimensionally incorrect equation is e.g. (i) If we want to find the order of a number
necessarily wrong. Justify. (3 marks) 123 kg then, 123 kg = 1.23 × 102 kg.
Ans. An equation may be dimensionally correct, but The number before decimal is less than five,
at the same time it may actually be incorrect, hence order of magnitude is 102 kg.
this is possible because dimensions only deal
(ii) If we want to find the order of a number
with the physical quantities involved in the
6527 km then, 6527 km = 6.527 × 103 km.
equation and do not take into account the
constants involved. The number before decimal is 5 or more than 5
then order of magnitude = 103+1 km = 104 km.
e.g.: Let us consider dimensional analysis of an
equation, say, *Q.22. Define significant figures and state the rules
S = ut – at2 ... (i) for determining significant figures. (2 marks)
Ans. Definition : Significant figures can be defined
∴ [M0L1T0] = [M0L1T–1][T1] – [M0L1T–2] [T2] as a figure which is of some significance but it
does not necessarily denote a certainty.
∴ [M0L1T0] = [M0L1T0] – [M0L1T0]
Rules for determining significant figures:
Dimensionally the above equation is correct (i) Retain only one uncertain digit in the
since all the terms have same dimensions. But
measurement of a physical quantity.
according to the 2nd kinematical equation,
(ii) When the value of the measurement is to be
s = ut + at2. Hence we can say equation (i) is rounded off to given number of significant
incorrect. figures, then if the figure to be dropped is
On the other hand, if the dimensional equation (a) less than 5, then the last significant figure is
is wrong, it would imply that the physical left unchanged. (b) 5 or greater than 5, the last
quantities are not correctly represented and significant figure is increased by one.
hence, the equation is incorrect. (iii) The zeros on the right hand side of the number
are significant because they indicate the accuracy
Intext question textbook page no. 6
of the instrument used for measurement, i.e.
*Q.20. Are all constants dimensionless or unitless? 0.3900 has four significant figures.
(1 mark)
(iv) The zeros on the left hand side of the number
Ans. No, constants can have dimension
are not significant e.g. the number 0.0753 has
e.g.: g : 9.8 m/s2 M0L1T–2
only three significant figures.
G : 6.67 × 10-11 nm2/ks2 M1L3T–2
(v) If the number of digits is more than the number
h : 6.63 × 10-34 J-sec M1L2T–1
of significant figures, the number should be
1.7 Order of Magnitude and Significant Figures expressed in the power of 10 e.g. the mass of
*Q.21. What is order of magnitude? Explain with the earth is written as 5.98 × 1024 kg, as it is
some examples. (2 marks) known only up to 3 significant figures.
12 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

1.8 Accuracy and Errors in Measurements *Q.24. What are the methods to minimise errors?
(2 marks)
*Q.23. Define an error and explain the types of
Ans.
errors. (4 marks)
(i) The magnitude of the measured quantities
Ans. Error is amount of uncertainty in measurement
should be as large as possible.
of magnitude of physical quantity.
Error = measured value – true value. (ii) The least count of the measuring instrument
should be small.
Errors only get added to each other. They never
multiply, divide or subtract amongst them. (iii) Experimental conditions like temperature,

Causes For Error (Type of Errors): pressure and humidity should remain constant
within tolerable limits.
(i) Instrumental errors:
(iv) A large number of measurements of the same
These errors arise due to use of faulty
quantity should be made.
instruments. e.g.: If vernier calliper or
screw gauge having zero error is used for The mean value i.e. the arithmetic average
measurement of length, each reading contain is then taken as the best estimate for the true
the same error. If metre scale which is not value of the quantity measured.
calibrated properly is used for measurement,
error is introduced in the measurement. These *Q.25. Define: (1 mark each)
errors are also called as constant errors as same (i) Most Probable Value
error is introduced in every reading. These (ii) Absolute error
errors are minimised by use of well calibrated (iii) Relative error
instruments for measurements. (iv) Percentage error
(ii) Systematic errors: Ans.

These errors arise due to definite cause i.e. (i) Most Probable Value (Average Value):
faulty designing of instruments. The exact or true value of a quantity can never
These errors can be minimised by eliminating be known. It is found that the true value is
the cause of the error and also by taking a large very nearly equal to the arithmetic mean of
number of readings. a sufficiently large number of readings. This
(iii) Random errors: value is called as an the most probable value of
These errors are random and occur irregularly. the quantity.
It can be due to changes in the ambient Let a1, a2 .............an be the values obtained of a
conditions like temperature, pressure, etc physical quantity in n measurements.
or due to limitations of instrument. They The most probable value,
are generally taken care of by repeating the
experiments several times and taking mean amean =
value of readings.
(iv) Personal errors: (ii) Absolute Error :

The errors which occur due to limitations of The magnitude of the difference between most
the human senses, judgement, carelessness probable value and each measured value is
and responses are called personal errors. called as an absolute error.
These are also considered as systematic error.
Measurements 13

|∆ a| = |amean – a|
∴ Relative error =
The mean of all absolute errors gives mean
absolute error. (iv) Percentage error:
(iii) Relative error: The relative error multiplied by 100, gives the
The ratio of the mean absolute error in the percentage error in the measurement.
measurement of a quantity to its most probable Percentage error = Relative error × 100 %
value is called relative error.
Percentage error = × 100 %

Table: Physical quantities with S.I. Units, Symbols, Formulae and Dimensions
Physical Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit Dimension
Length L - metre M0L1T0
Distance x - metre M0L1T0
Displacement S - metre M0L1T0
Radius r - metre M0L1T0
Wavelength λ - metre M0L1T0
square = l2
Area A circle = πr2 (metre)2 M0L2T0
sphere = 4 πr2

sphere = πr3
Volume V (metre)3 M0L3T0
cube = l3
Mass m - kg M1L0T0

Density r M1L–3T0

Time t - s M0L0T1

1
Frequency n n= = Hz M0L0T–1
s

metre
Speed v v = x/t M0L1T–1
s

metre
Velocity V V= M0L1T–1
s

Momentum P P = mv kg m/s M1L1T–1

Impulse J J = Ft Ns or kg m/s M1L1T–1

Acceleration a a= m/s2 M0L1T–2

14 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Table: Physical quantities with S.I. Units, Symbols, Formulae and Dimensions

Physical Quantity Symbol Formula S.I. Unit Dimension

Force F F = ma N M1L1T–2
Weight W W = mg kg m/s2 M1L1T–2

m
‘g’ acceleration due to gravity g g = 9.8 m/s2 M0L1T–2
s2

Work or energy W W = F.S kg m2/s2 M1L2T–2

Kinetic energy KE KE = mv2 J or kg m2/s2 M1L2T–2

Potential energy PE PE = mgh J or kg m2/s2 M1L2T–2

Torque t t=Fxr kg m2/s2 M1L2T–2

Power P P= J/s or W M1L2T–3

Pressure P P= N/m2 M1L–1T–2

Current I I= A M0L0T0A1

Resistance R R= W M1L2T-3A–2

N
Magnetic induction B B = F/m M1L0T–2A-1
Am

Pole strength m - Am M0L1T0A1

Magnetic moment M M = m × 2l Am2 M0L2T0A1

Refractive index m No unit Dimensionless

Angle q q = s/r No unit Dimensionless

p - - No unit Dimensionless
Measurements 15

(vi) Permittivity of vacuum (e0)

Solved Problems
Problems on dimensional analysis F=

*(1) Find the dimensions of : (2 marks each) \ e0 =

(i) Force (ii) Power (iii) Electric potential
(iv) Resistance (v) Refractive index Now, is constant and hence, dimensionless.
(vi) Permittivity of vacuum (e0)
\ e0 =
(vii) Permeability
Solution:
\ e0 =
(i) Force = [M L T ]
1 1 –2

(ii) Power = [M1L2T–3] \ e0 =

(iii) Electric potential → \ e0 = [M–1L–3T4I2]
where, W → work done, V → potential,
(vii) Permeability:
Q → charge From Coulomb’s law of magnetism,
\ V= F=

\ V= \ m0 =

\ V= \ m0 =

\ m0 = [M1L1T–2I–2]
\ V=

\ V = [M1L2T–3I–1] … (i) *(2) Force experienced by charge ‘q’ moving with

velocity ‘v’ in a magnetic field ‘B’ is given by
(iv) Resistance : V = IR F = q v B. Find the dimensions of magnetic
where, V → electric potential field. (2 marks)
I → current Solution: F = q v B
R → resistance
\ B=
\ R=
\ Dimensions of magnetic field

= … from eqn. (i) B=

\ R = [M1L2T–3I–2] \ B=

(v) Refractive index : \ B = [L0M1T–2I–1]

;
(3) Period of simple pendulum is given as
where, i → angle of incidence
r → angle of refraction T = 2π . Verify this formula using

\ m = Dimensionless dimensional method. (2 marks)

16 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solution: Dimensions of T = [M0L0T1], Dimensions of *(6) Check whether the equation is dimensionally
l = [M0L1T0], Dimensions of g = [M0L1T–2] correct v2 = u2 + 2as2 .
2π is a constant, hence no dimension. Solution: Writing the dimensions of every term,
Substituting the dimensions we get,
v2 = [L2M0T–2], u2 = [L2M0T–2], as2 = [L3M0T–2]
L.H.S. = T = [M0L0T1]
Dimensions of each term is not same, hence the
R.H.S. = equation is dimensionally incorrect.

(7) Consider a small sphere falling through a

= [M0L0T1]
medium. The viscous force acting on the
Thus, both sides have same dimension.
sphere depends upon the radius (r) of the
Thus, it is dimensionally verified.
sphere, velocity (V) of the sphere and the
*(4) Using dimensions, show that 1 joule = 107 ergs. co-efficient of viscosity (η) of the medium.
Solution: (2 marks) Use dimensional analysis and show that the
Energy = [ML T ]2 –2
viscous force is directly proportional to ηrv.
\ In CGS system, 1 erg = 1 g.cm2s2 and (Given : Dimensions of η = [M1L–1T–1]).
in SI, 1 joule = 1 kg.m2.s–2 (3 marks)
Let 1 joule = x ergs Solution:
\ 1 [M1L21T–21] = x [M2L22T–22] For Sphere,
where subscripts 1 and 2 pertain to SI and CGS Dimensions of radius = [M0L1T0]
units. Dimensions of velocity = [M0L1T–1]
\ x = Dimensions of η = [M1L–1T–1] … given
Dimensions of ηrv = [η][r][v]
= = [M1L1T–1] [M0L1T0][M0L1T–1]
= [M1L1T–2]
Dimension of
=
viscous force = [M1L1T–2]

\ 1 joule = 107 ergs \ viscous force ∝ ηrv

\ viscous force = K ηrv
(5) Show that the equation s = ut + at is 2
Where K is constant, whose value can be
dimensionally correct. (2 marks) experimentally found.
Solution: The given equation is s = ut + at2 … (i)
Dimensions of s = [M0L1T0] (8) Assume that the speed (v) of sound in air
Dimensions of u = [M0L1T–1] depends upon the pressure (P) and density (ρ)
Dimensions of a = [M0L1T–2] of air and use dimensional analysis to obtain
Dimensions of t = [M0L0T1] an expression for the speed of sound.
Substituting the dimensions in equation (i), we Solution: It is given in question that the speed (v) of
get, sound in air depends upon the pressure (P) and
[M0L1T0] = [M0L1T–1][M0L0T1] density (ρ) of the air.
+ [M0L1T–2][M0L0T1]2 So we can write, v = K Pa ρb …(i)
= [M L T ] + [M L T ] [M L T ]
0 1 0 0 1 -2 0 0 2
where, K is a dimensionless constant
= [M L T ] + [M L T ]
0 1 0 0 1 0
a and b are the powers to be determined.
\ L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Dimensions of, v = [M0L1T–1]
Measurements 17

n = k Tx my lz
Dimensions of, P = = [M L T ] 1 –1 –2
The dimensions of T are [L1M1T–2]
Dimensions of, ρ = [M1L–3T0] The dimensions of m are [L–1M1T0]
We write the dimensions of the quantities on both The dimensions of l are [L1M0T0]
sides of equation The dimensions of n are [L0M0T–1]
[M L T ] = [M L T ] [M L T ]
0 1 –1 1 –1 –2 a 1 –3 0 b
\ [L0M0T–1] = k [L1M1T–2]x [L–1M1T0]y [L1M0T0]z
\ [M L T ] = [M L T ] [M L T ]
0 1 –1 a –a –2a b –3b 0
\ [L0M0T–1] = [Lx–y+zMx+yT–2x]
\ [M L T ] = [M
0 1 –1 a+b
L –a–3b
T ]
–2a
Comparing we get,
Compare the power of both the sides,
0 = x – y + z
–2a = –1
0 = x + y \ x = –y
\ a=
–1 = –2x \x= , y =
Also, a + b = 0

\ + b = 0 0 = + + z \ z = –1

\ b = \ n =
\n=
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get,
where K is a dimensionless constant.
v = K P1/2 ρ–1/2
*(11) The hydrostatic pressure (P) of a liquid column
depends on the density (ρ) of the liquid, height
\ v= of the liquid column (h) and acceleration due to
gravity (g). Using dimensional analysis derive
*(9) If length ‘L’, force ‘F’ and time ‘T’ are taken as (suggest) a formula for hydrostatic pressure.
fundamental quantities, what would be the (3 marks)
dimensional equation of (i) mass (ii) density? Solution: Dimensional analysis can be used only to
(3 marks) suggest a formula, not derive it. We assume a
Solution: (i) F = m.a power relation where P is proportional to the
xth power of ρ, yth power of h and zth power of
\ m= g. Then,
\ m = [L–1F1T+2] … (i) P ∝ ρxhygz or P = kρxhygz … (1)
where, k is a dimensionless constant.
(ii) d=
Now, V = [L3F0T0] and [P] = ,
m = [L–1F1T2] … (from eq. (i))
[ρ] = [ML–3], [h] = [L], [g] = [LT–2]
\ d= From equation (1),
\ d = [L–4F1T2] [P] = [ρ]x, [h]y, [g]z
*(10) The frequency (n) of vibration of a wire under \ [ML–1T–2] = [ML–3]x, [L]y, [LT–2]z
tension depends upon the tension (T), mass per = [MxL–3x+y+zT–2z]
unit length (m) and vibrating length (l ) of the \ x = 1, –3x + y + z = –1 and –2z = –2
wire. Using dimensional analysis, obtain the \ z = 1 \ –3 + y + 1 = –1 \ y = 1
dependence of frequency on these quantities. \ P = k ρ hg
(3 marks)
*(12) Derive an expression of kinetic energy of a
Solution: body of mass ‘m’ and moving with velocity
Let us assume that frequency ‘v’, using dimensional analysis. (3 marks)
18 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solution: Solution:
Let, KE = k mx vy … (i) Value
Dimensions of KE = [M L T ] 1 2 –2 (i) 6.673 × 10 –11
Nm /kg2
2

Dimensions of m = [M1L0T0] = 0.6673 × 10–10 N-m2/kg2

(ii) 9.10938188 × 10–31 kg
Dimensions of v = [M0L1T–1]
= 0.910938188 × 10–30 kg
Substituting the dimensions in (i),
(iii) 299792458 m/s = 2.99792458 × 108 m/s
[M L T ] = [M L T ] [M L T ]
1 2 –1 1 0 0 x 0 1 –1 y
(iv) 9.80665 m/s2 = 0.980665 × 101 m/s2
\ x = 1 y = 2 (v) 86400 = 105 s
\ KE = km1v2 = kmv2 Order of magnitude
(i) 10–10 N.m2/kg2
Order of magnitude (ii) 10–30 kg
(13) State the order of magnitude of duration of a (iii) 108 m/s
(iv) 101 m/s2
day. (2 marks)
(v) 105 s
Solution: Duration of a day = 24 hours
= 24 × 60 × 60 seconds *(16) Determine the number of significant figures
= 86400 seconds in the following measurements.
(1 mark each for mcq)
= 8.6400 × 104 seconds
(i) 0.05718 (ii) 93.26 (iii) 2.35 × 10–19 (iv) 1.3725 × 109
\ The order of magnitude is 105 s. Ans : (i) 4 (ii) 4 (iii) 3 (iv) 5

(14) Give the order of magnitude of mass of proton, Accuracy and errors in measurements
where mass of proton is 1.67 × 10 –27
kg. Also, (17) The side of an object measured by means of a
give the order of magnitude for gravitation vernier callipers is 3.52 cm. If the least count of
constant (2 marks) the vernier is 0.01 cm, estimate the percentage
G = 6.67 × 10 –11
error in the measurement. (2 marks)
Solution: Solution:
Mass of proton = 1.67 × 10–27 kg. y = 3.52 cm, δy = 0.01 cm
The order of magnitude or nearest power of 10 is
10–27 kg. % error =
G = 6.67 × 10 –11

\ % error = 0.28%

\ The order of magnitude = 10–10

*(18) An object was weighed by a physical balance
and following readings were obtained :
(15) Find the order of magnitude of the following 5.04 g, 5.06 g, 4.97 g, 5.00 g and 4.93 g.
quantities : (1 mark each for mcq)
Find (i) the mean value (ii) the mean absolute
*(i) Universal gravitational constant G =
error (iii) the percentage error. (3 marks)
6.673 × 10–11 N-m2/kg2 Solution:
(ii) Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg n = 5, m1 = 5.04 g, m2 = 5.06 g, m3 = 4.97 g,
(iii) Speed of light in vacuum = 299792458 m/s m4 = 5.00 g, m5 = 4.93 g
*(iv) Acceleration due to gravity = 9.80665 m/s 2
(i) Mean value,
*(v) Period of rotation of the Earth about its
own axis = 24 h = 24 × 60 × 60s = 86,400 s. m =
Measurements 19

= am =

= = 5.00 g am =
(ii) Mean absolute error,
Mean absolute error
[|m1 –m| + |m2 –m| + |m3 –m|
+ |m4 –m|+ |m5 –m|] =
∆m =
n
=
=
= = 0.01 cm
=

Percentage error =
(iii) Percentage error =

= % = × 100 = 0.319%

\ (i) m = 5.00 gm, (ii) ∆m = 0.04 gm, \ % error = 0.319%

(iii) % error = 0.8
(21) The diameter of metal bob is measured
(19) The side of cube is measured to be 20.44 ± 0.02 m. by means of micrometer screw gauge as
Find the percentage error in the measurement. 2.46 cm. If the least count of the screw gauge is
(2 marks) 0.001 cm, calculate the percentage error in the
Solution: measurement. (2 marks)
δy = 0.02 cm Solution:
y = 20.44 cm y = 2.46 cm, δy = 0.001 cm

% error = %
% error = %

\ % error = 0.098%
\ % error = 0.041%
*(20) The length of a metal plate was measured using
a vernier callipers of least count 0.01 cm. The (22) The voltage across a bulb is 40 ± 0.2 volts and

measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, the current through it is 4 ± 0.1 A. What is the

3.14 cm and 3.15 cm. Find the mean length, the percentage error in its resistance? (2 marks)

mean absolute error and the percentage error Solution: V = 40 ± 0.2 V, I = 4 ± 0.1 A
in the measurement of length. (3 marks)
% error in voltage (V) =
Solution: a1 = 3.11 cm, a2 = 3.13 cm, a3 = 3.14 cm,
a4 = 3.14 cm
=
Mean length

am = % error in current (I) =

20 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Additional problems for practice

=
(1) Find the dimensions of
% error in resistance

(i) Coefficient of viscosity (η)

(ii) Resistance of a wire. (2 marks)
% error = = 3%
(2) Using method of dimensional analysis show that
\ % error in resistance = 3% 1 J = 107 erg. (2 marks)
(3) Express a pressure of 50 N/m2 in terms of dyne/
(23) The diameter of a wire is measured by using cm2 (2 marks)
a micrometer screw gauge and found to be (4) Density of water is 1 gm/cc in the CGS units.
1.75 mm. The least count of the micrometer Express it in S.I units. (2 marks)
screw gauge is 0.001 cm. Find the percentage (5) Show that the equation v = u + at is dimensionally
error in the measurement. (2 marks) correct. (2 marks)
Solution: (6) The pressure (P) of a liquid column depends
Measured diameter, x = 1.75 mm on its height h, the density ρ, acceleration due
= 1.75 × 10–1 cm to gravity g. Show that P = hρg by dimensional
method. (Given: constant k = 1) (3 marks)
= 0.175 cm
(7) What is order of magnitude of one year in terms
Absolute error, δx = 0.001 cm of seconds? (2 marks)
*(8) The radius of a nucleus of mass number ‘A’ is
% error = × 100 = × 100 = 0.57%
given by R = 1.3 × 10–16 × A1/3.

\ % error = 0.57% Find the order of magnitude of radius for a

nucleus with A = 216. (2 marks)

*(24) Find the percentage error in kinetic energy of a (9) State the order of magnitude of radius of the
body of mass m = 60.0 ± 0.3 g and moving with earth. Given R = 6400 km (2 marks)
a velocity of v = 25.0 ± 0.1 cm/s. (2 marks) (10) The thickness of a glass sheet is measured at
Solution: m = 60.0 ± 0.3 g, V = 25.0 ± 0.1 cm/s six different places and the following readings
are obtained : 1.21 mm, 1.24 mm, 1.19 mm,
K.E. = mv2 1.15 mm, 1.22 mm, 1.25 mm. Find the most
probable value of the thickness and percentage
\ Percentage error in K.E. is given by,
error in measurement. (3 marks)
(11) The volume of a solid cylinder of length 10 cm
% error =
and radius 4 cm is measured using a vernier
calliper which has a least count 0.01 cm. Find
\ % error = the percentage error in the measurement.
(3 marks)
\ % error = 0.013 × 100 = 1.3% (12) T h e r a d i u s o f a s p h e r e m e a s u r e d i s
\ % error in kinetic energy = 1.3% 4.68 ± 0.01 cm. Estimate the percentage error in
the measurement of the volume of the sphere.
(2 marks)
Measurements 21

Answers (4) Percentage error in the measurement

= relative error × 100 %
(1) (i) [M1L–1T–1]; (ii) [M1L2T–3I–2](3) 500 dyne/cm2
(5) Maximum absolute error in sum and difference
(4) 1000 kg/m3 (7) 107 s (9) 107 m (10) 1.21 mm,
of quantities is equal to sum of absolute errors
2.20 % (11) 0.6 % (12) 0.64 %
in the individual quantities.
Formula Map
e.g. If x = a + b, then ∆x = ∆a + ∆b
(1) Arithmetic mean x = If x = a – b, then ∆x = ∆a + ∆b

(6) Maximum fractional error in product and

(2) Mean absolute error ⇒∆x =
division of two quantities is sum of fractional
errors in the individual quantities.
(3) Relative error =
e.g. If x = ab, then
(4) Percentage error = × 100%
If x = , then
Relation between Relation between
y and a, b errors
Multiple Choice Questions

(1) Which of the following is NOT a characteristic

(5) ∆y = ∆a + ∆b
of a good unit?
(a) it is invariable (b) it is reproducible
(6) (c) it is perishable (d) it is easily available
(2) Which of the following is the CORRECT way
of writing units?
(7) y = an
(a) 25 ms length (b) 30 Kgs
(c) 5 Newton (d) 10 N
(8) y = an × bn (3) The atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomena
are the parts of ................. domain.
(a) macroscopic (b) microscopic
Important Formulae (c) megascopic (d) electroscopic

(1) If a quantity is measured n times and the results (4) Which of the following is NOT a derived unit?
obtained are a1, a2, ... , an, the most probable (a) joule (b) erg
value is taken as the arithmetic mean (amean) (c) dyne (d) mole

a1 + a 2 ... + a n 1 n (5) Distance travelled by a particle at any instant

a mean = = ∑ ai
n n i =1 'l' can be represented as S = A (t + B) +Ct2. The
(2) The mean absolute error in a measurement is dimensions of B are
(a) [M0L1T–1] (b) [M0L0T1]
|∆ a mean| =
(b) [M0L1T–2] (d) [M0L2T–2]
(3) Relative error in the measurement (6) Light year is a unit for the measurement of

= (a) distance (b) time

(c) temperature (d) luminous intensity
22 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(7) The angular diameter of the sun is 1920. If (15) Dimensional analysis CANNOT be used
the distance of the sun from the earth is (a) to check the correctness of a physical
1.5 × 1011 m, then the linear diameter of the sun quantity
is (b) to derive the relation between different
(a) 2.6 × 109 m (b) 0.7 × 199 m physical quantities
(c) 5.2 × 109 m (d) 1.4 × 109 m (c) to find out constant of proportionality
(8) The moon subtends an angle of 57 minutes at which may be pure number
the base-line equal to the radius of the earth. (d) to change from one system of units to
What is the distance of the moon from the earth? another
(Radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106m)
(16) The value of acceleration due to gravity is
(a) 11.22 × 108 m (b) 3.86 × 108 m 980 cm s–2. If the unit of length is kilometre
(c) 3.68 × 10–3 cm (d) 3.68 × 108 cm and that of time is in minute the value of
(9) [L–1M1T–2] is the dimensional formula for acceleration due gravity is
(a) joules constant (a) 980 km min–2 (b) 98 km min–2
(b) gravitational constant (c) 35.28 km min–2 (d) 28.35 km min–2
(c) pressure (d) force
(17) Using the principle of homogeneity of
(10) Which of the following equation is dimensionally dimensions, find which of the following
correct? relation is correct?
(a) pressure = energy per unit volume
(b) pressure = energy per unit area (a) (b)
(c) pressure = momentum × volume × time
(d) pressure = force × area (c) T2 = 4π2a3 (d)
(11) If the unit of length and force are increased to
four times, how many times the unit of energy (18) The value of the magnitude rounded off to the
will increase? nearest integral power of 10 is called

(a) 2 times (b) 4 times (a) significant figure

(c) 8 times (d) 16 times (b) special way of writing
(c) significant number
(12) The dimensional formula for impulse is the
(d) order of magnitude
same as dimensional formula for
(a) acceleration (b) force (19) The magnitude of any physical quantity can
(c) momentum be expressed as A × 10n where n is a number
(d) rate of change in momentum called order of magnitude and A is
(a) 0.1 ≤ A < 1 (b) 0.5 ≤ A < 5
(13) A unitless quantity
(c) 5 ≤ A < 9 (d) 1 ≤ A > 9
(a) always has a non-zero dimension
(b) may have a non-zero dimension (20) The radius of the earth is 6400 km, the order of
(c) never has a zero dimension magnitude is
(d) has no dimensions (a) 107 m (b) 104 m
(c) 103 m (d) 102 m
(14) Which of the following is NOT a dimensionless
quantity? (21) The number of significant figures in 0.400 is
(a) angle (b) strain (a) 1 (b) 2
(c) specific gravity (d) density (c) 3 (d) 4
Measurements 23

(22) The answer of (9.15 + 3.8) with due regards to

significant figure is (a)
(a) 13.000 (b) 13.00
(c) 13.0 (d) 13 (b)
(23) If the pointer of the voltmeter is not exactly at
the zero of the scale, the error is called (c)
(a) instrumental error (b) systematic error
(c) personal error (d) random error
(d)
(24) Instrumental error can be minimised by
(a) taking large number of readings (30) The percentage error in the measurement of
(b) using different accurate instruments for radius r of a sphere is 0.1% then the percentage
the same reading error introduced in the measurement of volume is
(c) adjusting zero of the instrument (a) 0.1% (b) 0.2%
(d) maintaining the temperature of the (c) 0.25% (d) 0.3%
surrounding
(31) The density of a cube is measured by measuring
(25) If x = , then maximum relative error in the its mass and length of its sides. If the maximum
measurement is errors in the measurement of mass and length
are 3% and 2% respectively, then the maximum
(a) (b)
error in the measurement of density is
(a) 7% (b) 5%
(c) (d)
(c) 1% (d) 9%
(26) Estimate the mean absolute error from the (32) A student measured the diameter of a wire
following data: using a screw gauge with least count 0.001
20, 17, 21.23, 20.79, 22.07, 21.78 cm and listed the measurements. The correct
(a) 0.85 (b) 0.58 measurement
(c) 0.03 (d) 0.01 (a) 5.3 cm (b) 5.32 cm
(27) The error in the measurement of length (L) of (c) 5.320 cm (d) 5.3200 cm
the simple pendulum is 0.1% and the error in (33) The percentage error in the measurement of
time period (T) is 3%. The maximum possible mass of a body is 0.75% and the percentage
error in the measurement of is error in the measurement of its speed is 1.85%.
Then the percentage error in the measurement
(a) 2.9% (b) 3.1%
of its kinetic energy is
(c) 5.9% (d) 6.1%
(a) 7.05% (b) 4.45%
(28) The least count of a screw gauge is 0.005 cm.
(c) 2.6% (d) 1.1%
The diameter of a wire is 0.020 cm as measured
by it. The percentage error in measurement is (34) Thickness of the paper measured by a
(a) 25% (b) 20% micrometer screw gauge of least count 0.01
(c) 15% (d) 5% mm is 1.03 mm, the percentage error in the
measurement of thickness of paper is
(29) In the expression A = the percentage error (a) 1.1% (b) 1%
is given by (c) 0.97% (d) 0.8%
24 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(35) The dimensional equation for the electrical (a) 5% (b) 4%

resistance of a conductor is (c) 6% (d) 0.5%
(a) [L2M1T2I–1] (b) [L2M1T–2I–1] (40) The radius of a circle is 1.22 m. Area enclosed
(c) [L1M1T–3I–2] (d) [L2M1T–3I–2] by it according to the concept of significant
(36) The charge on the electron is 1.6 × 10–19C, the figures can be represented as
order of magnitude is (a) 4.6778 m2 (b) 4.677 m2
(a) 1019 C (b) 1018 C (c) 4.67782 m2 (d) 4.68 m2
(c) 10–18 C (d) 10–19 C
Answers
(37) The number of seconds in a day and expressed
in order of magnitude are (1) it is perishable (2) 10 N (3) microscopic (4) mole
(5) [M0L0T1] (6) distance (7) 1.4 × 109 m (8) 3.86 ×
(a) 8.64 × 104 s, 105 s (b) 6.84 × 104 s, 104 s
108 m (9) pressure (10) pressure = energy per unit
(c) 8.64 × 105 s, 105 s (d) 6.85 × 104 s, 105 s
volume (11) 16 times (12) momentum (13) has no
(38) The sides of a rectangle are 6.01 m and 12 m. dimensions (14) density (15) to find out constant
Taking the significant figures into account, the of proportionality which may be pure number
area of the rectangle is
(16) 35.28 km min–2 (17)
(a) 72.00 cm2 (b) 72.1 cm2
(c) 72 m2 (d) 72.12 cm2 (18) order of magnitude (19) 0.5 ≤ A < 5 (20) 107 m
(21) 3 (22) 13 (23) systematic error (24) using
(39) The heat dissipated in a resistance can be
different accurate instruments for the same reading
determined from the relation
(25) (26) 0.58 (27) 6.1% (28) 25%

(29) (30) 0.3% (31) 9%
If the maximum errors in the measurement of
current, resistance and time are 2%, 1% and (32) 5.320 cm (33) 4.45% (34) 0.97% (35) [L2M1T–3I–2]
1% respectively, what would be the maximum (36) 10–19 C (37) 8.64 × 104 s, 105 s (38) 72 m2 (39) 6%
error in the dissipated heat? (40) 4.68 m2

vvv
Measurements 25

ASSESSMENT - 1
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Multiple choice questions : (4)

(1) The difference between the true value and measured value is called
(a) mistake (b) error
(c) significant figures (d) fault

(2) If the pointer of the voltmeter is not exactly at the zero of the scale, then the error is called
(a) instrumental error (b) systematic error
(c) personal error (d) random error

(3) The value of the magnitude rounded off to the nearest integral power of 10 is called
(a) significant figures (b) uncertain number
(c) significant number (d) order of magnitude

(4) The reference standard used for the measurement of a physical quantity is called
(a) standard quality (b) dimension
(c) constant (d) unit

Q.2. Attempt any FIVE questions : (10)

(1) Define fundamental quantity and state them with SI units.
(2) Explain system of units and state two systems of units.
(3) Explain with example, how is dimensional analysis used to convert the unit of a physical
quantity from, one system to another system of units.
(4) Find the dimensions of :
(a) Work (b) Refractive index
(5) Show that the equation s = ut + at2 is dimensionally correct.
(6) Determine the number of significant figures in the following measurements.
(a) 0.05718 (b) 9300
(c) 2.35 × 10–19 (d) 1.3725 × 109
Q.3. Attempt any TWO questions : (6)
(1) Define error and explain the types of errors.
(2) Period of simple pendulum is given as T = 2π . Verify this formula using dimensional method.

(3) The side of a cube is measured to be 20.44 ± 0.02 m. Find the percentage error in the measurement
of area.

vvv
2 SCALARS AND VECTORS

Points to Remember:
• Physical quantities are mainly classified into two types – Scalars and Vectors.
• A physical quantity that has only magnitude is called a scalar quantity. e.g. length, mass, time,
temperature, etc.
• Scalars can be added or subtracted by rules of simple algebra.
• A physical quantity that has a magnitude as well as a direction and obeys laws of vector addition
is called a vector quantity. e.g. velocity, acceleration, force, momentum.
• A vector which has zero magnitude and with particular direction is called zero vector. It is represented
as .
• The resultant of two or more vectors is defined as that single vector, which produces the same
effect as produced by all the vectors together.
• A negative vector of a given vector is a vector of same magnitude but directed opposite to that
of the given vector.
• A vector which gives the position of a particle at a point with respect to the origin of a chosen
co-ordinate system is called a position vector.
• Vectors of the same type can be added by using the triangle law or law of polygon of vectors
or parallelogram law.
• In parallelogram law of vectors, the magnitude of resultant vector is given by
, and the direction of resultant vector is given by

• A vector having unit magnitude in a given direction is called a unit vector.

• The process of finding the components of a given vector is called resolution of vectors.
• The scalar product of two non-zero vectors is defined as the product of magnitude of the two
vectors and cosine of the angle q between the two vectors.
• The scalar product of two vectors and is a scalar, given by
= . = PQ cos q
• In terms of the components of the vectors and .
. = PxQx + PyQy + PzQz
• The vector product of two vectors is a third vector whose magnitude is equal to the product of
magnitude where 0 ≤ q ≤ π of the two vectors and sine of smaller angle (q) between the two vectors.
• The vector product of two vectors and is a vector, given by = × = PQ sin θ ûR
and direction is given by right hand screw rule.
In terms of components of the vectors and .

(26)
Scalars and Vectors 27

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET – 2 in magnitude but opposite in direction are

called opposite vectors.
2.1 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors  
AB opposite CD
*Q.1. Define Scalars and Vectors. Give two or = –
examples of each. (2 marks)
(iii) Zero Vectors (Null
Ans. Scalars : vectors) : Opposite Vectors
Physical quantities which possess magnitude A vector having zero magnitude and having a
only are called scalar quantities or scalars. particular direction is called a zero vector or a
For example: mass, volume, density etc. null vector.

Vectors : It is represented by 0 .
The physical quantities which possess both Intext question textbook page no. 12
magnitude and direction and obeys vector laws *Q.4 Whether resultant of two vectors of unequal
of addition are known as vector quantities or magnitudes be zero? ( 2 marks)
vectors.
Ans. No, if + = 0 \ =– and hence
For example : displacement, velocity, magnitude will be equal and direction will be
acceleration etc. opposite.
*Q.2. Define unit vector and give its physical significance. Q.5.
Explain : (i) Rectangular unit vectors
(2 marks) (ii) Position vector. (iii) Representation of
Ans. A vector having unit magnitude in a given vector (2 marks)
direction is called a unit vector. Ans.
(i) If is a non-zero vector (i.e. P ≠ 0), the unit (i) Rectangular Unit
vector ûP in the direction of is given by, Vectors :

P Rectangular unit
ûP =
P vectors are the unit
\ = P ûP vectors along the
(ii) The unit vector gives the direction of a given positive direction of the axis of the right handed
vector. cartesian co-ordinate system. The unit vectors
(iii) We use , and as the unit vectors along the along x-axis, y-axis and z-axis are , and
x, y and z directions respectively of a cartesian respectively.
(rectangular) three dimensional co-ordinate (ii) Position Vector :
system. A vector
*Q.3. What is (i) Equal vectors (ii) Opposite vectors which gives
(iii) Zero vector (Null vector). (3 marks) the position
Ans. of a particle at
a point with
(i) Equal Vectors :
respect to the origin of a chosen co-ordinate
Two or more vectors having the same
system is called position vector.
magnitude and the same direction irrespective
of their positions in space One general way to locate the position
 of a
are called equal vectors. particle is with a position vector r which is
  a vector that extends from a reference point
AB = CD
 (normally the origin ‘O’ of the coordinate
or = Q system) to the particle. In the unit vector
Equal Vectors notation, position vector is represented as,
(ii) Opposite Vectors:  ^ ^ ^
Any two vectors of same type which are equal r = xi + y j + zk
28 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) Representation of vector can be done by (ii) Preserving the directions of two given vectors,
following two methods: and , the tail of one vector is joined to the
(a) Graphical : A vector is represented graphically tip of the other, regardless of order.
by an arrow pointing in the direction of the (iii) Then, the arrow connecting the tail of the first
vector; the length of the arrow, for a given unit, vector to the tip of the second gives the resultant
represents the vectors magnitude. = + in magnitude and direction.
(b) Symbolic : Symbolically in formulae, a vector is *Q.8. Explain the polygon law of vectors.
represented by a letter with an arrow above it. OR
e.g. . It may also be represented by the end- What is law of polygon of vector? (2 marks)

points of the vector, e.g. OP as in P Ans. If number of vectors are represented in
following figure. Here, O is called magnitude and direction, by sides of an
the tail of the vector and P is incomplete polygon taken in order, then their
called the head of the vector. resultant is represented in magnitude and
O
direction by the remaining side of the polygon,
Intext question textbook page no. 15 directed from the starting point of the first
*Q.6. What are the dimensions and unit of a unit vector to the end point of the last vector.
vector? (2 marks)
Ans. Unit vector has no dimensions. Unit vector only
gives direction, it is the ratio of a vector to its
magnitude.

*Q.7. State and explain the triangle law of vector

addition. Polygon Law of Vector Addition
   
OR A4 be
Let A1 , A2 , A3 and   thefour vectors
 to
What is triangle law of vector addition? be added. Suppose A1 , A2 , A3 and A4 are
(3 marks) represented in magnitude and direction by the
   
Ans. If two vectors of the same type are represented sides OA, AB, BC and CD of a polygon.
in magnitude and direction by two sides of
By the polygon law of vector addition, the fifth
a triangle taken in a certain order (clockwise 
side OD gives the resultant of all these vectors.
or anti-clockwise), then their resultant vector
Proof :
is represented in magnitude and direction by     
the third side of the triangle, drawn from the From D OAB, OB = OA + AB = A1 + A2
     
starting point of the first vector to the end point From D OBC, OC = OB + BC = ( A 1 + A 2 ) + A 3
  
of the second vector. From D OCD, OD = OC + CD 
  
= ( A1+A2 + A3 ) +A4
This is the polygon law of vector addition.
Intext question textbook page no. 12
*Q.9 Is it correct to add two vectors representing

Triangle Law of Vector Addition physical quantities having different
dimensions? (1 mark)
Explanation :
Ans. No, vectors must be of same dimensions and
(i) A vector is not changed by translating parallel
of same type. For e.g. force can't be added with
to itself.
the velocity.
Scalars and Vectors 29

Intext question textbook page no. 13  

AB and AD respectively, such that AB = P
*Q.10. Is it possible to add two velocities using and AD = Q.
triangle law? (1 mark) (ii) The parallelogram ABCD is constructed and
Ans. Yes, as velocities are vector quantities the perpendicular CE is dropped onto AB
produced.
(iii) Then according to above law, resultant vector
 
is represented by AC making angle a with AB .
(iv) For the right-angled triangles AEC and BEC,
Intext question textbook page no. 14 Pythagoras’ theorem gives
*Q.11 .Does the subtraction of given vectors obey AC2 = AE2+CE2 ...(i)
commutative or associative laws? (1 mark) and BC2 = BE2+CE2 ...(ii)
Ans. No, (opposite in direction). (v) Also from ∆BEC,
*Q.12. State and prove parallelogram law of vector BE = BC cos q ...(iii)
addition and determine magnitude and and CE = BC sin q ...(iv)
direction of the resultant vector. (4 Marks) (vi) From equation (i),
Ans. If two vectors of same type acting AC2 = (AB+BE)2+CE2
simultaneously at a point are represented in \ AC2 = AB2+2AB.BE+BE2+CE2
magnitude and direction along two adjacent \ AC2 = AB2+2AB.BC cos q+BC2
sides of a parallelogram then their resultant …[From (ii) and (iii)]
vector is represented in magnitude and direction
(vii) Substituting AC = R, AB = P and
by the diagonal drawn from the same point.
BC= AD = Q,
R2 = P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos q
Hence, the magnitude of the resultant is

R= P2 + Q2 + 2PQ cos θ

(viii) The direction of may be given by specifying

the angle ‘a’ which it makes with . From D

Parallelogram Law of vector addition AEC,

Let and Q be the two vectors with an angle tan a =
q between them, as shown in figure.
Such that

represented by AB and Q by AD . \ tan a =
gm
Complete the || ABCD. …[from (iii) and (iv)]
By construction,
\ tan a =
BC = AD are equal and parallel, let
  
BC = AD = Q . \ a =
By triangle law of vector addition,
   Special cases :
= AC = AB + BC
  (1) When q = 0° (Parallel vectors),
= AB + AD
 R =
= + Q

Where is the resultant of and Q \ R =
Proof : \ R =

(i) Let and Q be two vectors
 with an angle q
between them. and Q are represented by \ R = P + Q
30 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

components of along the x-axis and y-axis

tan a = respectively.
(v) By the parallelogram law of vectors,
\ a –1
= tan 0 = 0° = x + y
(2) When q = 180° (Anti-parallel vectors), \ =
where, and are unit vectors along the
R = positive x-axis and y-axis respectively.

\ R =

\ R =

\ R = P – Q
Rectangular components of a vector
tan a = (vi) Now if q is the angle made by with the
x-axis, then
\ a = 0° (If P > Q)
cos q =
or a = 180° (If P < Q)
(3) When q = 90° (Mutually perpendicular vectors) \ Rx = R cos q … (i)

R = and sin q =
\ Ry = R sin q … (ii)
\ R =
(vii) Squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii), we
tan α = get
Rx2 + Ry2 = R2 cos2 θ + R2 sin2 θ

\ tan α = ∴ Rx2 + Ry2 = R2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ)

*Q.13. Explain what is resolution of vector. (3 marks) ∴ R2 = Rx2 + Ry2

OR ∴ R =

What are rectangular components of vectors? (viii) Dividing equation (ii) by (i), we get
Expain their use. (2 marks)
Ans. The process of finding the components of a = tan q
given vector is called resolution of vectors.
(i) The given vector can be split up into two or \ q = tan-1 … (v)
more components such that the combined
Equation (v) gives direction of .
effect of these components is same as the
Similarly, if x, y and z are the rectangular
original vector.
(ii) The components can be found at any required components of x along the x, y and z axis
angle, but if they are at right angles to each other of a three dimensional rectangular cartesian
then they are called rectangular components. co-ordinate system then,

(iii) Consider a vector = OC , starting from the = + +
x y z
origin ‘O’ of a rectangular co-ordinate system
as shown in figure. =
(iv) Draw perpendiculars from C to meet x-axis at
A and y-axis at B. and magnitude R =
 
\ x = OA and y = OB are the rectangular
Scalars and Vectors 31

Q.14. Explain how to express a vector in terms of unit

Thus if and are two vectors then the scalar
vectors . (2 marks)
product of and is given as,
Ans.
. = AB cos θ
Since A and B are scalars and cos θ is a pure
number, the scalar product of two vectors is a
scalar quantity.
The scalar product is also called as dot product
of two vectors.
(a)      (b) The characteristics of scalar product are :
(i) As shown in figure (a) , and are unit vectors (i) The scalar product of two vectors is a
along x, y, and z-axes respectively. In order to scalar quantity.
express in terms of , and vectors, we first (ii) Scalar product obeys commutative law of
consider the two dimensional case and extend the multiplication.
result to a three dimensional case. . = AB cos θ
(ii) Let x and y be the x and y components of .
Also, . = BA cos θ
\ = x + y … (i)
\ . = .
(iii) Now, is the unit vector along x-axis and hence
(iii) Scalar product obeys the distributive law.
along the direction of x. Thus by the definition
If , , are three vectors then,
of unit vector,
.( + ) = . + .
= (iv) If two vectors are parallel to each other,
\ x = Ax then θ = 0°.
Similarly, y = Ay \ . = (A).(A) cos 0° = A2
(iv) Hence, equation (i) becomes,
. = cos 0° = (1) (1) (1) = 1
= Ax + Ay
(v) For three dimensional case, . = cos 0° = (1) (1) (1) = 1

= Ax + Ay + Az … (ii) . = cos 0° = (1) (1) (1) = 1

This is how a vector is expressed in terms of ,
\ . = . = . = 1
and .
(v) If two vectors are perpendicular to each
*Q.15. If the frame of reference is rotated or other then, θ = 90°.
displaced, then what happens to the vector and \ . = AB cos 90° = 0
its components?. (1 mark)
Thus, the dot product of two perpendicular
Ans. The vector remains unchanged. If the frame of vectors is zero.
reference is translated the components of vector
\ . = . = . = 0
changes. But if the frame of reference is rotated
then the component and direction cosines of the [ , , are perpendicular to each other]
vector changes. (vi) For vectors and ,
*Q.16. Define scalar product of two vectors. Also state
the characteristics of scalar product. (3 marks) cos q =
Ans. The scalar product of two vectors is equal to
the product  of  the magnitude of the two vectors This is a method to determine the angle between
and the cosine of the angle between them. two given vectors.
32 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*Q.17. Derive the expression for scalar product of two

vectors in terms of their scalar components.
(2 marks)
θ
Ans. Let the two vectors and be given as,
= Ax +Ay +Az and
θ
= Bx +By +Bz

\ . = (Ax +Ay +Az ).(Bx +By +Bz )

(ii) The vector product is distributive.
\ . = ( . )AxBx+( . )+AyBx+( . )AzBx + ×( + )= × + ×
( . )AxBy+( . )+AyBy+( . )AzBy + (iii) If the vectors and are parallel (θ = 0°)
( . )AxBz+( . )+AyBz+( . )AzBz or anti-parallel (θ = 180°), then × is
a null vector i.e. × = 0.
Since, . = . = . = 1 (iv) The vector product of a vector with itself
and . = . = . = 0 is zero.
i.e. × = 0
\ . = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz (v) If the vectors and are mutually
perpendicular,
2.2 Product of Vectors
\ = AB sin 90° = AB
*Q.18. Define vector product of two vectors. Also
state the characteristics of vector product. (vi) Consider, = (1) (1) sin 0° = 0
(3 marks)
Similarly, = =0
Ans. The vector or cross product of two vectors, is a
vector whose magnitude is equal to the product (vii) Consider, = (1)(1) sin 90° = 1
of their magnitudes and the sine of the smaller
angle between them. Similarly, = =1
Its direction is perpendicular to the plane of the
*Q.19. Derive an expression for cross product of two
original vectors, in the sense of advancement
vectors and express it in determinant form.
of a right-handed screw rotated from the first
(3 marks)
vector in the product, to the second through the
Ans. (i) Let the two vectors and be given as,
smaller angle between them.
= Ax +Ay +Az
Thus, = AB sin q. = Bx +By +Bz
Follow the given sequence.
The direction of × is perpendicular to the

plane containing and given by right hand
thumb rule.
Characteristics of Vector Product:
(i) The direction of × is opposite to that
of × , but their magnitudes are equal. (ii) The unit vectors , and being
mutually perpendicular,
Thus, = = AB sin q.
= = = (1)(1) sin 90° = 1
\ × = – ( × ) ∴ × = , a unit vector perpendicular to
both and .
Thus, the vector product is not commutative
× = , a unit vector perpendicular
(like the subtraction of real numbers).
to both and .
Scalars and Vectors 33

× = , a unit vector perpendicular to (iii) Area of the parallelogram is given as,

both and . A = base × height
Since vector product is not commutative,
\ A = AB sin q
× = – and × = – and × =–
\ A =
Since vector product of a vector with itself is zero,
× = × = × =0 (iv) Hence, vector product of two vectors represents,
in magnitude, the area of a parallelogram
× = (Ax +Ay +Az ) × (Bx +By +Bz )
formed by the two vectors as its adjacent sides.
\ × = AxBx ( × ) + AxBy( × ) + AxBz( × ) +
Note :
AyBx ( × ) + AyBy( × ) + AyBz( × ) +
(1) Area of a parallelogram with and as the
AzBx ( × ) + AzBy( × ) + AzBz( × )
two sides is,
\ × = AxBx (0) + AxBy( ) + AxBz(– ) +
A =
AyBx (– ) + AyBy(0) + AyBz( ) +
AzBx ( ) + AzBy(– ) + AzBz(0) (2) Area of a triangle with and as sides is,
\ × = (AyBz – AzBy) + (AzBx – AxBz) +
A =
(AxBy – AyBx)
*Q.21. Distinguish between dot product and cross
(iv) Using the determinant notation, the cross
product. (4 marks)
product of and is written as,
Ans:
Dot product Cross product
1 The product is a scalar. 1 The product is a vector
2 2
If and are given, the If and are given, the
scalar product is vector product is
*Q.20. Show that the magnitude of vector product of
. = AB cos q. × = AB sin q.
two vectors is numerically equal to the area of
3 It is a scalar quantity and 3 It is directed at right angles
a parallelogram formed by the two vectors. has no direction. to the plane containing the
(3 marks) two vectors and its sense
Ans. (i) Let and represent two adjacent sides is given by the right hand
thumb rule.
of a parallelogram. Let θ be the smaller angle
4 If two vectors are 4 If two vectors are parallel
between the two vectors and h be the height of perpendicular to each to each other, magnitude of
the parallelogram. other, their scalar product vector product is zero.
is zero.
5 It obeys the commutative 5 It does not obey the
law of multiplication. commutative law of
multiplication.
6 The self dot product of a 6 The magnitude of self cross
vector is equal to the square product of a vector is zero.
of the magnitude of vector.
i.e. =0
i.e. . = A2
7 7

Area of parallelogram in terms of the magnitude of 8 8
the vector product
(ii) From the diagram, the base of the parallelogram
is
b = =A 9 Example : 9
Torque
Work = Angular Momentum
Also, the height of the parallelogram is
Power =
h = B sin q
34 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solved Problems
∴
(1) The resultant of two forces each of magnitude
∴ R = 12 2 + 16 2 + 2(12) (16) cos45
F acting at a point is F. What is the angle
between the vectors ? (2 marks) ∴
Solution : ∴ R = 25.91 N
P = F,
The angle α which the resultant makes with
Q = F and R = F  θ  = ?
the direction of is given by,
The resultant R of the forces P and Q making an
angle θ is given by, tan α =

R =
∴ tan α =
but P = F, Q = F and R = F
∴ tan α = 0.3465
∴ F =
∴ α = tan–1 (0.3465)
∴ F = ∴ α = 19o 7'
∴ F = F (4) A vehicle travels due east on a level road for 30
miles. It then turns due north at an intersection
∴ 1 = 1 + cos θ
and travels 40 miles before stopping. Find the
∴ cos θ = 0 resultant displacement of the vehicle. (3 marks)
\ θ = 90° Solution :
We choose the +ve direction of x-axis as pointing
*(2) Two forces and of magnitude 5N each
east and the +ve direction of y-axis as pointing
inclined to each other at 60°, act on a body. north.
Find the resultant force acting on the body. The two displacements are shown in figure.
(2 marks) The resultant displacement is .
Solution : North
= = 5N
θ = 60°,  Resultant R = ?
R = θ
East
=
R =
=
∴ R =
=
∴ R = 50 miles
R = 8.662 N
tan θ =
(3) Two forces each of magnitude 12 N and
16 N are inclined to each other at 45°. Find the ∴ tan θ =
magnitude and direction of their resultant with ∴ θ = tan–1 (1.33)
respect to second vector. (3 marks)
\ θ = 53°
Solution :
The resultant vector displacement has a
P = 12 N, Q = 16 N, q = 45°, R = ? α = ?
magnitude of 50 miles and makes an angle of 53°
The resultant R of the forces P and Q making an
north of east.
angle θ is given by,
Scalars and Vectors 35

*(5) In a cartesian co-ordinate system the

+ = ?, 3 – 2 = ?
co-ordinates of two points P and Q are (2, 4,
 2iˆ + 3ˆj − kˆ  +  2iˆ − 5ˆj + 2kˆ 
4) and (–2, –3, 7) respectively. Find PQ and its + =    
magnitude. (3 marks) 
+ Q =
Solution :
P ≡ (2, 4, 4),  Q ≡ (–2, –3, 7) 3 =
∴ Position vector of P is, =

= 2 =
Similarly, position vector of Q is, =
=
∴3 –2 =
= ?

| | = ? 3 – 2 Q =
Formula :
*(8) Find m, if = and =
= –
have the same direction. (2 marks)
| | = Solution :

Solution : = , Q =
= – m = ?
= = and

Q =
= Px = 1 Qx = m
= Py = –3 Qy = –6
| | = Pz = 4 Qz = 8

= Since and Q have the same direction,
∴ | | = 8.6 units
*(6) If = and = find the
∴
component of along . (2 marks)
Given : \ m = 2
= , =
A cos θ = ? (9) The resultant of two vectors =
and = is a vector . Find
Solution :
and its magnitude. (3 marks)
A cos θ = 
= ,Q =

= = ?, =?
Solution :

= The resultant of two vectors and Q is given by,

= +Q
∴ =
A cos θ =
\
=
*(7) If = and = , find Magnitude of this vector is given by,
(i) +  (ii) 3 –2 (3 marks) R =
Solution : ∴ R =
= , = 2iˆ  5ˆj  2kˆ \ R = 9.434
36 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(10) Find the vector that should be added to the Y

Displacement vector is as
sum of and to give (N)
shown :
a unit vector along the X-axis. (2 marks)

km
makes an angle 30° with the Dy

200
Solution :
y-axis.

30°
= , =
∴ θ = 90° – 30° = 60°
Also given that, The Distance travelled by x
D Dx (E)
+ + = , = ? aeroplane along east is,
Let = Dx = D cos θ
∴ Dx = 200 × cos 60° = 200 ×
∴ + + = gives,
∴ Dx = 100 km
\ DE = 100 km
Equating the magnitudes along the unit vectors,
we get Distance travelled by aeroplane along north is,
2 + 4 + C1 = 1, –5 + 7 + C2 = 0 Dy = D sin θ

C1 = 1 – 6 C2 = –2 ∴ Dy = 200 × sin 60° = 200 ×

∴ Dy = 173.2 km
C1 = –5
\ DN = 173.2 km
3 – 4 + C3 = 0
C3 = 1 (13) Find, . where = and =
\ . (2 marks)
C = Solution :

(11) If = and , find the . = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz

vector which when added to ( + ) will give ∴ . = (2) (1) + (2) (–1) + (1) (2)
a unit vector in the direction along z-axis. ∴ . = 2–2+2=2
(3 marks) \
. = 2
Solution :
= , = (14) Show that the vectors = and
Also, + + =+ , = ? = are perpendicular to each other.
(2 marks)
+ =
Given :
∴ + = =
Let when added to + give unit vector along =
the z-axis i.e . To show = ⊥
∴ ( + )+ = Solution :
Consider
∴ = –( + )
. = AB cos θ
∴ = If θ = 90°
\ cos 90° = 0
=
∴ . = 0
(12) An aeroplane travels 200 km on a straight Consider,
course making an angle 30° east of due north. . = Ax Bx + AyBy + AzBz
How far north and how far east does the plane ∴ . = (4)(1) + (2)(4) + (–4)(3)
travel from its starting point? (3 marks) ∴ . = 4 + 8 –12

Solution : ∴ . = 0
In the diagram, let positive x-direction be east and the \ ( A ≠ 0, B ≠ 0)
⊥
positive y-direction be north.
Scalars and Vectors 37

*(15) Find a if = and =

are perpendicular to one another. (2 marks) ∴ Unit vector along × =
Solution :
= , =
Also, θ = 90°, a = ? ∴ Unit vector along × =
. = AB cos θ
If θ = 90°,
Unit vector along × =
. = 0
= 0 A unit vector opposite in direction would also be
perpendicular to the plane of × .
∴ 3 × a + (–2) × 2 + 4(–1) = 0
∴ 3a – 4 – 4 = 0 Such a unit vector would be given as
∴ 3a – 8 = 0
∴ 3a = 8
\ a =
(18) Find the cosine of the angle between the given
vectors : = and = .
*(16) A force = acting on a particle
(2 marks)
produces a displacement of =
Solution :
where F is expressed in newton and S in metre.
= , =
Find the work done by the force. (2 marks)
cosθ = ?
Solution :
.Q = PQ cos θ ... (i)
= , = 
.Q = PxQx + PyQy + PzQz ... (ii)
W = .
Equating equations (i) and (ii),
=
PQ cos θ = PxQx + PyQy + PzQz
= (4 × 2) + (6 × 3) + (3 × 5)
= 8 + 18 + 15 ∴ cos θ =
W = 41 J
∴ cos θ =
*(17) Find unit vectors perpendicular to the plane
 
of the vectors. = and = 2i − k .
(3 marks) ∴ cos θ =
Solution : 
= , B  2iˆ  kˆ
Unit vectors perpendicular to the plane ∴ cos θ =
of ×
The direction of vector product × is ∴ cos θ =
perpendicular to the plane of and .
Hence a unit vector along × , would be
perpendicular to the plane of and . \ cos θ =

(19) Find the angle between the vectors =

∴ × =
and = . (2 marks)
Solution :
= = , =
× =
θ = ?
38 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(21) A particle has a displacement represented by

cos θ = = m when under the action of two
forces = N and =
= N. Find the work done. (3 marks)
= Solution :
Consider, = , = , =
. = W = ?
∴ . = 2 × 1 + 3 (– 1) + 2 (3) W = .
Resultant force is given by,
∴ . = 2 – 3 + 6 = 5 ... (i)
= +
A =
∴ = +
∴ A = ... (ii) ∴ =
B = Work done is given by,
W = .
∴ B = ... (iii)
∴ W =
cos θ = ∴ W = 3 – 4 + 5 = 4J
\ W = 4J
=
(22) Find × , where = and
= . (2 marks)
∴ θ = cos–1 ∴ θ = cos–1 (0.365) Solution :
= , = , × =?
\ θ = 24°7’

(20) If = and = . Find the × =

angle between and . (2 marks)
Solution :
 ∴ × =
= , Q =
θ = ? \
 × =
. Q = PQ cos θ ... (i)
 (23) If = and = , determine
. Q = Px Qx + PyQy + PzQz ... (ii)
the unit vector parallel to × . (2 marks)
Equating equations (i) and (ii),
Solution :
PQ cos θ = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz = , = , û Parallel to ×
∴ cos θ =
× =

∴ cos θ = ∴ û = … (i)

Let
∴ cos θ =

× =
∴ cos θ =

\ × = … (ii)
∴ cos θ = ∴ cos θ =
\ … (iii)
\ θ = 60°
Scalars and Vectors 39

from equation (i), (ii) and (iii) *(26) Find the area of the parallelogram with
adjacent sides formed by and (2 marks)

\ û = where

ˆ ˆ ˆ
P 2i  3 j  4k and
Q  3iˆ  2 ˆj  2kˆ expressed in meter.
(24) A force = N acts on a body at a
Solution :
distance of = m from the origin  

Area of parallelogram = P × Q
of an inertial reference frame. Find the torque
acting on the body. (2 marks)
ˆi ˆj kˆ ˆi ˆj kˆ
Now, P  Q  P
 
Solution : x
Py Pz  2 3 4
Qx Qy Qz 3 2 2
= , =
 
P  Q  ˆi   ˆj
 32  4 2   2 2  4 3

= ?
ˆ
+ k 2 2  33
 
The torque acting on the body is given by,
 
ˆ ˆ
P  Q 14i  16 j  5k ˆ
= ×
 

Area of parallelogram = P × Q
∴ =
= ( −14)2 + (16)2 + ( −5)2
= 477 m 2
∴ =
Area of parallelogram = 21.84 m2
\ = Nm Intext question textbook page no. 51
*(25) Find the area of the triangle formed by *(27) If A + B = A − B then what can be the angle
= m and = as adjacent sides. between A and B ? (2 marks)
(2 marks) Solution :
Solution : 
 
Let θ be the angle between A and B

Area of triangle = ?
(A + B).(A + B) = A.A + 2A.B = B.B
= A2 + 2 AB cosθ + B2
The area of the triangle is
( )( )
2
But A + B . A + B = A + B
2
∴ A + B = A2 + 2AB cosθ + B2 ...(1)
Let × =
Similarly,

= (8  2)iˆ  ˆj(6  2)  (3  4)kˆ

(A − B). (A − B) = A 2
– 2AB cosθ + B2
2
∴ A − B = A2 – 2AB cosθ + B2 ...(2)
\ × = … (i)
From equation (1) and (2), we get

Let × = 2AB cosθ – 2AB cosθ  A + B = A − B ( )

= ∴ cosθ = 0
∴ θ = 90o
∴ × = 12.21 m 2
… (ii)
∴
Angle between A and B is 90o
∴ Area of the triangle =

= × 12.21

\ Area of Triangle = 6.105 m2

40 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Problems for Practice Formula Map

(1) A vector has x-component of 25 units (1)
and y-component of 40 units. Find the
magnitude and direction of this vector.
[Ans : R = 47.16 units, α = 58°]
(2)
(3 marks)
(2) Find the resultant displacement and its (3)
magnitude caused by three displacements given
below : (2 marks)
(4) Ax = A cos q Ay = A sin q

(5) . = PxQx + PyQy + PzQz

(6) . = 0 ( ⊥ )
[Ans : m, d = 8.1 m]
(3) A vector when added to two vectors =
and = gives a unit (7)
vector along x-axis. Find the vector .
[Ans : ]
(2 marks)
(8) ˆ ˆ 1
ˆi.iˆ  ˆj.jˆ  k.k
(4) Given , then show that and
ˆi.jˆ  ˆj.kˆ  k.i
ˆ ˆ0
are perpendicular to each other. .
(2 marks) (9) ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
(5) Show that if the dot product of two finite vectors
is zero then they are mutually perpendicular to ˆ ˆj  ˆi kˆ
ˆi  ˆj  k,
each other . (3 marks)
ˆj  kˆ  ˆi, kˆ  ˆj ˆi
(6) Prove that = and =
are mutually perpendicular. (2 marks)
kˆ  ˆi  ˆj, ˆi  kˆ ˆj
(7) Calculate the work done when a force of
N produces a displacement of
m. [Ans : W = 3 J] (3 marks)
(8) Find the area of the triangle formed by
= m and = m as
2
adjacent sides. [Ans : 1.732 m ] (3 marks)
(9) A force of = N acts on a particle at
a distance = m from the origin of
an inertial reference frame. Find torque acting
on the particle. [Ans : = Nm]
(3 marks)
(10) Find the unit vector perpendicular to the plane
containing
 the vectors = and
Q = . Also find the area of the
parallelogram formed by the two vectors.
(3 marks)

[Ans : ]
Scalars and Vectors 41

Multiple Choice Questions (8) The process of finding the resultant of two or
more vectors is called
Select and write the most appropriate answer from
(a) triangle law
the given alternatives for each sub questions:
(b) addition of vectors only
(c) subtraction of vectors only
(1) The velocity vector of a stationary particle is (d) composition of vectors
(a) zero vector
(b) vector with magnitude of velocity vector (9) The process of finding the components of a
(c) scalar given vector is called as
(d) scalar with magnitude of velocity vector (a) composition of vector
(2) The vector product of two non-zero vectors is (b) multiplication of vector
zero (c) addition of vector
(a) only when they are in the same direction (d) resolution of vector
(b) only when they are making angle 60°
(10) The resultant of two vectors will be maximum,
(c) only when they are perpendicular
if they are
(d) when they are parallel and anti-parallel
(a) equal vectors (b) parallel vectors
(3) A single vector which produces the same effect
(c) coplanar vectors (d) orthogonal vectors
of two or more vectors is called
(a) resolution of vectors (b) resultant vector (11) Under what condition holds
(c) positive vector (d) equal vector good ?
(4) Which of the following is a scalar? (a) act in the same direction
(a) torque (b) linear momentum (b) act in the opposite direction
(c) electric field (d) electric potential (c) are different physical quantities
(5) Which of the following is a vector ? (d) have same magnitude
(a) pressure (b) time
(12) Three coplanar forces 100 N, 150 N and
(c) impulse (d) charge
200 N acting at a point and keeping the points
(6) In parallelogram law of vectors, the direction in equilibrium are represented by the sides of
of resultant vector is given by a triangle. The sides will be respectively in the
(a) ratio
(a) 1 : 2 : 3 (b) 2 : 3 : 4
(b) (c) 3 : 2 : 1 (d) 4 : 3 : 2

(c) (13) Two equal forces acting at a point, at right

angles to each other have a resultant of 14.14 N.
(d) The magnitude of each force is
(a) 28.28 N (b) 24.14 N
(7) The magnitude of the resultant of two vectors (c) 10 N (d) 7.07 N
. It is given by
(a) (14) The resultant of two vectors at right angles is
5 N. When the angle between them is 120°, the
(b)
resultant is . Then, the vectors are
(c)
(a) (b)
(d) (c) 3 N, 4 N (d) 7 N, 3 N
42 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(15) If the vector having (22) If then

the same magnitude as and parallel to is is

(a) (b) (a) (b)

(c) (d)
(c) (d)
(23) A constant force of N produces a
(16) If , the angle displacement of m. Then, work
made by with x-axis is done is

(a) 30° (b) 45° (a) 5 J (b) 15 J

(c) 60° (d) 90° (c) 22 J (d) 50 J

(17) If , find the (24) The angle between the vectors

vector when added to which will give and is
unit vector along x-axis.
(a) 120° (b) 90°
(a) (b) (c) 60° (d) 45°
(c) (d)
(25) What is the dot product of two vectors of
(18) In a cartesian co-ordinate system, the co- magnitude 3 and 5, if the angle between them
ordinates of two points P and Q are (2, 3, –6) is 60° ?
and (–2, –5, 7) respectively, the vector PQ is
(a) 15 (b) 8
represented by
(c) 7.5 (d) 5.3
(a) (b)
(c) (d) (26) The vectors and
are
(19) Vectors are
parallel to each other, then values of ‘a’ and ‘b’ (a) parallel (b) anti-parallel
are (c) perpendicular (d) identical
(a) 1, 9 (b) 1, –9
(27) Work done when a force of N
(c) –1, 9 (d) –1, –9
moves a body through a distance of 10 metres
(20) Choose the WRONG statement. in its own direction is

(a) Scalar product of two vectors is a scalar (a) 160 J (b) 120 J
quantity. (c) 90 J (d) 10 J
(b) Dot product of two vectors obeys the
distributive law of multiplication. (28) If the ratio of the dot product of two vectors
(c) Dot product of a vector with itself is zero. and cross product of same two vector is ,
(d) Scalar product of vector with itself is equal the two vectors make angle
to square of its magnitude. (a) 30° (b) 45°
(c) 90° (d) 120°
(21) The magnitude of self cross product is
(a) zero (29) Given , then the angle between
(b) magnitude of vector is
(c) square of the magnitude of vector (a) 0° (b) 30°
(d) half the magnitude of vector (c) 45° (d) 90°
Scalars and Vectors 43

Answers direction (12) 2 : 3 : 4 (13) 10 N (14) 3 N, 4 N

(1) zero vector (2) when they are parallel and anti- (15) (16) 45° (17)

parallel (3) resultant vector (4) electric potential (18) (19) 1, 9 (20) Dot product of a
vector with itself is zero. (21) zero (22)
(5) impulse (6)
(23) 22 J (24) 60° (25) 7.5 (26) parallel (27) 90 J
(7)
(28) 30° (29) 90°
(8) composition of vectors (9) resolution of vector
(10) parallel vectors (11) act in the same

ASSESSMENT - 2
Time : 30 Min. Marks : 20

Q.1. Multiple choice questions: (4)

(1) The velocity vector of a stationary particle is
(a) zero vector (b) vector with magnitude of velocity vector
(c) scalar (d) scalar with magnitude of velocity vector
(2) A vector is not changed if
(a) it is divided by a scalar (b) it is multiplied by a scalar
(c) it slides parallel to itself (d) all of these
(3) The component of a vector may be
(a) equal to its magnitude (b) double its magnitude
(c) greater than its magnitude (d) either greater or equal to its magnitude
(4) The resultant of two vectors will be maximum, if they are
(a) equal vectors (b) parallel vectors
(c) coplanar vectors (d) orthogonal vectors

Q.2. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) State the triangle law.
(2) A particle has a displacement represented by when under the action of two
forces and . Find the work done.
(3) If and , what vector added to
will give a unit vector along x-axis?
(4) State the characteristics of scalar product.
(5) Show that the vectors and are perpendicular to each other.
(6) Explain resolution of vectors into two components.

Q.3. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)

(1) Derive an expression for cross product of two vectors and express it in determinant form.
(2) Two forces each of magnitude 12 N and 16 N are inclined to each other at 45°. Find the magnitude and
direction of their resultant with respect to second vector.
(3) Find the area of the triangle formed by m and m as adjacent sides.

vvv
3 Projectile Motion

Points to Remember:
• Mechanics is a branch of physics which deals with the study of motion of a particle.
• Displacement of a particle is the change in its position in a particular direction.
• Path length is the actual distance travelled by the particle during its motion.
Path length ≥|displacement|
• Average velocity is defined as the change in the displacement divided by the time interval
∆t in which the displacement occurs.

• Average velocity is a vector quantity and its S.I. unit is m/s and dimensions are [L1M0T-1].
• Average speed of a particle is defined as the total path length travelled divided by total time
interval during which the motion has taken place.
• Average speed =
• Average speed of the particle can be zero or positive but never negative.
Average speed ≥|Average velocity|
• The instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time
interval ‘∆t’ becomes extremely small.
 
 ∆ x dx
V ins = lim = =
x →0 ∆t dt
• The speedometer of an automobile measures the instantaneous speed of the automobile.
• Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. If are
the velocities of particle at time t1 and t2, then

• The change in velocity is and time required for the change is ∆t = t2 – t1.
• The average acceleration is defined as the change in velocity divided by the total time
  
required for the change.  V 2 − V1 ∆ v
a avg = =
t 2 − t1 ∆t
• The instantaneous acceleration is defined as acceleration of a particle at a particular instant.
 
 ∆ v dv
a = lim = =
∆t → 0 ∆t dt
• Acceleration is said to be uniform if the velocity changes by equal amount in equal intervals
of time, however, small or large the time interval may be.
• Negative acceleration
Acceleration can be called as negative, if the particle is moving along –ve x-axis, if we have
considered +ve x-axis as positive in the sign consideration. Thus, negative acceleration may
not be retardation as deacceleration.
Retardation is when the velocity decreases with time and thus it is negative.

(44)
Projectile Motion 45

• An object thrown in the air with initial velocity in any direction, making some angle with the
horizontal, moving freely under the action of gravity is called projectile.
• The point from which the body is projected in air is called as point of projection.
• The velocity with which a body is projected is called as velocity of projection.
• The angle made by the velocity of projection with the horizontal is called as the angle of projection.
• Time taken by the projectile to cover the entire trajectory is called as time of flight (T).
• Trajectory of projectile: The path followed by projectile in dimensional motion is it’s trajectory.
• Range of projectile is maximum when angle of projection is 45o.

• For a given velocity of projection, the horizontal range of projectile is same for two
complementary angles of projection.
• The horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point on the same horizontal
plane, at which the projectile returns after moving along its trajectory, is called the horizontal
range (R) of the projectile.
• Maximum height of projectile is the maximum vertical distance travelled by the projectile
from the ground level during its motion.
• The angle of projection q0 for a projectile launched from the origin is given by

(5) Position Vector : The vector from the origin of

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 3
the coordinate system to a particle is called the
3.1 Uniformly Accelerated Motion position vector of the particle.
Along a Straight Line
(6) Motion : Motion is change in the position of the
Q.1. Explain the following terms: body with respect to time as measured by an
(1) Position : The position of a point object at a given observer in specific frame of reference.
instant of time is a point in the space at which *Q.2. Explain the difference between distance and
the object exists at that instant of time. displacement.
(2) Path length or distance : Path length is the OR
actual distance travelled by the particle during
Explain the difference between speed and
its motion.
velocity. (2 marks)
(3) Displacement : Displacement of a particle is the
Ans. Figure illustrates the motion of a particle in the
change in its position in a particular direction.
x-y plane. The particle travels from point A to
(4) Frame of reference : The position of a particle in
point B along the path ACDB in time interval
space is specified relative to a known reference
t. The length of the path ACDB is the distance
point. By first designating a coordinate system
travelled by the particle in the given time
for example, the familiar Cartesian axes. x, y and
interval.
z. The reference point is them the intersection
The average speed of a particle during a
of the axes or the origin. The coordinate system
given time interval t is the ratio of the distance
along with a clock for measurement of time is
travelled by the particle to the time t.
called the frame of reference.
46 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

any instant is equal to the average velocity of

∴ vav = the particle.
Instantaneous speed is the magnitude of
A vector drawn from the initial to the final
instantaneous velocity. We know that average
position of the particle is the displacement
in the given time interval. The direction of the speed over a finite interval of time may be
displacement is from the initial position to the greater than or equal to the magnitude of the
final position. i.e from A to B average velocity. But the instantaneous speed
at any instant is always equal to the magnitude
of the instantaneous velocity at that instant.
The speedometer of an automobile measures the
instantaneous speed of the automobile.
The motion of a particle is said to be uniform
if it covers equal distances in equal intervals of
Fig. 3.1 : The motion of a particle in x-y plane time along a straight line, how so ever small or
The average velocity of a particle during large these time intervals may be.
the given time interval is the ratio of the
When the particle is in uniform motion the
displacement of the particle to the time t.
magnitude and direction of velocity does not
change i.e. in uniform motion the velocity of the
∴
particle remains constant. As the velocity of the
S.I. unit : m/s particle is constant along the path, its average
Dimensions : [M0L1T–1] velocity is same as its instantaneous velocity.
Note :
Intext question textbook page no. 24
(1) Distance and speed are scalar quantities.
(2) Displacement and velocity are vector quantities. *Q.4. Explain the average speed of a body is greater
than or equal to magnitude of average velocity
*Q.3. E x p l a i n i n s t a n t a n e o u s v e l o c i t y a n d
over a given time interval. Explain. (1 mark)
instantaneous speed. (2 marks)
Ans. Instantaneous velocity and instantaneous Ans. Average velocity =
speed :
The average velocity of a particle gives the Average speed =
velocity of the particle over a particular interval
of time. It may or may not be equal to the Distance ≥ | displacement |
velocity of the particle at different instants in a \ Average speed ≥ | average velocity |
given time interval.
Intext question textbook page no. 24
Therefore, we define the instantaneous velocity.
It is the velocity of the particle at given instant *Q.5. For a uniform motion in one dimension, the
of time. magnitude of av. velocity = magnitude of
The instantaneous velocity is defined as the instantaneous velocity = av. speed. Explain.
limit of the average velocity as the time interval (1 mark)
‘∆t’ becomes extremely small (i.e. infinitesimal)
Ans. In one dimensional motion, displacement is
same in a given interval of time. Hence, velocity
The instantaneous velocity may be positive, and av. speed are equal and uniform motion
negative or zero. For a particle moving with is with constant velocity. i.e. instantaneous
constant velocity the instantaneous velocity at velocity and average velocity are same.
Projectile Motion 47

Q.6. Define and explain acceleration of a particle.

(2 marks)
Ans. Motion of a particle is said to be accelerated if
the velocity of the particle changes with time.
The rate of change of velocity is called the
acceleration of the particle.
For a given time interval, the average acceleration
is defined as the ratio of the change in velocity
Fig. 3.2 (b) : The position-time graph for an object in
to the corresponding time interval.
uniform motion
Let be the initial and final velocities
Fig. 3.2 (b) shows the position-time graph for
of a particle for a time interval t. The average
uniform motion.
acceleration for this period is
  In this case, the object was initially at rest. The
 v 2 − v1
a avg = slope is positive and constant, which indicates
t
constant velocity.
S.I. unit : m/s2 , Dimensions : [M0L1T–2]
velocity = slope = = tan θ
If the acceleration is constant then the motion is
said to be a uniformly accelerated motion. Fig. 3.2 (c) shows the case when object had some
Deceleration or retardation is negative initial displacement (x0).
acceleration. The slope is again positive and constant which
Zero acceleration corresponds to constant velocity. indicates constant velocity.
It also indicates that the motion is necessarily velocity = slope = = tan θ
along a straight line with constant speed.

3.2 Position-Time (x-t) Graph and

Velocity-Time (v-t) Graph
*Q.7. What is position-time graph? Discuss the
position-time graph of an object (i) at rest
(ii) in uniform motion (iii) in non-uniform
motion. (3 marks)
Ans. When a body is in motion, its position changes
with time. It can be represented by a position- Fig. 3.2 (c) : The position time graph for a particle
time graph for different conditions. moving with constant velocity
(i) Object at rest : Fig. 3.2 (d) shows the position-time graph of a
For an object which is stationary, the position- particle moving with negative velocity.
time graph is parallel to the time axis as shown
below.

Fig. 3.2 (d) : Position time graph of a particle

Fig. 3.2 (a) : The position time graph for an object at rest It is seen that displacement decreases with
(ii) Object in uniform motion : increase in time.
For an object which moves with a velocity which (iii) Object in non-uniform motion :
remains constant in magnitude and direction, In this case the body initially has no displacement,
the motion is called uniform motion. then moves with a velocity which goes on
48 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

changing with time. The slope is positive but 3.3 Velocity-Time Graph
variable which indicates a variable velocity.
*Q.8. Explain the velocity-time graph of a particle
having (i) uniform velocity (ii) uniform
acceleration/retardation (iii) non-uniform
acceleration/retardation. (3 marks)
Ans. When a body is in motion, its velocity may or
may-not change with respect to time. It can be
represented by a velocity-time graph.

Fig. 3.2 (e) : The position time graph of an object in

non-uniform motion
Note :
When the motion is non-uniform
motion, we find the average speed and
instantaneous speed as shown,

Fig. 3.3 (a) : Velocity-time graph of object with no

acceleration

(i) Object with no acceleration (uniform velocity):

For an object with a constant uniform velocity,
velocity-time graph is a straight line parallel to
time axis.
Acceleration from A to B,

Displacement from A to B,
s = Area under v – t graph
∴ s = Area of rectangle OABC
Average Speed between A and B,
∴ s = v x t

(ii) (a) Object with uniform acceleration :

Instantaneous speed at P at time tp, (1) Initially at rest :

vP = slope of tangent at point P The speed of the body increases uniformly from
zero, and the velocity-time graph is a straight line
∴ vP = inclined to time axis.
Projectile Motion 49

∴ s = (v – u) t

∴ s = at2 … [From (1)]

(b) Object with uniform retardation :

The speed of the object decreases uniformly, such
that the velocity-time graph has negative slope.

Fig. 3.3 (b) : Velocity-time graph initially at rest

Acceleration from O to A,

∴a=
Displacement from O to A,
s = Area under v - t graph
Fig. 3.3 (d) : Velocity-time graph of object with
∴ s = Area of triangle OAB uniform retardation
∴s= Acceleration from A to B,

(2) Initially moving with velocity u :

The velocity of body increases uniformly from
initial velocity u and velocity-time graph is a \ a =
straight line inclined to time axis.
Displacement from A to B,
s = Area of triangle OAB

∴ s = ut

(iii) (a) Object with non-uniform acceleration :

The velocity of the object changes variably
with time, having a variable positive slope
Fig. 3.3 (c) : Velocity-time graph initially moving for which acceleration goes on increasing
with velocity u variably.
Acceleration from A to B,

\a= … (1)

Displacement from A to B,
s = Area of region OABMCO
∴ s = Area of rectangle OAMC Fig. 3.3 (e) : Velocity-time graph of object with
+ Area of ∆ ABM non-uniform acceleration
50 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(b) Object with non-uniform retardation : ∴ s = Area of rectangle

The velocity of the object decreases variably OADC + Area of ∆ ABD
with time, having a variable positive slope for ∴s= [(v – u) x t]
which acceleration goes on decreasing variably.
∴s= (at x t) ... [from (1)]

… (2)
∴s= at2

This is the second kinematic equation of motion.

(iii) Now,
v = u + at
Fig. 3.3 (f) : Velocity-time graph of object with Squaring,
non-uniform retardation v2 = (u + at)2
Q.9. Using velocity-time graph, derive the ∴ v2 = u2 + 2uat + a2t2
kinematical equations of motion. (3 marks)
Ans. ∴ v2 = u2 + 2a (ut + at2)

∴ v2 = u 2 + 2as ... [From (2)]

This is the third kinematic equation of motion.

Q.10. Derive the expression for distance travelled by

a body in nth second of its motion. (3 marks)
Ans.
(i) Let sn and s(n–1) be the distance travelled by a
body in n and (n–1) seconds respectively.
Fig. 3.4 : Velocity-time graph for a kinematical
Then we know,
equations of motion
sn = un + an2
Let u be the initial velocity (at t = 0 s) and v be
the final velocity after t seconds.
s(n – 1) = u (n – 1) + a (n – 1)2
(i) Acceleration from A to B,
(ii) The distance travelled in n th second of its
motion,

s = sn – sn – 1
\a=

\ at = v – u ∴ s = un + an2 – [u (n – 1) + a (n – 1)2]

\ v = u + at … (1)
∴ s = un + an2 – [(un – u + a (n2 – 2n + 1)]
This is the first kinematic equation of motion.

(ii) Displacement from A to B, ∴ s = un + an2 – un + u – an2 + an – a)]

s = Area of region OABDC

Projectile Motion 51

∴ s = u + an – a to it (i.e. earth). Thus when we say that a car is

moving 60 km/hr, it means that car is moving
60 km/hr relative to earth’s surface.
∴s=u+
Suppose that the two cars A and B are travelling
on the straight levelled road in the same
∴s=u+ a (2n – 1) direction. Let the uniform velocities of car A
and car B be and respectively.
(iii) For a body falling freely from its position of rest,
is the velocity of car A with respect to earth.
the height covered by it in nth second is given We want to find velocity of car A with respect
by, to car B, i.e. = – . The direction of
∴ s = u + g (2n – 1) relative velocity will depend upon the direction
of ( – ).
∴ s = 0 + g (2n – 1)

∴ s = g (2n – 1)

Q.11. Explain the following terms:

(1) Acceleration (2) Average acceleration
(3) Instantaneous acceleration (1 mark each)
Ans.
(1) Acceleration : Acceleration is defined as the
rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
SI unit : m/s2 Thus to find out relative velocity of body A
with respect to body B in one dimensional
Dimensions: [L1M0T–2]
motion, we substract velocity of B from both
(2) Average acceleration: It is defined as change in
the bodies. This effectively brings the body
velocity divided by the total time required for
B to rest.
the change.
3.4 Equation of path of a projectile

*Q.13. Define the terms : (i) Projectile (ii) Velocity

(3) Instantaneous acceleration: It is defined as of projection (iii) Angle of projection
acceleration of a particle at a particular instant. (iv) Trajectory of projectile. (2 marks)
It is the limit of the average acceleration as the Ans.
time interval becomes infinitesimal. (i) Projectile :
Projectile is a body which is projected in
vertical x-y plane, making a certain angle with
horizontal and is allowed to move freely under
Q.12. What is relative velocity? Explain it in the case
the action of gravity.
of one-dimensional motion.
Ans. Relative velocity in one dimension: (ii) Velocity of projection :
Velocity is not an absolute quantity but it is The velocity with which the projectile is
measured relative to an observer. Thus to projected is called the velocity of projection.
measure velocity of an object, we specify the (iii) Angle of projection :
frame of reference. Ordinarily, we consider the
The angle made by velocity of projection with
surface of earth as our frame of reference and
horizontal is called angle of projection.
specify the velocity of any body with respect
52 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) Trajectory :
s = ut + at2
The path traced by the projectile in space is
called trajectory. The x co-ordinate of the position of particle after
time t is,
*Q.14. Derive the equation of the path of projectile.
x = vx t + ax t2
(3 marks)
Ans. \ x = vx t + (0) t2
(i) Consider a body projected from the origin of x-y \ x = vx t
plane with velocity u making an angle θ with
\ x = u (cos θ) t ... (3)
horizontal i.e. with x-axis.
(v) The y co-ordinate of the position of particle is
given by,
y = vy t + ay t2
\ y = u (sin θ) t – g t2 ... (4)
(vi) From equation (3) we get,
t =

Substituting this value in equation (4) we get,

y = u sin q
Fig. 3.5 : The trajectory of a projectile is a parabola
For deriving equation of trajectory
(a) Acceleration due to gravity is constant \ y = x tan q –
throughout the motion.
This is the equation of trajectory of the projectile.
(b) The resistance of air to the motion is
Here u, g and θ are constants. It is of the form
negligible.
y = αx + βx2 which represents parabola where
(c) The effect of rotation of earth on projectile
α and β are constants.
is negligible.
This is the equation of parabola with its axis
(ii) Resolving velocity of projection into two
vertical and vertex upward.
mutually perpendicular directions, ux along
Thus, trajectory of the projectile is parabola.
x-axis and uy along y-axis.
ux = u cos θ Intext question textbook page no. 30
uy = u sin θ ... (1) *Q.15. At which point of its trajectory does the
\ projectile have minimum speed? (1 mark)

(iii) As there is no force acting on projectile along Ans. At the highest point B of trajectory the vertical
horizontal direction, its velocity in horizontal component of velocity
direction remains constant. vy = u sin θ is zero i.e. min.
i.e. ax = 0 vy = 0
In vertical direction, projectile has downward vx = u cos θ. (minimum speed)
acceleration .
i.e. ay = – g
Thus two components of velocity at any instant
are :
vx = ux + 0 i.e. vx = u cos θ
vy = uy – g t i.e. vy = u sin θ – g t ... (2) Fig. 3.6 : The trajectory of a projectile with
(iv) Using second equation of motion, minimum speed
Projectile Motion 53

3.5 Time of flight 3.6 Horizontal Range

*Q.16. Define (i) Time of ascent (ii) Time of descent (iii) *Q.17. Define horizontal range. Derive the necessary
Time of flight. Derive necessary expressions. expression for it. (2 marks)
(6 marks) Ans. Horizontal range (R) is the distance covered by
Ans. projectile in horizontal direction between the
(i) Time of ascent : starting point and point at which it touches the
The time of ascent is the time required for a ground.
projectile to reach maximum height. (i) The total time for which projectile remains in
The y-component of the velocity of projectile is, air i.e. time of flight is
vy = u sin θ – g t
where, u = velocity of projection T =
θ = angle of projection where, u = velocity of projection
From this equation, as time t increases, velocity q = angle of projection
along y-axis decreases. (ii) The x co-ordinate of position of particle is given
by,
At the highest point of the trajectory, vertical
x = u cos θ t
component of velocity becomes zero.
Now, at t = T, x = R
Thus, at t = tA, vy = 0
∴ R = u cos θ
∴ 0 = u sin θ – g tA

∴ tA = … (1) ∴ R =

(ii) Time of flight : ∴ R = … (1)

The total time for which a projectile remains in
(iii) From equation (1) we can say that R is maximum
air is called as time of flight.
when
After this time interval, projectile returns to
sin 2θ = 1
ground. Let this time be T.
i.e. 2θ = 900
Thus, at t = T, y = 0
i.e. θ = 450
∴ 0 = u (sin θ) T – g T2 Hence, maximum horizontal range is

∴ g T2 = u (sin θ) T Rmax = when θ = 450

Note :
∴ T = … (2) When θ = 450, maximum height reached by
projectile,
(iii) Time of descent : H =
Time of descent is the time required for a
projectile to travel from its maximum height to
the ground.
\ H =
tD = T – tA
\
H =
∴ tD = … (3)
i.e. Horizontal range is four times maximum
∴ Time of ascent (tA) = Time of descent (tD) height.
54 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

3.7 Maximum height of a projectile This is the expression for maximum height
reached by the projectile.
*Q.18. Derive an expression for maximum height
attained by the projectile. (3 marks) *Q.19. Show that for a given velocity of projection,
Ans. there are two angles of projection which give
(i) Consider a body projected from the origin of x-y the same range of projectile. (2 marks)
plane with velocity u making an angle θ with Ans.
horizontal i.e. with x-axis.

Fig. 3.8 : The same range of a projectile occurs for

two complementary launch angles. The range is
Fig. 3.7 : The range and peak height of a projectile maximum for a launch angle of 45o.
(ii) From the first kinematical equation, the velocity of (i) The horizontal range of projectile is given as,
projectile along y-axis,
vy = uy + ayt R = ... (1)

Now, uy = u sin θ and ay = – g where, u = velocity of projection

∴ vy = u sin θ – g t θ = angle of projection
(iii) At highest point, vertical component of velocity is
(ii) When the projectile is projected with the same
zero. i.e. at t = tA, vy = 0
velocity of projection u, in a direction making
∴ 0 = u sin θ – g tA an angle (900 – θ) with the horizontal, then the
range of the projectile (R1) is given by,
∴ tA = ... (1)

(iv) The y-coordinate of position of particle is given R1 = ... [From (1)]

by,
y = (u sin θ) t – g t2 ... (2) ∴ R1 =

(v) Maximum height (H) reached by projectile is

obtained by putting t = tA in equation (2). i.e. at ∴ R1 = ... (... sin (1800 – x) = sin x)
t = tA, y = H
∴ R1 = R ... [From (1)]
∴ H = (u sin θ) tA – g t2A
(iii) Thus horizontal range of projectile is same for
∴ H = usinθ any two angles, θ and (900 – q), projected with
same velocity.

∴ H = – Thus horizontal range of projectile is same for

complementary angles.
The trajectories of projectile are different but
\ H =
range remains the same.
Projectile Motion 55

Q.20. Derive the expression for trajectory of a particle Note :

projected horizontally with velocity u from (1) Time of flight :
height H. (3 marks) (i) Time of flight is the time taken by the particle
Ans. to reach ground i.e. to travel a vertical distance
of H.
(ii) The vertical distance traveled is given by,

y = – g t2

(iii) At t = T, y = – H

∴ – H = – g T2

Fig. 3.9 : Horizontal Projection ∴ T2 =

(i) Consider a particle projected horizontally with
velocity u from height H.
∴ T = ... (4)
∴ ux = u ... (1)
uy = 0 ... (2) (2) Horizontal range :
(ii) The particle experiences a force in the vertically (i) Horizontal range is the distance travelled by
downward direction. Hence, the particle in the horizontal direction before
ax = 0 reaching the ground.
ay = – g (ii) The horizontal distance travelled is given
(iii) From the first kinematical equation, by,
vx = ux + axt x = u t
∴ vx = u ... [From (1)] (iii) At t = T, x = R
Also, ∴ R = u T
vy = uy + ayt
∴ R = u ... [From (4)]
∴ vy = – g t ... [From (2)]
(iv) From the second kinematical equation,
Solved Problems
x = uxt + axt2
Uniformly accelerated motion along a straight line
∴ x = u t ... [From (1)]
*(1) A car moves at a constant speed of 60 km/h for
∴ t = ... (3) 1 km and 40 km/h for the next 1 km. What is
the average speed of the car? (2 marks)
Also, y = uyt + ay t 2
Solution :
∴ y = – g t2 ... [From (2)] v1 = 60 km/h, s = 1 km,
v2 = 40 km/h, s2 = 1 km
∴ y = – g ... [From (3)] s = vt
∴ t=
∴ y = –
t2 =
∴ y = K x 2

Average speed of the car

Where, K = –
=
Thus, path of the particle is parabolic.
56 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(3) A train travels at a speed of 50 km/h for 0.5 h,

= at 30 km/h for the next 0.26 h and at 70 km/h
for the subsequent 0.76 h. What is the average
speed of the train? (2 marks)
= 2 x 24
Solution :
= 48 km/h v1 = 50 km/h
∴ Average speed of the car = 48 km/h t1 = 0.5 h
(2) A body travels from place A to place B with v2 = 30 km/h
uniform velocity of 10 m/s and travels back t2 = 0.26 h
from place B to place A with uniform velocity v3 = 0.70 km/h
of 25 m/s. Calculate the average velocity of the
t3 = 0.76 h
body for the whole journey. (3 marks)
s = vt
Solution :
Average speed of the train
u1 = 10 m/s
u2 = 25 m/s Vav =
a=0
Let us take direction from place A to place B as =
positive. For journey from place A to place, B,
=
s = ut + at2 (a = 0, t = t1)
s = u1t1 + 0 =
s = u1 t1
= = 56.58
\ t1 = =
Vav = 56.58 km/h
For the return journey from place B to place A,
s = u2 t2 (a = 0, t = t2) (4) A stone is thrown vertically upward with a
velocity of 30 m/s. How high will it rise? After
\ t2 =
how much time will it return to ground?
Average velocity = [Take g = 10 m/s2] (2 marks)
Solution :
\ vav = u = 30 m/s
g = 10 m/s2
\ =
In case of vertical projection q = 900
\ sin 900 = 1
Maximum height reached,
\ =
H=

\ = ∴ H=

\ vav = \ H = 45 m

\ Average velocity for whole journey is 14.29 m/s. Time of height

Projectile Motion 57

Using,
T=
v2 = u2 + 2as
∴ 0 = 625 + (2a x 75)
∴ T=
\ T=6s ∴ a=–

(5) A stone is dropped from the top of a building

147 m high. How long will it take to reach the \ a=–
ground? What will be its velocity when it strikes
the ground? (2 marks) Using
Solution : v=u+at
s = 147 m
From second equation of motion, ∴ 0 = 25 +

s = ut + at2
∴ = 25
Since u = 0
∴ 147 = (0) t + (9.8) t2 \ t=6s

∴ 147 = t2 For the first half of motion,

t=3s
∴ t2 = Using,
∴ t2 = 30 s1 = ut + at2
∴ t = ± 5.4 s
∴ s1 = (25 x 3) +
Since t cannot be negative,
\ t = 5.4 s \ s1 = 56.25 m

Also, For the second half of motion,

v=gt s2 = s – s1
∴ v = 9.8 x 5.4 = 53.70 m/s \ s2 = 75 – 56.25 = 18.75 m
\ v = 53.70 m/s \ s2 = 18.75 m
Time taken by particle is 5.4 s and velocity when it \ s2 = 18.75 m
strikes ground is 53.70 m/s.
(7) A stone is released from the top of a tower 90m
(6) A train travelling at 90 km/hr is brought to rest high. At the same instant a second stone is
by the application of brakes in a distance of projected vertically upwards from the ground
75 m. Find the time in which the train is with a velocity of 30 m/s. When and where will
brought to rest. Also calculate the distance the two stones meet? (3 marks)
covered by the train in the first half and the Solution :
second half of this time interval. (3 marks)
u1 = 0
Solution : s1 = x
u = 90 km/h = 90 x m/s s1 = u1t + g t2
∴ u = 25 m/s
s = 75 m \ x=0+

v=0
\ x = 4.9 t2 … (i)
58 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Other stone is projected vertically upward with a (2) For the guard :
velocity u2. Hence, \ s2 = ut2 + at22
u2 = 30 m/s
\ 180 = 0 + (0.4) t22
s2 = (90 – x)

\ s2 = u2t + at2 \ t22 =

\ 90 – x = 30 t – 4.9 t2 … (ii) \ t2 = 30 s
Adding equation (i) and (ii), \ The time taken by the guard to pass the signal,
x + 90 – x = 4.9t2 + 30t – 4.9t2 t2 = 30 s
\ 90 = 30t 30 second after starting from rest, the speed of
\ t = 3s the train is
v2 = u2 + at2
For equation (i)
v2 = 0 + (0.4) (30)
x = 4.9t2 = 4.9 x 9
\ v2 = 12 m/s
x = 44.1 m from the top
OR (9) A body released from rest from a certain height
x = 45.9 from bottom ground was observed to cover 78.4m in the last two seconds
before hitting the ground. Find the height from
(8) A train, 100m long and stationary, is given the
which it was released. (g = 9.8 m/s2) (2 marks)
all clear by a signal 80m ahead of it. The train
Solution :
then accelerates uniformly at 0.4 m/s2. Find the
u=0
time taken for the engine driver (at the front)
and the guard (at the back) of the train to pass g = 9.8 m/s2
the signal. At what speed is the train moving Distance covered in last two seconds is 78.4 m.
at each of these times? (3 marks) \ s = 78.4 m
Solution : But, the distance travelled in last 2 seconds,
s1 = 80 m
s2 = (80 + 100) m = 180 m s=
u = 0 m/s
a = 0.4 m/s2
(1) For the engine driver : \ s=

s1 = ut1 + at21

\ 80 = 0 + (0.4) t21
\ s = 2u + 2an – 2a
\ 80 = 0.2 t21
\ s = 2u + 2a (n – 1)
\ t21 = = 400
\ 78.4 = 0 + 2 (9.8) (n – 1)
\ t1 = 20s
\ 4=n–1
\ The time taken by the engine driver to pass the
\ n=5s
signal, t1 = 20 s
20 seconds after starting from rest, the speed of s = ut + at2
the train is
v1 = u1 + at1 \ s=0+ x 9.8 x 25
v1 = 0 + (0.4) (20)
v1 = 8 m/s \ s = 122.5 m
Projectile Motion 59

*(10) Starting from rest, a car moves with uniform

Now, s = ut + at2
acceleration and attains a velocity of 72 km/hr
in 20 s. It then moves with uniform speed for
s = (25 × 5) + (– 3) (5)2
25 s and is then brought to rest in 10 s under
uniform retardation. Find the total distance
s = 125 –
travelled using velocity-time graph. (2 marks)
Solution : \ s = 125 – 37.5
v = 72 km/hr \ s = 87.5 m

\ v = 72 x *(12) A jet aeroplane travelling at the speed of

500 km/h ejects its exhaust (products of
\ v = 20 m/s combustion) at the speed of 1500 km/h relative
From the given data, velocity-time graph is drawn. It to the plane. What is the relative velocity of the
is shown below. latter (exhaust) with respect to an observer on
the ground? (2 marks)
Given :
Let ve and vj be the velocities of the exhaust and the jet
aeroplane relative to (an observer on) the ground. Let
vej be the relative velocity of the exhaust with respect
to the plane.
vej = ve – vj
Total distance travelled by car is area enclosed by the \ ve = vej + vj
graph OADE with time axis.
Given :
\ s= (OB x AB) + (AB x BC) + x (CE x CD) vj = 500 km/h
vej = –1500 km/h
\ s= x 20 x 20 + (20 x 25) + x 10 x 20 (the minus sign indicates that vej is opposite to vj)
\ The relative velocity of the exhaust with respect
\ s = 200 + 500 + 100 = 800 m
to the ground is
Total distance travelled by the car is 800 m. \ ve = –1500 + 500 = –1000km/h

*(11) The speed of a car is reduced from 90 km/h to \ ve = –1000km/h

36 km/h in 5 s. What is the distance travelled
by the car in this time interval? (2 marks) Projectile Motion
Solution : (13) A particle is projected obliquely into air
u = 90 km/h with a velocity of 98 m/s at an angle of
elevation of 30 0. Write down its equation
u = 72 x
of motion. (g = 9.8 m/s 2) (3 marks)
u = 25 m/s Solution :
v = 36 km/h = 36 x u = 98 m/s
q = 300
v = 10 m/s, t = 5 s
y = x tan q –
a=
y = x tan 300 –
a= = – 3 m/s 2
60 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) maximum height

tan 300 =
(iv) direction of velocity after 2.5 s
(3 marks)
\ y= Solution :
u = 49 m/s
q = 300
\ y= g = 9.8 m/s2

Time of flight,
(14) A bullet is fired from the gun. It covers
T=
maximum horizontal distance of
10 km. Determine the velocity of projection and
\ T=
the maximum height attained by the bullet.
(3 marks)
Solution : \ T=

Rmax = 10 km \ T=5s
q = 45 0
Horizontal range,
For maximum range q = 450
R=
g = 9.8 m/s2

Rmax = = 10000 \ R=

\ u2 = 10000 x 9.8 \ R = 5 x 49 x sin 600

\ u= = 100 x 3.13 \ R = 245 x 0.866

\ u = 313 m/s \ R = 212.17 m

Maximum height, Maximum height,

H= H=

\ H= \ H=

\ H=
\ H=

\ H=
\ H = 2492 m
\ H = 30.625 m
Thus, velocity of projection is 313 m/s and
maximum height reached is 2492 m. The time of flight is 5 s.

(15) A body is thrown with velocity of 49 m/s at an \ Time of ascent = = 2.5 s

angle of 300 with the horizontal. Find :
At the end of 2.5 second body reaches maximum
(i) time of flight \
height. Thus, its velocity is in horizontal direction.
(ii) horizontal range
Projectile Motion 61

(16) Find the angle of projection at which the He catches the ball means he covers the distance in
horizontal range is twice the maximum height 2 seconds.
of a projectile. (2 marks) Distance covered by the fielder,
Solution : \ s = 40 – 33.94
R=2H \ s = 6.06 m
\ His speed is,
\ =
v= = 3.03 m/s
\ sin 2θ = sin2 θ
\ v = 3.03 m/s
\ 2 sin θ cos θ = sin2 θ
\ 2 = tan θ (18) An aeroplane is flying horizontally at height
of 1254.4 m with a velocity of 180 km/hr. An
\ θ = tan-1 (2)
object is released from the aeroplane. How far
\ θ = 630 24’
from the location will the object land and after
what time? (3 marks)
(17) A batsman makes a half volley and lifts a ball
with a velocity of 19.6 m/s at an angle of elevation Solution :
of 300. A fielder stationed 40 m away from the s = 1254.4 m
batsman runs forward to catch the ball. How u = 180 km/hr
fast he must have run if he manages to catch
the ball just before it strikes the ground? \ u= = 50 m/s
(3 marks)
Solution : Initially velocity of object is same as that of aeroplane,
i.e., 50 m/s. Due to gravitational acceleration, velocity
\ u = 19.6 m/s
of object goes on increasing in vertically downward
\ θ = 300 , Distance = 40 m direction and horizontal velocity is constant.
Horizontal range, We have,
s=ut+ g t2
R=
Where u = 0 for vertical motion.
\ R=
\ s= g t2

\ R = 19.6 x 2 x \ s= x 9.8 x t2

\ R = 19.6 x
\ t2 =
R = 33.94 m
\ t2 = 256
Time of flight, \ t = 16 s

T= Horizontal displacement,
x=uxt
\ T=
\ x = 50 x 16
\ T=2x2x =2s \ x = 800 m
62 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(19) A particle is projected with speed of u at an

angle θ to the horizontal on an inclined surface –
making an angle φ (φ < θ)to the horizontal. Find
an expression for its range along the inclined
\ = – R sin f
surface. (4 marks)

\ =

\ =

Solution :
\ R=
The particle is projected with velocity u making angle
q with horizontal.
\ ux = u cos q and *(20) A man throws a ball to maximum horizontal
uy = u sin q distance of 80 m. Calculate the maximum
height reached. (2 marks)
Let R be the distance travelled along the inclined
Solution :
surface.
\ x = R cos φ Rmax = 80 m

y = R sin φ Rmax = 4 H

Also, we know, \ The maximum height reached by the ball in its

\ ax = 0 and path when the range is maximum is
\ ay = –g
H=
Using second kinematical equation,
\ H = 20 m
x = ux t + axt2

*(21) A body is thrown with a velocity of 40 m/s in

\ R cos φ = (u cos θ) t + (0) t2
a direction making an angle of 300 with the
\ t= … (i) horizontal. Calculate (i) the horizontal range
(ii) maximum (peak) height attained (iii) the
Also, y = uyt + ayt2 time taken to reach the maximum height.
(3 marks)
Solution :
\ R sin φ = (u sin θ) t + g t2
u = 40 m/s, q = 300, g = 9.8 m/s2
\ R sin φ = (u sin θ) (i) The horizontal range,

R=
– g [From (i)]

R=
\ R sin φ =
\ R = 141.14 m
Projectile Motion 63

(ii) The maximum (peak) height attained by

projectile,

H=

\ H = 20.41 m

(iii) The time taken to reach the maximum height, i.e.,

the time of ascent. (ii) y = u sin qt – gt2

ta = y = (10) (sin 300) (4) – x (9.8) (4)2

y = 10 x 0.5 x 4 – 9.8 x 8
ta =
\ y = 20 – 78.4 = 58.4 m

\ ta = \ The height of the tower, h = –y = 58.4 m

(iii) At the highest point

(22) A body is projected from the top of a tower
with a velocity of 10 m/s at an angle of 300 with υy = 0 and t = t1 (say)
the horizontal. The body hits the ground four \ u sin q – gt1 = 0
seconds after the projection. Find
(i) the range of the projectile \ t1 =

(ii) the height of the tower

\ t1 =
(iii) the time taken by the body to attain the
maximum height
\ t1 =
(iv) the maximum height attained by the body (as
measured from the ground). (4 marks) The time taken by the boy to attain the
\
Given : maximum height = 0.5102 s

u = 10 m/s
(iv) y = u sin qt – gt2
q = 300
t=4s \ y1 = u sin qt – gt21 (for t = t1)
g = 9.8 m/s2
y1 = (10) (sin 300) (0.5102) – (9.8) (0.5102)2
(i) R = x = u cos q t
R = (10 m/s) (cos 300) (4 s) y = 10 x 0.5 x 0.5102 – 4.9 x (0.5102)2

R = 10 x 0.866 x 4 \ y = 2.551 – 1.276 = 1.275 m

\ R = 8.66 x 4 = 34.64 m
\ h + y1 = 58.4 + 1.275
\ The range of the projectile = 34.64 m \ The maximum height attained by the body (as
measured from the ground = 59.675 m
64 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Position-Time (x - t) graph and

= OE x AE + AB x AE
velocity-Time (v - t) graph :
= x 3 x 20 + 3 x 20 = 30 + 60 = 90 m
*(23) Figure shows the velocity-time graph for a car.
*(24) A car is moving on a straight road with uniform
acceleration. The speed of the car varies with
time as follows :

Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Speed (m/s) 5 10 15 20 25 30

Draw the speed-time graph by choosing a

convenient scale. Calculate (i) the acceleration
of the car (ii) the distance travelled by the car
From the figure, answer the following
in the first 10 seconds. (3 marks)
questions:
From the data, the speed-time graph for the motion
(i) What is the initial speed of the car?
is shown in figure.
(ii) What is the maximum speed attained by the
The acceleration of the car = the slope of the line
car?
(iii) Whic h part of the gra p h sh o ws z e r o =
acceleration?
(iv) Which part of the graph shows varying = 0.5 m/s2
retardation?
(v) Find the distance travelled by the car in the
first 6 seconds. (3 marks)
Solution :
(i) The initial speed (at t = 0) of the car speed of
O = 0 m/s.
(ii) The maximum speed attained by the car-speed
at A = 20 m/s.
The distance travelled by the car in the first 10 s
(iii) The car has zero acceleration (or constant speed)
= area under the curve OABCO
between t = 3 s and t = 6 s as shown by the region
AB. = OC + (OA + BC)
(iv) None, since the 2 seconds time interval (t = 6 s
to t = 8 s) in which the car decelerates, the graph = x 10 x (5 + 10) = 5 x 15 = 75 m
is a straight line showing that there is uniform
Distance = 75 m
retardation.
(v) The distance travelled by the car in the first 6
second.
= area under the curve OABDEO
= area of ∆OAE + area of rectangle ABDE
Projectile Motion 65

Additional Numericals for practice (10) A stone projected at an angle of 450 with the
horizontal, covers a horizontal range of 20 m.
(1) A railway train 150 m long and travelling at a Calculate the velocity of projection of the body.
constant speed of 45 km/hr crosses a 900 m long (g = 9.8 m/s2) (3 marks)
bridge. How much time it will take to cross the
bridge? (2 marks) (11) A body is thrown with velocity of 40 m/s in
a direction making an angle of 300 with the
(2) A car moves at a constant speed of 60 km/hr for horizontal. Calculate : (i) horizontal range
1 km and 40 km/hr for next 1 km. What is the (ii) maximum height (iii) time taken to reach the
average speed of the car? (2 marks) maximum height. (3 marks)
(3) A body travelling along a straight line with (12) A bullet is fired horizontally from the top of a
uniform acceleration travels 30 m in 5th second tower of height 44.1 m with velocity of 600 m/s.
and 36 m in the 8th second. Find the acceleration The cartridge case falls to the foot of the tower.
and the initial velocity. (2 marks) Which will reach the ground first? At what
(4) A body is projected vertically upwards with distance apart they will hit the ground? (3 marks)
velocity of 49 m/s. How much high will it
Answers
rise? How long will it be in air? (2 marks)
(5) A stone is thrown vertically upwards from the (1) 1 minute 24 s (2) 48 km/hr (3) 2 m/s2, 21 m/s
top of a tower with a velocity of 15 m/s. Two (4) 122.5 m, 10 s (5) 20 m (6) 0.5 m/s2, 75 m (7) 10 m/s
seconds later, a second stone is dropped from (9) 20 m (10) 14 m/s (11) 141.4 m, 20.41 m, 2.041 s
the top of the tower. If both the stone strike the (12) Both hit ground simultaneously, 1800 m
ground simultaneously, find the height of the
tower. (g = 10 m/s2) (3 marks) Formula Map
(6) A car is moving on a straight road with uniform
acceleration. The speed of car varies with time (1) Av. speed Total =
as follows :
Speed (m/s) 5 10 15 20 25 30 (2) Av. velocity Total =
Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50
Draw the speed-time graph by choosing a (3) v = u + at (one dimensional motion)
convenient scale. v2 = u2 + 2as (horizontal)

Calculate : (i) acceleration of the car (ii) distance s = ut + at2

travelled by the car in 10 s. (3 marks)
(7) A body is projected from the ground with a sn = u +
velocity of 20 m/s at an angle of 600 with the
(4) v = u + gt (one dimensional motion)
horizontal. Find its speed at the highest point.
under gravity
(3 marks)
v2 = u2 + 2gh (vertical)
(8) Prove that when a particle is projected so as
to have a maximum horizontal range, the s = ut + gt2
maximum height reached is one fourth of the
horizontal range. (3 marks) sn = u +
(9) A man throws a ball to maximum horizontal
(5) v = u + at (straight line graph)
distance of 80 m. Calculate the maximum height
reached. (3 marks) v2 = u2 + 2a.s (straight line graph)
66 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(5) If distance covered by a particle is zero, what

s = ut + at2 (parabolic graph) can you say about displacement?
(a) It is positive (b) It is negative
(6) t= ux = u cos q uy = u sin q (c) It cannot be zero (d) It must be zero

(6) A body covers one-half of its journey at 40 ms-1

and the next half at 50ms-1. Its average velocity is
T = 2t = (a) 44.4 ms-1 (b) 50 ms-1
(c) 45 ms-1 (d) 40 ms-1
R= , q = 450 \ Rmax = \ Rmax = 4H
(7) The average speed is equal to the magnitude of
average velocity, for the motion of the particle
H=
along a straight line and in the same direction,
the
(7) y = (tan q) x – (a) path length is less than the distance
between them.
(b) path length is less than the magnitude of
velocity.
Multiple Choice Questions
(c) path length is greater than the magnitude
Select and write the most appropriate answer from of displacement.
the given alternatives for each sub questions: (d) path length is equal to the magnitude of
displacement.
(1) In the translational motion, when the particles
(8) A bus travel its onward journey with a constant
of the body move in a straight line, it is called
speed of 30km/hr while its return journey
(a) rectilinear motion
with a constant speed of 60 km/hr, the average
(b) vibratory motion
speed for its entire journey is
(c) rotational motion
(a) 90 km/hr (b) 45 km/hr
(d) oscillatory motion
(c) 40 km/hr (d) 15 km/hr
*(2) By cartesian sign convention, the distances (9) Select the CORRECT statement
above origin ‘O’ and left of ‘O’ respectively are (a) Distance is always positive and it never
(a) negative, positive decreases with time.
(b) positive, positive (b) Distance is always positive and it decreases
(c) positive, negative with time.
(d) negative, negative (c) Distance can be negative and it never
decreases with time.
(3) The actual distance travelled by the particle (d) Distance can be positive or negative and it
during its motion is called may increase or decrease with time.
(a) speed (b) displacement
*(10) A particle oscillates along a straight line 1m
(c) path length (d) position long, if it completes one oscillation in 0.1s,
(4) When a car moves towards east 50m then then the distance covered by it and its average
towards south 50m, later on towards west 50m, speed in one oscillation is,
finally towards north 50, the displacement of (a) 1m, 20 m/s (b) 2m, 20 m/s
the car in magnitude is (c) 2m, 15 m/s (d) 1m, 15 m/s
(a) 200m (b) 100m
(11) A railway train, 150m long and travelling at
(c) 50m (d) zero
a uniform speed of 45 km h-1 crosses a tunnel
Projectile Motion 67

900m long. The time taken by the train to cross (19) From the top of the tower a stone is released. If
the tunnel is it covers 24.5 m in the last second of its motion,
(a) 84 s (b) 120 s the height of the tower is [g = 9.8 ms-2]
(c) 180 s (d) 200 s
(a) 98 m (b) 49 m
(12) The position of an object moving along x-axis (c) 44.1 m (d) 40.5 m
is given by x = a + bt2 where a = 8.5 m and b =
*(20) A body projected vertically upwards with a
2.5 m and t is measured in second. If the object
velocity of u and returns to the starting point
starts from t = 0, the velocity at t = 2 s is
in 6 second. If g = 9.8 ms-2, the value of ‘u’ is
(a) 18.5 m/s (b) 10 m/s
(c) 9.25 m/s (d) 1.5 m/s (a) 60 m/s (b) 30.4 m/s
(c) 29.4 m/s (d) 15 m/s
(13) A car accelerates on a straight road from rest to
a speed of 180 km/hr in 25 second. Assuming (21) Which of the following is CORRECT graph
uniform acceleration of the car through out, for variation of distance with time in free fall
the distance covered in this time is motion?
(a) 625 m (b) 600 m (a) (b)
(c) 144 m (d) 72 m
(14) A body has initial velocity of 3m/s and has an
acceleration of 2m/s2. The distance travelled
by it in 5 s and its velocity is
(a) 40 m, 13 m/s (b) 10 m, 13 m/s (c) (d)
(c) 40 m, 10 m/s (d) 10 m, 10 m/s
*(15) A bullet strikes a plank of thickness 5 cm with
a velocity of 1000 m/s and emerges out with a
velocity of 400 m/s, the average retardation of
the bullet is
(a) –8.4 x 106 m/s2 (b) 8.4 x 106 m/s2 *(22) A swimmer’s speed in the direction of flow of
(c) –60 x 105 m/s2 (d) 60 x 105 m/s2 river is 16 km h-1. Against the direction of flow
of river, the swimmer’s speed is 8 km h-1. The
*(16) For a body moving with uniform acceleration
→ swimmer’s speed in still water and the velocity
a in the same direction as the initial velocity
→ of flow of the river respectively are
u , the distance sn covered by it in nth second of
its motion is given by (a) 4 km h-1, 12 km h-1
(b) 12 km h-1, 12 km h-1
(a) sn = u + a(2n–1) (b) sn = u + a(2n–1)
(c) 4 km h-1, 4 km h-1
(c) sn = u + a(1–2n) (d) sn = u + a(1–2n) (d) 12 km h-1, 4 km h-1
*(17) An electron travelling with a speed of *(23) Choose the WRONG statement
5 x 103 m/s passes through an electric field (a) Speed can never be negative
with an acceleration of 1012 m/s2. How long (b) When the particle returns to the starting
will it take for electron to double its speed? point, its average velocity is zero but
(a) 0.5 x 10-9 s (b) 0.5 x 10-10 s average speed is not zero.
(c) 5 x 10-9 s (d) 5 x 10-12 s (c) Displacement does not tell the nature of
(18) A stone is thrown vertically upwards with the actual motion of a particle between the
initial velocity of 14 ms-1. The maximum height points.
it will reach is [g = 9.8 ms-2] (d) If the velocity of a particle is zero at an
(a) 16 m (b) 14 m instant, its acceleration should also be
(c) 10 m (d) 9.8 m zero at that instant.
68 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(24) Displacement time graph can not be *(29) A moving cricket ball is turned back by hitting
(a) below the time axis it with a bat for a very short interval of time.
(b) straight line perpendicular as well as Suggest acceleration-time graph for this
above and below the time axis situation.
(c) straight line parallel to time axis (a) (b)
(d) inclined to the time axis
(25) While plotting graph, independent variable
(i.e. time) is plotted along
(a) x-axis (b) y-axis (c) (d)
(c) z-axis (d) negative z-axis
(26) Figure shows the displacement-time graph of a
particle moving along x-axis.

(30) The v-t graph below represents

(a) The particle is continuously going in
(a) constant positive acceleration
positive x-direction
(b) zero acceleration
(b) The particle is at rest
(c) constant positive acceleration with non-
(c) The velocity increases upto time t0 and
zero initial velocity
then becomes constant
(d) constant negative acceleration
(d) The particle moves at a constant velocity
upto a time t0 and then stops (31) The velocity-time graph of a body is shown in
the following graph. At point C
(27) Area under the curve of velocity-time graph of
a particle moving with constant velocity is
(a) acceleration of the particle
(b) distance travelled by the particle
(c) constant speed of the particle
(d) variable speed of the particle (a) the force acting on the body is zero
(28) The v-t graph of an athlete is shown below. (b) only gravitational force is present
The distance travelled by him between t = 0 (c) the force opposes the motion of the body
and t = 12 s is (d) the force is maximum
*(32) The two dimensional motion of a body in which
a vertical motion with constant acceleration (g)
and a horizontal motion with constant velocity
acts, such a motion is
(a) curved motion (b) circular motion
(c) sinusoidal motion (d) projectile motion

(33) Which of the following is NOT an example of a

(a) 36 m (b) 46 m projectile?
(c) 66 m (d) 78 m (a) Aeroplane in flight
Projectile Motion 69

(b) A bullet fired from the gun (39) A body is thrown with velocity of 49 m/s at
(c) A hammer thrown by an athlete an angle of 300 with the horizontal, the time
(d) A stone thrown from, the top of the required to attain maximum height is
building (a) 5 s (b) 4 s
(34) In a projectile motion, the velocity vector of the (c) 3.5 s (d) 2.5 s
projectile is (40) An expression for the horizontal range (R)
(a) always perpendicular to the acceleration is given by [u = initial velocity, q = angle of
(b) never perpendicular to acceleration projection, g = acceleration due to gravity]
(c) perpendicular to acceleration two times
during its flight (a) (b)
(d) perpendicular to acceleration only once
during its flight (c) (d)
(35) A projectile projected with velocity u making
*(41) A projectile can have the same range R for two
an angle q with the horizontal, the equation of
angles of projection. If t1 and t2 are the times of
the path of the projectile is given by
flight in the two cases, then the product of the
(a) x = (tan q) y – two time of flight is proportional to
(a) R2 (b)
(b) y = (tan q) x –
(c) (d) R

(c) y = (tan q) x – *(42) A gun throws a shell with muzzle speed of 98

m s-1. When the gun is elevated at 450, the range
is observed as 900 m. Due to air resistance its
(d) x = (tan q) x –
range is decreased by
(36) The trajectory of a particle is symmetrical (a) 160 m (b) 120 m
about the perpendicular drawn from the (c) 80 m (d) 40 m
highest point on x-axis, if the particle performs
(43) When a body is projected vertically up from
projectile motion in xy plane. This is due to
(a) velocity of projection of projectile the ground, its velocity is reduced to of
(b) air resistance while performing projectile its initial value at height y above the ground.
motion The maximum height reached by the body is
(c) gravitational acceleration which is same
for upward and downward motion (a) (b)
(d) angle of projection of projectile
(c) (d) 9y
*(37) The relation between time of ascent Ta and time
descent Td is *(44) A body travels 62 m , and 50 m in the fifth and
(a) Ta = Td (b) Ta < Td eighth second of its motion, the initial velocity
(c) Ta > Td (d) Ta = 2Td and retardation respectively is
*(38) A shell is fired at an angle of 300 to the horizontal (a) 80 m s–1, 4 m s–2 (b) 62 m s–1, 4 m s–2
with velocity 196 m/s. The time of flight is (c) 50 m s–1, –4 m s–2 (d) 80 m s–1, –4 m s–2

(a) 6.5 s (b) 10 s *(45) A body is projected with a vertical velocity of

(c) 16.5 s (d) 20 s 30 m/s at an angle of 300 with the horizontal,
70 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

the maximum height and horizontal range are zero at that instant. (24) straight line perpendicular
respectively
as well as above and below the time axis (25) x-axis
(a) 79.53 m, 1148 m (b) 11.48 m, 79.53 m
(26) The particle moves at a constant velocity upto a
(c) 159.06 m, 11.48 m (d) 22.96 m, 79.53 m
time t0 and then stops (27) distance travelled by the
Answers
particle
(1) rectilinear motion (2) positive, negative (3) path (28) 66 m (29)
length (4) zero (5) It must be zero (6) 44.4 m s -1

(7) path length is equal to the magnitude of

(30) constant negative acceleration (31)the force
displacement (8) 40 km/hr (9) Distance is always
opposes the motion of the body (32) projectile
positive and it never decreases with time.
motion (33) Aeroplane in flight (34) perpendicular to
(10) 2 m, 20 m/s (11) 84 s (12) 10 m/s (13) 625 m
acceleration only once during its flight.
(14) 40 m, 13 m/s (15) 8.4 x 10 m/s (16) sn = u +
6 2

(35) y = (tan q) x –
a(2n – 1) (17) 5 x 10-9 s (18) 10 m (19) 44.1 m
(36) gravitational acceleration which is same
(20) 29.4 m/s (21) for upward and downward motion (37) Ta = Td

(38) 20 s (39) 2.5 s (40) (41) R

(42) 80 m (43) (44) 80 m s–1, 4 m s–2 (45) 11.48 m,
(22) 12 km h–1, 4 km h–1 (23) If the velocity of a particle
79.53 m
is zero at an instant, its acceleration should also be

ASSESSMENT - 3
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Select and write the most appropriate answer from the given alternatives : (4)
(1) A person travels along a straight road due east for the first half distance with speed v1 and
the second half distance with speed v2 , the average speed of the person is

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(2) The rate of change of displacement is called

(a) speed (b) position at that time
(c) velocity (d) average speed
Projectile Motion 71

(3) The slope of x – t graph at any point gives

(a) instantaneous velocity (b) instantaneous acceleration
(c) force at that instant (d) momentum at that instant

(4) Which of the following is a CORRECT statements?

(a) acceleration due to gravity is zero at poles
(b) acceleration due to gravity is absent in vacuum
(c) acceleration due to gravity in vacuum depends on the mass of the body
(d) acceleration due to gravity in vacuum is the same irrespective of the size and mass of
the body

Q.2. Attempt any FIVE questions : (10)

(1) Define and explain time of ascent.
(2) Using v – t graph, derive the acceleration and displacement of an object with uniform velocity.
(3) Using the formula of acceleration, derive Ist kinematical equation.
(4) Starting from rest, a car moves with uniform acceleration and attains a velocity of 72 km/hr
in 20 s. It then moves with uniform speed for 25 s and is then brought to rest in 10 s under
uniform retardation. Find the total distance travelled using velocity-time graph.
(5) A stone is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 30 m/s. How high will it rise? After
how much time will it return to ground? [Take g = 10 m/s2]
(6) A particle is projected obliquely into air with a velocity of 98 m/s at an angle of elevation of
300. Write down its equation of motion. (g = 9.8 m/s2)

Q.3. Attempt any TWO questions : (6)

(1) Derive an expression for horizontal range and time of flight for a projectile projected
horizontally.
(2) Derive the expression for distance travelled by a body in nth second of its motion.
(3) Show that for a given velocity of projection, there are two angles of projection which give the
same range of projectile.

vvv
4 Force

Points to Remember:
• Force is a physical quantity that changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform
motion of a body in a straight line. It is given by F = ma.
• Newton’s first law states that every body continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform
motion along a straight line, unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force.
• Newton’s second law states that, the rate of change of linear momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the external unbalanced force applied on the body and takes place in the
direction of force.
• Newton’s third law states that, to every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
• Impulse is defined as the product of the average force and time for which force acts. J = F.t
• Impulse is a vector quantity. SI unit of impulse is kg ms–1 or Ns. In C.G.S. system, unit of impulse is
g cms–1 or dyne s.
• Dimensions of impulse force is [M1L1T–1].
• A force which is produced due to interaction between the objects is called real force.
• A force which does not have a real origin is called pseudo force.
• The existence of the force of attraction between a body and the earth is universal. This force is
called “Gravitational Force of Attraction”.
• Every particle of matter attracts every other particle with a force whose magnitude is
(i) directly proportional to the product of their masses & (ii) inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them and independent of the medium.
• The magnitude of force of attraction is called as gravitational force of attraction given by
G m1m 2
F=
r2
Universal constant of gravitation or Gravitational constant, G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2

• The force between two charges at rest is called electrostatic force and force between two
magnetic poles is called as magnetic force.

• Forces between electric charges in relative motion are called electromagnetic forces.

• The force between two nucleons hold the protons and neutrons inside the nucleus and makes
the atom stable is called as a nuclear force.

• The binding force that holds subatomic particles together to make it stable is nuclear force.

(72)
Force 73

• Law of conservation of linear momentum states that, "when the resultant external force
acting on a system of interacting bodies is zero, the total linear momentum of the system of
interacting bodies remains constant or conserved."

• The total linear momentum ( ) of the spheres before head on collision along positive ×
direction is given by

• The total linear momentum ( ) after collision along same straight line is given by

• The total linear momentum before collision is equal to total linear momentum after collision
of two spheres if resultant external force acting on two spheres is zero.

• Work Energy Theorem: Work done by a force in displacing a body measures the change in
kinetic energy of the body.

• Total work done by the force in increasing the velocity of the body from u to v is W = change
in K.E. of the body

• In collisions, the total linear momentum of the particles is conserved but their kinetic energy
need not be conserved. The collision in which total kinetic energy and momentum of the
colliding particles is conserved is said to be elastic.

• A collision in which linear momentum is conserved but there is always loss of kinetic energy
is called as inelastic collision.

• Coefficient of restitution is defined as the ratio of relative velocity of separation after collision
to the relative velocity of approach before collision between two colliding bodies.

• The coefficient of restitution between two bodies is represented as

• A system of co-ordinates of an observer used to describe any motion is called “frame of

reference”.

• A frame of reference in which the Newton’s first law does not hold good is called “non-
inertial frame of reference”.

• A body is said to be rigid if the relative distance between any two particles of the body does
not change under application of force of any magnitude.

• When rigid body produces purely rotational motion, all the particles of the body move in
circles. The centres of all circles lie along a straight line, called as axis of rotation.

• The ability of a force to produce rotational motion which is measured by its turning effect is
called “moment of force or torque”.

• Two equal and parallel forces acting in opposite directions at two different points on a given
body form a couple.
• The ability of the couple to produce purely rotational motion is called “moment of a couple” or
“torque”.
74 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• Moment of a couple or torque is expressed as a vector product of

• Centre of mass of a body is defined as that point at which the whole mass of the body
is supposed to be concentrated, in order to study motion of the body in accordance with
Newton’s Laws of Motion.

• A body is said to be in equilibrium if the number of forces acting on a body are such that the
linear and angular acceleration about any axis is zero.

• For static equilibrium of the body

(i) the vector sum of all the external forces acting on a body should be zero.
(ii) the vector sum of moments of all forces about any point should be zero.

• Kinetic energy is always positive and work done by the frictional or viscous force on a
moving body is negative.

• The principle of conservation of mechanical energy is the consequence of the work energy
theorem for conservative forces.

(d) Newton’s first law of motion gives a qualitative

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 4
definition of a force. A force is a push or pull
4.1 Introduction exerted on a body, which produces or tends to
produce a change in its velocity.
Q.1. Define force. State and explain Newton’s laws
of motion. (4 marks) (ii) Newton’s second law of motion states that, "the
rate of change of linear momentum of a body is
Ans. Force is defined as that physical quantity which
directly proportional to the external unbalanced
changes or tends to change the state of rest or applied force on the body and takes place in the
of uniform motion of a body. direction of force."
(i) Newton’s first law states "that every body (a) The linear momentum of a body is the product
continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform of mass and its velocity.
motion along a straight line, unless it is acted
(b) If mu is the initial linear momentum ( ) and
upon by an external unbalanced force."
m is the final linear momentum ( ) after
(a) This means a body on its own can not change time t, then using Newton’s second law,
the state of rest or the state of uniform motion
along a straight line.

(b) This inability of a body to change on its own

its state of rest or of uniform motion is called \
inertia of the body.
(c) The constant of proportionality k is 1 when we
(c) Inertia of a body is measured by the mass of
choose unit of momentum as kg m/s and unit
the body. Heavier the body greater is the force
of force as newton. Similarly in C.G.S. system
required to change its state and hence greater
of units the unit of force is dyne by taking k = 1.
is its inertia.
Force 75

of the average force and the time for which the

force acts.
\
(i) Examples of impulsive force :

\ (a) A bullet fired from a gun.

(b) The impact of hammer on a nail
(c) A kick imparted to a football, etc.
\
(ii) As the impulsive force is large and it acts for
\ a very short duration of time, it is difficult to
measure either of them.
where, is the acceleration of the body
(iii) Consider an impulsive force acting on a
and it is assumed that mass m is constant.
body of mass m for short time t. The velocity
(iii) Newton’s third law of motion states that, "to
of the body changes from to . According
every action (force) there is always an equal
to Newton’s second law,
and opposite reaction (force)."
(a) If body A exerts force on body B, then body B
also exerts equal and opposite force on body A,   
     
\ J = F.t = P2 − P1 = mv − mu = ∆P
simultaneously.
(iv) This shows that impulse is equal to the change
(b) Thus forces always occur in pairs. Any one
in linear momentum of the body.
can be called as action and other as reaction. A
single isolated force is not possible. (v) Impulse is a vector quantity. Its direction is
same as that of the force.
(c) Action and reaction forces always act on
different bodies. Hence they never cancel each (vi) The S.I. unit of impulse is same as that of linear
other. momentum i.e. kg m/s or Ns.
(d) Each force produces its own effect. (vii) Dimensions of the impulse are [M1L1T–1].

Intext question textbook page no. 38 Intext question textbook page no. 38

*Q.2. If a body is not accelerated, does a force act on *Q.4. Large force always produces large change in
it or not? (1 mark) momentum on a body than a small force. Is
this correct? (1 mark)
Ans. According to Newton’s second law, net force
acting on a body is equal to product of mass Ans. Above statement is not correct. According to
and acceleration produced in a body. Newton’s second law, Ft = mv – mu

i.e. net F = m × a \ change in momentum is equal to F × t =

Impulse
\ if a = 0 then only net force = 0
\ Time of impact is also important, small force
Therefore, no force acts on the body if it is not
for a larger time can produce same effect as
accelerated.
large force for a shorter interval of time.
Q.3. Define and explain impulse of a force.
4.2 Types of Force
(3 marks)
Ans. Impulsive force is a large force acting on a *Q.5. What do you mean by real force and pseudo
body for an extremely small interval of time, force? (2 marks)
producing a finite change in the momentum of Ans. (1) Real force:
the body. It can also be defined as the product (i) A force which is produced due to interaction
between the objects is called a real force.
76 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) It has specific source and origin, external to the (ii) It is a universal force.
body experiencing that force. (iii) It does not need an intervening medium.
(iii) It can be explained on the basis of fundamental (iv) Gravitational force is a long range force.
interactions like gravitational, nuclear or (v) According to Newton’s law of gravitation,
electrostatic forces. every particle attracts other particle of
(iv) e.g. matter with a force which is directly
(a) The earth revolves around the sun in proportional to product of their masses
circular path due to gravitational force of and inversely proportional to square
attraction between the sun and the earth. of the distance between them and acts
(b) A relative motion between two solid along the line joining the two particles.
surfaces in contact gives rise to a force of

friction.
(c) Binding of protons and neutrons in the
\
nucleus of an atom is due to nuclear
force. G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2 / kg2
(2) Pseudo force: \
(i) It is observed that, when we are travelling by
(vi) Gravitational force of the earth on a body
a bus and if the bus suddenly stops, we feel a
at distance of R from its centre,
push in forward direction.
F =
(ii) This force cannot be attributed to any
external source. Hence we cannot explain this where, M → Mass of earth
phenomenon using Newton’s laws of motion, m → Mass of body
because according to Newton’s law only R → Radius of earth
external force can change the motion of a body. (vii) It is the weakest of all forces in nature.
(iii) However, the push that we experience when (viii) It is always attractive and never repulsive.
the bus stops suddenly is due to our own
inertia. In order to apply Newton’s laws to (2) Electromagnetic force:
explain this situation we need to introduce an (i) The force between two charges at rest
extra force term in the equation of motion. is called electrostatic force and force
(iv) This added term which does not have real between two magnetic poles is called as
origin is called pseudo force. magnetic force.
(ii) We know that when charge is moving,
4.3 General idea of gravitational, it produces magnetic field and moving
electromagnetic and nuclear force charge in magnetic field experiences a
from daily life experiences magnetic force.
(iii) In this, forces involved are nothing but
Q.6. Explain various fundamental forces in
electromagnetic forces. Forces between
nature. (3 marks)
electric charges in relative motion are
Ans. called electromagnetic forces.
(1) Gravitational force: (iv) These forces not only depend on
(i) Gravitational force is the force of mutual charges carried by two bodies but also
attraction between any two bodies by on the magnitude and direction of their
virtue of their masses. velocities.
Force 77

(v) The force which holds together the (b) Weak nuclear force:
atoms and molecules of a body is called (1) In β decay of a radioactive element, the nucleus
electromagnetic force. emits an electron and a neutral particle called
the neutrino. The electron and neutrino interact
with each other exclusively through the weak
Characteristics: nuclear force.

(a) These forces are attractive or repulsive one. (2) This force acts between any two elementary
particles.
(b) Electromagnetic forces are stronger than that
of gravitational forces. (3) This force is stronger than the gravitational
force, but very much weaker than the strong
(c) Obeys inverse square law of distance.
nuclear and electrostatic forces.
(d) Depends on intervening medium.
(e) Long range forces. 4.4 Law of Conservation of Momentum

Examples of electromagnetic force: *Q.7. State and derive the law of conservation of
(a) The frictional force is produced due to attractive linear momentum for colliding bodies.
forces between the atoms of two bodies on the (4 marks)
opposite sides of the actual area of contact. Ans. Law of conservation of linear momentum states
that, "when the resultant external force acting
(b) When currents flow through two parallel
on system of interacting bodies is zero (i.e. an
conductors, a magnetic field is produced by one
isolated system) the total linear momentum of the
of the conductor. If the directions of the currents
system of interacting bodies remains constant."
flowing through the conductors are same, they
attracts each other. Whereas when the currents (i) Consider two spheres A and B of masses m1 and
are flowing in opposite directions, they repel m2 moving in same direction along a straight line
each other. with initial velocities and respectively, as
shown in Fig. 4.1
(iii) Nuclear force: Nuclear force is of two types,
strong and weak.

(a) Strong nuclear force:

(1) The force which holds the nucleons, i.e. the

protons and neutrons together within the
atomic nucleus is called strong nuclear force.

(2) This is an attractive force and is strong enough

to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between Fig. 4.1: Before Collision (u1 > u2)
the protons.
(ii) Let > . As a result, A goes on
(3) Its range is very short, of the order of 10 –15
m. approaching B. At certain instant spheres
(4) It is responsible for the stability of the nucleus collide with each other, as shown in
and governs high energy collision phenomena Fig. 4.2.
of nucleons.

(5) It is non-central and non-conservative force.

78 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

momentum of system is equal to total final

momentum of the system.
(ix) Thus total momentum of the system remains
constant i.e. it is conserved. This is the law of
conservation of momentum.

Intext question textbook page no. 41

Fig. 4.2: During Collision *Q.8. When a ball rolls down on inclined plane, its
momentum increases. Is this a violation of
(iii) According to Newton’s third law, the spheres
the law of conservation of momentum?
exert equal and opposite forces on each other
(2 marks)
during collision.
Ans. When a ball rolls down on inclined plane, as a
(iv) Let be force exerted by sphere A on sphere
whole system, the ball is subject to gravitational
B, then (– )will be force exerted by sphere B
potential energy and opposed frictional force.
on sphere A.
Therefore, momentum of the system will
(v) Let t be the time of impact and and be
increase. So here conservation of momentum
the final velocities of the spheres A and B after
of an isolated system does not work out.
impact.
(vi) For sphere B, Q.9. Using the law of conservation of linear
momentum, explain (i) Bullet fired from gun
=
(ii) Motion of rocket (iii) Explosion of bomb
(3 marks)
\ .t = m2 – m2 … (1)
Ans.
For sphere A, (i) Bullet fired from the gun:
– = (a) When a bullet is fired from a gun, the gun
recoils. The bullet and gun move in exactly
\ – .t = m1 – m1 opposite direction.
\ .t = m1 – m1 … (2) (b) Before firing, the gun and bullet both are at
rest, hence total linear momentum is zero. The
total linear momentum after firing is given by
(m1 + m2 ).
(c) Using law of conservation of linear momentum,
0 = m1 + m2

\ =
Fig. 4.3: After Collision
(vii) Equating equations (1) and (2) we get, (d) The negative sign in the above equation shows
m2 – m2 = –m1 + m1 that the direction of is exactly opposite to
\ m1 + m2 = m1 + m2 … (3) i.e. gun recoils.
(e) As m2 >> m1, << i.e. recoil velocity is
(viii) m1 and m2 are the momenta of the two
very small compared to velocity of the bullet.
spheres before collision and m1 and m2 are
their momenta after collision. Hence, total initial
Force 79

(ii) Motion of rocket:

(a) The law of conservation of linear momentum is
used in motion of a rocket.
(b) In rocket, oxygen is burnt in the combustion
chamber.
(c) The hot gases are ejected through a small
opening in the tail, at high pressure and
with very high speed. As a result of it, large
momentum of the gases is produced in the
backward direction.
Fig. 4.5 (a) Before Fig. 4.5 (b) After
(d) This imparts an equal forward momentum
Explosion Explosion
to the rocket as per the law of conservation
of linear momentum. Due to this the rocket (b) When bomb explodes into number of pieces,
moves upwards with high speed. scattered in different directions, the vector
sum of linear momentum of these pieces is also
zero. This is as per the law of conservation of
linear momentum.
(c) Let the bomb explode into four pieces as
shown. Let m1, m2, m3 and m4 be the masses
of four pieces and , , and be their
velocities respectively.
(d) Linear momentum of four pieces are given by,
= m1 , = m2 , = m3 and
= m4
(e) As no external force is acting on the system, the
total linear momentum is conserved.
\ m1 + m2 + m3 + m4 = 0
Fig. 4.4 Rocket propulsion
(e) As the rate of ejection of gases remains *Q.10. Explain the concept of work done by a
constant, change of momentum of the rocket is variable force. Also explain the methods to
uniform. Hence, the force acting on the rocket determine the work done by variable force.
is constant. (4 marks)
Ans.
(f) Due to escaping gases, mass of the rocket goes
(i) The work done by a force which is assumed to
on decreasing and velocity and acceleration go
be constant in magnitude and direction, can be
on increasing.
easily determined.
(g) Thus even though the force remains constant,
(ii) But force may not be constant in practice. A
the velocity and acceleration of rocket increases
body may move under the action of a force,
and attains very high velocity.
whose magnitude and direction may be
(iii) Explosion of bomb : (for Entrance Examination) changing.
(a) When bomb is at rest before explosion, the (iii) When a body goes away from the centre of
linear momentum of bomb is zero. the earth, the magnitude of gravitational
80 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

force continuously goes on decreasing while (vii) Hence, total work done in moving the particle
direction always remains the same. from P to Q,
(iv) Also a body attached to a spring, elongates the \ W = Area PQRSP
spring. The elongation produced in the spring Mathematical Method : (for Entrance Examination)
changes with the motion of the body, and since
(i) Let us calculate the work done in moving a
force is proportional to elongation, it is variable.
body from A to B under the action of a variable
Graphical Method : force as shown in Fig. 4.7.
(i) Let us consider a force acting along the fixed (ii) At any instant, suppose the body is at certain
direction say x-axis with variable magnitude as point acted upon by the force F. Under the action
shown in Fig. 4.6. of this force (F) the body has infinitesimally
small displacement PQ = ds.
(iii) As the displacement is very small, the force
is assumed to be constant. Therefore small
amount of work done by the force in moving
the body from P to Q is,
dW = .

Fig. 4.6: Graph of force displacement

(ii) Let us assume that the displacement from P to Fig. 4.7 : Work done by variable force
Q is made up of a large number of infinitesimal (iv) The total work done in moving the body from
displacements. One such displacement is from A to B can be obtained by integrating the
A to B as shown in figure. above expression between proper limits of
(iii) As the displacement AB = dx is infinitesimally integration.
small, we assume that for this displacement, \ W =
force is constant in magnitude equal to AD and (v) If s1 and s2 be the magnitudes of displacement
with same direction. of the body at points A and B with respect to
(iv) Small amount of work done in moving the point O, then
body from A to B is given by, dW = Fdx W =

\ dW = (AD)(AB) = Area of the strip ABCD Note :

(1) If and have the same direction, then
(v) Total amount of work done in moving body
W =
from P to Q is given by,
(2) If and are perpendicular to each other,
W = ∑ dW = ∑ F.dx
then
(vi) In terms of integral calculus, we may write this W = = 0
expression as,
*Q.11. State and explain the work energy theorem
W = F dx
(principle). (4 marks)
where xP = OP and xQ = OQ Ans. According to work energy theorem, work done
\ W = area of the strip ABCD by a force in displacing a body measures the
change in kinetic energy of the body.
Force 81

(i) When a force does some work on a body, the \ W = final K.E. – initial K.E.
kinetic energy of the body increases by the \ W = change in K.E. of the body
same amount.
(viii) Hence, work done by the force is the measure
(ii) Conversely when an opposing force is applied
of change in K.E. of the body, which proves the
on a body, its K.E. decreases. This decrease in
work energy theorem.
kinetic energy of the body is equal to the work
done by the body against the opposing force. 4.5 Elastic and inelastic collision
(iii) Thus, work done by the force is only effective
*Q.12. What is elastic collision? For a perfectly
in changing kinetic energy of the body but not
potential energy of the body. elastic collision, derive an expression for
the velocities of the colliding bodies after
(iv) Consider a body of mass m moving with
collision. (4 marks)
initial velocity u, acted upon by a force F in the
direction of motion of the body. OR
(v) Let be the displacement of the body in the What is elastic collision? For a perfectly elastic
direction of force F and be the final velocity collision, show that the relative velocity of
in time dt. approach before collision is equal to relative
velocity of separation after collision. (3 marks)
(vi) Small amount of work done by the force is,
(Answer upto point viii)
dW = .
\ dW = F ds Ans. If in a collision the total kinetic energy as well
as total momentum is conserved, the collision
\ dW = (m a) ds
is said to be elastic or perfectly elastic collision.
\ dW = m ds
(i) Consider a one dimensional collision i.e.
\ dW = m dv collision in which the colliding bodies move
along a straight line joining their centres.
\ dW = m v d v
(ii) Consider two non-rotating spheres A and B,
(vii) Total work done by the force in increasing the moving towards right along a straight line
velocity of the body from u to v is, joining their centres as shown in figure.
W =
(iii) Let their masses be m1 and m2 and velocities u1
and u2 respectively such that u1 > u2.
\ W =
(iv) After certain time, A and B make head-on
\ W = collision. Let v1 and v2 be their velocities after
We know, collision.

\ W =

\ W =
Fig. 4.8 (a): Before collision (u1 > u2)

\ W =
82 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

To find v1 substituting this in equation (1) we

get,
m1 (u1–v1) = m2 (v2–u2)
\ m1 (u1–v1) = m2 (u1+v1–u2–u2)
\ m1u1–m2u1+2m2u2 = m2v1+m1v1
\ (m1–m2) u1+2m2u2 = (m1+m2)v1
Fig. 4.8 (b): After collision
\ v1 = … (4)
(v) Velocity and momentum to the right are
considered positive. According to law of (x) Again from equation (3) we can write,
conservation of momentum, \ v1 = v2+u2 –u1
initial momentum = final momentum Let us substitute this in equation (1) to get value
\ m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 of v2 in terms of m1, m2, u1 and u2.
\ m1 (u1 – v1) = m2 (v2 – u2) ... (1) \ m1 (u1–v1) = m2 (v2–u2)

(vi) Since the collision is elastic, total kinetic energy \ m1 [u1–(v2+u2–u1)] = m2 (v2–u2)
before collision is equal to total kinetic energy \ m1 (u1–v2–u2+u1) = m2 (v2–u2)
after collision.
\ m1 (2u1–v2–u2) = m2 (v2–u2)
\ = \ 2m1u1–m1v2–m1u2 = m2v2–m2u2

\ = \ 2m1u1+u2(m2–m1) = (m2+m1) v2

\ =
\ v2 = … (5)
\ =
\ m1(u1 + v1)(u1 – v1) = m2(v2 + u2)(v2 – u2) (xi) Thus if we know the masses of two colliding
… (2) bodies and their velocities before collision, we
can find out velocities after the collision.
(vii) Dividing equation (2) by equation (1) we get,
Special cases : (for Entrance Examination)
= (1) If the particles have the same mass i.e two
spheres have equal masses, substituting
\ u1 + v1 = v2 + u2
m1 = m2 in equation (4) and (5) we get,
\ u1 – u2 = v2 – v1 … (3)
v1 =
(viii) The L.H.S. of equation (3) gives the relative
velocity with which spheres approach each v1 = u2 … (6)
other before collision and R.H.S. of equation
Similarly v2 =
(3) gives the relative velocity with which the
spheres get separated after collision. \ v2 = u1 … (7)
Hence in one dimensional collision of two
In elastic collision, relative velocity of approach
particles of equal masses, the particles simply
is equal to relative velocity of separation.
exchange their velocities after collision.
(ix) From equation (3),
(2) If one of the colliding spheres B of mass m2
\ v2 = u1 – u2 + v1
is initially at rest i.e. u2 = 0, substitute this in
\ v2 = u1 + v1 – u2 equations (4) and (5),
Force 83

Hence the velocity of the lighter incident sphere

v1 = is reversed without changing magnitude while
the body m2 remains at rest.
\ v1 = … (8) *Q.13. Define and explain inelastic collision.
(2 marks)
Similarly, v2 = Ans. When in a collision total momentum is
conserved but the total kinetic energy is not
conserved, the collision is said to be inelastic
\ v2 = … (9)
collision. When two colliding bodies stick
(i) If m1 = m2, then together and form composite body after a
collision, the collision is said to be perfectly
v1 = …[from (8)]
inelastic collision.
\ v1 = 0 … (10) Examples of inelastic collision:
(i) When a ball is allowed to fall on a hard floor
Similarly, v2 = … [From (9)]
from certain height, the collision is said to be
inelastic. In this case, ball does not rebound to
\ v2 =
the original height due to loss of kinetic energy
\ v2 = u1 … (11) in the collision.
(ii) Lump of mud thrown on a wall sticks to the
Hence, the first particle of mass m1 comes to
wall. There is loss of kinetic energy.
rest after collision and the second particle of
(iii) A meteorite collides head-on with earth.
mass m2 acquires the initial velocity of the first.
These are the examples of perfectly inelastic
(ii) If m1 >> m2 then the mass of sphere B can be collision.
neglected compared to the mass of sphere A.
*Q.14. Define and explain coefficient of restitution.
Substituting this in equation (8) and (9) we get,
(3 marks)
\ v1 = OR
Define the coefficient of restitution between
As m2 is very small compared to m1, it can be
two colliding bodies and state its value for
neglected.
perfectly elastic and inelastic collisin.
\ v1 = Ans. Coefficient of restitution can be defined as the
ratio of relative velocity of separation after
\ v1 = u1 … (12)
collision to the relative velocity of approach
Similarly, v2 = before collision.
(i) Consider two non-rotating spheres A and B
\ v2 = 2u1 … (13) moving to the right along a straight line with
(iii) If m1 << m2, then the mass of body A can be velocities u1 and u2 respectively, such that u1 >
neglected compared to the mass of body m2, u2, make head on collision.
then substituting this in equation (8) and (9) we (ii) Let them continue to move towards right with
get, velocity v1 and v2. Then,
\ v1 = relative velocity of approach before
collision = u1 – u2
\ v1 = – u1 … (14)
relative velocity of separation after
v2 = 0 ... (15) collision = v2 – v1
84 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) Coefficient of restitution, (c) Earth is rotating and at the same time moving in
space. But its motion does not affect the motion
of ordinary object on its surface. Thus, for all
e = practical purposes a frame of reference fixed to
the earth is considered as an inertial frame of
reference.

\ e = (d) Any frame of reference moving with uniform

velocity relative to the earth is also an inertial
(iv) For perfectly elastic collision, frame of reference.
e = 1
(ii) Non-inertial frame of reference :
For perfectly inelastic collision, the bodies stick (a) A frame of reference which is moving with
together, an acceleration relative to an inertial frame of
e = 0 reference is called as non-inertial or accelerated
(v) In case of inelastic collision, the relative velocity frame of reference.
of approach is greater than the relative velocity (b) In non-inertial frame of reference, Newton’s
of separation. The value of e is between 0 and 1 laws of motion are not obeyed.
i.e. 0 < e < 1.
*Q.16. Explain the concept of pseudo force in non-
4.6 Inertial and non-inertial frames inertial frame of reference. (2 marks)

*Q.15. What is frame of reference? Explain the terms : Ans.

(i) inertial frame of reference (ii) non-inertial (i) The imaginary force which is supposed to act,
frame of reference (2 marks) in order to make Newton’s laws of motion
applicable to non-inertial frames is called as
Ans. Frame of reference is system of co-ordinate axes
pseudo-force.
with reference to which position or motion of
(ii) The direction of pseudo force is opposite to the
an object in space is described.
direction of acceleration of the reference frame.
The simplest frame of reference is Cartesian co-
(iii) If a0 is the acceleration of the reference frame
ordinate system. In this system the position or
with respect to inertial frame and if m is mass
motion of a particle is described in terms of three
of the body then the pseudo force acting on the
co-ordinates x, y and z along three mutually
body is given by,
perpendicular axes (i.e. x, y and z axes).
= –m
The position of particle is given by
(iv) Negative sign is introduced because force
=
acting on body is opposite to the acceleration
Other co-ordinate system such as spherical polar of frame of reference.
co-ordinate system, cylindrical polar co-ordinate
Examples :
system can also be used as reference frames.
(i) A passenger sitting in a car which is moving
(i) Inertial frame of reference : forward with acceleration is pushed in the
(a) A frame of reference, which is fixed or which backward direction. This is because he is now in
is moving with uniform velocity with respect accelerated or non-inertial frame of reference,
to a fixed frame is called as inertial frame of due to which pseudo force acts on him in the
reference. direction opposite to the acceleration of the car.
(b) Newton’s laws of motion are obeyed in an (ii) An object revolving in a circle experiences a
inertial frame of reference. centrifugal force which tends to move object away
Force 85

from the centre of circle. This centrifugal force is (b) the perpendicular distance between axis
a pseudo force. This is because circular motion is of rotation and the line of action of force
accelerated motion and object performing circular which is known as the moment arm.
motion is in non-inertial frame of reference. (v) Now, if is the position vector of the point of
(iii) While travelling in bus, when bus turns to left, application of the force drawn from the point
a pseudo force acts on us pushing towards O and θ is the angle between and , then
right. When bus turns to right, a pseudo force
acts towards left. Here, when bus moves along
a circular path, we are in non-inertial frame of
reference.
(iv) A person standing in a lift, which is accelerating
in upward direction, feels a force acting on him
in downward direction. This is pseudo force.
Fig. 4.9
This is because a person in accelerating lift is in
a non-inertial frame of reference. As a result the \ sin q =
apparent weight of the person increases and he \ s = r sin q … (2)
feels heavier. Similarly, a person standing in
(vi) From equation (1) and (2) we have,
a lift which is accelerating downwards, feels
lighter as a pseudo force acts on him in upward \ τ = F r sin q … (3)
direction. (vii) Torque is a vector quantity. The direction of is
given by right hand rule. It is perpendicular to
4.7 Moment of Force the plane containing and . Hence moment
*Q.17. Define and explain moment of force. State its of force can be expressed as a vector product of
SI unit and dimensions and write the vector and .
form. (2 marks) \ = ×

Ans. The ability of a force to produce rotational Note: Sign conventions used for the moment of
motion is called the moment of force. force:
(i) Magnitude of moment of force is equal to the (1) If the rotational motion produced by the
product of the force and the moment arm. application of force is in anti-clockwise sense,
i.e. Moment of Force = Force × Moment arm the moment of force is taken as positive.
Moment of Force = F × s … (1) (2) If the rotational motion produced by the
(ii) S.I. unit : newton-metre (Nm) application of force is in clockwise sense, the
C.G.S. unit : dyne-cm moment of the force is taken as negative.

Dimensions of torque are [M1L2T–2], which are

4.8 Couple and properties of couple
similar to work but torque and work are entirely
different physical quantities. *Q.18. Define and explain couple. (3 marks)

(iii) Let a body be capable of rotating about an axis OR

passing through O and P is point of application What do you mean by couple?
of the force. Ans. Two forces, equal in magnitude and opposite
(iv) The moment of force about an axis through O in direction acting along a straight line at two
depends upon different points of body are said to form a
(a) the magnitude of force and couple.
86 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(i) Since the magnitudes of forces are equal and (vii) S.I. unit of torque is newton–metre and C.G.S.
direction is opposite thus resultant force on unit is dyne-centimetre.
the body is zero. Therefore couple can never (viii) Dimensions : [M1L2T–2]
produce translational motion.
*Q.19. State and explain properties of couple.
(ii) But the moment of couple about an axis of
(2 marks)
rotation is not zero, hence it produces purely
rotational motion. Ability of couple to produce Ans.
rotational motion is called as moment of couple (i) A couple produces purely rotational motion.
or torque. Two forces forming couple are equal and
opposite hence resultant is zero. Therefore
no translational motion is produced but it

produces purely rotational motion of a body.
Fig. 4.10
(ii) A couple can only be balanced by an equal and
(iii) The sum of the moments of the forces forming
opposite couple. If anti-clockwise couple is
the couple about any point gives the moment
acting on a body to produce turning effect, its
of the couple about that point. The moment
effect can be neutralised by a clockwise couple
of couple about any point in a given plane is
of equal magnitude.
always constant.
Single force cannot neutralise the effect of
(a) Moment of the couple about the point R,
couple.
\ = ×
(iii) The moment of couple or torque about any
τ = (F × PR) + (F × QR)
point in its plane is always constant. It does not
\ τ = F (PR + QR)
depend upon the position of the point about
\ τ = F × PQ ... (1) which the moment is found.
(b) Moment of the couple about the point P,
4.9 Centre of Mass
τ = (F × 0) + F (PQ)
\ τ = F × PQ ... (2) *Q.20. What is centre of mass of a body? (2 marks)

(c) Moment of the couple about the point S, Ans.

τ = – (F × PS) + (F × QS) (i) Centre of mass of a body is defined as the
\ τ = F (QS – PS) point at which the whole mass of the body is
supposed to be concentrated, in order to study
\ τ = F × PQ ... (3)
the motion of the body due to an external force
(iv) This shows that the moment of the couple
in accordance with Newton’s laws of motion.
about any point in its plane is always constant
and it is equal to the product of one force and (ii) The centre of mass of a body represents a
the perpendicular distance between the two unique point, whose motion is exactly same as
forces. that of the body, i.e. the motion of the centre
of mass of the body represents the motion
(v) Torque (τ) is a vector quantity and it is
of entire body and it is in accordance with
expressed as,
Newton’s laws of motion.
= ×
(iii) Thus, according to the concept of centre of
(vi) The direction of τ is given by right hand rule mass, we assume that a body is replaced by a
and it is perpendicular to the plane formed by single particle having mass equal to that of the
and . body.
Force 87

Examples of centre of mass:

(1) Consider the motion of a coin along a smooth y =
surface. In this case when it rolls, all the points
are in state of rotational as well as translational
z =
motion except one point. This point is the centre
of the coin which only moves in a straight line. Special case:
This point is called as centre of mass which
When the shape of body is symmetrical then the
obeys Newton’s laws of motion.
centre of mass of body is situated at the point of
(2) Consider a rod having two spheres attached symmetry or geometrical centre of the body.
to its end. Now if such rod is set into motion,
For example :
then except one point all the other points are in
(1) The centre of mass of circular ring is situated at
the state of rotational as well as translational
the centre of the ring.
motion. The point which has only straight line
motion is centre of mass of this system. (2) For solid sphere having uniform density centre
of mass is at its geometrical centre.
Q.21. Explain various methods of determining
centre of mass. (2 marks) 4.10 Centre of Gravity
Ans. *Q.22. What is centre of gravity of a body? Under
what conditions the centre of gravity and
(i) If a system consists of two particles of masses
centre of mass coincide? (3 marks)
m1 and m2 with their position vectors and
with respect to origin O, then position vector of Ans.
centre of mass is given as,

= … (1)

(ii) If we generalise the above statement for

system consisting of n particles of masses m1,
m2 ... mn and their position vectors , , ...
Fig. 4.11 : Centre of Gravity
respectively, then position vector of the centre
of mass is given by, (i) A rigid body can be considered as consisting of
large number of particles. A gravitational force
= … (2) acts on each particle in vertically downward
direction.
(ii) Since the centre of earth is at large distance
\ =
from the surface, these forces due to gravity
can be considered to be parallel to each other.
where, M is mass of the entire system.
(iii) The resultant of all these forces is equal to total
(iii) In cartesian system of co-ordinates,
weight of the body.
let (x1, y1, z1)(x2, y2, z2), ... (xn, yn, zn) be the
(iv) This weight is directed in vertically downward
co-ordinates of masses m1, m2 …… mn
direction through a point on a body. This point
respectively. Then centre of mass of the system
is known as centre of gravity.
of masses has co-ordinates (x, y, z) given as,
(v) The centre of gravity of body is a point at
which the total weight of body acts vertically
x = downwards, for any position of the body.
88 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Note : (1) If shape of the body is symmetrical and (v) There are two conditions of equilibrium of a
density is uniform, then the centre of gravity is at rigid body.
the point of symmetry i.e. geometrical centre. For (a) Condition of translational equilibrium :
example : (1) The vector sum of all the external forces
(i) Centre of gravity of triangular lamina is acting on a body in equilibrium must be
situated at its centroid. zero.
(ii) Centre of gravity of uniform ring is at its centre. (2) If is the resultant external force, then
(2) In this case, centre of mass and centre of gravity = + + …… + = 0 … (1)
of body coincide. (3) If all the forces are co-planar, we can
resolve the force into two mutually
Intext question textbook page no. 50 perpendicular directions in that plane.
*Q.23. In a ship or boat, heavy load is kept at the Then for translational equilibrium, the
bottom. Explain why? (2 marks) sum of the components in each of the two
mutually perpendicular directions must
Ans. For a stable equilibrium, centre of gravity of
be zero.
a ship including heavy load is kept as low as
possible. Boat or ship is a floating body, for ∑Fx = F1x + F2x + …… + Fnx = 0 … (2)
stable equilibrium centre of gravity of the ∑Fy = F1y + F2y + …… + Fny = 0 … (3)
entire ship or boat and the centre of buoyancy
(b) Condition of rotational equilibrium:
must lie on the same vertical line.
(1) The vector sum of all the external torques
4.11 Conditions of equilibrium of acting on a body in equilibrium must be
a rigid body zero.

*Q.24. State the conditions for equilibrium of (2) If τ the resultant external torque, then
a body under the action of a number of = + + ……+ = 0 … (4)
co-planar forces. (3 marks)
(3) Also, for rotational equilibrium the sum
Ans.
of the external torques about any axis
(i) A rigid body is in mechanical equilibrium, if as perpendicular to the plane of the forces
viewed from an inertial frame of reference must be zero. Hence in scalar form,
(a) the linear acceleration (aCM) of its centre of mass
∑τ = τ1 + τ2 + …… + = 0 … (5)
is zero and
(b) its angular acceleration (α) about any axis fixed Solved Problems
in this reference frame is zero.
(ii) The above conditions do not require the body Force
to be at rest with respect to the observer but *(1) A particle of mass 12 kg is acted upon by a
only to be unaccelerated. force f = 100 – 2x2, where f is in newton and x
(iii) Its centre of mass, for example, may be moving is in metre.
with constant velocity vCM and the body may (i) Calculate the work done by the force in
be rotating about a fixed axis with constant moving the particle from x = 0 to x = –10 m.
angular velocity ω. (ii) What will be its speed at x = 10 m if it
(iv) If vCM = 0 and ω = 0, we say that the body is in starts from rest? (4 marks)
static equilibrium. Otherwise it is said to be in Solution: f = 100 – 2x2 N, m = 12 kg, xi = 0 m,
kinetic equilibrium. xf = –10 m
Force 89

(i) The work done in moving the particle from The minus signs for J and Fav indicate that they
xi = 0 m to xi = 10 m is are opposite to the initial velocity of the bullet.
\ Fav = –20 N

W =
*(3) Two bodies of masses 2 kg and 4 kg are
= connected at the two ends of a string of
negligible mass that passes over an ideal
pulley (i.e., of negligible mass and friction).
=
Calculate (i) the acceleration of the system
(ii) the tension in the string. [Given : g = 10 m/s2]
= (3 marks)
Solution: m1 = 2 kg, m2 = 4 kg, g = 10 m/s2
=

=
–ve sign indicates force is opposite to displacement
(ii) By the work kinetic energy theorem,

W =

Since the particle starts from rest, u = 0

\

|W | = |–333.3|

\ v 2 =
The forces on body 1 are
= 55.56 (m/s)2
(i) m1g downward by the Earth
The speed of the particle at x = 10 m is
(ii) T upward by the string
v = = 7.454 m/s
The equation of motion of body 1 is, therefore,
\ W = – 333.3 J, v = 7.454 m/s
T – m1g = m1a … (i)
*(2) A bullet of mass 0.1 kg moving horizontally The forces on body 2 are
with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a stationary (i) m2g downward by the Earth
target and is brought to rest in 0.1 s. Find the
(ii) T upward by the string
impulse and average force of impact. (2 marks)
The equation of motion of body 2 is, therefore,
Solution: m = 0.1 kg, u = 20 m/s, v = 0 m/s, t = 0.1 s
T – m2g = –m2a
(i) Impulse, J = mv – mu = m(v – u)
\ m2g – T = m2a … (ii)
= (0.1 kg) (0 m/s – 20 m/s) = –2 N.s
Adding equation (i) and (ii),
(ii) J = Favt
(m2 – m1)g = (m1 + m2) a
\ Average force of impact.
\ The magnitude of the acceleration of the bodies.
Fav =
a =
= –20 N
90 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

= We resolve m2 into components, m2g sinθ

along the incline and m2g cosθ normal to the
incline. Since there is no acceleration of body 2
= = 3.333 m/s2
normal to the incline,
\ a = 3.333 m/s2 N – m2g cosθ = 0

Substituting 'a' in eqn (1) we get and the equation of motion of body 2 along the
incline is, therefore,
T = m1 (gta) = 2 (10 + 3.333)
T – m2g sinθ = m2a … (ii)
T = 26.67 N Adding equation (i) and (ii),
m1g – m2g sin θ = (m1 + m2) a
*(4) Two bodies of masses m1 and m2 are connected
to the two ends of a string of negligible \ The magnitude of the acceleration of the bodies,
mass that passes over an ideal pulley
a =
(ie., of negligible mass and friction). Body
2 is placed on an inclined plane, inclined at
=
an angle θ with the horizontal; assume that
friction between the body and inclined plane
is zero. Find the acceleration of the bodies and =
the tension in the string. Take m1 = 20.5 kg,
m2 = 10.5 kg and θ = 45°. (3 marks) =
Solution: m1 = 20.5 kg, m2 = 10.5 kg, θ = 45°,
g = 9.8 m/s2 = = 4.135 m/s2

From equation (i), the tension in the string is

T = m1 (g – a)
= (20.5 kg) (9.8 m/s2 – 4.135 m/s2)

= 20.5 × 5.665 = 116.1 N

\ a = 4.135 m/s2, T = 116.1 N

*(5) A person of mass 60 kg stands on a weighing

scale in a lift (elevator). What would the scale
read if the elevator moves
(i) up with a uniform speed of 5 m/s
(ii) down with a uniform acceleration of
The forces on body 1 are
4 m/s2
(i) m1g downward by the Earth
(iii) up with a uniform acceleration of 4 m/s2?
(ii) T upward by the string [Given : g = 10 m/s2] (3 marks)
The equation of motion of body 1 is, therefore, Solution: m = 60 kg, g = 10 m/s2
\ m1g – T = m1a … (i) The reading of the weighting scale
The force on body 2 are = the apparent weight of the person
(i) m2g downward by the Earth = the normal reaction on the person, N
(ii) T along the string up the incline by the string
(i) When the elevator moves up (or down) with a
(iii) N normal to the incline, normal reaction of the uniform speed, its acceleration is zero, so that
incline. the equation of motion is
Force 91

N = mg = 0 J = change in momentum
N = mg = (60 kg) (10 m/s2) \ 0.25 = 0.2 v – 0.2(0)
N = 600 N
\ v = = 1.25 m/s
(ii) When the elevator accelerates down with
a = 4 m/s2, the equation of motion is \ Velocity of ball is = 1.25 m/s
mg – N = ma
\ N = mg – ma = m(g – a) *(8) A man trying to lose weight lifts one thousand
= (60 kg) (10 m/s2 – 4 m/s2) times a body of mass 10 kg through a height
of 0.5 m each time. Assume that the potential
N = 360 N
energy lost each time he lowers the body is
(iii) When the elevator accelerates up with
dissipated.
a = 4 m/s2, the equation of motion is
N – mg = ma (i) What work does he do against the
gravitational force?
N = m (gta) = 60 (10 + 4)
N = 840 N (ii) If 1 kg of fat supplies 3.8 × 107 J of energy
which is converted to mechanical energy
Work done by variable force, work-energy principle with an efficiency of 20%, how much fat
*(6) A liquid drop of mass 1 g falls from a cliff will the man use up? (2 marks)
1 km high. It hits the ground at the bottom of
Solution: ∆KE = KEf – KEi = mv2 – 0, m = 10 kg,
the cliff with a speed of 50 m/s. What is the
work done by the unknown resistive force? h = 0.5 m, n = 1000, g = 9.8 m/s2
(2 marks) (i) Work done against the gravitational force in
Solution: m = 1 g = 1 × 10–3 kg, h = 1 km = 1 × 103 m, lifting n times a body of mass m through a
v = 50 m/s, g = 10 m/s2 height h
We assume that the liquid drop is released = n (mgh) = 1000 (10 kg) (9.8 m/s2) (0.5 m)
from rest, i.e., its initial speed, u = 0 m/s, so = 49000 J = 4.9 × 104 J
that its initial kinetic energy is zero.
(ii) Mechanical energy obtained from 1 kg of body
Then, the change in its kinetic energy is
fat with a 20 % conversion efficiency
∆KE = KEf – KEi = mv2 – 0
= (3.8 × 107 J)
= (10 kg) (50 m/s) = 1.25 J
–3 2

= 0.76 × 107 J
and the change in its potential energy is
\ Body fat used up by the person
∆PE = PEf – PEi = 0 – mgh
= – (10–3 kg) (10 m/s2) (103 m) =
= – 10 J
= 6.447 × 10–3 kg
\ The work done by the resistive
(non-conservative) force = ∆KE + ∆PE *(9) A position-dependent force f = 7 – 2x + 3x2
newton acts on a small body of mass 2 kg and
= 1.25 J – 10 J = – 8.75 J
displaces it from x = 0 to x = 5 m. Calculate the
(7) A ball is hit by a hockey stick giving it an work done by the force. (2 marks)
impulse of 0.25 Ns. If the mass of ball is Solution: f = 7 – 2x + 3x2 N, m = 2 kg,
0.2 kg, find out the velocity with which the
xi = 0 m, xf = 5 m
ball moves if it is initially at rest. (2 marks)
The work done by the variable force is
Solution: u = 0, m = 0.2 kg, J = 0.25 N.s
Impulse given to the body, W =
92 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

= = (50 m/s)

=
+ (– 40 m/s)

=
= = 20 m/s
= 7(5 – 0) – (52 – 0) + (53 – 0) (in the + x direction)
= 35 – 25 + 125 = 135 J
(ii) The ratio of the final to initial kinetic energies
\ W = 135 J
for the body of mass m is

Momentum, elastic and inelastic collisions

=
*(10) Two bodies of masses m and 2m, moving with
initial velocities 50 m/s in the + x direction
and 40 m/s in the – x direction respectively,
=
undergo a head-on elastic collision. (3 marks)
(i) Calculate their final velocities
(ii) What is the ratio of the final to initial = = 1.96
kinetic energies for the body of mass m?
(iii) m = 1 kg, m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 2 kg
(iii) Calculate the change in momentum of
The change in momentum of the first body is
each body if m = 1 kg
(iv) What is the change in the momentum of m1v1 – m1v1 = m1 (v1 – u1)
the system? = (1 kg) (– 70 m/s – 50 m/s)
Solution: m1 = m, u1 = 50 m/s, m2 = 2m,
= – 120 kg m/s
u2 = – 40 m/s
and the change in momentum of the second
(i) The final velocity of the first body (of mass m)
is body is

v1 = m2v2 – m2u2 = m2 (v2 – u2)

= (2 kg) [20 m/s – (–40 m/s)]

= (50 m/s) = + 120 kg m/s

(iv) The change in the momentum of the system
+ (–40 m/s) = sum of the changes in momentum of the
two bodies = – 120 kg m/s + 120 kg m/s = 0
as expected from the law of conservation of
=
momentum Zero.
= –70 m/s (in the – x direction) *(11) A metal ball falls from a height of 1 m onto a
The final velocity of the second body (of mass steel plate and jumps up to a height of 0.81 m.
2 m) is Find the coefficient of restitution. (2 marks)
Solution: h1 = 1 m, h2 = 0.81 m
v2 =
∴ Coefficient of restitution e =
Force 93

Using principle of conservation of momentum,

= = 0.9
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2) v
\ Coefficient of restitution = 0.9 0.5 × 6 + 2 × (–2) = (0.5 + 2) v
3 – 4 = (2.5) v
(12) A body of mass 2 kg moves at speed of
4 m/s and makes head on collision with \ v = = –0.4 m/s
body of mass 1 kg moving with speed 2 m/s They move with a common velocity of 0.4 m/s
in opposite direction. What is velocity of in the direction of the body of mass 2 kg.
two bodies after collision? (Given e = 0.4) Total kinetic energy before impact,
(3 marks)
(K.E.)initial = × 0.5 × (6)2 + × 2 × (2)2
Solution: m1 = 2kg, u1 = 4 m/s, m2 = 1 kg, u2 = –2m/s,
\ (K.E.)initial = 9 + 4 = 13 j
e = 0.4
Coefficient of restitution, Total kinetic energy after impact,

e = (K.E.)final = × (0.5 + 2) (–0.4)2

\ 0.4 = \ (K.E.)final = × 2.5 × 0.16 = 0.2 J

\ v2 – v1 = 6 × 0.4 Loss of kinetic energy,

\ v2 – v1 = 2.4 m/s ... (i) (K.E.) initial – (K.E.) final = 13 – 0.2 = 12.8 J

Using principle of conservation of momentum, \ v = – 0.4 m/s, Loss of K.E. = 12.8 J

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

(14) A ball is dropped on a plane horizontal
2 × 4 + 1 × (–2) = 2v1 + v2
surface from height H. The ball bounces and
2v1 + v2 = 6 … (ii) reaches height h. Then show that coefficient of
Subtracting equation (i) from (ii) restitution is e = (3 marks)
3v1 = 3.6
Solution: s = H, s' = h, u1 = 0
\ v 1 = 1.2 m/s ... [from (i)]
From equation of motion of particle,
\ v2 – 1.2 = 2.4
=
\ v2 = 3.6 m/s
\ = (0)2 + 2gH
\ First body continues to move along same
direction with velocity 1.2 m/s and direction \ v =
of motion of second body is reversed, its As surface is at rest,
velocity is 3.6 m/s. Relative velocity of approach = v1 = .
(13) A body of mass 0.5 kg moving with a velocity Let initial velocity of rising of sphere be u2 and
of 6 m/s collides with another body of mass final velocity be v2.
2 kg moving at 2 m/s and travelling in v2 = 0
opposite direction. If the two bodies travel
\ = – 2g s'
together after the collision, find the velocity
\ 0 = – 2gh
of combined mass and the loss of kinetic
\ u2 =
energy. (3 marks)
As surface is at rest,
Solution: m1 = 2kg, m2 = 0.5 kg, u1 = 6 m/s,
Relative velocity of separation = v2 =
u2 = –2 m/s
94 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Coefficient of restitution, The velocity of separation is

v = (upward)
= 5.422 m/s
e =
\ The final momentum of the ball, just af­ter
colliding with the floor,
e = = = mu = (0.1 kg) (5.422 m/s)

= 0.5422 kg.m/s (upward)

\
e = (iii) The average force exerted on the ball by the
floor
*(15) A ball of mass 100 g is dropped from a height F =
of 2 m above the floor. It rebounds vertically
up to a height of 1.5 m. Find (3 marks) =
(i) the momentum of the ball just before and
= 1.168 × 108 N (upward)
after the collision with the floor
(ii) the average force exerted by the floor on *(16) A bullet of mass 0.012 kg and horizontal speed
the ball. Assume that the collision lasts 70 m/s strikes a block of wood of mass 0.4 kg
and instantly comes to rest with respect to
for 10–8 s.
the block. The block is suspended from the
Solution: s = H, m = 100, g = 0.1 kg, h1 = 2 m,
height to which the block rises. Also estimate
h2 = 1.5 m, ∆t = 10–8 s, g = 9.8 m/s2 the amount of heat produced in the block.
(i) Let v be the velocity of the ball as it reaches the (3 marks)
floor after being dropped (u = 0 m/s). Solution: m1 = 0.012 kg, u1 = 70 m/s, m2 = 0.4 kg,
v2 = u2 – 2gs u2 = 0 m/s, g = 9.8 m/s2
\ v2 = – 2gs
= –2 (9.8)(–2)
= 39.2
\ The velocity of approach is
v = (downward)
= – 6.261 m/s
\ The initial momentum of the ball, just before
colliding with the floor, As the bullet strikes the stationary block, it
comes to rest with respect to the block, i.e., it gets
= mv = (0.1 kg) (– 6.261 m/s)
embedded in the block, and this bullet-block
= – 0.6261 kg.m/s (downward) system then rises through a height h, (see figure
(ii) Let u be the velocity of the ball just after for reference). Let U be the velocity acquired
rebouncing off the floor. When it reaches to a by the system immediately after the perfectly
inelastic collision.
height h2, its final velocity v = 0.
(i) By the law of conservation of momentum,
s = H
(m1 + m2) U = m1u1 + m2u2 = m1u1 ( u2 = 0)
v2 = u2 – 2 gs
u2 = 2gs ( v = 0) \ U =
= 2 (9.8 m/s2) (1.5 m)
= 29.4 (m/s2) =
Force 95

= 29.4 J – 0.8574 J
= = 2.04 m/s.
= 28.54 J
As the block rises through a height h under
The amount of heat produced in the block,
the gravitational force (which is a conservative
force), the change in its total mechanical energy H =
is zero.
Where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat.
\ ∆KE + ∆PE = 0 Taking J = 4.18 J/cal,
\ ∆PE = –∆KE
H = = 6.828 cal
\ (PEf – PEi) = –(KEf –KEi)
∴ H = 6.828 cal
\ (m1 + m2) gh – 0 = –
Torque
\ (m1 + m2) gh = (m1 + m2) U 2
(17) A force = N acts on a particle.
\ gh = U 2
The position of particle with respect to origin
O is = m. Find the torque acting
\ The bullet-block system rises to a height
on the particle and calculate its magnitude.
h = (3 marks)
Solution: = , =
=

=
=

h = 0.2123 m (or 21.23 cm)

\ =
(ii) The initial kinetic energy of the bullet
= \ =

Magnitude of the torque,
= (0.012 kg) (70 m/s)2
\ τ =
= 0.006 × 4900
\ τ =
= 29.4 J
and, after the collision with the block, the final \ Torque has magnitude of 9.8 Nm.
kinetic energy of the bullet-block system
*(18) A bar 2 m long makes an angle of 30° with the
KE = (m1 + m2) U 2
horizontal. A vertical force of 40 N is applied
at a point 0.4 m from the upper end. Calculate
= (0.412 kg)(2.04 m/s)2 the torque due to this force about each end.
= 0.206 × 4.162 (3 marks)

KE = 0.8574 J Solution: r2 = 0.4 m, r1 = 2 m – 0.4 m = 1.6 m, F = 40 N

(upward), θ = 30°, (Inclination of the bar with
The loss in energy in the perfectly inelastic the horizontal)
collision
We assume the bar to be light (negligible mass)
= and the applied force to be vertically upward.
96 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Then, the coordinate of the centre of mass of

the Earth-Moon system is

XCM =

=
Torque, =
τ = rF sin θ
=
(i) The torque due to about lower end A is
\ =
=
\ τ1 = r1 F sin θ1 (anti-clockwise)
From the figure, θ1 = 90° – 30° = 60° =
\ τ1 = (1.6 m) (40 N) sin 60°
= 64 × 0.8660 = 55.42 N.m (anti-clockwise) = 4.666 × 106 m (or 4666 km)

\ The centre of the mass of the Earth-Moon

(ii) The torque of about the upper end B is
system lies at a distance of 4666 km from the
= ×
centre of the Earth.
\ = r2 F sin θ2 (anti-clockwise)
*(20) Locate the centre of mass of the system of three
From the figure, θ2 = 180° – 60° = 120°
particles of masses m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 2 kg and
\ τ2 = (0.4 m) (40 N) sin (180° – 60°) m3 = 3 kg which are placed at the corners of an
= 16 × sin 60° equilateral triangle of side 1 m. (2 marks)
= 16 × 0.8660 = 13.86 N.m (anti-clockwise)
Solution: For the three particles at the corners of
\ τ1 = 55.42 N.m, τ2 = 13.86 N.m an equilateral triangle, the simplest choice of
coordinate system is one with the origin at one
Centre of mass and centre of gravity corner of the triangle, as shown below.

*(19) The mass of the Moon is 0.0123 times that of

the Earth and the separation between their
centres is 3.83 × 108 m. Determine the location
of their centre of mass relative to the centre of
the Earth. (3 marks)
Solution: MM = 0.0123 ME, r = 3.84 × 108 m
Let the origin of our reference frame be at the
centre of the Earth and the x-axis along the line
joining the centre of the Earth and Moon. Then, The coordinates of the particles with masses m1, m2 and
the distance of the centre of the Earth from the m3 are (0, 0), (0.5 m, 0.866 m) and (1 m, 0), respectively.
origin, x1 = 0 and that of the Moon, x2 = r. The coordinates of the centre of mass are then
Force 97

XCM =
\ =

=
Since vectors are along same line, distance of C.M.
from O,
=
RCM =
= 0.667 m

YCM = \ RCM =

= \ RCM =

= = 0.2887 m
\ RCM =
\ YCM = 0.2887 m
\ RCM =
*(21) Two brass spheres of radii 5 cm and 10 cm
are brought in contact with each other. Find \ Centre of mass is from the point of
the centre of gravity of the combination.
contact, towards the large sphere.
(2 marks)
Solution: r1 = 5 cm, r2 = 10 cm
Equilibrium of a rigid body
Let C1 and C2 be the centres of the two spheres of
radii r1 and r2 respectively. Choose point O, the point (22) A uniform beam 1 m long is supported on
of contact as the origin. As the spheres are of uniform knife-edge at 60 cm from left end`. A mass of
density, the position of centre of gravity and centre 100 g is suspended at a distance of 50 cm and a
of mass is same. mass of 50 g is suspended at 20 cm from same
end. From where should the mass of 200 g be
suspended so that beam will remain horizontal.
Also find normal reaction at the support.
(3 marks)
Solution:

Mass of the first sphere,

m 1 = volume × density

\ m1 =

Mass of the second sphere,

W1 = 50 g wt
m 2 =
W2 = 100 g wt
Position vector of m1 = and W3 = 200 g wt
Positive vector of m2 = Taking moment of force about the support,

Position vector of centre of mass, W3 = 200 g wt

∑ τ = 0
= W1 × 40 + W2 × 10 + r × 0 – W3 × x = 0
98 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

50 × 40 + 100 × 10 + 0 – 200 x = 0 M = 40 kg, m = 45 kg, AB = 5 m, PA = QB

\ 2000 + 1000 – 200 x = 0 = 0.5 m, AD = 1.5 m, g = 9.8 m/s2
The weight of the plank,
\ 200 x = 3000
W = Mg = (40 kg)(9.8 m/s2)
\ x = = 392 N and the weight of the boy,
W1 = mg = (45 kg)(9.8 m/s2)
\ x = 15 cm
= 441 N
From left end, From the figure,
x = 15 + 60 PQ = 4,
\ x = 75 cm i.e. PC = QC = 2 m.
Also, PD = 1 m and QD = 3 m.
The distance from knife-edge towards right is 15 cm
According to the first condition of equilibrium,
or 75 cm from the left end. Total mass suspended,
R1 + R2 – W – W1 = 0
\ x = 75 cm
\ R1 + R2 = W + W1
M = 50 + 100 + 200 = 392 N + 441 N
M = 350 g = 833 N … (i)
M = 0.35 kg (i) According to the second condition of
equilibrium, taking moments about points Q,
Normal reaction,
(–R1) × QP + W1 × QD + W × QC + (–R2) × 0 = 0
N = 0.35 × 9.8 = 3.43 N
\ R1 × QP = W1 × QD + W × QC
\ N = 3.43 N \ R1 (4 m) = (441 N) (3 m) + (392 N) (2 m)

*(23) A uniform wooden plank, 5 m long and \ R1 =

mass of 40 kg, is resting horizontally on two
supports 0.5 m from each end. A boy weighing
= = 526.75 N (or 53.75 kg wt)
45 kg stands on the plank, 1.5 m from one end.
Find the reaction at the supports. (3 marks) From Eq. (i),
R2 = 833 N – 526.75 N
Solution:
R2 = 306.25 N (or 31.25 kg wt)
As shown is figure, AB is the wooden plank of mass
M, resting on two supports P and Q. C is the centre \ R1 = 526.75 N, R2 = 306.25 N
of gravity of the plank. The boy, of mass M, stands at
point D, let R1 and R2 be the reactions of the supports *(24) A ladder 15 m long and weighing 50 kg wt
at P and Q, respectively. rests against a smooth wall at a point 12 m
above the ground. The centre of gravity of
the ladder is one-third the way up. A man
weighing 80 kg wt climbs half way up the
ladder. Find the forces exerted by the system
on the wall and ground. (3 marks)
Solution:
As shown in the figure, AB is the ladder, of mass M.
C is the centre of gravity of the ladder. The man, of
mass m, stands at point D.
Force 99

From equation (ii)

Let and be the normal reactions of the wall and
ground, respectively. Since the wall is given to be f = F1 = 42.5 kg wt
smooth, there should be a force of friction between Hence, the magnitude of the net force exerted by the
the ladder and the ground at point B in the direction ground on the ladder
shown, so that the ladder does not slip. =
W = 50 kg wt, AB = 15 cm, AE = 12 m, W1 = 80 kg wt,
=
BC = AB, AD = BD = AB, EB = 9 m

( ∆AEB is a right triangle, right-angled at E) =

= 1.368 × 102 kg wt
\ The system exerts a force of magnitude 42.5 kg
wt on the wall and a net force of magnitude
136.8 kg wt on the ground.

Additional Numericals for Practice

(1) A constant force acts for 5 s on a body of mass

10 kg initially at rest and then ceases to act. If
According to the first condition of equilibrium. in the next 5 s, the body covers 100 m, find the
∑Fy = 0 ⇒ F2 – W – W1 = 0 ... (i) force. (2 marks)
and ∑Fx = 0 ⇒ F1 – f = 0 ...(ii)
(2) A ball of mass 2 kg is accelerated uniformly
From Equation (i), from velocity 8 m/s to 10 m/s to cover a
F2 = W + W1 distance of 12 m. Find the magnitude of force
= 50 kg wt + 80 kg wt required. (2 marks)
= 130 kg wt ...(iii)
(3) A bullet of mass 25 g moving with a velocity
According to the second condition of equilibrium,
of 150 m/s strikes a target and is brought to
taking moments about the point B,
rest in 1/100 of a second. Find the impulse and
F1 × AE + (–W1) × BP + (–W) × BQ average force of impact. (2 marks)
+ (F1) × 0 + (–f) × 0 = 0
(4) A gun fires a bullet of mass 0.1 kg and recoils
where BP and BQ are the moment arms for
with velocity 1 m/s. If the mass of gun is 20 kg,
about B. find the velocity of bullet. (2 marks)
BP = BE = 4.5 m (5) A man of mass 80 kg stands in an elevator.
Calculate his apparent weight when,
and BQ = BE = 3 m
(i) elevator is at rest
\ F1 × AE = W1 × BP + W × BQ (ii) elevator is uniformly accelerated upwards
\ F1 (12 m) = (80 kg wt) (4.5 m) + (50 kg wt) (3 m) at 2 m/s2
(iii) downwards with 2 m/s2 acceleration
\ F1 = (iv) the elevator cable breaks (g = 10 m/s2)
= 42.5 kg wt … (iv) (3 marks)
100 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(6) Two masses of 20 kg and 10 kg are connected (13) A block of mass m1 = 3.7 kg on frictionless
to the ends of a string, hanging on a smooth inclined plane of angle 30° is connected to a
and frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of string over a massless, frictionless pulley to
the two masses and tension in the string. a second block of mass m2 = 2.3 kg hanging
(3 marks) vertically. What is
(i) the magnitude of acceleration of each
(7) A body P of mass 3 kg and moving with velocity
block?
of 2 m/s makes a head-on elastic collision with
(ii) the direction of acceleration of the
other body ‘Q’ of mass 5 kg, which is at rest.
hanging block?
(i) What is velocity of Q after collision?
(iii) the tension in the string? (g = 9.8 m/s2)
(ii) What is momentum of body P after (3 marks)
collision? (2 marks) (14) A flexible chain of length L and mass M is slowly
(8) A body of mass 2 kg travels with a velocity of pulled at constant speed up over the edge of a
8 m/s makes a head on collision with another table by a force f parallel to the edge of the table.
body having mass 4 kg, which is travelling in Assume that there is no friction between the
the same direction with a velocity of 1 m/s. table and the chain, calculate the work done.
Calculate the velocities of the two bodies after (3 marks)
collision. Find the loss in kinetic energy of the (15) Find the position vector of the centre of mass
system. (Given e = 0.5) (3 marks) of 1 kg, 2 kg and 3 kg at points
and respectively. (2 marks)
(9) A cyclist moves on a road stops due skidding
covering 10 m. During this process, the net force
Answers
on the cycle due to road is 100 N and opposite
to the motion. How much work is done by the (1) 40 N (2) 3 N (3) – 3.75 Ns, 375 N (4) 200 m/s
road on the cycle and vice versa? (3 marks) (5) 800 N, 960 N, 640 N, Zero (6) 3.27 m/s2, 130.7 N
(7) 1.5 m/s, –1.5 kg m/s (8) 1 m/s, 3.5 m/s, 24.0 J
(10) A body of mass 1 kg moving with velocity 10
(9) – 1000 J (10) 0.25 m/s in the direction that of first
m/s collides with another body moving in
body (11) 85.8 kg wt, 114.2 kg wt (12) 94.08 N,
opposite direction of mass 3 kg and velocity
101.92 N (13) (i) a = 0.735 m/s2, (ii) Downward
3 m/s. After collision both the bodies move
together. What is their common velocity? direction, (iii) T = 20.85 N (14) (15)
(3 marks)
Formulae Map
(11) Two men are carrying a uniform beam of mass
200 kg of length 10 m on their shoulders. If one
(1) Net F = m × a =
man is at 1 m from one end and other is 2 m
from other end, find the load supported by
\ net =
each. (2 marks)
(2) = × t = m –m (Impulse)
(12) A steel rod of 1 m is supported at its ends so
(3) m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
that it remains horizontal. Three spheres of
masses 4 kg, 6 kg, 8 kg are suspended from (i) Elastic collision:
15 cm, 40 cm and 80 cm marks respectively. If
weight of rod is 2 kg wt, calculate the reaction
at each support. (g = 9.8 m/s2) (2 marks) u1 + v1 = u2 + v2
Force 101

Multiple Choice Questions

v1 =
Select and write the most appropriate answer from
the given alternatives.
v2 = (1) Action and reaction forces do not cancel each
other because
e = (a) they have different magnitude.
(b) they are acting in different direction.
\ e = 1
(c) they are equal in magnitude and opposite
(ii) Inelastic collision: in direction acting on two different bodies.
(d) they are equal in direction and have different
v =
magnitude acting on two different bodies.
v1 = v2 = v (2) A force vector applied on a mass is represented
\ e = 0 as = N and accelerates with
(iii) For partially inelastic collision, 0 < e < 1 1 ms . What will be the mass of the body?
–2

(a) kg (b) 10 kg
(4) F=G (Gravitational force)
(c) kg (d) 20 kg
(5) F= (Electrostatic force) (3) A ball of mass 250 g moving with 20 m/s
strikes a vertical wall and rebounds along the
same line with a velocity of 15 m/s. If the time
(6) F= (Magnetic force)
of contact is 0.1 s, the force exerted by the wall
on the ball is
(7) (i) W=
(a) 87.5 N (b) 12.5 N
(ii) W = F (ds) cos θ
(c) –12.5 N (d) –87.5 N
(iii) W = change in KE
(4) If a constant force of 800 N produces an
(iv) W = = Total area under the acceleration of 5 m s–2 in a body, what is its
curve between force F and mass? If the body starts from rest, how much
displacement (x-axis) from xi and xf distance will it travel in 10 s?
(a) 4000 kg, 250 m (b) 160 kg, 500 m
(8) = × = moment arm × force
(c) 160 kg, 250 m (d) 795 kg, 200 m
= r F sinθ
(5) ................ force is defined in order to apply
(9) Newton's laws of motion in non-internal plane.
(a) Pseudo (b) Gravitational

(b) Real (d) Magnetic

(6) Which of the following is NOT an example of

real force?
(10) For translational equilibrium (a) The earth revolves around the sun.
∑ =0 (b) Bus is moving with acceleration in straight
line, the passenger experience backward
For rotational equilibrium
force.
∑ =0 (c) Motion between two surfaces in contact.
(d) Motion of the moon around the earth.
102 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(7) The electrostatic and gravitational forces are 2.5 dyne. If the work done is 6.25 erg, the angle
similar because which the force makes with the direction of
(a) both are conservative. motion of the body is
(b) both are central forces. (a) 90° (b) 60°
(c) both follow inverse square law. (c) 45° (d) 30°
(d) all of these.
(14) A force applied to a packet resting on smooth
(8) The range of nuclear force is nearly horizontal plane making an angle of 45°,
(a) 1014 m (b) 108 m displaces it through 4 m. If the work done in
(c) 10–8 m (d) 10–14 m moving the packet is 16 J, the force applied is

(9) An athlete runs some distance before taking a (a) (b)

long jump, because
(c) (d)
(a) it gives energy to him for long jump.
(b) it helps to apply large force. (15) A ball of mass 5 kg travelling with velocity
(c) by running, he gives himself large inertia of 45 cm/s makes a head on collision with
of motion. another ball of mass 1 kg which is at rest. After
(d) by running, action and reaction forces the collision, the speed of the lighter ball is
increase. (a) zero
(10) A bullet leaves the rifle of mass one kg and rifle (b) less than 15 cm/s
recoils with a velocity 30 cm/s. If the mass of (c) equal to 15 cm/s
the bullet is 3 g, the velocity of the bullet is (d) greater than 15 cm/s

(a) 104 cm/s (b) 3 × 102 cm/s (16) When the bodies stick together after collision,
(c) 102 cm/s (d) 10 cm/s the collision is said to be

(11) A light and heavy body have equal K.E. Which (a) perfectly elastic (b) perfectly inelastic
body possesses greater momentum? (c) partly elastic (d) partly inelastic

(a) Light body (17) A force F = (0.5x + 12) N acts on a particle. If x is

(b) Both have equal momentum in metres, calculate the work done by the force
(c) The heavy body during the displacement of the particle from
(d) Momentum cannot be predicted x = 0 to x = 4 m

(12) Choose the WRONG statement. (a) 128 J (b) 80 J

(c) 64 J (d) 52 J
(a) The law of conservation of linear momentum
holds good for microscopic objects. (18) A block of mass m moving at a speed of u
(b) The law of conservation of linear momentum collides with another block of mass 2 m at
holds good for macroscopic objects. rest. The lighter block comes to rest after the
(c) The law of conservation of linear collision. The coefficient of restitution is
momentum is true for two objects. (a) 0.8 (b) 0.6
(d) The law of conservation of linear (c) 0.5 (d) 0.4
momentum is not applicable for two
(19) If the relative displacement between any two
colliding bodies at any angle.
particles of a body does not change under the
(13) A block of wood moves a distance 5 cm along application of force of any magnitude, the body
a straight line under the action of force of is said to be a
Force 103

(a) stationary body (b) elastic body (26) Torque can NOT be given by
(c) plastic body (d) rigid body (a) product of magnitude of the force and
(20) A bomb of mass 9 kg explodes into two pieces lever arm of the force
of mass 3 kg and 6 kg. The velocity of mass (b) product of magnitude of the force and
3 kg is 16 m/s. The kinetic energy of mass perpendicular distance between its line of
6 kg is action of the force
(c) product of magnitude of force and
(a) 96 J (b) 192 J
moment arm of the force
(c) 384 J (d) 768 J
(d) product of magnitude of the force and
(21) The coefficient of restitution will NOT have
maximum distance covered
(a) e = 0 (b) e = 1
(27) The turning effect of the applied force does
(c) 0 < e < 1 (d) e > 1
NOT depend upon
(22) A passenger sitting in a bus moving along a
(a) magnitude of the force
circular path experiences a force which is
(b) direction of the force
(a) opposite to the acceleration of the bus (c) moment arm of the force
(b) in the same direction as that of the (d) material and its distance from axis of
acceleration of the bus rotation
(c) along the direction of motion of the bus
(28) What is the torque of forces
(d) opposite to the direction of motion of the
bus = N acting at a point

(23) A frame of reference which moves with = m about origin?

constant velocity with reference to a stationary (a) Nm
frame of reference is called (b) Nm
(a) inertial frame of reference
(c) Nm
(b) non-inertial frame of reference
(d) Nm
(c) rotating frame of reference
(d) absolute frame of reference (29) A mass of 10 kg is suspended from a rope
wound on a wheel of diameter 40 cm. The
(24) Non-inertial frame of reference has
torque about the axis of rotation is
(a) zero acceleration
(a) 39.2 N m (b) 19.6 N m
(b) some acceleration with respect to internal
(c) 4 N m (d) 2 N m
frame of reference
(c) zero velocity (30) The centre of mass of two particles lies on the
(d) constant velocity with respect to internal line
frame of reference (a) joining the particles
(25) When a body is at rest, then (b) at any angle of this line
(c) which is relative distance between the
(a) force is acting on the body
particles
(b) the body is in vacuum
(d) of forces on particles
(c) the net resultant force acting on it has
some magnitude (31) The position of centre of mass of two particle
(d) the net resultant force acting on it is zero system is
104 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

The location of P with respect to C is

(a) (a) (b) (c) l (d)

(36) A point through which total weight of the body

(b) always acts vertically downwards whatever
may be the position of the body is
(c)
(a) centre of mass (b) rigid body
(c) centre of gravity (d) geometrical centre
(d)
(37) Condition of translational equilibrium of a
(32) Centre of mass of body lies rigid body is

(a) always inside the body (a) (b)

(b) always outside the body
(c) (d)
(c) on the surface of the body
(d) may be inside or outside the body (38) A uniform bar RS weighs 100 g and is 80 cm
(33) The centre of mass of a system of two uniform long. From the end R two masses 50 g and
spherical masses of 5 kg and 35 kg with centres 100 g hung from the bar at a distance of 10 cm
of them 0.7 m apart is and 60 cm respectively. If the bar is to remain

(a) 0.6125 m from 35 kg horizontal when balanced on a knife-edge, its

(b) 0.6125 m from 5 kg position is
(c) 0.35 m from 35 kg (a) 42 cm from S (b) 38 cm from R
(d) 0.35 m from 5 kg (c) 38 cm from G (d) 42 cm from R

(34) For a circular ring centre of gravity lies (39) A steel bar AB of mass 10 kg and length
(a) away from the ring 1 m is kept horizontal by supporting it at the
(b) at the geometrical centre two ends. Two weights of 4 kg and 6 kg are
(c) on the edge of the ring suspended from points of the bar at distances
(d) none of the above 30 cm and 80 cm respectively from the end A.
(35) A 'T' shaped object with dimensions shown in The reaction at A is
the figure, is lying on a smooth floor, A force (a) 107.8 N (b) 97.8 N
(c) 88.2 N (d) 78.2 N

(40) A body of mass 2 kg, travelling at 4 m/s

makes a head-on collision with a body of mass
1 kg travelling in the opposite direction with
a velocity of 2 m/s, the velocities of the two
bodies after collision are
(a) v1 = 6 m/s, v2 = 6 m/s
(b) v1 = 0, v2 = 0
is applied at the point P parallel to
(c) v1 = 0 m/s, v2 = 6 m/s
AB such that the object has only the
translational motion without rotation. (d) v1 = 6 m/s, v2 = 0
Force 105

Answers acceleration of the bus (23) inertial frame of reference

(24) some acceleration with respect to internal frame

(1) they are equal in magnitude and opposite in
of reference (25) the net resultant force acting on it
direction acting on two different bodies. (2) kg
is zero (26) product of magnitude of the force and
(3) –87.5 N (4) 160 kg, 250 m (5) Pseudo (6) Bus
maximum distance covered (27) material and its
is moving with acceleration in straight line, the
distance from axis of rotation (28) Nm
passenger experience backward force. (7) all of these.
(29) 19.6 N m (30) joining the particles
(8) 10–14 m (9) by running, he gives himself large

inertia of motion. (10) 104 cm/s (11) The heavy body (31)

(12) The law of conservation of linear momentum (32) may be inside or outside the body (33) 0.6125 m
is not applicable for two colliding bodies at any
from 5 kg (34) at the geometrical centre (35)
angle. (13) 60° (14) (15) greater than 15 cm/s
(36) centre of gravity (37) (38) 42 cm from R
(16) perfectly inelastic (17) 52 J (18) 0.5 (19) rigid
(39) 88.2 N (40) v1 = 0 m/s, v2 = 6 m/s
body (20) 192 J (21) e > 1 (22) opposite to the

ASSESSMENT - 4
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions : (10)

(1) Define and explain impulse of a force.
(2) Explain Nuclear force in nature.
(3) What is frame of reference? Explain inertial frame of reference
(4) Calculate the recoil velocity of a gun of mass 5 kg, which fires a bullet of mass 50 g with
velocity 500 m/s. Calculate the impulse given to the bullet.
(5) A force = N acts on a particle. The position of particle with respect to origin
O is = m. Find the torque acting of the particle and calculate its magnitude.
(6) A body of mass 5 kg is acted upon by constant force. It starts from rest and covers a distance
of 100 m in 10s. Calculate the force acting on the body.

Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions : (6)

(1) Explain the concept of work done by a variable force. Also explain the graphical method to
determine the work done by a variable force.
(2) A block of mass 1 kg moving on a horizontal surface with speed 4 m/s enters a rough patch
ranging from x = 0.1 m to x = 2.2 cm. The retarding force (F) on the block in its range is
inversely proportional to x over this range.
106 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

F = – for 0.1 < x < 2.2 m

= 0 for x < 0.1 and x > 2.2 m, where k = 0.5

What is the final kinetic energy and speed of the block as it crosses this patch?
(3) A ball is dropped on a plane horizontal surface from height H. The ball bounces and reaches

height h. Then show that coefficient of restitution is, e = .

Q.3. Attempt any ONE question : (4)

(1) What is elastic collision? For a perfectly elastic collision, derive the expression for the
velocities of the colliding bodies after collision.
(2) (a) What do you mean by pseudo force?
(b) A uniform beam 1 m long is supported on knife-edge at 60 cm from left end. A mass of
100 g is suspended at a distance of 50 cm and a mass of 50 g is suspended at 20 cm from
same end. From where should the mass of 200 g be suspended so that beam will remain
horizontal. Also find normal reaction at the support.

vvv
5 Friction in Solids and Liquids

Points to Remember :
• When two bodies are in contact, the property which opposes relative motion between two
surfaces in contact is called friction.
• The tangential force exerted between them, which opposes relative motion is called force of
friction.
• Adhesive forces between molecules of different substances are smaller as compared to
cohesive force between molecules of same substance.
• Friction between two bodies in contact, when one body just move or tends to move over the
other is called as static friction.
• Friction between two bodies in contact, when one body is sliding over the other is called as
kinetic friction.
• Friction between two bodies in contact, when one body is rolling over the other is called as
rolling friction.
• Static friction > kinetic friction > rolling friction.
• Laws of static friction:
(i) Limiting force of static friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction between two
surfaces in contact.
(ii) Limiting force of static friction is independent of apparent area of two surfaces in contact.
(iii) Limiting force of static friction depends upon the nature and material of surfaces in contact.
• Laws of kinetic friction:
(i) Force of kinetic friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction between two surfaces
in contact.
(ii) Force of kinetic friction is independent of apparent area of two surfaces in contact.
(iii) Force of kinetic friction depends upon nature and material of surfaces in contact.
(iv) Force of kinetic friction does not depend upon the velocity, provided the velocity is small.
• Fluid is a substance that can flow, so the term fluid includes both liquids and gases. The thrust
exerted by a liquid at rest per unit area normal to the surface in contact with the liquid is
called pressure.

• P =

(107)
108 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• SI unit of pressure is N/m2 and CGS unit of pressure is dyne/cm2.

• Pressure is a scalar quantity.

• Pascal’s law : The pressure applied to any part of the enclosed fluid at rest is transmitted
undiminished to every portion of the fluid and to walls of the vessel.

• The property by virtue of which fluid opposes relative motion between adjacent layers of
fluid is called viscosity.

• Newton’s law of viscosity: Viscosity force acting on any layer of fluid is directly proportional to
(i) area of the layer, (ii) velocity gradient.

• Coefficient of viscosity is viscous force per unit area per unit velocity gradient.

η =

• The SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is N–S/m2 and GGS unit is .

• Flow of liquid over plane surface or through tube so long as the velocity of liquid is less than
a critical velocity is called streamline flow.

• If liquid is in a streamline flow and the velocity of the flow is gradually increased, then after
certain critical velocity, flow becomes irregular, such flow is called turbulent flow.

• Stokes law: If small sphere falling through a viscous medium then viscous force acting on it
is equal to 6πηrv.

• Bernoulli’s principle: If flow of non viscous and incompressible fluid is streamline, then
sum of pressure energy, the kinetic energy per unit mass and potential energy per unit mass
always remains constant.

P+ ρ v2 + ρ gh = constant.

by applying force.
MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 5
(ii) As soon as the applied force is removed, block
5.1 Origin and nature of frictional force comes to rest.

*Q.1. Explain the concept of frictional force. (iii) This is because in the absence of the applied
(2 marks) force, the block is acted upon only by frictional
force, which opposes its motion and brings
Ans. Whenever there is a relative motion between
it to rest.
two solid surfaces in contact or an attempt is
made to produce a relative motion between (iv) We are able to walk because of friction between
two solid surfaces in contact, a force which our feet and ground.
opposes the motion is called the force of friction (v) Frictional force is directed tangential to the
or frictional force. surfaces in contact and opposite to the direction
(i) Suppose a metal block is moved along a surface of motion.
Friction in Solids and Liquids 109

*Q.2. Define Friction. What are its causes? (vii) When the body starts moving, there is no
(2 marks) sufficient time for interlocking and thus smaller
Ans. The property of a material body by virtue force is sufficient to keep the body in motion.
of which relative motion between two solid (viii) Cohesive forces (i.e. attractive forces between
surfaces in contact or attempt to produce similar molecules) of attraction are stronger
relative motion between two solid surfaces in than adhesive forces (i.e. attractive forces
contact is opposed, is called Friction. between dissimilar molecules). Therefore,
The causes of friction are: the bearings used in machines are made of
(i) Interlocking between the irregularities on the different materials to reduce friction.
contact surface.
Q.4. What are the characteristics of force of
(ii) Intermolecular forces of attraction between the friction? (3 marks)
two surfaces.
Ans.
*Q.3. Explain the origin of friction. (3 marks) (i) Force of friction acts tangential to the surfaces
Ans. in contact which are moving or trying to move
with respect to each other.
(ii) Force of friction comes into play, for the bodies
at rest, if there is component of external force
parallel to the surfaces in contact.
(iii) Direction and magnitude of force of friction
depends on the external force. Hence friction is
Fig. 5.1 : Two Surfaces in Contact (Magnified View)
called passive or self-adjusting force.
(i) When we see a smooth plane surface under
(iv) When work is done on a body against the force
powerful microscope, it consists of irregularities
of gravity, or against the force of elasticity, the
such as small cracks, which are called hills and
work done is stored in the body as potential
dales.
energy. These forces are, therefore, called
(ii) Even a highly polished surface is not perfectly
conservative forces. The work done against
plane. Therefore, when we keep two bodies in
friction is dissipated away to the surroundings
contact, these hills and dales get interlocked
in the form of heat and not stored in the body
with each other.
as potential energy. Hence, friction is called a
(iii) Due to this interlocking of the surfaces, relative
non-conservative or dissipative force.
motion between two bodies is opposed.
(iv) The actual area of contact is much smaller than *Q.5. Define : (i) Static Friction (ii) Kinetic Friction
the apparent area of contact. At the points (iii) Rolling Friction (3 marks)
of contact, the molecules of the two bodies Ans.
are very close and hence they exert strong
(i) Static Friction: The opposing force developed
intermolecular forces of attraction and a type
between the surfaces of two bodies in contact,
of cold welding or welding bond is formed.
when one body tends to move over another
(v) Such welding offers a strong resistance to
before starting relative motion is called static
the relative motion between two bodies and
friction.
frictional force is exerted.
(vi) To move one body over another, cold welds (ii) Kinetic Friction: The opposing force developed
between bodies should be broken by the between the surfaces of two bodies in contact,
applied force. Thus, we require a certain when one body is moving over another is
minimum force to keep the body in motion. called kinetic friction.
110 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) Rolling Friction : The opposing force developed Where, µs is a constant and called coefficient of
between the surfaces of two bodies in contact, static friction.
when one body is rolling over the surface of (ii) The limiting force of friction is independent of
another body is called rolling friction. the geometrical area of the surfaces in contact.
Note: Static friction > Kinetic friction > Rolling (iii) The limiting force of friction depends upon
Friction. the nature and material of the two surfaces in
contact and on the presence of any lubricant
Q.6. Explain the terms normal reaction and (oil, grease etc.) between the two surfaces.
limiting friction. (2 marks) (iv) The force of static friction acts in a direction
opposite to the direction in which the body
Ans.
tends to move.

5.3 Kinetic Friction

*Q.8. State the laws of kinetic friction. (2 marks)
Ans.
(i) The force of kinetic friction (FK) is directly
proportional to the normal reaction (N)
between the two surfaces in contact.
Fig. 5.2: Dia. showing N. reaction friction limiting FK ∝ N
N = Normal reaction, W = Weight of the body, \ FK = µK N
F = Applied force, f = Frictional force where, µK is a constant and called coefficient of
(i) Normal Reaction: Equal and opposite force of kinetic friction.
reaction which balances the weight of a body (ii) The force of kinetic friction is independent of
kept on horizontal surface in equilibrium is the geometrical area of the surfaces in contact.
called normal reaction. Suppose body of mass (iii) The force of kinetic friction depends upon the
‘m’ is kept on a horizontal surface as shown in nature and materials of the surfaces in contact.
figure. The weight of body ‘W’ acts vertically (iv) The force of kinetic friction does not depend
downward and its reaction ‘N’ acts vertically upon the velocity of the sliding body, provided
upward as shown in figure. The magnitudes of velocity of relative motion is neither too large
the two forces are equal. nor too small.
(ii) Limiting friction: The maximum frictional *Q.9. Explain the terms : (i) Coefficient of static
force that comes into play when one body is friction (ii) Coefficient of kinetic friction
just about to move over the surface of the (3 marks)
other body is called limiting friction. When we Ans.
increase applied force slightly beyond limiting (i) Coefficient of static friction (µs) : The coefficient
friction, the actual motion of body starts. of static friction is defined as the ratio of limiting
force of friction (Fs) to the normal reaction (N).
5.2 Laws of Static Friction
Limiting force of friction,
*Q.7. State the laws of static friction. (2 marks) Fs ∝ N
Ans. \ Fs = µs N
(i) The limiting force of static friction (Fs) is
directly proportional to the normal reaction \ µs =
(N) exerted by the surface Coefficient of static friction (µs) is a dimensionless
i.e. Fs ∝ N \ Fs = µs N quantity.
Friction in Solids and Liquids 111

(ii) Coefficient of kinetic friction (µK) : (vii) The experiment is repeated several times,
The coefficient of kinetic friction is defined as adding weights on the wooden block each
the ratio of kinetic friction (FK) to the normal time. It is found that,
reaction (N). = …… = constant
Kinetic frictional force,
FK ∝ N \ = constant
(viii) This verifies the first law of static friction.
FK = µK N \ µK =
*Q.11. Describe the experiment to verify that the
Coefficient of kinetic friction (µK) is a
limiting force of static friction is independent
dimensionless quantity. of the apparent area of contact (Second law).
(4 marks)
*Q.10. Describe the experiment to verify that the
Ans.
limiting force of static friction depends upon
(i) Arrange two identical wooden blocks on
normal reaction between two surfaces in
horizontal surface as shown in figure.
contact (First law). (4 marks)
Ans.
(i) A plane wooden surface with a pulley attached
to its one end, is placed horizontally on a table
and a wooden block is kept on it.
(ii) A string is tied to the block and taken over the
pulley. Fig. 5.4 : Experiment to verify that FS is independent
of the apparent areas of contact
(ii) In both these cases, the normal reaction is the
same and equal to the total weight of the two
blocks but the surface area in contact in second
case is twice that in the first.
(iii) The measurements, however, show that the
Fig. 5.3 : Experiment to verify FS ∝ N limiting force of static friction is the same in
both the cases.
(iii) A pan of known weight is tied to the free end
(iv) Moreover, the experiment is repeated several
of the string as shown in figure.
times, every time taking two identical blocks
(iv) Weights are added to the pan till the block is of various shapes of their bases. Every time the
just about to slide along the plane i.e., the block result is the same. It verifies the second law of
is in limiting equilibrium. static friction.
(v) The applied force (weight of pan plus weight (v) This experiment shows that limiting force
in it) is exactly equal to the limiting force of of friction is independent of the geometrical
static friction (FS1). The weight W of the block apparent area of contact.
is the normal reaction N1. The ratio FS1 to N1 is
*Q.12. Describe the experiment to verify that the
found.
limiting force of static friction depends upon
(vi) The procedure is repeated and the limiting nature and material of surfaces in contact
force of static friction FS2 is determined by (Third law). (4 marks)
putting an additional weight on the block. In Ans.
this case, the normal reaction N2 is the sum of (i) A wooden block is placed on a horizontal
the weight W of the block and weight on it. The surface and the limiting force of static friction
ratio FS2 to N2 is determined. (F1) is found out.
112 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) Another wooden block of same material and Once the body is set it motion, these bonds are
same normal reaction is placed on a horizontal continuously broken and formed. But since the
polished surface and then the limiting force of surfaces are in motion, there is very less time
static friction (F2) is found out. available for formation of strong bonds.
(iii) After performing two conditions, it is found Hence, the force of kinetic friction is less than
that F1 >F2 . the limiting force of static friction.

(iv) Thus, the limiting force of friction decreases *Q.15. Mention few methods of reducing friction.
if surface in contact is smooth i.e. it depends Ans. Methods of reducing friction are:
upon the nature of surfaces in contact. (i) Using polished surfaces.
(v) Take a few sheets of different materials e.g. (ii) Using ball bearings.
glass, iron and aluminium. Now, place a (iii) Using a lubricant.
wooden block on each surface and find the (iv) Giving appropriate shapes to bodies. (e.g.
limiting force of friction. Aerodynamic shape)
(vi) It is observed that the limiting force of friction
*Q.16. Why do we slip on a rainy day?
is different for different surfaces.
Ans. On a rainy day, the water on the road acts as
(vii) Thus, limiting force of static friction depends a thine layer of lubricant between our feet and
upon nature and material of surfaces in contact. the road. As a result, friction between feet and
road decreases and hence we slip on a rainy
*Q.13. Why do we call friction as a self adjusting
day.
force? (2 marks)
Ans. *Q.17. Why lubricants are used in machines?
Ans. The contact surfaces of moving parts of
(i) When a force is applied from one side of body
machines are lubricated with oil so that a very
then direction of the force of friction is in the
thin film of oil exists between them. As fluid
opposite direction.
friction is much less than contact friction, these
lubricants reduce friction between contact
surfaces of machines.

Fig. 5.5 : Force acting on a body *Q.18. Why is it difficult to walk on sand?
Ans. When we step on dry sand, the gains move and
(ii) If the direction of force is changed, then
thus shifting sand reduces friction and makes
direction of the force of friction also changes
it difficult to push the ground backward. As
and becomes opposite to that of force.
a result a sufficient reaction force that will
(iii) Thus force of friction changes as per the take us forward is not generated by ground.
direction of force, therefore it is called a self We, therefore, have to step harder so that the
adjusting force. sand underneath our feet gets compacted for
*Q.14. Explain why kinetic friction is less than better friction allowing us to push the ground
static friction. backward. Hence, it is difficult to walk on dry
Ans. Friction between two solid surfaces in contact sand.
mainly arises due to intermolecular forces of 5.4 Pressure due to Fluid column
attraction between the two surfaces. To begin
relative motion, these molecular bonds (i.e. *Q.19. Define and explain pressure of fluid State its
cold welded bonds) must be broken. To break SI, CGS unit and dimension. (2 marks)
bonds, certain minimum non-zero magnitude Ans.
force is required. This force is called limiting (i) The pressure of a fluid is the thrust or normal
force of static friction. force acting per unit area of cross-section of fluid.
Friction in Solids and Liquids 113

\ P = hρg
P =
where, h ⇒ Depth of liquid from free surface
ρ ⇒ Density of liquid
P =
g ⇒ Acceleration due to gravity
(ii) Pressure is a scalar quantity.
(iii) S.I. units : newton/metre2 (N/m2) Q.21. Explain the term atmospheric pressure.
(iv) C.G.S. units : dyne/cm2 (2 marks)
(v) Dimensions : [M1L–1T–2] Ans. Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the
air column acting normally on a unit area at
*Q.20. Derive an expression for pressure due to a height h from surface of earth. Atmospheric
liquid column. (2 marks) pressure,
Ans. Patm = hρg
Where, h is the height from surface to point
where the pressure is to be measured in air and
ρ is density of air.
1atm = 1.013 × 105 N/m2

*Q.22. Explain the term hydrostatic paradox.

(2 marks)
Ans.
(i) The pressure of a fluid is the same at all points
having the same depth. The shape of the vessel
does not affect the pressure.
Fig. 5.6 : Pressure due to a liquid column (ii) This can be better understood from the three
(i) Consider a vessel with liquid of density ρ. vessels. A, B and C are three vessels of different
(ii) Let × be a point at the depth of h from the free shapes and contain different amounts of water.
surface. Consider a cross section area A at x.
(iii) Draw a cylinder of height h and area A.
Volume of liquid in cylinder,
V = Ah
Mass of liquid in cylinder,
m = volume × density
\ m = Ahρ
Fig. 5.7 : Different types of vessels
(iv) Weight of liquid in cylinder,
(iii) It is found that all the vessels of different
W = mg
shapes, holding different amount of liquid up
W = Ahρg
to the same height exert the same pressure as
(v) Pressure of the liquid column, recorded at the base of each of the vessel.
= (iv) The shape of the vessel containing the liquid
does not affect the pressure. This is known as
\ P = Hydrostatic paradox.

\ P = Q.23. State laws of pressure due to liquid column.

(2 marks)
114 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Ans. The laws of pressure due to liquid column are : (iv) As soon as the force is applied, the level of
(i) Pressure inside a liquid increases with water increases through the same height in all
depth. side tubes.
(ii) Pressure changes with the density of liquid. (v) This shows that the pressure applied at one
place in the liquid is transmitted equally to
(iii) Pressure at a point inside a liquid is equal
every other part of the liquid.
in all directions.
(iv) Pressure inside a liquid is the same at all Q.25. Explain the working of mercury barometer to
points in the same horizontal plane. measure the atmospheric pressure. (3 marks)
(v) Pressure due to liquid is not affected by Ans.
the shape or size of the container.
(vi) Pressure in a fluid is directly proportional
to acceleration due to gravity.

5.5 Pascal’s law and its applications

*Q.24. State and explain Pascal’s law. (2 marks)

Ans. Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied
to any point in an enclosed mass of a liquid at
rest is transmitted equally in all directions to
all points of the liquid, without reduction. Fig. 5.9 : Torricelli’s mercury barometer
In other words, a change in pressure applied to (i) The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is
an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished equal to the weight of a column of air of unit
to every point of the fluid and walls of the cross sectional area extending from that point
containing vessel. to the top of the atmosphere.
(ii) A long glass tube closed at one end and filled
with mercury is inverted into a trough of
mercury. This device is known as mercury
barometer.
(iii) The space above the mercury column in the
tube contains only mercury. Vapour whose
pressure P is so small that it may be neglected.
(iv) The pressure inside the column at point A must
be equal to the pressure at point B which is at
the same level.
Fig. 5.8 : Demonstration of Pascal’s law Pa = ρgh
(i) Consider a flask with a number of side tubes where ρ is the density of mercury and h is
fitted with an airtight piston. Fill the flask with height of the mercury column in the tube.
water. (v) It is found that the mercury column in the
(ii) Since the liquid finds its own level, the level of barometer has a height of about 76 cm at sea
water in all side tubes is the same. level equivalent to one atmosphere.
(iii) Now, push the piston down through some (vi) Hence,
distance, i.e. a force is applied at a point on the Pa = 0.76 × Density of mercury × g
water. \ Pa = 0.76 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8
\ Pa = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
Friction in Solids and Liquids 115

Q.26. Explain the construction and working of open (iii) Hydraulic press is based on Pascal’s law which
tube manometer. (2 marks) is used for compressing cotton bales or bundles
Ans. of waste paper, pressing metal sheet to give a
(i) An open tube manometer is a simple device to shape etc.
measure the pressure difference. Q.28. Explain working of hydraulic lift. (2 marks)
(ii) It consists of a U-tube having a low density liquid Ans.
such as oil for measuring small pressure difference
and a high density liquid such as mercury for
measuring larger pressure difference.
(iii) One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere
and other end is connected to the vessel.
(iv) Difference between levels of liquid column is
measured, the liquid pressure is the same at all
points at same horizontal level.
(v) If the effect of gravitation is neglected, the P Fig. 5.11 : Working of hydrauli lift
pressure at every point in an incompressible (i) Hydraulic lift is used to lift heavy load by
liquid in equilibrium is the same i.e. pressure application of small force.
at point A is equal to pressure at point B
(ii) The given figure explains the working of the
according Pascal’s law.
hydraulic lift. The two limbs are of respective
(vi) The gauge pressure is measured which is cross-sections A1 and A2.
proportional to manometer height h.
(iii) A1 is much smaller than A2. These chambers
P – Pa = hρg are filled with incompressible liquid. W is a
\ P = Pa + hρg load placed on the platform.
(iv) If F1 is the force applied to the piston in the
narrow limb then change in pressure is,
P =
(v) This is transmitted undiminished to all points
in the liquid according to the Pascal’s law. So
change in pressure at A2 is also P.
(vi) Let F2 be the force on second piston.
\ F2 = A2 P

\ F2 =
(vii) Thus the force exerted on the second piston
is increased by a factor equal to the ratio
A2/A1. This ratio being greater than one, the
Fig. 5.10 : An open tube manometer force F2 >> F1.
*Q.27. State applications of Pascal’s law. (2 marks) (viii) Automobile brakes, hydraulic drill machines
Ans. etc. also work on the same principle.
(i) Working of hydraulic brakes is also based on
5.6 Effect of gravity on fluid pressure
Pascal’s law of pressure.
(ii) Working of hydraulic lift is based on Pascal’s *Q.29. Explain the effect of gravity on fluid
law. pressure. (2 marks)
116 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Ans. 5.7 Viscosity

(i) Consider liquid of density ρ in vessel. Let us
find pressure between two points P and Q as *Q.30. Define viscosity or viscous drag. (2 marks)
shown in figure. Ans. Viscosity is the property of fluids i.e. liquids and
(ii) Let h be the height of the liquid column between gases which oppose relative motion between
points P and Q. their adjacent layers. The force responsible
for this opposition is called viscous force or
viscous drag.
(i) All liquids and gases possess viscosity.
(ii) Gases have much smaller viscosity than liquids.
(iii) If liquid in vessel is stirred fast, it comes to rest
after some time because of viscosity.
(iv) If honey and water are poured on the inclined
surface, the water flows down faster than
honey as honey is more viscous than water.

5.8 Streamline Flow

Fig. 5.12 : Effect of gravity on fluid pressure
*Q.31. Explain streamline flow. (2 marks)
(iii) Consider an imaginary cylinder having area
of cross-section ‘A’ and height h as shown in Ans.
figure. (i) If the quantity of fluid flowing out per second
at any point remains the same, the flow of fluid
(iv) Let h1 be the height of liquid column above
is said to be streamline.
point P and let P1 be the pressure at point P.
(ii) The tangent drawn to any point gives the direction
\ P1 = h1ρg ... (1)
of motion of fluid is called streamline. Streamline
(v) The height of the liquid column above point Q at any point, gives direction of flow of the liquid
is (h1 + h) and let P2 be the pressure at point Q. at that point. Two streamlines can never intersect,
\ P2 = (h + h1) ρg … (2) if they intersect, then an element arriving at their
(vi) Hence the difference in pressure at points P intersection will have two different velocities,
and Q is given as, simultaneously, which is impossible.
P2 – P1 = (h+h1) ρg
... [From (1) and (2)]
\ P2 – P1 = (h + h1 – h1) ρg
\ P2 – P1 = hρg … (3)
(vii) In presence of gravity, P2 is not equal to P1 and Fig. 5.13 : A streamline
pressure cannot remain the same at all points (iii) In streamline flow over plane surface, the
in the liquid. liquid is supposed to be divided into plane
layers. If liquid flows through a tube (or pipe)
(viii) In absence of gravity, P1 is equal to P2 and the
of uniform cross-sectional area then all the
pressure at every point inside the liquid in
streamlines will be parallel to the axis of tube.
equilibrium would be the same.
(iv) In streamline flow, velocity of liquid at a given
(ix) Hence, gravity is responsible for the difference
point is always constant both in magnitude
in pressure at different points inside a liquid
and direction.
column which are not in the same horizontal
plane. (v) The flow of liquid over a plane surface remains
streamline, as long as the velocity of the fluid
Friction in Solids and Liquids 117

is less than a certain limiting velocity called the

critical velocity.

5.9 Turbulent Flow

*Q.32. Explain turbulent flow. (2 marks)

Fig. 5.15 : Stationary layer
Ans.
(iii) The layer at the bottom, in contact with fixed
(i) When velocity of flow of liquid exceeds critical horizontal surface is at rest. The velocity of
value, the flow becomes turbulent. liquid increases from layer to layer as distance
(ii) In a turbulent flow, the molecules of the liquid of layer from the fixed layer increases.
do not move in the direction of flow but they (iv) Let the velocity of liquid at Q which is at
move up, down and side ways randomly. distance × from fixed layer be v. The velocity
(iii) In turbulent flow, velocity of particle in given of liquid layer at P which is at distance (x + dx)
layer does not remain constant but changes from fixed layer will be (v + dv).
in random manner both in magnitude and (v) The difference between velocities of the layers
direction. at P and Q is dv and the distance between the
two layers is dx.
Thus,
velocity gradient =

(vi) Unit of velocity gradient is s–1 .

(vii) Dimensions of velocity gradient are [M0L0T–1].

Fig. 5.14 : Turbulent flow 5.11 Newton’s Formula

(iv) In turbulent flow, at some points, molecules of
*Q.34. State and explain Newton’s law of viscosity.
liquid may have rotational motion which gives Define coefficient of viscosity. (2 marks)
rise to eddies.
Ans. Newton’s law of viscosity states that, when
(v) When river is in flood, the flow of water there is streamline flow in a viscous liquid,
is turbulent, and during storm flow of air each layer exerts a retarding force on adjacent
becomes turbulent. faster moving layer called viscous force. This
viscous force is
5.10 Velocity gradient
(i) tangential to the layer
*Q.33. Define and explain velocity gradient. (ii) directly proportional to the area of the layer
(2 marks) and
Ans. The rate of change of velocity with distance
(iii) directly proportional to the velocity gradient in
measured from the fixed layer is called the
the liquid.
velocity gradient.
i.e. F ∝ A
(i) Consider a liquid flowing slowly on a horizontal
surface. Such a flow is called streamline flow.
\ F = η A … (1)
(ii) Let the liquid be divided into different thin
layers and velocity of liquid in given layer is Where, η is proportionality constant and is
constant. called as coefficient of viscosity.
118 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(i) The coefficient of viscosity depends upon the a = 1 ...(2)

nature and temperature of the liquid. – a + b + c = 1 ...(3)
(ii) Coefficient of viscosity is defined as tangential – a – c = –2 ...(4)
force of viscosity acting per unit area of a layer, (v) Using above equations we get
when the velocity gradient in the liquid is unity. a = 1, b = 1, c = 1
(iii) C.G.S. unit : poise Substituting these values in equation (1), we
S.I. unit : Ns/m2 get
1 Ns/m2 = 10 poise F = KηRv

(iv) Dimensions of coefficient of viscosity are (vi) The value of K can be determined
[M1L–1T–1]. experimentally. It is found to be equal to 6π
\ F = 6πηRv … (5)
5.12 Stoke’s law
5.13 Equation for terminal velocity
*Q.35. State Stoke’s law and derive it by dimensional
analysis. (3 marks) Q.36. Explain the term terminal velocity. (3 marks)
Ans. 'The viscous force acting on a small sphere Ans.
falling through a fluid is directly proportional (i) Consider a sphere of radius R and density ρ,
to the radius r of the sphere, its velocity ‘v’ allowed to fall through viscous medium of
through fluid and coefficient of viscosity η of density ρ0 (ρ > ρ0).
the fluid.' (ii) When sphere is at rest (v = 0), forces acting on
i.e. F ∝ η r v the sphere are;
\ F = 6πηrv (a) force of buoyancy acting upwards
where, (b) force of gravity acting downwards
r = radius of the sphere
(iii) Under the action of these forces, sphere moves
v = velocity of the sphere downwards with acceleration, and its velocity
η = coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. increases.
(i) Stoke’s law can be proved by the method of
(iv) According to Stoke’s law, with increase in
dimensional analysis as follows.
downward velocity, viscous force increases
(ii) The viscous force F depends upon and acts upwards.
(a) coefficient of viscosity of the fluid (v) At certain stage, downward force due to
(b) radius of spherical body gravity is balanced by the upward force due to
(c) velocity v of the sphere buoyancy and viscosity. Thus, resultant force
i.e. F = K ηa Rb vc ... (1) acting on sphere is zero.
where K is a numerical constant and a, b (vi) As a result, body falls through medium with
and c are the dimensional co­efficients to constant velocity. This velocity is called as
be determined. terminal velocity.
(iii) Writing the dimensions of all quantities, we get
Note :
[M1L1T–2] = K[M1L–1T–1]a [M0L1T0]b
(1) Buoyant force or force of Buoyancy is an
[M0L1T–1]c
upward force acting on the body immersed in
\ [M1L1T–2] = K[Ma L(–a + b + c) T(–a–c)] a liquid.
(iv) Equating the indices of M, L and T on both (2) It is equal to the weight of liquid displaced by
sides, we get,
the immersed part of the body.
Friction in Solids and Liquids 119
(3) If density of the liquid is ρ0 and V is the volume
of the liquid displace by the body then force of \ πR3 (ρ–ρ0)g = 6πηRv
Buoyancy is given by,
F = mg \ v =

\ F = (ρ0V)g (vi) This relation can be used to find the radius R if

(4) The Buoyant force acts at the centre of v, ρ and ρ0 are known.
Buoyancy which is the centre of gravity of the
5.14 Reynold’s Number
liquid displaced by the body when immersed
in the liquid. *Q.38. What is Reynold’s Number? (2 marks)
Ans.
*Q.37. Obtain an expression for terminal velocity of
(i) Streamline flow of a liquid is possible because
spherical body falling under gravity through
of viscosity.
viscous fluid. (4 marks)
(ii) The flow of a liquid inside a tube remains
Ans.
streamlined as long as its velocity is less than
(i) Consider a spherical body of radius R and a particular velocity called critical velocity (vc).
density ρ falling under gravity through a fluid If velocity becomes greater than this critical
of density ρ0 (ρ > ρ0). value, the flow becomes turbulent.
(ii) Let the viscosity of fluid be η and terminal (iii) Reynold showed that,
velocity of sphere be v.
vc =
(iii) The forces acting on sphere are :
where, η = coefficient of viscosity
(a) Force due to gravity acting downwards ρ = density of liquid
(b) Force due to buoyancy acting upwards
D = diameter of the tube
(c) Force due to viscosity acting upwards
Here, R is called Reynold’s number.
(iv) Thus Reynold’s number,

R =

(v) R is a pure number, so it has no units and

dimensions.
(vi) If R < 2000, flow is streamlined.
If 2000 < R < 3000, flow may become turbulent.
If R > 3000, flow is turbulent.
Fig. 5.16 : Terminal Velocity
(vii) Exact value at which flow becomes turbulent is
(iv) Let M be mass and V be the volume of the called critical Reynold number.
sphere.
5.15 Bernoulli’s Principle
i.e. V = πR3
(v) Equating the upward and downward forces, *Q.39. State and explain Bernoulli’s Principle.
(4 marks)
Mg = Vρ0 g + 6πηRv
Vρg = Vρ0 g + 6πηRv Ans. Bernoulli’s principle states that the sum of
pressure energy, potential energy and kinetic
\ ρg = ρ0g + 6πηRv energy (K.E.) in a streamline flow of an ideal
liquid remains constant.
120 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(i) Bernoulli’s principle is about the streamline

flow of an ideal liquid. An ideal fluid, flow + gh = constant.
(a) is incompressible, Flow of water in a river is example of turbulent
(b) is non-viscous or has zero internal flow, hence Bernoulli’s equation is not valid.
friction,
(c) has no angular momentum about any *Q.41. Explain Torricelli’s law to find speed of
point. efflux. (4 marks)
Ans.
(ii) Let ρ = density of liquid
h = height of fluid column, (i) An ideal liquid of density ρ is contained in
v = velocity of the fluid a vessel and is allowed to escape through a
narrow opening O of the vessel.
Then, K.E. = mv2 = (ρV)v2

\ = ρv2 … (1)
Also, P.E. = mgh = ρVgh

\ = ρgh … (2)
(iii) According to Bernoulli’s principle,
Pressure energy + K.E. + P.E. = constant … (3)
\ PV + mv2 + mgh = constant … (4)
Fig. 5.17
(iv) Dividing equation (3) throughout by the (ii) The velocity of efflux increases as the height
volume of the fluid, of the liquid level increases above the narrow
= constant … (5) opening.
(iii) According to Torricelli’s law, the velocity of
\ + = constant efflux of liquid through narrow opening is
equal to the velocity, which a body attains
P+ ρv2 + ρgh = constant … (6) while falling freely from the free surface of the
liquid to narrow opening.
(v) Again, dividing equation (3) throughout by
mass of the fluid, (iv) According to Bernoulli’s principle,

= constant … (7) = constant

\ + = constant \ P + ρv2 + ρgh = constant

(v) Applying Bernoulli’s principle at inside and

+ v2 + gh = constant… (8)
outside of narrow opening,

Limitation : We have considered that there is +ρgh = = constant

no loss of energy. But in reality, there is loss of
(vi) If × = 0, v1 = 0. As vessel is open to the
energy in the experiment.
atmosphere, then Po = Pa.
Intext question textbook page no. 68
\ Pa + 0 + ρgh = Pa + 0 +
*Q.40. Can Bernoulli’s equation be used to describe
rapid flow of water in a river? (1 mark) \ ρgh =
Ans. Bernoulli’s equation is valid for streamline \ = 2gh
Friction in Solids and Liquids 121

(ii) Bunsen’s burner :

\ v2 =
(a) In a Bunsen’s burner, the gas escapes through
This is the speed of efflux. the fine nozzle with high velocity, due to
Note : which pressure decreases near the nozzle.
(1) The time after which the liquid strikes the (b) Since pressure inside the burner is lowered, air
horizontal surface, enters through holes.
(c) The air and gas mixture rise up and produce a
t = flame, when burned.

(2) Horizontal range, (iii) Air purifier :

(a) This is a device used for spraying fragrance in
R=vt= × = air.
(b) It is based on Bernoulli’s principle.
*Q.42. State and explain applications of Bernoulli’s
principle. (3 marks) (iv) Venturi-meter :
Ans. (a) The venturi-meter is a device used to measure
the speed of an incompressible fluid in a
(i) Atomiser or Spray gun :
streamline flow.
(a) An atomizer is a device used to divide bulk
(b) It is also based on Bernoulli’s principle.
liquid into droplets. It is used to obtain a fine
spray of a liquid.
*Q.43. Explain the working of venturi-meter.
(b) A hydraulic atomizer that is used for spraying (3 marks)
insecticide, paint, etc., has a vertical tube A, Ans.
whose lower end is immersed in the liquid in (i) The venturi-meter is a device having horizontal
a can. constricted tube, used to measure the speed of
an incompressible fluid in a streamline flow as
shown in the figure.

Fig. 5.18 : Atomiser

(c) A horizontal tube B, that is attached to the
tube A, has a nozzle at one end and a pumping
device at the other end.
(d) When air is forced through the tube B, Fig. 5.19 : Venturi meter
the pressure at the upper end of tube A is (ii) The constricted part of the tube is called the
reduced. throat.
(e) This draws the liquid up the tube from the can. (iii) A manometer in the form of a U-tube is
(f) The air flowing in tube B blows this liquid out attached to it, with one arm at the broad neck
through the nozzle in fine spray. point of the tube and the other at the throat.
122 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) In case of streamline flow, the quantity of

\ =
fluid flowing per second at any point remains
constant.
(v) If v1 and v2 are the speeds of fluid at the broad
area and the throat of the tube respectively and
A1 and A2 are the area of cross-section at these \ v1 =
two points, then volume of fluid flowing per
second at point A,
Volume1 = v1A1 ... (1)
Similarly, volume of fluid flowing per second *Q.44. Explain why the upper surface of wings of an
at point B, aeroplane are made convex and lower surface
Volume2 = v2A2 ... (2) concave. (3 marks)
Ans.
(vi) Now,
(i) The aeroplane wings have convex upper
Volume1 = Volume2
surface and concave lower surface, so that the
\ v1A1 = v2A2 streamlines crowd together above the wings
more than those under it.
\ v2 = ... (3)
(ii) As a result, the speed of flow above the wings
(vii) Hence, speed of fluid while passing through is higher than that below it.
the throat increases. As a result, the pressure (iii) Then according to Bernoulli’s principle,
at point B decreases according to Bernoulli’s pressure above the wings is lower than that
principle. below it.
(viii) If P1 and P2 are the pressures at point A and (iv) This difference of pressure gives rise to an
B respectively, then according to Bernoulli’s upward force or dynamic lift on the aeroplane
principle, which helps in balancing its weight.

=
Solved Problems
\ = Static friction, kinetic friction
(1) Calculate the horizontal force required to
just move a block of mass 30 kg resting on a
\ P1 – P2 = … (4)
horizontal surface, (µs = 0.3, g = 9.8 m/s2)
(2 marks)
(ix) This pressure difference causes the fluid in
Solution: µs = 0.3, m = 30 kg, g = 9.8 m/s , N = mg
2

the U-tube connected at the throat to rise

\ N = 30 × 9.8 = 294 N
in comparison to the other arm. If h is the
difference in heights and ρm is the density of The horizontal force required to move block is
fluid in the U-tube, then F = µs N
P1 – P2 = ρmgh … (5) \ F = 0.3 × 294 = 88.2 N
\ F = 88.2 N
(x) Comparing equation (4) and (5),

(2) A 35 kg metal block is placed on a horizontal

ρmgh = surface. The block just begins to slide when
horizontal force of 150 N is applied to it.
Friction in Solids and Liquids 123

Calculate the coefficient of static friction.

(2 marks) \ F =
Solution: m = 35kg, Fs = 150 N, g = 9.8 m/s2,
N = mg \ F = = 112.5 N
\ N = 35 × 9.8 N \ F = 112.5 N
Coefficient of static friction,
(4) A rectangular block of mass 10 kg is held
µs =
against a vertical wall by applying a force of
200 N normal to the wall. If the frictional force
\ µs = = 0.4373
just prevents it from sliding down the wall,
\ µs = 0.4373 find the value of acceleration due to gravity.
The coefficient of static friction between
*(3) A uniform ladder which is 5 m long has a mass
block and wall is 0.49. (2 marks)
of 30 kg. Its upper end is against a smooth
vertical wall and its lower end is on a rough Solution:
ground. The bottom of the ladder is 3 m from
the wall. Calculate the frictional force between
the ladder and the ground (g = 10 m/s2)
(2 marks)
Solution: m = 30 kg, g = 10 m/s2 , mg = 30 × 10
\ mg = 300 N

m = 10 kg, P = N = 200 N, µs = 0.49

W = mg = Fs and
Fs = µsN
\ mg = µsN
AB = 5m, AC = 3m
BC = 4m \ g =

AB2 = AC2 + BC2

\ g = = 9.8 m/s2
25 = 9 + BC2
\ 25 – 9 = BC2 \ Acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s2.

\ 16= BC2 \ BC = 4
(5) A body of mass 6 kg is to be just held pressed
\ BC = 4m against a rough vertical wall by applying a
force normal to the wall. If the coefficient of
\ cotq =
static friction between the surfaces is 0.28,
Taking torques about point A, find the force required. (2 marks)
Solution:
= N2 (AB)(sin θ)
In this position, the limiting force of friction F
\ N2 = balances the gravitational force on the body. If
N is the normal reaction then,
\ F =
124 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Along the vertical,

W = Psin θ + N

\ N = W – Psin θ … (ii)

Also

FK = µK N … (iii)

\ FK = µK (W – Psin θ) … (from (ii))

W = mg
\ FK = µK (mg – Psin θ) … (iv)
Fs = µs N
Substitute eq. (iv) in eq. (i)
Fs = W
\ µs N = mg \ Pcos θ – µK (mg – Psin θ) = ma

\ N = Pcos θ – µK mg + µK Psin θ = ma

\ P (cos θ + µK sin θ) = m (µKg + a)

\ N = = 210 N

N = 210 N \ P =

Applied force,
N = 210 N \ P =
\ P = N = 210 N
\ P =
(6) Calculate the force applied at an angle of 30°
with the horizontal, needed to keep a box of
mass 5 kg moving with uniform acceleration \ P =
of 0.5 m/s2 on a horizontal surface, if µk
\ P = 24.2 N
between the box and the surface is 0.5. Find
the force if block is to be pushed and pulled. →
(ii) From figure (b), P is pushing the box
(3 marks)
Solution: θ = 30°, m = 5 kg,
\ a = 0.5 m/s2 , µK = 0.5
→
(i) From figure (a), P is pulling the block.

Along the horizontal we have,

Pcosθ – FK = ma
Pcosθ = FK + ma … (i)
Along the vertical,
Along the horizontal, we have
W + Psinθ = N … (ii)
Pcos θ – FK = ma … (i)
Now,
Friction in Solids and Liquids 125

FK = µK N … (iii) (i) frictional force acting on mini bus and

\ FK = µK (W + Psin θ) … (from (ii)) (ii) the coefficient of rolling friction between
tyres and the surface of the road.
\ FK = µK (mg + Psin θ) … (iv)
(3 marks)
Substitute eq. (iv) in eq. (i) Solution:
\ Pcosθ = µK (mg + Psin θ) + ma v = 10 m/s, m = 5000 kg, t = 2 minutes and 30 s

\ P (cosθ – µK sin θ) = m (µKg + a) \ t = 150 s

→
v =
\ P =
Taking the direction of motion of the mini bus as
positive,
\ P =
v = u + at
\ 0 = 10 + a × 150
\ P =
\ a = – m/s2
\ P = The frictional force acting on the mini bus is,
F = ma
\ Force required to push the block is 43.83 N.
\ F = 5000 × = – 333.33 N
(7) Find the distance travelled by a body of 2 kg
before coming to rest, if it is moving along
\ F = – 333.33 N
the horizontal surface with a velocity of 7 m/s.
(µk = 0.3, g = 9.8 m/s2) (2 marks) Negative sign shows that frictional force opposes the
Solution: motion.
v = 7 m/s, m = 2 kg, µK = 0.3, g = 9.8 m/s2 Now,
K.E. = work done by frictional force µK =

\ mv2 = F × s
\ µK =
\ mv2 = (µK N) × s
\ µK = = 0.0068
\ mv2 = µK × m × g × s
\ µK = 0.0068
Frictional force acting on minibus tyre by road is
333.33 N. Coefficient of rolling friction is 0.0068.
\ s =
(9) A block of mass 50 kg just begins to slide
down an inclined plane when the angle
\ s = of inclination is 30°. Find the acceleration
with which the body will slide down over
\ s = = 8.33 m the plane, when the angle of inclination is
increased by 15°. (Assume µs = µk) (3 marks)
\ s = 8.33 m
Solution:
(8) A mini bus of mass 5000 kg, rolling freely The angle at which body begins to slide,
at 10 m/s comes to rest in 2 minutes and 30 θ1 = 30°
seconds due to friction between the tyres and \ µs = µK = tan θ1
the surface of the road. Assuming the road to \ µk = tan 30 =
be perfectly horizontal, calculate :
126 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

So the resulting force acting down the plane. F = fk = µkN = µk mg

F = mg sin θ – FK, = (0.4) (20) (9.8)
FK = µK N, N = mg cosq F = 8 × 9.8 = 78.4 N
\ F = mg sin θ – µK mg cos θ
*(11) A body starting from rest slides over a plane
inclined at 45° to the horizontal. After certain
displacement, the body has velocity 2 m/s. If the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the body
and the surface is 0.5, find the displacement of
the body from the start. (3 marks)
\ ma = mg (sin θ – µK cos θ)
Solution:
\ a = g (sin θ – µK cos θ)
We assume that the body slides down the
\ a = 9.8 (sin 45° – µK cos 45°) plane.
u = 0, q = 45°, v = 2 m/s, µk = 0.5
\ a = 9.8
The acceleration of a body sliding down an
inclined plane is

\ a = a = g (sin θ – µk cos θ)
= (9.8) (sin 45° – 0.5 × cos 45°)
\ a = = 9.8 (0.7071 – 0.5 × 0.7071) N
= 9.8 × 0.7071 (1 – 0.5) Fk
\ a = 6.9296 × 0.4226 = 2.9284 m/s2
θ
\ a = 3.465 m/s2 sin θ
\ a = 2.9284 m/s2 m
g
mg mg cos θ
θ
Now, v2 = u2 + 2as
*(10) A 20 kg metal block is placed on a horizontal
surface. The block just begins to slide when a = 2as ( u=0)
horizontal force of 100 N is applied to it. Calculate The displacement of the body from the
the coefficient of static friction. If the coefficient
start is, s =
of kinetic friction is 0.4, find the minimum force
to maintain its uniform motion. (3 marks)
=
Solution:
Fs = F = 100 N, m = 20 kg, µk = 0.4, g = 9.8 m/s2 \ s = 0.5772 m
(i) The coefficient of static friction,
Pressure, Pascal’s law
µs = (12) In a car lift, a force F1 acts on a smaller piston of
radius 5 cm. The radius of the larger piston is
= = 0.5102 15 cm. Mass of the car to be lifted up is 1350 kg.
Calculate the minimum value of F1. (3 marks)
\ µs = 0.5102
Solution:
(ii) In uniform motion along the horizontal surface, F2 = 1350 kg wt
a = 0 so that
A1 = π (5 cm)2 = π × (5 × 10–2)2 m2
f – fK = 0
A2 = π (15 cm)2 = π × (15 × 10–2)2 m2
\ The minimum force to maintain uniform motion,
Friction in Solids and Liquids 127

\ F1 = 1.36 × 103 = 1360 N

\ F 2 =
\ F1 = 1360 N
\ F 2 = Pressure developed in oil,

P =
\ F 1 =
\ P = = 433 × 104 N/m2
\ 1350 = 9 F1

\ F 1 = \ P = 433 × 104 N/m2

\ F 1 = 150 kg wt *(15) In a hydraulic lift, the input piston has surface

area of 20 cm2. The output piston has surface
\ The minimum force to be applied is 150 kg-wt.
area of 1000 cm2. If a force of 50 N is applied
*(13) A swimmer jumped into a swimming tank to the input piston, it raises the output piston
and was swimming at 8 m below the surface by 2 m. Calculate the weight of the support on
of the tank. Calculate the pressure on him. output piston and the work done. (3 marks)
(Density of water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2,
Solution:
Pa = 1.013 × 105 N/m2) (3 marks)
F1 = 50 N, A1 = 20 cm2, 20 × 10–4 m2,
Solution: \ A2 = 1000 cm2 = 1000 × 10–4 m2
F = ma
We know,
Pa = 1.013 × 105 N/m2
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 =
h = 8m
g = 9.8 m/s2 \ =
Now, P = Pa + ρgh
\ F2 = 50 × 50
\ P = 1.013 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 8
\ F2 = 2500 N
\ P = 1.013 × 105 + 78.4 × 103
\ P = 1.013 × 105 + 0.784 × 105 Work done,

\ P = 1.797 × 105 N/m2 W = F2 × s

\ Pressure on the swimmer is 1.797 × 105 N/m2. \ W = 2500 × 2

(14) A hydraulic press consists of two cylinders of \ W = 5000 J

radii 6 cm and 1 cm respectively. The larger Weight of support on output piston is 2500 N
cylinder has to balance a load of 5000 kg. How and work done is 5000 J.
much force must be applied to the smaller
cylinder? What is the pressure developed in Newton’s formula, Stoke’s law, Terminal velocity
the oil? (3 marks) *(16) The relative velocity between two layers of
F 2 = 5000 g N fluid separated by 0.1 mm is 2 cm/s. Calculate
A1 = π (1 cm)2 = π × 10–4 m2 the velocity gradient. (2 marks)
A2 = π (6 cm)2 = π × 36 × 10–4 m2
Solution:
We know,
dx = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × 10–3 m
F 1 =
dv = 2cm/s = 2 × 10–2 m/s

\ F 1 = Velocity gradient =
128 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ Velocity gradient = ρa = 1.2 kg/m3

η = 1.96 × 10–5 Ns/m2
\ Velocity gradient = 20 × 10 = 200 s–1
\ Velocity gradient = 200 s–1 R = = 1.5 × 10–3 m

*(17) Calculate the viscous force acting on a rain Terminal velocity,

drop of diameter 2 mm, falling with a uniform
v = (ρ – ρw)
velocity 2 m/s through the air. The coefficient
of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2. (2 marks)
\ v =
Solution:
d = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m, R = \ v = 249.7 m/s
\ R = 10–3 m \ The terminal velocity of raindrop is 249.7 m/s.
v = 2 m/s
(20) A spherical liquid drop of diameter 2 × 10–4
η = 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2
m is falling with a constant velocity through
By Stoke's law,
air, under gravity. If the density of liquid is
F = 6πηRV
500 kg/m3 and viscosity of air is 2 × 10–5 Ns/
\ F = 6 × 3.14 × 1.8 × 10–5 × 10–3 × 2
m2, determine the terminal velocity of the
\ F = 67.824 × 10–8
drop and viscous force acting on it. Neglect
\ F = 6.7824 × 10–7 N
the density of air. (g =9.8 m/s2) (3 marks)
\ The viscous force acting on the rain drop is
6.7824 × 10–7 N. Solution:
R = 1 × 10–4 m
(18) Find the minimum force required to move a
ρ = 500 kg/m3
glass plate of area 30 cm2 with a velocity of 1.5
cm/s over a surface of oil 1 mm thick, if the p0 = 0
coefficient of viscosity of the oil is 20 poise. η = 2 × 10–5 Ns/m2
(2 marks) Terminal velocity,
Solution:
v = 1.5 cm/s, dx = 1 mm = 0.1 cm v = (ρ – ρ0)

Velocity gradient = =
\ v = = 0.544 m/s
\ Velocity gradient = 15
Coefficient of viscosity, η = 20 poise \ v = 0.544 m/s
A = 30 cm2 Viscous force,
By Newton's law
F = 6πηRv
F = ηA \ F = 6 × 3.14 × 2 × 10–5 × 10–4 × 0.544
\ F = 20 × 30 × 15 = 2.051 × 10–8 N
\ F = 9000 dyne \ F = 2.051 × 10–8 N
\ Minimum force required to move the glass
*(21) A spherical oil drop falls at a steady rate of
plate is 9000 dyne.
2cm/s in still air. Find the diameter of the
(19) Find the terminal velocity of a raindrop drop. Take g = 980 cm/s2. The coefficient of
of diameter 3 mm, when it falls through viscosity of air is 1.8 x 10-4 poise. Density of
atmospheric air. (ρw = 1000 kg/m3, ρair = 1.2 kg/ oil = 0.8 g/cm3, Density of air = 1 g/cm3
m3, ηair = 1.96 × 10–5 Ns/m2)
Given : V = 2 cm/s; g = 980 cm/s2,
Solution:
ρoil = 0.8 g/cm3, ρair = 1 g/cm3; h = 1.8 x 10-4 poise
ρw = 1000 kg/m3
Friction in Solids and Liquids 129

To find : diameter of drop (d) = ?

Solution: g = 9.8 m/s2
2
2 r g (ρair − ρoil ) By Torricelli's law of efflux, the velocity of efflux,
V =
9 η v =
9Vη
r 2 = \ x = =
2 g(ρair − ρoil )
−4
9 × 1.8 × 10 × 2 = = 6.173 m
r =
2
2 × 980 × ( 1 − 0.8)
r2 = 8.265 × 10–6 cm2 \ x = 6.173 m

r = 2.87 × 10–3 cm *(24) Calculate the total energy per unit mass
\ Diameter of drop (d) = 2r = 2 × 2.87 x 10 cm –3 possessed by water at a point where the
pressure is 0.1 × 105 N/m2, velocity is 0.02 m/s
d = 5.74 x 10–3cm and height of water level from the ground is
Bernoulli’s principle, Toricelli’s law 10 cm. (Density of water = 1000 kg/m3,
g = 9.8 m/s2). (3 marks)
*(22) A water tank has a hole at a distance of 6 m
Solution:
from free water surface. Find the velocity of
water through the hole. If the radius of the P = 0.1 × 105 N/m2 = 104 N/m2, v = 0.02 m/s,
hole is 2 mm, what is the rate of flow of water? h = 10 cm = 0.1 m, ρ = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2
(g = 9.8 m/s2) (3 marks) Using Bernoulli's principle,
Solution:
h = 6 m
R = 2 × 10–3 m \ =
g = 9.8 m/s2
Velocity of efflux of water, \ =
v =
\ = 10 + × 4 × 10–4 + 0.98
v =
v = = 10.84 m/s \ = 10 + 2 × 10–4 + 0.98

v = 10.84 m/s
\ = 10 + 0.0002 + 0.98
Rate of flow of water,
r = velocity of efflux of water × area
\ = 10.9802 J/kg
\ r = 10.84 × πR2
\ r = 10.84 × 3.142 × (2 × 10–3)2 \ Total energy per unit mass is 10.9802 J/kg.
\ r = (10.84 × 3.142 × 4) × 10–6 *(25) Flow of blood in a large artery of an
\ r = 136.2 × 10–6 = 1.362 × 10–4 m3/s anaesthetised dog is diverted through a
\ r = 1.362 × 10–4 m3/s venturi-meter. The wider part of the venturi-
meter has a cross-sectional area equal to that
*(23) A water tank has a hole at a distance 'x' m of the artery i.e. 7.2 mm2. The narrower part
from the free surface of water in the tank. If has an area of 3.6 mm2. The pressure drop in
the radius of the hole is 2 mm and the velocity the artery is 24 N/m2. What is the speed of
of efflux is 11 m/s, find x. (2 marks) the blood in the artery? (density of blood =
Solution: r = 2 mm = 2 × 10–3 m, v = 11 m/s, 1.06 × 103 kg/m3) (3 marks)
130 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solution: Ratio of the areas, ∆h = h1 – h2

\ h 2 = h1 – ∆h
\ = = 2, ρ = 1.06 × 103 kg/m3
\ h 2 = 0.01 – 0.00016 = 0.00984 m
Pressure drop,
\ h 2 = 0.00984 m, P2 = 0.00984 m of Hg
ρmgh = 24 N/m 2

Using Bernoulli's principle for venturi-meter, Additional Numericals

(1) Calculate the least force required to drag a body
of mass 50 kg, with a constant velocity along the
v1 = horizontal floor if the coefficient of friction is 0.4.
(2 marks)
(2) A brick is pressed against a rough vertical wall
by a normal force of 140 N. The brick is just
prevented from sliding down the wall. If µs
\ v1 = = 0.125 m/s
between the brick and the wall is 0.35. Find the
mass of the brick. (2 marks)
\ v1 = 0.125 m/s
(3) A block just begins to move along a rough
*(26) Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of horizontal plane when it is pulled by a force of
varying cross-section. At a certain point where 42 N making an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
the velocity is 0.12 m/s, the pressure of water If µs between the block and plane is 0.2, find the
is 0.010 m of mercury. What is the pressure at mass of the block. (2 marks)
a point where the velocity is 0.24 m/s? (4) A horizontal force of 19.8 N moves a block of
(3 marks) 10 kg along a rough horizontal surface with an
Solution: v1 = 0.12 m/s, ρHg = 13600 kg/m3, acceleration of 1 m/s2 . Calculate the coefficient of
P1 = 0.010 m of Hg, ρw = 1000 kg/m3, v2 = 0.24 m/s. kinetic friction between the block and the surface.
(2 marks)
Using Bernoulli's principle,
(5) If the force required to move a block on a
P1 + = P2 + horizontal surface is equal to the weight of the
block, find the coefficient of kinetic friction.
\ P1 – P2 = (2 marks)
(6) A rectangular block of mass 20 kg rests on a
\ P1 – P2 = × 1000 × (0.242 – 0.122)
horizontal surface. It begins to slide on the
\ P1 – P2 = 500 × 0.0432 surface when a horizontal force of 98 N is applied
\ P1 – P2 = 21.6 N/m2 to it. Once motion starts, it can be maintained by
a force of 73.5 N. Find the coefficients of static
Now, difference in pressure,
and kinetic friction. (g = 9.8 m/s2) (3 marks)
P1 – P2 = ∆hρmg (7) A swimmer jumped into swimming tank and
where ∆h is the difference in height of mercury was swimming at 8 m below the surface of the
tank. Calculate the pressure on him.(Density of
column.
water = 1000 kg/m3,g= 9.8 m/s2, Atmospheric
∆h = pressure = 1.013 × 105 N/m2) (3 marks)
(8) In a hydraulic press, the diameters of the
\ ∆h = = 0.00016 m larger and smaller pistons are 50 cm and 5 cm
respectively. What is the force exerted on the
\ ∆h = 0.00016 m larger piston, when a force of 4 kg weight is
Now, exerted on the smaller piston? (2 marks)
Friction in Solids and Liquids 131

(9) In a hydraulic lift, the input piston has surface Formula Map
area 20 cm2 . The output piston has surface area
(1) Friction in solid:
of 1000 cm2 . If a force of 50 N is applied to the
input piston, it raises the output piston by 2 m. (i) Fs = µsN = µs (mg) (Horizontal)
Calculate weight of support on output piston (ii) mg = µs(N) (vertical)
and its work done. (3 marks) (iii) a = g (sinθ –µK cosθ)
(10) The relative velocity between two layers of
(iv) tan q = µs , P =
fluid, separated by 0.1 mm is 2 cm/s. Calculate
the velocity gradient. (2 marks) (2) Friction in liquid :
(11) Find the force required to move a flat glass plate (i) ∆ p = p – pa = hpg
of surface area 10 cm2 , with a velocity of 1 cm/s
(ii) P = pa + hpg
over a surface of glycerine 1 mm thick, if the
coefficient of viscosity of glycerine is 20 poise. (iii) A1ρ1V1 = A2ρ2V2 (Equation of continuity)
(3 marks)
(iv) (Pascal law)
(12) Calculate the viscous force acting on a rain
drop of diameter 2mm, falling with a uniform (3) Viscous force :
velocity 2m/s through the air. The coefficient
F = ηA
of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2. (3 marks)
(13) In Millikan’s experiment, an oil droplet is = velocity gradient
found to descend under the action of gravity
Important Formulae
with a uniform velocity 0.25 mm/s. Find the
radius of the droplet. (ρoil = 800 kg/m3 , ρair = Static Friction:
1.2 kg/m3, ηair = 1.82 × 10–5 Ns/m2) (3 marks) (1) Fs = µs N; µs → Coefficient of static friction.
(14) A drop of water of radius 9 × 10–5 m falls through N → Normal reaction
air. If η for air is 1.8 × 10–4 Ns/m2 and density of Kinetic Fiction:
air 1.21 kg/m3. Find the terminal velocity of the (2) FK = µK N; µK → Coefficient of kinetic friction.
drop. (density of water = 103 kg/m3 ) (3 marks) N → Normal reaction.
Pressure:
(15) Calculate total energy per unit mass possessed
by water at a point where the pressure is (3) P = ; P → Normal reaction.
0.1 × 105 N/m2, velocity 0.02 m/s and height of F → Normal force.
water level from the ground is 10 cm. (Density A → Area of cross-section.
of water = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2) (3 marks) Also,
(16) A water tank has a hole at a distance ‘x’ m from P = hρg; h → depth of liquid from surface.
free water surface. If the radius of the hole is ρ → density of the liquid.
2 mm and velocity of efflux of water is 11 m/s, g → acceleration due to liquid.
find ‘x’ (g = 9.8 m/s2) (2 marks) Terminal Velocity:

Answers (4) V= R → radius.

ρ → density of spherical body
(1) 196 N, (2) 5 kg, (3) 20.7 kg, (4) 0.505, (5) 1, (6) 0.5,
0.375, (7) 1.796 × 105 N/m2, (8) 400 kg.wt, (9) 2500 N, ρo → density of fluid.
5000 J, (10) 200/s, (11) 2000 dyne, (12) 0.6787 × 10–6 N, v → terminal velocity.
(13) 1.67 × 10–6 m, (14) 9.8 × 10–2 m/s, (15) 10.9802 J/ Bernoulli’s Principle:
kg, (16) 6.173 m (5) + v2 + gh = constant total energy
132 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Torricellis Law: (Speed of efflux) (6) The kerosene and honey is poured on the
inclined surface, kerosene flows down faster
(6) V=
than honey because
(i) Time, after which the liquid strikes the (a) kerosene is less viscous than honey.
horizontal surface,
(b) honey is less viscous than kerosene
(c) kerosene likes to flow on inclined surface.
t =
(d) honey has attractive force towards inclined
plane.
(ii) Horizontal range;
(7) Viscosity is the property of the liquids and
R= gases which is more closely related to
Venturi-meter: (a) elasticity (b) inertia
(7) (i) P1 – P2 = (c) tension (d) friction
(8) Coefficient of static friction does not depend
upon
(ii) v1 = (a) nature and materials of the surfaces.
(b) normal reaction.
(c) limiting force of static friction.
(d) apparent area of contact.
Multiple Choice Questions (9) When one body tends to move or move over
(1) Both liquids and gases can flow hence they are the another body, the opposition force depends
called upon
(a) elastic bodies (b) plastic bodies (a) surrounding temperature.
(c) fluids (d) semisolids (b) temperature of the bodies.
(2) A good lubricant must be (c) density of the material
(a) highly viscous only (d) nature of the surfaces in contact.
(b) volatile in nature only (10) The ball bearings used in a machine are of
(c) low viscous different materials, this is because
(d) highly viscous and low volatile (a) adhesive forces are greater than cohesive
(3) The wheels are circular in shape because forces.

(a) they require less material. (b) adhesive forces and cohesive forces are
equal in magnitude opposite in direction.
(b) circular wheels are frictionless.
(c) adhesive forces are less than cohesive
(c) they are attractive.
forces.
(d) rolling friction is least.
(d) machine looks good, attractive.
(4) Sudden fall of atmospheric pressure by a large
(11) Frictional force is
amount indicates
(a) conservative force
(a) storm (b) fair weather
(b) gravitational force
(c) cold weather (d) calm weather
(c) electrostatic force
(5) The viscous force acting on adjacent layers of
liquid is (d) non-conservative force

(a) perpendicular to it (12) Friction is caused by

(b) vertically downward (a) interlocking between the irregularities on

the contact surface.
(c) vertically upward
(b) apparent area of contact.
(d) tangential to it
Friction in Solids and Liquids 133

(c) repulsive force between air and surface of (a) pressure will be the same throughout the
earth. length of the pipe.
(d) gravitational force of attraction towards (b) pressure will be greater at the constriction.
the earth (c) pressure will be smaller in the wider
(13) In a hydraulic lift, F1 and F2 are the forces acting portion.
on the small piston and large piston having (d) pressure will be smaller at the constriction.
radii r1 and r2 respectively, then (19) A rain drop of radius 0.3 mm has terminal
velocity in air 1 m/s. The viscosity of air is
(a) (b)
18 × 10–5 poise. The viscous force on it is
(a) 101.73 × 10–4 dyne (b) 101.73 × 10–5 dyne
(c) (d)
(c) 16.95 × 10–4 dyne (d) 16.95 × 10–5 dyne
(14) In streamline flow, the velocity of a liquid at a
(20) Water is flowing through a tube of diameter
given point is
1 cm at 8 cm/s. Taking η = 10–2 poise, the flow
(a) constant in magnitude only. of liquid and Reynold's number are
(b) constant in direction but not constant in
(a) streamline, 80 (b) streamline, 800
magnitude.
(c) turbulent, 8000 (d) turbulent, 9000
(c) not constant in direction but constant in
magnitude. (21) A metal plate having an area of 0.04 m2 is
placed on a horizontal wooden surface.
(d) always constant in magnitude and direction.
Oil of coefficient of viscosity 2 Ns/m2 is
(15) In streamline flow of liquid through a pipe of
introduced between the plate and the surface
uniform cross sectional area, all streamlines are
till the thickness of the oil layer is 0.5 mm. The
(a) divided into plane layers.
horizontal force needed to drag the plate along
(b) divided into rectangular blocks. the surface with a velocity of 5 cm/s is
(c) parallel to the axis of the tube.
(a) 80 N (b) 60 N
(d) circular in shape.
(c) 8 N (d) 6 N
(16) A glass plate of length 8 cm and breadth 6
(22) The tangential force or viscous drag on any
cm slides with uniform velocity of 2.5 cm/s
layer of the liquid is directly proportional to
on a layer of glycerine, 1 mm thick, when
a horizontal force of 0.25 N is applied to the the velocity gradient . Then the direction of
plate. The coefficient of viscosity of glycerine is velocity gradient is
(a) 3.083 N s/m 2
(b) 2.083 N s/m 2
(a) perpendicular to the direction of flow of
(c) 1.083 N s/m 2
(d) 0.083 N s/m 2
the liquid.
(17) A small sphere is dropped into a medium of (b) parallel to the direction of the flow of the
infinite extent. As the sphere falls, the net force liquid
acting on it (c) opposite to the direction of the flow of the
(a) remains constant. liquid.
(b) decreases for some time and then becomes (d) independent of the direction of the flow of
constant. liquid.
(c) increases for some time and then becomes
(23) Choose of CORRECT statement
constant.
(a) The liquid pressure is not the same at all
(d) decreases for some time and then becomes
points at the same depth.
zero.
(b) The liquid pressure at all points at the same
(18) Water flows through a horizontal pipe line
depth depends on shape of the liquid.
having a constriction. Then,
134 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(c) The liquid pressure at all points at the (28) A 4 kg block A is placed on the top of a block B
same depth depends upon surrounding of mass 8 kg, which rests on a smooth table. A
environment. just slips on B when a force of 12 N is applied on
(d) The liquid pressure is the same at all A. Then the maximum horizontal force required
points at the same depth. to make both A and B move together is
(24) From the following figure select the CORRECT (a) 12 N (b) 24 N
observation
(c) 36 N (d) 48 N
(29) A block of 50 kg rests on a table. A horizontal
force of 294 N is required to just move the block,
the coefficient of statics (µs) friction between
the surfaces in contact is

(a) The pressure at the bottom of tank (A) is (a) 5.88 (b) 1.67
greater than at the bottom of (B). (c) 0.6 (d) 0.17
(b) The pressure at the bottom of the tank (A) (30) The limiting force of static friction is
is smaller than at the bottom of (B). approximately independent of
(c) The pressure depend on the shape of the (a) apparent area of surfaces in contact
container.
(b) nature of surfaces in contact
(d) The pressure at the bottom of tanks (A)
(c) materials of the surfaces in contact
and (B) is same.
(d) normal reaction between two surfaces in
(25) What is the pressure at the bottom of the ocean
contact
at a place where it is 3 km deep? [atmospheric
pressure = 1.01 × 105 Pa, Density of sea water = (31) A 100 N force acts horizontally on a block of
1030 kg m–3] 10 kg placed on horizontal rough table of
coefficient of friction µ = 0.5, g at the place is 10
(a) 1.01 × 105 Pa (b) 3 × 105 Pa
m s–2, the acceleration of the block is
(c) 1.01 × 107 Pa (d) 3 × 107 Pa
(a) zero (b) 10 m s–2
(26) According to 1st law of static friction, the
relation between Fs and N is given by (c) 5 m s–2 (d) 5.2 m s–2

(a) Fs ∝ N2 (b) Fs ∝ (32) Which of the following is NOT an application

of Pascal's law?
(c) Fs ∝ (d) Fs ∝ N
(a) Hydraulic brakes (b) Hydraulic lift
(27) Which of the following is a CORRECT statement? (c) Hydraulic press (d) Aerodynamic lift
(a) Apparent contact area is equal to real
(33) Mercury column in the barometer has a height
contact area.
of ....................... at sea level which is equivalent
(b) Apparent contact area is half of the real to one atmosphere.
contact area.
(a) 76 mm (b) 0.76 cm
(c) Apparent contact area is less than real
(c) 0.076 m (d) 0.76 m
contact area.
(34) An incompressible fluid flows steadily through
(d) Apparent contact area is greater than real
contact area. a cylindrical pipe which has radius 2R at a point
Friction in Solids and Liquids 135

A and radius R at B. If the velocity at point A is (41) In streamline flow velocity of liquid at the
v, its velocity at Point B will be bottom layer is
(a) (b) v (a) zero
(c) 2v (d) 4v (b) maximum
(35) The densities vary very little over a wide range (c) mean of all layer velocity
in pressure and temperature in case of ............ (d) infinity
hence treated as incompressible.
(42) Terminal velocity of a steel ball of diameter 0.2
(a) gases (b) liquids cm when falls through a tube filled with glycerine is
(c) solids (d) earth's atmosphere [g = 9.8 m/s2, density of steel = 8000 kg/m3, density
(36) The density of the atmosphere at sea level is 1.28 of glycerine = 1330 kg/m3, η = 9.33 poise]
kg m–3. Assume it does not change approximately (a) 15.14 × 10–3 m/s (b) 17.43 × 10–3 m/s
with altitude. Then how high would the (c) 17.43 × 10–4 m/s (d) 17.43 × 10–2 m/s'
atmosphere extend? [P = 1.013 × 10 Pa] 5
(43) Two small spheres of radii r and 2r fall through
(a) 80.76 km (b) 58.7 km a viscous liquid with the same constant speed.
(c) 4.40 km (d) 8.076 km The viscous force experienced by them are in
(37) Water is flowing through a pipe having two the ratio.
cross sections 10 cm2 and 12 cm2. If velocity (a) 1 : 4 (b) 1 : 2
of water at the smaller cross section is 2 cm/s (c) 2 : 1 (d) 4 : 1
then velocity through the large cross section is
(44) A rain drop of radius 0.5 mm has a terminal
(a) 2 cm/s (b) 1.5 cm/s velocity in air 2 m/s. If the coefficient of
(c) 3 cm/s (d) 1.67 cm/s viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–4 poise, the viscous
(38) What is the height of a barometer liquid of drag on the rain drop will be
density 3.4 g/cm3 at a place, where height of (a) 0.014 dyne (b) 0.02 dyne
mercury column is 70 cm? (c) 0.034 dyne (d) 0.04 dyne
(a) 70 cm (b) 140 cm (45) The maximum average velocity of water in a
(c) 228 cm (d) 280 cm tube of diameter 2 cm so that the flow becomes
(39) Two thigh bones i.e. femurs each of cross laminar is [The viscosity of water is 10–3 Nm–2 s–1]
sectional area 10 cm2 support the upper part (a) 1 m s–1 (b) 0.1 m s–1
of human body of mass 40 kg. The average (c) 10 m s–1 (d) 100 m s–1
pressure sustained by the femurs is
(46) The reading of pressure meter attached to
(a) 3.92 × 10 Pa
5
(b) 1.96 × 10 Pa 5
a closed pipe is 3.5 × 105 Pa. On opening the
(c) 3.92 × 102 Pa (d) 1.96 × 102 Pa valve of the pipe, the reading reduced to 3 ×
(40) An incompressible liquid is flowing through a 105 Pa. The speed of the water flowing in the
uniform cross sectional tube with velocity 12 pipe is
cm/s. If the thickness of liquid layer is 0.8 cm (a) 100 m/s (b) 50 m/s
then velocity of gradient of flow is (c) 10 m/s (d) 0.1 m/s
(a) 15 s –1
(b) 12 s –1
(47) Two drops of equal size are falling vertically
(c) 18 s –1
(d) 5 s –1
through air with a constant terminal velocity of
136 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

0.15 cm/s. What should be the velocity if these Answers

drops coalesce, to form one drop?
(1) fluids (2) highly viscous and low volatile (3)
(a) 0.15 cm/s (b) 0.15 cm/s
rolling friction is least (4) storm (5) tangential to it
(c) 0.15 × 21/3 cm/s (d) 0.15 × 22/3 cm/s
(6) kerosene is less viscous than honey (7) friction (8)
(48) Water is filled in a flask upto a height of 20
apparent area of contact (9) nature of the surfaces in
cm. The bottom of the flask is circular and has
an area of 1 m2. If the atmospheric pressure is contact (10) adhesive forces are less than cohesive
1.01 × 105 Pa, the force exerted by water on the forces (11) non-conservative force (12) interlocking
bottom is [g = 10 m s–2 and ρ = 1000 kg m–3] between the irregularities on the contact surface
(a) 1.03 m (b) 1.03 × 102 N
(13) (14) always constant in magnitude
(c) 1.03 × 104 N (d) 1.03 × 105 N
(49) The velocity of efflux of liquid through orifice and direction (15) parallel to the axis of the tube (16)
is equal to velocity which a body attains while 2.083 N s/m2 (17) decreases for sometime and then
falling freely from the free surface of liquid to becomes zero (18) pressure will be smaller at the
the orifice. This is known as constriction (19) 101.73 × 10–4 dyne (20) streamline,
(a) Bernoulli's theorem 800 (21) 8 N (22) perpendicular to the direction of
(b) Torricelli's theorem flow of the liquid (23) The liquid pressure is the same
(c) Stoke's law at all points at the same depth (24) The pressure at
(d) Pascal's law the bottom of tanks (A) and (B) is same (25) 3 × 107 Pa
(50) Velocity of liquid layer is maximum at (26) Fs ∝ N (27) Apparent contact area is greater than
(a) top (b) bottom real contact area (28) 36 N (29) 0.6 (30) apparent area

(c) middle (d) cannot be predicted of surfaces in contact (31) 5 m s–2 (32) Aerodynamic

(51) A pipe 2 cm in diameter has a constriction of lift (33) 0.76 m (34) 4v (35) liquids (36) 8.076 km (37)
diameter 1 cm. What is the velocity of flow 1.67 cm/s (38) 280 cm (39) 1.96 × 105 Pa (40) 15 s–1 (41)
at the constriction, if velocity of flow in the zero (42) 17.43 × 10–3 m/s (43) 1 : 2 (44) 0.034 dyne
broader region of the pipe is 5 cm/s? (45) 0.1 m s–1 (46) 10 m/s (47) 0.15 × 22/3 cm/s (48) 1.03
(a) 10 cm/s (b) 20 cm/s × 105 N (49) Torricelli's theorem (50) top (51) 20 cm/s
(c) 25 cm/s (d) 30 cm/s

vvv
Friction in Solids and Liquids 137

ASSESSMENT - 5
Time : 30 Min. Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions : (10)

(1) Explain the origin of friction.
(2) Explain working of hydraulic lift.
(3) Explain Torricelli's law to find speed of efflux.
(4) Find the distance travelled by a body of 2 kg before coming to rest, if it is moving along the horizontal
surface with a velocity of 7 m/s. (µs = 0.3, g = 9.8 m/s2)
(5) A body of mass 6 kg is to be just held pressed against a rough vertical wall by applying a force normal
to the wall. If the coefficient of static friction between the surfaces is 0.28, find the force required.
(6) A hydraulic press consists of two cylinders of radii 6 cm and 1 cm respectively. The larger cylinder
has to balance a load of 5000 kg wt. How much force must be applied to the smaller cylinder? What
is the pressure developed in the oil?

Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions : (6)

(1) Define static friction and state law of static friction.
(2) State Stoke's law and derive it by dimensional analysis.
(3) In a hydraulic lift, the input piston has surface area of 20 cm2. The output piston has surface area of
1000 cm2. If a force of 50 N is applied to the input piston, it raises the output piston by 2 m. Calculate
the weight of the support on output piston and the work done.

Q.3. Attempt any ONE question : (4)

(1) (a) State and explain applications of Bernoulli's principle.
(b) In a car lift, a force F1 acts on a smaller piston of radius 5 cm. The radius of the larger
piston is 1 cm. Mass of the car to be lifted up is 1350 kg. Calculate the minimum
value of F1.
(2) (a) What are the characteristics of force of friction?
(b) A body starting from rest, slides over a plane inclined at 45° to the horizontal.
After displacement of 40 cm, body has velocity of 4 m/s. What is the coefficient
of friction? (g = 9.8 m/s2)

vvv
6 Sound Waves

Points to Remember :
• A motion that repeats itself in equal intervals of time is called a periodic motion.
• If the particle makes to and fro motion about its mean or equilibrium position, the motion is
called Vibrating motion.
• An oscillating particle is called oscillator e.g. motion of bob of simple pendulum, motion of
prongs of tuning fork etc.
• The oscillating particle repeats its motion along the same path again and again. One such set
of movement is called oscillation.
• Time taken by the particle to complete one oscillation is called period of oscillation.
• The number of oscillations performed by a particle per second is called frequency of oscillation.
• The maximum displacement of particle from its mean position is called amplitude.
• Wave motion is propagation of disturbance through the medium in terms of oscillations of
particles of medium.
• Waves which require material medium for their propagation are called mechanical waves.
• Waves which do not require material medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic
waves.
• Waves which travel continuously in the same direction in the given medium without change
of form are called Progressive waves.
• A wave in which particles of a medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave is called Transverse wave.
• The maximum displacement of vibrating particle from its mean position is called amplitude (a)
of a wave.
• SI unit of amplitude of wave is metre (m).
• The time required to complete one vibration by a particle of medium is called period (T) of
wave.
• SI unit of period is second(s).
• The number of vibrations performed by any particle of medium per second is called frequency
(n) of wave.
• SI unit of frequency is hertz (Hz).
• The distance between two successive particles which are in same state of motion or in same
phase is called wavelength (l) of wave.
• The distance covered by the disturbance or a wave per second is called velocity of the wave.
• Velocity of the wave is given by v = nλ.
• Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in air is

• Laplace’s formula for velocity of sound in air is

(138)
Sound Waves 139

• Musical instruments produce sound, which has pleasant effect on listener is called musical
sound.
• Sound produced by shouting of person, thunder storm etc. has unpleasant effect on listener
and is called noise.
• A sound due to pure sine vibration is called a note.
• When two notes are simultaneously sounded together and if they produce pleasant sensation
in the ear, there is consonance. The notes are called consonant notes.
• The two notes producing unpleasant sensation in the ear, there is dissonance. The notes are
called dissonant notes.
• When two or more notes are sounded together, produce a pleasant effect due to concord is
known as harmony.
• The ratio of frequencies between two notes in the musical scale is known as musical intervals.

Master Key Question Set - 6 (iii) Amplitude:

The maximum displacement of particle from its
6.1 Waves and Oscillations
mean position is called amplitude.
Q.1. Define and explain oscillatory motion. *Q.3. Define wave motion. State the properties of
(2 marks) medium for propagation of wave. (3 marks)
Ans. If a particle makes to and fro motion about its Ans. Wave motion is a mode of transfer of energy
mean or equilibrium position, the motion is through an elastic medium from one place to
called oscillatory or vibrating motion. another, due to vibratory motion of the particles
An oscillating particle is called oscillator or of medium about their mean position.
vibrator. For the propagation of mechanical waves, the
The oscillating particle repeats its motion along medium should have following properties :
the same path again and again. One such set of (a) The medium should be continuous and
movement is called oscillation. elastic i.e. the medium should regain original
e.g. motion of bob of simple pendulum, motion state after removal of deforming forces.
of prongs of tuning fork, motion of plucked (b) The medium should possess inertia i.e.
string under tension, the motion of sewing it must be capable of storing energy and
machine needle etc. transfer it in the form of waves.
(c) The frictional resistance of medium must
Q.2. Define period of oscillation and also its be negligible so that there will be no
frequency and amplitude. (3 marks) damped oscillations.
Ans.
(i) Period of oscillation (T): 6.2 Progressive Waves
Time taken by the particle to complete one *Q.4. What are progressive waves? State their
oscillation is called period of oscillation. characteristics. (3 marks)
(ii) Frequency (n): Ans. Waves which travel continuously in the same
The number of oscillations performed by direction in the given medium without change
a particle per second is called frequency of of form are called progressive waves.
oscillation. Progressive waves are classified as transverse
140 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

waves and longitudinal waves, depending upon (i) Consider a continuous medium which is initially
the vibrations of particles of medium. at rest.
Characteristics of progressive wave : (ii) Given figure shows nine particles of the medium
(i) All the vibrating particles of medium have same along a straight line at equal distances.
amplitude, period and frequency. (iii) Suppose first particle is disturbed and this
(ii) State of oscillation changes from particle to particle communicates the disturbance
T
particle. to the adjacent second particle in time
8
(iii) For propagation of mechanical progressive where T is the period of vibration. In this time
waves, the medium must possess the properties first particle moves upward through a distance
of elasticity and inertia. equal to half of the amplitude, while all other
(iv) The distance between two successive particles particles remain undisturbed.
which are in the same state of vibration is called (iv) As the time advances, the second, third and
wavelength. subsequent particles are disturbed and we find
(v) It is doubly periodic i.e. the form of wave repeats that after time T, the disturbance reaches the
itself at equal distances and after equal intervals ninth particle.
of time. (v) From the figure it is clear that the first and the
(vi) Progressive waves transfer energy through the ninth particle pass through the mean position in
medium. the same direction after time interval of T. Thus
6.3 Transverse Waves these two particles are in same phase and the
distance between them is called as wavelength.
*Q.5. (a) What are transverse waves?
(vi) As the time advances, this disturbance is
(b)Explain the formation of transverse waves.
communicated to other particles of the medium.
(3 marks)
(vii) The curve represented in the lowest part of
Ans. (a) A wave in which particles of a medium
figure is called waveform curve and succession
vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the
of such curves constitute wave motion.
direction of propagation of the wave is called
(viii) The convex part of curve is called crest and the
transverse wave.
concave part of the curve is called trough. In this
(b) Formation of transaverse waves:
way transverse waves are produced.
(ix) If the transverse wave travels along x-axis, the
particles of the medium must vibrate in y-z
plane.

6.4 Characteristics of Transverse Waves

*Q.6. State the characteristics of transverse waves.
(2 marks)
Ans.
(i) All the particles of medium in the path of wave
vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of wave with same
period and amplitude.
(ii) When transverse wave passes through a
medium, the medium is divided into alternate
Fig. 6.1 : Formation of Transverse Waves crests and troughs.
Sound Waves 141

(iii) A crest and an adjacent trough form a transverse (i) Consider a continuous medium in which the
wave. The distance between any two successive particles of medium are spaced equidistant.
crests or troughs is called wavelength of the wave. (ii) Given figure represents nine particles arranged
(iv) Crests and troughs advance in the medium and in a straight line.
are responsible for transfer of energy. (iii) Suppose the first particle is made to vibrate in
(v) For propagation of transverse waves, the a direction along this line.
medium should possess the elasticity of shape. (iv) The first particle communicates the disturbance
So the transverse waves can travel only through T
to the adjacent particle in time where, T is the
solids and not through liquids and gases. 8
period of vibration. During this time, the first
Transverse waves can also travel along the
particle moves through a distance equal to half
surface between two media.
of the amplitude while all other particles remain
(vi) When transverse waves advance through a
at rest.
medium, there is no change of pressure and
(v) As the time advances, the second, third and
density at any point of the medium.
the subsequent particles are disturbed and the
(vii) The velocity of transverse wave travelling along
disturbance reaches to the last particle.
a stretched string is given by,
(vi) As the disturbance progresses, some of the
particles come closer and other go farther apart.
(vii) The region where the particles come closer is
where, T is the tension in the string and m is
called region of compression or condensation.
mass per unit length of the string.
(viii) The region where they go apart is called region
(viii) Transverse waves can be polarised, since the
of extension or rarefaction.
oscillations can take place in all directions
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. 6.5 Characteristics of Longitudinal Waves
*Q.7. (a) What are longitudinal waves? *Q.8. State the characteristics of longitudinal waves.
(b) Explain the formation of longitudinal (2 marks)
waves. (3 marks) Ans.
Ans. (a) A wave in which particles of medium vibrate in (i) All the particles of medium in the path of wave
a direction parallel to the direction of propagation vibrate in a direction parallel to the direction
of the wave is called longitudinal wave. of propagation of wave with same period and
(b) Formation of longitudinal waves: amplitude.
(ii) When longitudinal wave passes through
a medium, the medium is divided into
alternate compressions and rarefactions.
Compression is the region where the particles
of medium are closer, while rarefaction is the
region where the particles of medium are
more separated.
(iii) A compression and adjacent rarefaction form a
longitudinal wave. The distance between any
two successive compressions or rarefactions is
called wavelength of the wave.
(iv) The compressions and rarefactions advance in
the medium and are responsible for transfer of
Fig. 6.2 : Formation of longitudinal waves energy.
142 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(v) For propagation of longitudinal waves, the

medium should possess the elasticity of volume.
So the longitudinal waves can travel through
solids, liquids and gases.
(vi) When a longitudinal wave advances through
a medium, there is variation in pressure and
density along the path of the wave.
(vii) The velocity of longitudinal wave travelling
through a medium is given by,

where, E is the modulus of elasticity of the Fig. 6.3 : Vibrating tuning fork
medium and ρ is the density of medium. (i) Sound is produced when any object is set into
(viii) Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized, since vibrations. e.g. vibrating tuning fork, vibrating
the direction of vibration of particles and drum, ringing bell, etc.
direction of propagation of wave are same or (ii) Sound travels through medium in the form of
parallel. compressions and rarefactions i.e. in the form
of longitudinal waves.
*Q.9. Distinguish between a longitudinal wave and
(iii) Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
transverse wave. (2 marks)
(iv) All vibrating bodies produce compressions in
Ans.
the surrounding medium on a forward motion
Longitudinal Wave Transverse Wave and a rarefaction on a backward motion. Hence,
(1) A l l t h e p a r t i c l e s o f (1) A l l t h e p a r t i c l e s o f all vibrating bodies produce sound.
medium in the path medium in the path
of wave vibrate in a of wave vibrate in a (v) Consider a wave produced by a vibrating tuning
direction parallel to the direction perpendicular fork. The air near the fork is shown in the form
direction of propagation to the direction of
of wave. propagation of wave.
of layers spaced equidistant.
(2) Medium is divided into (2) Medium is divided into (vi) When tuning fork is set into vibration, its prongs
alternate compressions alternate crests and bend inwards and outwards alternately.
and rarefactions. troughs.
(vii) When prongs bend outwards, the air layers close
(3) L o n g i t u d i n a l W a v e (3) T r a n s v e r s e w a v e s
to it get crowded together hence compression
produced in solid, liquid produced in solid and
and gases. surface of a liquid. (C) is formed.
(4) (4) (viii) As prongs bend inwards, the layers of air close to
it get separated and rarefaction (R) is produced.

v = Velocity of Wave v = Velocity of Wave
(ix) By this time the compression C has moved some
E = Modulus of Elasticity T = Tension produced in the distance ahead on account of elasticity of air.
d = Density of medium string (x) As the prongs of tuning fork vibrate very rapidly,
m = Linear density of the
string compressions and rarefactions are produced
(5) L o n g i t u d i n a l w a v e s (5) Transverse waves can be alternately near the prongs at a fast rate and they
cannot be polarized. polarized. travel in the form of longitudinal waves.

*Q.10. What is sound? Explain the formation of *Q.11. Wave motion is a doubly periodic phenomena.
sound waves in air. (2 marks) Explain. (2 marks)
Ans. Sound is a mechanical wave produced by a Ans. When a wave propagates through a medium,
vibrating object that propagates as a longitudinal nature of wave repeats after equal intervals of
time. Thus, a wave motion is periodic in time.
wave through a solid, liquid or gas.
Sound Waves 143

At any instant, nature of wave repeats after Thus, speed of the wave is a product of its
equal distances. Thus, a wave motion is periodic frequency and wavelength.
in space.
Note: (Extra information for understanding not to be
∴ It is periodic in time and space, i.e. doubly
included in the answer)
periodic.
(1) When waves travel from one medium to
*Q.12. Derive the relation between velocity, another, frequency of wave remains unchanged.
frequency and wavelength of wave. (3 marks) Frequency is characteristic of the source.
Ans. Time Period (T) :
(2) Frequency ranges:
The time required for a particle to complete one n < 20 Hz – Infrasonic frequencies
vibration is called period of wave.
20 Hz < n < 20,000 Hz – Audible or sonic frequencies
The S.I. unit of time period is second (s). n > 20,000 Hz – Ultrasonic frequencies
Frequency (n) : Intext question textbook page no. 80
The number of vibrations performed by any
particle of medium in one second is called *Q.13. Is the frequency of sound wave the same as the
frequency. frequency of vibration of its source? (2 marks)
It is equal to the reciprocal of period. Ans. No. Due to compression or stretching of sound
wave in medium, the frequency of wave is

different than the source.
The S.I. unit of frequency is hertz (Hz) or s–1 .
*Q.14. Explain Newton’s formula for (a) velocity of
Wavelength (λ): sound in air and (b) state its assumptions.
Wavelength of wave is the distance between any (2 marks)
two successive particles of medium having same Ans.
state of vibration. (i) Newton studied the propagation of sound
The S.I. unit of wavelength is metre (m). waves through homogeneous medium.
Speed (v) : (ii) Sound waves travel through a medium in the
The speed of a wave is the distance covered by form of compressions and rarefactions.
the wave in unit time, in the direction of wave- (iii) At compression the density of medium is
motion. greater, while at rarefaction density is lesser.
The S.I. unit of speed is metre/second (m/s). This is possible only in elastic medium.
Relation between velocity, wavelength and
(iv) Thus, the velocity of sound depends on elasticity
frequency :
and density of the medium.
In periodic time (T), the wave covers a distance
(v) According to Newton, the velocity of sound in
equal to wavelength (λ).
a medium is given by,
Hence, the distance travelled by the wave in unit
time,


But, the distance travelled by wave in unit time where, E is modulus of elasticity of medium and
is its speed (v). ρ is density of medium.
∴ Assumptions:
(i) Newton assumed that the compressions and

rarefactions take place very slowly, when the
∴ v=nλ sound waves travel in the medium.
144 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) Therefore, the heat developed during Simon Laplace pointed out the discrepancy in
compression and cooling during rarefaction Newton’s formula for velocity of sound in air.
finds sufficient time for its dissipation and hence (ii) According to Laplace, production of compression
the temperature of medium remains constant. and rarefaction in air is not a slow process but a
(iii) Thus, propagation of sound wave is an rapid process.
isothermal process and so the isothermal
(iii) Thus, heat developed during compression
elasticity should be considered.
or cooling during rarefaction does not find
(iv) If the volume or bulk elasticity of air is
sufficient time for dissipation.
determined under isothermal change, then it is
called isothermal bulk modulus and is equal to (iv) Thus, heat content remains the same and so the
the atmospheric pressure P. Hence Newton’s elasticity considered must be adiabatic and not
formula for speed of sound in air is given as, isothermal as proposed by Newton.
(v) Thus, according to Laplace, the adiabatic
modulus of elasticity of air is given by,
Q.15. Why newton's formula for velocity of sound E = γP
was inadequate?
where, P = atmospheric pressure
Ans.
(1) Atmospheric pressure is given by, γ = adiabatic constant of the medium
P = hdg
Where h = height of mercury column
d = density of mercury (vi) Hence, Newton’s formula can be written as,
g = acceleration due to gravity
(2) At N.T.P.,
h = 0.76 m
(vii) Hence, the velocity of sound at N.T.P. should be,
d = 13600 kg/m3
g = 9.8 m/s2
r = 1.293 kg/m3 (density of air)
For air,
γ = 1.41, r = hdg

∴
∴
∴ v = 332.3 m/s
∴ v = 279.9 m/s
This value is in close agreement with
(3) The experimental value of velocity of sound at experimental value.
N.T.P. is found to be 332 m/s. There is a large
difference between the value predicted by *Q.17. Explain the effect of change in temperature
Newton’s formula and experimental value. The on speed of sound in air. (3 marks)
error is nearly 16 %. Newton could not give any OR
explanation for this discrepancy. Show that velocit of sound (v) varies with the
absoute temp. of the medium & hence obtain
6.6 Laplace’s Correction
the change in velocity of sound for per degree
*Q.16. Explain Laplace’s correction to the Newton’s rise in temp?
formula for velocity of sound in air. (3 marks) Ans.
Ans. (i) Let P, V, ρ and T be the pressure, volume, density
(i) A French physicist and mathematician Pierre and temperature of air respectively.
Sound Waves 145

(ii) From ideal gas equation, \

PV = RT (for one kilomole of gas)
where, R is universal gas constant given as, where α = °C–1
R = 8314 J/kmol-K
(vii) α<< 1, then by binomial expansion,
We know,

where, M is mass of one kilomole of air,

... (i)
(iii) The speed of sound in air is
(viii) At 0 °C,
(Laplace’s formula) ... (ii)

(iv) From equation (i) and (ii),

v = … (iii)

\ v = k i.e. for 1 °C rise in temperature, velocity increases
by 0.61 m/s.
where, k =
Hence, temperature co-efficient of velocity of
\ v∝ sound in air is 0.61 ms–1 °C–1 .
i.e. the speed of sound in atmospheric air is *Q.18. Explain the effect of change in pressure on
directly proportional to the square root of its speed of sound in air. (3 marks)
absolute temperature. Ans.
(v) Let v0 and v1 be the speeds of sound in air at (i) Consider a given mass M of air at constant
T0 K and T1 K respectively, then from equation temperature. Let P1 and V1 be its pressure and
(iii) we get volume respectively.
(ii) Density of air under given conditions is given as,

... (i)

and corresponding velocity of sound in air is v1.

(iii) Similarly, volume is V 2 at pressure P 2 and
density is given as,

(vi) Let T0 = 273K and T1 = (273 + t1) K ... (ii)

where t1 is temperature of air in °C.
and corresponding velocity of sound in air is v2.
\ (iv) According to Laplace’s formula,

v1 =
\
146 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

6.7 Musical Sound and Noise

\ v1 = [From (i)] ... (iii)
Q.20. Explain the terms : (2 marks)
(i) Musical sound (ii) Noise
and v2 =
Ans.
(i) Musical sound :
\ v2 = [From (ii)] ... (iv) (a) The sound which produces pleasing effect on
our ears and mind is called musical sound.
(v) Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv),
(b) Musical sound is produced by a series of regular
waves which follow each other at regular
intervals without any change in amplitude.
(c) The sound produced by all musical instruments
like sitar, violin, piano etc. is musical sound.

(d) Thus, the steady sound waves which are
(vi) From Boyle’s law,
produced at regular intervals produce musical
P1 V1 = P2 V2 (At constant temperature) sound.
(e) A sound due to pure sine vibration is called a
musical note.
(f) According to Fourier’s theorem, any periodic
Thus a change in pressure alone has no effect vibration can be expressed as a sum of sine and
on the velocity of sound in air as long as cosine vibrations, hence every musical sound
temperature remains constant. can be regarded as combination of notes.
*Q.19. Explain the effect of change in humidity on (ii) Noise :
speed of sound in air. (2 marks)
(a) The sound which produces displeasing effect
Ans. on our ears and mind is called noise.
(i) Humidity of air depends on the presence of
(b) Due to the number of irregular waves which
water vapour in it.
follow each other at irregular time intervals and
(ii) The density of water vapour is less than the sudden change in amplitude, noise is produced.
density of dry air at any temperature. e.g. number of people talking at the same time,
(iii) Thus, density of moist air is always less than the thunder storm etc.
density of dry air.
Q.21. Explain the terms : (3 marks)
(iv) As the humidity of air increases, its density
(i) Loudness (ii) Pitch (iii) Quality of timbre
decreases.
(v) The velocity of sound in air is given by, Ans.
(i) Loudness or intensity :
(a) The intensity of sound at any point is defined
as the rate of flow of sound energy per unit area
(vi) Hence, if density of air decreases, velocity of which is normal to the direction at that point.
sound increases if P and V are constant. (b) Its unit is microwatt/m2 or microjoule/s m2.
(vii) Thus, velocity of sound increases with increase (c) Higher the intensity, louder is the sound.
in humidity. Velocity of sound in dry air is less Intensity or loudness depends upon following
than velocity in moist air i.e. vm > vd. factors :
Sound Waves 147

(1) Amplitude of vibrating body: the sound produced by an object with a high
Intensity of sound is directly proportional to the frequency and small wavelength is described
square of the amplitude of the wave. as shrill or high pitched.
I ∝ (amplitude)2 (2) Doppler effect:
(2) Distance from the vibrating body: If there is relative motion between the source and
Intensity or loudness of the sound at a point is listener, the apparent frequency of the sound
inversely proportional to the square of distance changes. As a result, the pitch or shrillness of
(d) of the point from the vibrating body. the sound also changes.
(c) Male voice is flat on account of lower pitch while
the female voice is shrill on account of higher
When source of sound is close to the person, he pitch.
will hear the sound louder.
(iii) Quality of timbre:
(3) Area of vibrating surface: (a) It is the characteristic of a musical sound which
The loudness of the sound at a given point is
enables us to distinguish between two sounds,
directly proportional to area of the vibrating
even if they have the same pitch and loudness
surface.
but are produced by different sources of sound.
I ∝ (surface area)
(b) For example, we can recognise the person from
(4) Density of medium: his voice without seeing him because each voice
Intensity of sound is directly proportional to the has a particular quality.
density of medium in which it is propagating. (c) All vibrating bodies emit sound waves
I ∝ (density of the medium) which consist of a series of tones of different
(5) Presence of resonant bodies: frequencies, which are called overtones; and
The loudness of the sound increases due to the the tone having the smallest frequency is called
presence of resonant bodies near the vibrating fundamental frequency.
body. (d) The series of overtones which are integral
multiples of fundamental frequency are called
(6) Wind and temperature:
harmonics.
If the wind blows in the direction of sound
waves, the intensity of sound increases. The (e) Quality of sound depends on the number
intensity of sound is slightly affected by the of harmonics present in the sound and their
change in temperature of the medium. relative amplitudes.
(f) If the larger number of harmonics are present
(ii) Pitch or shrillness:
in a sound wave, then the quality of timbre of
(a) Pitch is the sensation which determines the
the musical sound is higher.
shrillness of sound. It cannot be measured
quantitatively. Q.22. What is consonance and dissonance? Also
(b) The pitch of musical sound depends upon the explain the terms harmony and melody.
following factors : (2 marks)

(1) Frequency: Ans.

If the frequency of the source of sound is high, (i) When two notes are simultaneously sounded
pitch of sound produced by it is also high. together and if they produce pleasant sensation
The sound produced by an object with low in the ear, there is concord or consonance. These
frequency is described as flat or low pitched and notes are called consonant notes.
148 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) The two notes producing unpleasant sensation Symbol Indian Frequency Ratio Interval Tones
name (Hz) with C between
in the ear, there is dischord or dissonance. These consecutive
notes are called dissonant notes. notes
9
(iii) According to Helmboltz, the dissonance of two C Sa 256 1
8
Major

notes is due to the effect of beats, which cause D Re 288

9 10
Minor
8 9
unpleasant sensation.
5 16
E Ga 320 Semi
(iv) The feeling of dissonance is no longer produced 4 15
4 9
if the beats are slow enough to be recognised as F Ma 341.33
3 8
Major

separate disturbances. 3 10
G Pa 384 Minor
2 9
(v) When two or more notes sounded together 5 9
A Dha 426.67 Major
produce a pleasant effect due to conchord, it is 3 8
15 16
known as harmony. B Ni 480
8 15
Semi

(vi) If the pleasant effect is produced by two or more C1 Sa 512 2

notes when they are sounded one after another,

(vii) The diatonic scale has following characteristics :
it is known as melody.
(a) The frequencies of the notes in this scale are such
6.8 Musical Scale that if these notes are sounded together, they
will have the most pleasing effect to the ears.
Q.23. What is a musical scale? Give the characteristic
(b) This scale supplies the same order and the
features of diatonic scale. (2 marks)
duration of chords and intervals which succeed
Ans. each other, as are required for a musical effect.
(i) A series of notes separated by a fixed musical (c) With the lower and higher multiples of
interval is said to constitute a musical scale. The frequencies of the notes, various musical
starting note of such scale is called keynote. compositions can be produced.
(ii) In a key board type of musical instrument, (d) The only problem with the diatonic scale is that
notes are arranged in a regular gradation every note cannot be used as keynote.
of frequencies between the keynote and its (e) Also, slight mistuning of the note has a jarring
octave. effect.
(iii) The ratio of frequencies between two notes in
6.9 Simple Method
the musical scale is known as musical intervals.
(iv) The diatonic scale consists of series of eight Q.24. Discuss the effect of pressure on the speed of
notes. The interval between the keynote and sound in gas. (2 marks)

the last note is an octave. The frequencies of this Ans. According to Laplace’s formula, speed of sound
scale are given in the table. in a gas is given by

(v) It is seen that the intervals are :

9 P = Pressure of the gas

Major tone -
8
ρ = Density of the gas
Minor tone - 10
9 CP
16 g=
Semi tone - CV
15
Ideal gas equation,
(vi) Since there are two major tones D-C and G-F in
the scale, it is called major diatonic scale. PV = nRT
Sound Waves 149

The time required to complete 48 vibrations,

t = 48T

Thus distance covered by wave in 48 vibrations,

s = vt
= 44 m

∴ At constant temperature, the speed of sound in a
gas is independent of the pressure. \ s = 44 m

Solved Problems (4) The frequency of tuning fork is 512 Hz. How far
will a sound wave starting from the fork travel
Velocity, wavelength, frequency
during the time interval when fork completes
(1) How many waves are there in a length of one 8 vibrations? (Speed of sound in air = 350 m/s)
metre, if the wavelength of wave is 0.01 m? (2 marks)
(2 marks) Solution: v = 350 m/s, n = 512 Hz
Solution: In a length of 0.01 m, there is one wave. The period of vibration of fork,
Hence in a length of 1 m there are,

distance
No. of waves = The time required to complete 8 vibrations,
wavelength
t = 8T

 No. of waves = 100

(2) Velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s, find its
wavelength if frequency is 18 kHz. (2 marks) Thus distance covered by wave in 8 vibrations,
Solution: v = 330 m/s, n = 18kHz =18 × 103 Hz s = vt

v = nλ
\ s = 5.469 m

= 1.833 × 10–2 m (5) The velocity of sound in air is 330 m/s. How far

\ λ = 1.833 × 10–2 m will a sound wave, starting from a tuning fork
of frequency 512 Hz travel, when the tuning
(3) The frequency of a tuning fork is 384 Hz and fork completes 4 vibrations? (2 marks)
the speed of sound in air is 352 m/s. Find Solution: v = 330 m/s, n = 512 Hz
how far the sound will travel when the fork
The fork completes 512 vibrations in one
completes 48 vibrations. (2 marks)
second Therefore, time required to complete 4
Solution: n = 384 Hz, v = 352 m/s,
vibrations is,
The period of vibration of fork,


150 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

The distance covered in time t second is given by,

s=v×t


\
∴ s = 2.578 m
∴ Sound travels 2.578 m distance in 4 vibrations.
(9) A source of sound sends out a wave of
*(6) The human ear responds to sound waves of wavelength 0.6 m in air and 1.2 m in a gas. If
frequencies in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz. What the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s, find the
are the corresponding wavelengths if the speed velocity of sound in gas. (2 marks)
of sound in air is 330 m/s? (2 marks)
Solution: λair = 0.6, λgas = 1.2 m, v air = 340 m/s
Solution: nmin = 20 Hz, nmax = 20 kHz
We know,
= 20 × 103 Hz v = nλ
v = 330 m/s As frequency remains unchanged,

= 1.65 × 10–2 m

\ λmin= 1.65 × 10–2 m (or 1.65 cm)
\ vgas = 680 m/s

(7) A thunder clap was heard 6.2 seconds after

*(10) A man standing between two parallel cliffs
lightning flash was seen. How far from the
fires a gun. He hears two echoes one after
listener has the thunder clap occurred? (Speed
2 seconds and the other after 4 seconds. What
of sound in air is 342 m/s) (2 marks)
is the distance between the cliffs if the velocity
Solution: v = 342 m/s, t = 6.2 s
of sound in air is 330 m/s? (3 marks)
As speed of light is very high, lightning will be
Solution: t1 = 2 s, t2 = 4 s, v = 330 m/s
seen immediately.
Hence, the distance travelled by sound is the Let s1 and s2 be the distance of the two cliffs from the
distance of thunder clap from listener. man.
s = vt Time taken by sound to cover the distance between
∴ s = 342 × 6.2 × 2120.4 m the man and a cliff = × time for echo.
\ s = 2120.4 m
∴ The distance between the man and the first cliff is
*(8) The velocity of sound in a gas is 498 m/s
and in air is 332 m/s. What is the ratio of the
wavelengths of sound waves in the gas to air? and the distance between the man and the second
(2 marks) cliff is
Solution: v g = 498 m/s, v a = 332 m/s

∴ The distance between the two parallel cliffs

∴ The required ratio of wavelengths, = 330 m + 660 m = 990 m

Sound Waves 151

*(11) A violin string emits sound of frequency

510 Hz. How far will the sound waves reach
when the string completes 250 vibrations? The
velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s. (2 marks)
Solution: n = 510 Hz, v = 340 m/s

This, the wavelength, is the distance covered by the \ v = 435.2 m/s
sound wave in one vibration of the string.

∴ When the string completes 250 vibrations, the *(13) You are at a large outdoor concert, seated
distance covered by the sound waves 300 m from the speaker system. The concert is
also being broadcast live. Consider a listener
5000 km away who receives the broadcast.

Who will hear the music first, you or the other
(12) Two tuning forks of frequencies 320 Hz and listener? What will be the time difference?
340 Hz produce sound waves in air. If their [Speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s and speed of sound
wavelengths differ by 8 cm, determine the in air = 343 m/s] (3 marks)
velocity of sound in air. (3 marks) Solution: s1 = 300 m, s2 = 5000 km, s2 = 5 × 106 m
Solution: n1 = 320 Hz, n2 = 340 Hz, ∆λ = 8 cm v = 343 m/s, c = 3 × 108 m/s, x = vt

If λ1 and λ2 are the corresponding wavelengths, ∴ The time taken by the sound to reach the person
present at the concert is
v = n1λ1 = n2λ2

∴ 320 λ1 = 340 λ2
and that taken to reach the other listener far off is
∴

This relation shows that λ1 > λ2. ∴ t1 – t2 = 0.8746 – 0.01667 = 0.85793 s
∴ λ1 – λ2 = 8 cm = 0.08 m ∆t = 0.85793 s
∴ λ2 = λ1 – 0.08
The other listener will hear the music first, about
∴ 320λ1 = 340 (λ1 – 0.08) 0.8579 s before the person present at the concert.
320λ1 = 340λ1 – 340 × 0.08 *(14) An observer hears a thunder 5 s after the flash
∴ 20λ1 = 340 × 0.08 of lightning. What is the distance of the flash
∴ λ1 = 1.36 m (i.e., the thunder clouds) from the observer if
the speed of sound is 330 m/s? Speed of light
v = n1λ1
in air = 3 × 108 m/s. (2 marks)
∴ v = 320 × 1.36 = 435.2 m/s Solution: t = 5 s, v = 330 m/s, c = 3 × 108 m/s
\ v = 435.2 m/s Since c >> v, the flash is seen almost instantly.

Simple method ∴ The distance of the point of lighting from the

observer is s = vt = (330) × (5) = 1.65 m
λ1 – λ2 = 8 × 10–2
s = 1.65 km
152 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(15) The wavelength of a sound note is 0.6 m in (17) Find the velocity of sound at 25 °C, if the
air and 2.4 m in water. Determine the velocity velocity of sound at 0 °C is 331 m/s. (3 marks)
of sound in water. (velocity of sound in Solution: T0 = 273 K, v0 = 331 m/s, t = 25 °C
air = 332 m/s). (2 marks) ∴ T = 273 + 25 = 298 K
Solution: λa = 0.6 m, λw = 2.4 m, va = 332 m/s
Frequency is characteristic of source. It does not
change when wave passes from one medium to other.
∴ va = nλa and vw = nλw

\ v = 345.8 m/s

(18) Find the velocity of sound in air at 20 °C if

density of air at N.T.P. is 1.29 kg/m3 and height
\ Velocity of sound in water is 1328 m/s. of mercury column is 0.76 m. (3 marks)
(ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3, g = 9.8 m/s2)
Effect of temperature and pressure on
Solution: γ = 1.4, T0 = 273 K, t = 20 °C
velocity of sound ∴ T = 273 + 20 = 293 K
(16) A stone is dropped by a man into a mine ρair = 1.29 kg/m3
78.4 m deep. If the splash is heard 4.23 s after g = 9.8 m/s2
h = 0.76 m at N.T.P.
the stone is dropped into it, find the velocity
ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3
of sound. (3 marks)
Solution: u = 0, a = g = 9.8 m/s2, s = 78.4 m P = hρg
∴ P = 0.76 × 13600 × 9.8
P = 1.013 × 105 m/s2
Velocity of sound in air at N.T.P. is given by,

∴ t=4s
Stone takes 4 s to reach the bottom of the mine and ∴ v0 = 331.6 m/s
the splash is heard after 4.23 s. Hence, time taken by If v is the velocity of sound in air at 20 °C,
sound wave to travel 78.4 m upwards is
t = 4.23 – 4 = 0.23 s
Speed of sound, = 343.5 m/s

\ v = 343.5 m/s

(19) Velocity of sound in nitrogen at certain

temperature is 360 m/s. Calculate the velocity
\ v = 340.87 m/s of sound in hydrogen at the same temperature.
(ρN = 14 ρH) (3 marks)
Sound Waves 153

Solution: ρN = 14ρH, vN = 360 m/s Solution: V1 = 340 m/s, t1 = 27°C

∴ T1 = 273 + 27 = 300 K, V2 = ?
t2 = 127°C
T2 = 273 + 127 = 400 K

\ V2 =

= = 392.6 m/s

\ V2 = 392.6 m/s
\ vH = 1347 m/s
(22) At what temperature will the velocity of sound
(20) Find the speed of sound in oxygen at 117 °C if
in air be half its value at N.T.P.? (2 marks)
the density of oxygen at N.T.P. is 1.43 kg/m3.
Assume data if necessary. (γoxygen = 1.41) Solution:
(3 marks)
Solution: T0 = 273 K, t = 117 °C
∴ T = 273 + 117 = 390 K
ρ0 = 1.43 kg/m 3

γoxygen = 1.41,

\ v0 = 316.2 m/s

If v is the velocity of sound in oxygen at 117 °C i.e.

390 K,
\ T2 = 68.25 K

(23) At what temperature will the speed of sound

in air be 10% of its speed at N.T.P.? (2 marks)
Solution:
T0 = 273 K
Let the speed of sound in air be v and let it become
at a temperature (T) K.
Then,
\ v = 377.9 m/s

*(21) The velocity of sound in air at 27 °C is 340 m/s.

Calculate the velocity of sound in air at 127 °C.
(3 marks)
154 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Squaring both sides, (26) Find the speed of sound in CO2 at 127 °C.
[Mol. wt. of CO2 = 44, R = 8320 J/kmole-K and
γ for CO 2 = 1.3] (2 marks)
Solution:
T = 127 + 273 = 400 K
The velocity of sound in CO2 will be,

\ T = 2.73 K

Newton’s formula and Laplace’s correction

(24) Find the molecular weight of helium, if the
\ v = 313.57 m/s
velocity of sound in helium at 27 °C is 1020.5
m/s. (R = 8314 J/kmole-K, γHe = 1.67) (27) Find the speed of sound in metal whose density
(2 marks) is 8000 kg/m3 and its Young’s modulus of
Solution: t = 27 °C, ∴ T = 273 + 27 = 300 K, elasticity is 1.8 × 1011 N/m2. (2 marks)
v = 1020.5 m/s, R = 8314 J/kmole-K, γHe = 1.67 Solution: E = 1.8 × 1011 N/m2, ρ = 8000 kg/m3

= 4743 m/s

\ v = 4743 m/s

= 4
Additional Numericals for Practice

\ M = 4
(1) Calculate the velocity of waves whose frequency
is 320 Hz and wavelength is 20 m. (2 marks)
(25) Wavelength of a wave is 3 m in air at 27 °C.
(2) Wavelength of two waves in air are and
Find the wavelength of the same wave in air at
127 °C. (2 marks) m. If the speed of sound in air is 324 m/s,
Solution: λ1 = 3 m, T1 = 273 + 27 = 300 K, compute the difference between the frequencies
T2 = 273 + 127 = 400 K of two notes. (3 marks)

v ∝ But v = nλ (3) Find the distance between a compression and an

adjacent rarefaction in sound waves of velocity
∴ nλ ∝
350 m/s and frequency 175 Hz. (2 marks)
But frequency does not change with temperature.
(4) Two tuning forks emit sound notes differing in
∴ λ ∝ wavelength by 0.3 m in air. If the frequencies
of forks are 100 Hz and 110 Hz respectively,
calculate the velocity of sound in air. (3 marks)
(5) The depth of an ocean bed was measured by
using sonar pulse. A pulse directed at the ocean
floor, returned to the data collecting ship after
2.4 seconds. Assuming the speed of the sonar
pulse in water to be 1450 m/s, estimate the depth
\ λ2 = 3.464 m of the ocean bed, at the observation site. (3 marks)
Sound Waves 155

(6) A sound wave has wavelength of 0.68 m in air (18) The velocity of sound in air at 0 °C is 332 m/s.
and 0.76 m in a gas under the same conditions. Find the velocity of sound in carbon dioxide at
If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, find the 100 °C, assuming it to be 1.5 times heavier than
speed of sound in the gas. (2 marks) air. (γair = 1.41, γCO2 = 1.31) (3 marks)
(7) The difference in wavelength between the waves
emitted by two sources of frequencies 606 Hz Answers
and 612 Hz is 0.5 cm. What is the velocity of
(1) 6400 m/s (2) 4 Hz (3) 1 m (4) 330 m/s (5) 1740 m
waves in the medium? (3 marks)
(6) 380 m/s (7) 309.06 m/s (8) 1.65 m (9) 819 °C
(8) A tuning fork makes one complete vibration
(10) γ = 1.4 (11) 57.33 °C (12) 33.62 °C (13) 1247 m/s
in second and the velocity of sound wave
(14) 27.45 m (15) 380 m/s (16) 1.41 × 10 3m/s
is 330 m/s. Find the wavelength of the sound
waves produced by the fork. (3 marks) (17) 348.7 m/s (18) 305.4 m/s

(9) Find the temperature at which the velocity of

Formula Map
sound in air will be double its velocity at 0 °C.
λ
(2 marks) (1) V = nλ = , D = (Number of oscillations) × λ
T
(10) The wavelength of a note emitted by a tuning 1 1
(2) n = T γ = wave number =
fork of frequency 512 Hz is 66.5 cm at 17 °C. λ
Taking density of air at N.T.P. as 1.293 g/litre, V1 λ1
(3) =
calculate the ratio of the principal specific heats V2 λ2
of air. (3 marks)
(4)
(11) At what temperature is the velocity of sound in
a gas 10% higher than it is at 0 °C? (2 marks)
R = 8400 J / kilomole . K
(12) If the speed of sound in air at 0 °C is 331 m/s,
at what temperature its speed will become R = 8.4 J / mole . K
350 m/s? (2 marks)
(5)
(13) Calculate the speed of sound in hydrogen at 0 °C
if the pressure is 105 N/m2. Density of hydrogen
(6) (For different gas)
at 0 °C is 0.09 kg/m3 and the ratio of specific
heats of hydrogen is 1.4. (3 marks)

(14) The wavelength of a note is 27 m in air when the Important Formulae

temperature is 27 °C. What is the wavelength
(1) Speed of a wave,
when the temperature is increased to 37 °C?
v = nλ
(2 marks)
where, n = frequency
(15) The velocity of sound in air at 16 °C is 340 m/s.
Calculate the velocity of sound in air at 88 °C. λ = wavelength
(2 marks) (2) Newton’s formula :
(16) The elasticity of water is 20 × 10 N/m . Find the
8 2

velocity of sound in water. (2 marks) (i) v =

(17) Calculate the speed of sound in dry air at 30 °C,

if its speed in dry air at 0 °C is 331 m/s. (2 marks) (ii) v =
156 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(3) Laplace’s formula : (a) 269.9 m/s (b) 279.9 m/s

(c) 289.9 m/s (d) 299.9 m/s
v =
(6) The value of γ for air is
(4) Speed of sound in a gas having molecular weight (a) 1.31 (b) 1.41
M at temperature T (c) 1.51 (d) 1.61
(7) Pitch of a note depends upon
v =
(a) fundamental frequency
Where R is universal gas constant given as, (b) harmonics (c) source
R = 8.314 J/kmol-K (d) amplitude

(5) Speed of sound at temperature T1 K, (8) Loudness of the sound does not depend upon
(a) density of air
(b) velocity and direction of wind
(c) temperature of surrounding
(6) Speed of sound at temperature t1°C, (d) distance
(9) A series of notes separated by a fixed musical
interval constitutes
(a) melody (b) overtone
Multiple Choice Questions
(c) musical scale (d) note scale
(1) Sound waves do not get generated from
(10) The velocity of sound at 0 °C is v0 What will be
(a) vocal cord (b) skin of drum
its velocity at 27 °C?
(c) string of an instrument like violin
(a) 1.05 v0 (b) 2.05 v0
(d) woollen clothes
(c) 3.05 v0 (d) 4.05 v0
(2) Particle of the medium
(11) The error in the value of velocity of sound in
(a) carry energy (b) carry waves
air by Newton’s formula and as determined by
(c) do not carry energy
(d) sometimes carry energy experiment at 0 °C is
(a) nearly 5% (b) nearly 6%
(3) When longitudinal wave advances through a (c) nearly 16% (d) nearly 22%
medium
(a) there is uniformity in pressure and density (12) A bat emits ultrasonic sound of frequency 100
along the path of wave kHz. If this sound meets a water surface, what
(b) there is variation in pressure and density is the wavelength of the transmitted sound in
along the path of wave air and water respectively? (speed of sound in
(c) pressure varies but density remains air = 340 m s–1 and in water = 1486 m s–1)
uniform (a) 1.486 × 10–2 m, 3.40 × 10–3 m
(d) density varies pressure remains uniform (b) 3.40 × 10–3 m, 1.486 × 10–2 m
(c) 1.486 m, 3.4 m
(4) Speed of wave in a medium is 760 m/s. If
(d) 3.4 m, 1.486 m
3600 waves are passing through a point in the
medium in 2 minutes then wavelength is (13) Wave motion is periodic in
(a) 57.2 m (b) 41.5 m (a) space only (b) time only
(c) 25.3 m (d) 13.8 m (c) both space and time (d) direction

(5) At NTP velocity of sound in air at 0 °C by (14) The frequency of oscillation of a particle is the
Newton’s formula is number of oscillations made by particle in
Sound Waves 157

(a) 2 seconds (b) 1 second (22) A note is

(c) 1 min (d) 1 hour (a) pure sine vibration
(b) pure tan vibration
(15) Choose INCORRECT example of an oscillating
(c) straight motion
particle.
(d) irregular disturbance
(a) bob of simple pendulum
(b) prongs of tuning forks (23) If the splash is heard 4.23 s after a stone is
(c) sewing machine’s needle dropped into a pit in which water level is 78.4
(d) trembling of leaves m deep, the velocity of sound is
(a) 360.9 m/s (b) 350.9 m/s
(16) Which of the following waves do not require (c) 340.9 m/s (d) 330.9 m/s
material medium for propagation?
(24) Which of the following is NOT correct
(a) wave of string (b) light waves
condition for the propagation of mechanical
(c) sound waves (d) sea waves
wave through a medium?
(17) .............. is produced when any object is set into (a) medium should be elastic
vibrations. (b) medium should possess inertia
(a) light (b) sound (c) medium should possess negligible
(c) electricity (d) spark frictional resistance
(d) medium should be perfectly plastic
(18) In the expression for velocity of sound, according
to Newton, the modulus of elasticity is (25) A hospital uses an ultrasonic scanner to locate
(a) isothermal bulk modulus and is equal to tumours in a tissue. The operating frequency
the atmospheric pressure of the scanner is 4.2 MHz. The speed of sound
(b) adiabatic rigidity modulus in a tissue is 1.7 km s–1. The wavelength of the
(c) isothermal rigidity modulus and is not sound in the tissue is close to
equal to atmospheric pressure (a) 4 × 10–4 m (b) 8 × 10–4 m
(d) force required for the motion of sound (c) 4 × 10–3 m (d) 8 × 10–3 m
waves (26) The correct velocity versus pressure graph for
(19) An observer standing at the sea-coast, observes sound wave is
48 waves reaching the coast per minute. If the (a) (b)
wavelength of each is 10 m, then the velocity of
the wave is
(a) 5 m/s (b) 8 m/s
(c) (d)
(c) 10 m/s (d) 16 m/s
(20) The velocity of sound in air is 332 m/s at
pressure 103 Pa. What will be its velocity when
pressure is 2 × 105 Pa? (Keeping temperature (27) A radio station broadcasts at a wavelength of
constant) 200 m. The speed of the radio waves is 3 × 108
(a) 0.25 × 332 m/s (b) 0.50 × 332 m/s m /s. The frequency for tuning radio station is
(c) 332 m/s (d) 2 × 332 m/s (a) 1.5 × 108 Hz (b) 1.5 × 106 Hz
(21) When two or more notes are sounded together, (c) 6 × 106 Hz (d) 0.7 × 10–6 Hz
they produce pleasant effect due to conchord.
(28) Distance between any two compression or
It is called as
rarefaction in longitudinal wave is
(a) melody (b) harmony
(a) wave number (b) wave velocity
(c) overtone (d) musical interval
(c) waveform (d) wavelength
158 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(29) In longitudinal waves, the region where (37) Velocity of transverse wave travelling through
particles are less crowded are known as a string having tension 25 N and linear density
(a) compression (b) condensation 1 kg/m3 is
(c) extension (d) propagation (a) 5 m/s (b) 25 m/s
(c) 125 m/s (d) 100 m/s
(30) Progressive waves in a vibrating medium have
same (38) The audible frequency range of human ear is 20
(a) amplitude (b) period Hz and 20 kHz. The corresponding wavelength
(c) frequency (d) all of these range is (speed of sound in air = 340 m/s)
(a) 17 × 10–3 m to 17 m (b) 17 × 10–2 m to 1.7 m
(31) Wave motion is a propagation of disturbance
(c) 0.7 m to 17 m (d) 17 m to 17 × 10–3 m
through the medium in terms of
(a) oscillations of particles (39) According to Newton’s assumption, the
(b) oscillation of energy temperature of the gases of a medium ............
(c) polarizing effect when sound waves travel through medium.
(d) musical melody (a) decreases (b) remains constant
(32) For a wave which of the following statement is (c) increases
true? (d) depends on wind velocity
(a) Energy is transferred and not the matter. (40) According to Laplace, modulus of elasticity
(b) Energy is not transferred, but matter is is the adiabatic modulus of elasticity of air
transferred. medium and it is given by
(c) Energy and matter both are transferred. (a) E = γP (b)
(d) Neither energy nor matter are transferred.
(c) (d) P = γE
(33) Which type of oscillation is damped oscillation?
(a) Oscillations whose amplitude goes on (41) Newton assumed that compressions and
increasing rarefactions in medium occur
(b) Oscillations whose amplitude remains (a) rapidly (b) slowly
same (c) simultaneously (d) intermittently
(c) Oscillations whose amplitude is zero
(42) The ................ is developed during compression.
(d) Oscillations whose amplitude goes on
(a) sound (b) light
decreasing and finally becomes zero
(c) heat (d) cooling
(34) Progressive wave with doubly periodic means (43) The temperature at which the speed of sound
(a) form of the wave repeats itself, equal in air becomes double of its value at 27 °C is
distance in equal interval of time (a) – 123 °C (b) 54 °C
(b) repetition at equal distance (c) 327 °C (d) 927 °C
(c) repeat after equal interval of time
(d) repeat in medium without inertia (44) The distance between two consecutive crests in
a wave train produced in a string is 5 cm. If
(35) Two particles of the medium are in same phase, 2 complete waves pass through any point per
then distance between them is second, the velocity of sound is
(a) amplitude (b) frequency (a) 2.5 cm s–1 (b) 5 cm s–1
(c) wave number (d) wavelength (c) 10 cm s–1 (d) 15 cm s–1
(36) Each particle of the medium vibrate with (45) The ratio of the speed of sound in hydrogen
..................... amplitude
gas to helium gas at same
(a) same (b) decreasing
(c) increasing (d) unequal temperature is
Sound Waves 159

(21) harmony (22) pure sine vibration (23) 340.9 m/s

(a) (b) (24) medium should be perfectly plastic (25) 4 × 10–4 m
(26) (27) 1.5 × 106 Hz (28) wavelength
(c) (d)

Answers (29) extension (30) all of these (31) oscillations of

(1) woollen clothes (2) carry energy (3) there is particles (32) Energy is transferred and not the
variation in pressure and density along the path of matter.(33) oscillations whose amplitude goes on
wave (4) 25.3 m (5) 279.9 m/s (6) 1.41 (7) fundamental decreasing and finally becomes zero (34) form of the
frequency (8) temperature of surrounding (9) musical wave repeats itself, equal distance in equal interval
scale (10) 1.05 v0 (11) nearly 16% (12) 3.40 × 10–3 m, of time (35) wavelength (36) same (37) 5 m/s
1.486 × 10–2 m (13) both space and time (14) 1 second (38) 17 m to 17 × 10–3 m (39) remains constant
(15) trembling of leaves (16) light waves (17) sound (40) E = γP (41) slowly (42) heat (43) 927 °C
(18) isothermal bulk modulus and is equal to the (44) 10 cm s–1 (45)
atmospheric pressure (19) 8 m/s (20) 332 m/s

ASSESSMENT - 6
Time : 30 min. Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) If the speed of sound in air at 0°C is 331 m/s, at what temperature its speed will become
350 m/s?
(2) Find the molecular weight of helium, if the velocity of sound in helium at 27°C is
1020.5 m/s. (R = 8314 J/Kmole-K, γHe = 1.67)
(3) Find the speed of sound in metal whose density is 8000 kg/m3 and its Young’s modulus of
elasticity is 1.8 × 1011 N/m2.
(4) Explain the effect of pressure on velocity of sound in air.
(5) Explain the “doubly periodic nature” of progressive waves.
(6) What is consonance and dissonance? Also, explain the terms harmony and melody.
Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)
(1) A man standing between two parallel cliffs fires a gun. He hears two echoes one after two
seconds and the other after four seconds. What is the distance between the two cliffs if the
velocity of sound is 330 m/s?
(2) The velocity of sound in air at 27°C is 340 m/s. Calculate the velocity of sound in air at 127°C.
(3) Derive the expression for effect of temperature on velocity of sound in air.
Q.3. Attempt any ONE question: (4)
(1) Write characteristics of transverse waves and hence calculate the wavelength of radio wave of
frequency 330 MHz. (speed of light is 3 × 108 m/s)
(2) Explain Laplace’s corrections with mathematical calculations.

vvv
160 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

7 Thermal Expansion

Points to Remember :
• The sum of all energies of all molecules in a body is called as thermal or internal energy.
• The temperature of a body is its degree of hotness or coldness.
• Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surrounding by virtue of temperature difference.
• SI unit of heat energy is joule (J) and SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
• The science of temperature and its measurement is called as thermometry.
• An instrument designed to measure temperature is called as thermometer.
• The temperature at which pure water freezes at standard atmospheric pressure is called as ice
point or freezing point.
• The temperature at which pure water boils at standard atmospheric pressure is called as boiling
point or steam point.
• The interval between the points is divided into 100 equal parts. Each of these divisions is called
as one degree celsius and is written as 1°C.
• The interval between the two reference points is divided into 180 equal parts. Each division is
called as degree Fahrenheit and is written as 1°F.
• Boyle’s law is expressed as
• Charle’s law states that constant pressure, volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
V∝T
• Numerical value of R is 8.31 JK–1 mol–1.
• The temperature scale that has its zero at –273.15°C and temperature intervals are same as that
on the celsius scale is called as kelvin scale or absolute scale.
• The ratio of change in dimensions to original dimensions per degree centigrade is called as
coefficient of thermal expansion of materials.
• Coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is defined as increase in the length per unit original length
at 0 °C per degree rise in the temperature.
• The unit of coefficient of linear expansion of solid is per degree celsius or per kelvin.
• When a solid metal plate is heated its surface area increases. This is called as superficial
expansion.

(160)
Thermal Expansion 161

• Coefficient of areal expansion of a solid is defined as increase in area, per unit original area
at 0 °C, per degree rise in temperature.
• Coefficient of a cubical expansion of a solid is defined as increase in volume per unit original
volume at 0 °C per degree rise in temperature.
• Specific heat of a substance is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature
of uni mass of a substance through 1oC (or 1 K).
• SI unit of specific heat is Jkg–1 °C–1 or Jkg–1 k–1 and CGS unit Erg g–1 K–1 or erg g–1 °C–1.
• The specific heat of water is 4.2 Jkg–1 °C–1.
• A clear device in which heat measurement can be made is called calorimeter.
• Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.

• At standard pressure, the temperature at which a substance changes its state from solid to
liquid is called as its melting point.
• Melting point of water is 0 oC.
• At standard pressure the temperature at which a substance changes its state from liquid to gas
is called a boiling point.
• The boiling point of water is 100oC.
• The triple point of water is that point where water in a solid, liquid and gas states coexist in
equilibrium and this occurs only at an unique temperature and a pressure.
• Latent heat of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change the state of unit mass of
the substance without changing its temperature.
• The SI unit of latent heat is J/kg.
• The coefficient of thermal conductivity of material is defined as the quantity of heat that flows
in steady state per unit time through the material of unit length and unit area of cross section,
when a unit temperature difference is maintained between them.
• SI unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity is J/msK, M.K.S. unit of K is kcal/msK and C.G.S.
unit is cal/cm - soC.
• Convection of heat is defined as the process of transfer of heat through a material medium, in
which the particles of the medium carry thermal energy from the high temperature region to
a low temperature region.
• The motion of the particles of the liquid results in a liquid flow which is called the convection
current.
• Radiation of heat is defined as the process of transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic
waves, for which material medium is not necessary.
• Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of fall of temperature of a body is directly proportional
to the excess of temperature of the body over the surroundings.
162 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Master Key Question Set - 7

(iii) Thermometer uses some measurable property
7.1 Temperature and Heat of a substance which is sensitive to temperature
change. For example,
*Q.1.
What do you understand by the term (a) The liquid-in-glass thermometer depends on
temperature and heat ? (2 marks) the change in volume of the liquid with
Ans. temperature.

(i) According to kinetic theory, matter is made up (b) The constant volume gas thermometer uses
of molecules (or atoms) which are in the state the pressure change with temperature.
of continuous motion. (c) The resistance thermometer uses the change
(ii) In solids, the molecules are closely packed and of electrical resistance of a metal with
they exert a strong force of attraction on each temperature.
other. They vibrate about their mean position. (iv) Liquid-in-glass thermometers are suitable for
(iii) In liquids, the intermolecular forces are narrow range of measurements.
comparatively weaker. (v) The most commonly used liquids are mercury
(iv) As molecules of gas are separated by very and alcohol.
large distances, the intermolecular forces are (vi) The range of mercury thermometer is – 39 oC
negligible. The motion of the gas molecules is to 357 °C. Alcohol thermometers are used only
mainly translational. to measure temperatures near ice point, i.e.
(v) By virtue of random motion, molecules in melting point of pure ice.
matter possess kinetic energy. The sum of all (vii) Thermometers are calibrated so that a
energies of all molecules in a body is called as numerical value may be assigned to a given
thermal or internal energy. temperature.
(vi) When a body becomes warm, its thermal (viii) The standard fixed points are selected for
energy increases. When a body is cooled, it calibrating a thermometer.
loses thermal energy.
(ix) For commonly used celsius scale, these two
(vii) Temperature indicates the average thermal fixed points are the melting point of ice and
energy of the molecules in a body. As
the boiling point of water, both are taken at
temperature of the body increases, average
standard atmospheric pressure.
thermal energy of the molecules also increases.
Note : (Extra information for understanding not to be included
(viii) Therefore, heat and temperature are closely
in the answer.)
related quantities but they are not the same.
(1) The temperature at which pure water freezes
at standard atmospheric pressure is called as
7.2 Measurement of Temperature
ice point or freezing point.
Q.2. What is thermometry? Explain different types (2) The temperature at which pure water boils
of thermometers. (2 marks) at standard atmospheric pressure is called as
Ans. boiling point or steam point.
(i) The science of temperature and its *Q.3. Explain the Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale
measurement is called as thermometry. of temperature. Derive the relation between
(ii) An instrument designed to measure them.
temperature is called as thermometer. OR
Thermal Expansion 163

What are the different scales of thermometer? 7.3 Ideal Gas Equation and
What is the relation between them? (3 marks) Absolute Temperature
Ans. *Q.4. Derive an ideal gas equation, PV=nRT (3 marks)
(1) Celsius scale: Ans.

(a) On this scale, melting point of pure ice i.e. the (i) The relation between three variables of a gas,
ice point is marked as 0 °C and boiling point of i.e. pressure, volume and temperature is called
water i.e. the steam point is marked as 100 °C, as ideal gas equation.
both taken at normal atmospheric pressure. (ii) Boyle’s law states that at constant temperature,
the volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely
(b) The interval between these two reference
proportional to its pressure. Mathematically
points is divided into 100 equal parts.
this law may be expressed as,
(c) Each of these divisions is called as one degree
V ∝ at constant temperature … (1)
celsius and is written as 1 °C.
(iii) Charle’s law states that at constant pressure,
(2) Fahrenheit scale:
volume of a given mass of a gas is directly
(a) On this scale, melting point of pure ice, i.e. the proportional to its absolute temperature.
ice point is marked as 32 oF and boiling point of Mathematically this law may be expressed as,
water, i.e. the steam point is marked as 212 oF. V ∝ T at constant pressure … (2)
(iv) Combining (1) and (2) we have, V ∝
\ V = constant .

\ = constant
For one mole of a gas, the constant of
proportionality is R.

\ = R or PV = RT
This relation is called as ideal gas equation.
(v) If given mass of a gas consists of n moles, the
relation between its pressure, volume and
absolute temperature is given by, PV = nRT
Fig. 7.1 : Graph of Fahrenheit temperature (tF) versus
celsius temperature (tC) (vi) The value of constant R is same for all gases.
Therefore, it is called as universal gas constant.
(b) The interval between these two reference
Numerical value of R is 8.31 JK–1 mol–1.
points is divided into 180 equal parts.
*Q.5. What are the advantages (importance) of
(c) Each of these division is called as one degree
gas thermometer ? (2 marks)
Fahrenheit and is written as 1 oF.
Ans.
(d) The graph of Fahrenheit temperature (tF) versus (i) From ideal gas equation, it is seen that pressure
celsius temperature (tC) is shown in figure. It is and volume are directly proportional to
a straight line whose equation is, temperature, i.e. PV ∝ T.
(ii) This relationship allows a gas to be used to
measure temperature in a constant volume

gas thermometer. Keeping the volume of a gas
\ tF = 1.8 tC + 32 constant, it gives P ∝ T.
164 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) Thus with constant-volume gas thermometer, Q.7. Explain the significance of absolute zero
temperature is calibrated in terms of pressure. temperature. (3 marks)

(iv) One great advantage of a gas thermometer is that Ans.

at low densities and pressures, all gases behave
in the same way. Thus, the gas thermometer
gives the same reading independent of the gas
used.

(v) Also, thermal capacity of a gas is low as

compared to liquids. Therefore, small change
of temperature can be recorded accurately.

(vi) Gas thermometers are suitable to measure low

and high temperature.
Fig. 7.2 (a) : Graph between pressure (p) and
temperature t(0 °C) at constant volume for three
*Q.6. Write a short note on absolute scale of ideal gases.
temperature. (2 marks)
Ans.
(i) The lowest possible temperature attained by
an object is – 273.15 oC.

(ii) Lord Kelvin suggested a temperature

scale which has its zero at – 273.15 oC. This
temperature scale is called as Kelvin or absolute
scale of temperature.

(iii) The temperature intervals on this scale are

same as on the celsius scale. Fig. 7.2 (b) : Graph between volume (v) and
temperature t(0 °C) at constant pressure for
(iv) The lowest possible temperature, i.e. – 273.15 oC three ideal gases.
is called as absolute zero of temperature and it
(i) Figure (a) shows the relation between pressure
is written as 0 K. (P) and temperature (t) at constant volume for
(v) The absolute zero of temperature is the three ideal gases.
temperature at which every substance in (ii) In each case, the pressure-temperature graph is
nature has the least possible molecular activity. a straight line, i.e. pressure varies linearly with
temperature.
(vi) The absolute temperature is represented
by symbol T. By definition, the absolute (iii) All the straight lines intersect the pressure axis
at different values of pressure at 0 oC, but each
temperature T and celsius temperature tC are
line intersects the temperature axis at the same
related as, T = tC + 273.15
point, at – 273.15 oC.
(vii) Hence, the temperature scale that has its zero (iv) Similarly, the volume-temperature graph at
at – 273.15 °C and temperature intervals are constant pressure for different ideal gases
same as that on the celsius scale is called as intersects the temperature axis at – 273.15 oC.
Kelvin scale or absolute scale. This unique temperature is called absolute zero.
Thermal Expansion 165

7.4 Thermal Expansion (Lt – L0) ∝ L0 ... (1)

and (Lt – L0) ∝ t ... (2)
Q.8. What is thermal expansion ? (2 marks)
Ans. (v) Combining equations (1) and (2), (Lt – L0) ∝ L0 t
(i) Solids expand when they are heated and \ (Lt – L0) = α L0 t
contract when they are cooled.
\ Lt = L0 (1 + αt) ...(3)
(ii) The solids which expand equally in all
Where α is a constant which depends upon the
directions are called isotropic solids.
material of the solid and is called coefficient of
(iii) The molecules of solid are very close to one linear expansion.
another. The distance between two molecules
is called intermolecular distance i.e. (10–9 m). (vi) If L1 and L2 are lengths of the rod at temperatures
t1 and t2 respectively, the
(iv) As the intermolecular distance is very small, the
attractive forces between them are very strong. L1 = L0 (1 + αt1)
Therefore, solids have definite shape and volume. and L2 = L0 (1 + αt2)
(v) At any temperature, the molecules of a solid are
\ =
in a state of vibration about their mean position.
(vi) As the solid is heated, the molecules of solid
\ = (1 + αt2) (1 + αt1)–1
receive thermal energy and begin to vibrate
with larger amplitude. (vii) By binomial expansion,
(vii) Thus, average intermolecular distance increases (1+ αt)–1 = 1 – αt + (αt)2 – (αt)3 + ....
which results into overall expansion of solid.
As α is small, higher powers are neglected.
(viii) When an isotropic solid is heated, it expands in
(1+ αt)–1 = 1– αt
all directions. Therefore its length, surface area
and volume increase. \ = (1 + αt2) (1 – αt1)
(ix) Increase in the length is called as linear
expansion, increase in surface area is called as \ = 1 + α (t2 – t1) – α2 t1 t2
an areal or superficial expansion and increase
in the volume is called as volume or cubical As α is small, higher powers are neglected.
expansion of the solid. \ = 1 + α (t2 – t1)

*Q.9. Derive the necessary expression for coefficient

\ L2 = L1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)] … (5)
of linear expansion. Hence define it. (2 marks)
Ans.
*Q.10. Derive the necessary expression for co-
(i) Consider a uniform metal rod having length L0
efficient of areal expansion. Hence define it.
at 0 oC.
(2 marks)
(ii) When the rod is heated, its length increases. Ans.
Let Lt be the length of the rod at t oC. (i) Consider a uniform metal sheet having area
(iii) Increase in length or linear expansion is A0 at 0 oC.
(Lt –L0). (ii) When the sheet is heated, its area increases.
(iv) It is found that increase in length is directly Let At be the area of the sheet at t oC.
proportional to its original length and the rise (iii) Increase in area or superficial expansion is
in its temperature. Hence, (At – A0).
166 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) It is found that increase in area is directly (ii) When the solid is heated, its volume increases.
proportional to its original area and the rise in Let Vt be the volume of the solid at t oC.
its temperature. Hence,
(iii) Increase in volume or volume expansion is
(At – A0) ∝ A0 … (1) (Vt – V0).
and (At – A0) ∝ t … (2)
(iv) It is found that increase in volume is directly
(v) Combining equations (1) and (2), proportional to its original volume and the rise
(At – A0) ∝ A0 t in its temperature. Hence,

\ (At – A0) = β A0 t (Vt – V0) ∝ V0 …(1)

\ At = A0 (1 + βt) … (3) and (Vt – V0) ∝ t … (2)

Where β is a constant which depends upon the (v) Combining equations (1) and (2),
material of the solid and is called coefficient of (Vt – V0) ∝ V0t
areal expansion.
\ (Vt – V0) = γV0t
(vi) If A1 and A2 are the areas of a solid at
temperature t1 and t2 respectively, then, \ Vt = V0 (1 + γt) … (3)

A1 = A0 (1 + βt1) Where γ is a constant which depends upon the

material of the solid and is called coefficient of
and A2 = A0 (1 + βt2)
volume or cubical expansion.
\ =
(vi) If V1 and V2 are the volumes at temperatures t1
and t2 respectively, then
\ = (1 + βt2) (1 + βt1)–1
V1 = V0 (1 + γt1)
(vii) By binomial expansion, and V2 = V0 (1 + γt2)
(1 + βt)–1 = 1 – βt + (βt)2 – (βt)3 + …
\ =
As β is small, higher powers are neglected.

\ (1 + βt)–1 = 1 – βt \ = (1 + γt1) (1 + γt2)–1

\ = (1 + βt2) (1 – βt1) (vii) By binomial expansion,

\ (1 + γt)–1 = 1 – γt + (γt)2 – (γt)3 + …

\ = 1 + β (t2 – t1) – β2 t1 t2
As γ is small, higher powers are neglected.
As β is small, higher powers are neglected.
\ (1 + γt)–1 = 1 – γt
\ = 1 + β (t2 – t1)
\ = (1 + γt1) (1 – γt2)
\ A2 = A1 [1+ β(t2 – t1)] …(5)
\ = 1 + γ (t2 – t1) – γ2 (t1t2)
*Q.11. Derive the necessary expression for cubical
expansion. Hence define it. (2 marks) As γ is small, higher powers are neglected.
Ans. \ = 1 + γ (t2 – t1)
(i) Consider a uniform solid having volume V0 at
0 oC. \ V2 = V1 [1 + γ (t2 – t1)] … (5)
Thermal Expansion 167

Q.12. Derive the relation between ∝, β and γ for a (d) By definition of linear expansion,
solid. (3 marks) Lt = L0 (1 + αt)
Ans. Squaring both sides,
(i) Coefficient of linear expansion is defined as Lt2 = L02 (1 + αt)2
the increase in length of solid per unit original \ At = A0 (1 + αt)2
length at 0 oC per degree rise in its temperature. \ At = A0 (1 + 2αt + α2t2)
As α is very small, α2t2 term can be neglected.
\ α = … (4)
\ At = A0 (1 + 2αt) … (1)
Unit of coefficient of linear expansion (α) is K –1
(e) But, by definition of superficial expansion,
or oC–1. \ At = A0 (1 + βt) … (2)
(ii) Coefficient of areal expansion is defined as the (f) Comparing equations (1) and (2),
increase in area of solid per unit original area at 1 + βt =( 1 + 2αt)
0 oC per degree rise in its temperature. \ β = 2α
(g) Thus, coefficient of superficial expansion of a
\ β = … (4)
solid is twice its co­efficient of linear expansion.
Unit of coefficient of areal expansion (β) is K–1 (ii) Relation between γ and α :
or oC–1. (a) Consider a uniform isotropic solid in the form
of a cube of side of L0 at 0 oC.
(iii) Coefficient of volume expansion is defined as
(b) The volume of the cube is
increase in volume of a solid per unit original
volume at 0 oC per degree rise in temperature. V0 = (L0)3
(c) Let the cube be heated to t°C. Let Lt be
\ γ = … (4) the length of each side of the cube at
t°C. The volume of the cube at t°C is
Unit of coefficient of volume expansion (γ) is
Vt = (Lt)3
C–1 or K–1.
o

(iv) Relation between β and α:

(a) Consider a thin uniform isotropic plate
in the form of a square of side of L0 at
0 oC.
(b) The surface area of the plate is
A0 = (L0)2

(c) Let the plate be heated to t oC. Let Lt be the

length of each side of plate at t oC. The surface
area of plate at t oC is (d) By definition of linear expansion,
At = (Lt)2 Lt = L0 (1 + αt)
Taking cube on both sides,
\ (Lt)3 = (L0)3 (1 + αt)3
\ Vt = V03 (1 + αt)3
Vt = V0 (1 + 3αt + 3α2t2 + α3t3)
As α is very small, higher powers of α can
be neglected.
\ Vt = V0 (1 + 3αt) … (1)
168 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(e) But, by definition of cubical expansion, (v) As lake cools towards 4 oC, water near the
V t = V0 (1 + γt) … (2) surface loses energy to the atmosphere,
becomes denser and sinks. The warmer and
(f) Comparing equations (1) and (2), hence less dense water near the bottom rises up.
1 + γt = 1 + 3αt However, once colder water on the top reaches
\ γ = 3α temperature below 4 oC, it becomes less dense
and remains at the surface, where it freezes.
(g) Thus, the coefficient of cubical expansion of a
solid is equal to three times its coefficient of
linear expansion.
(iii) Relation between α, β and γ :
(a) Relation between α and β is given as,
β = 2α
\ α = ... (1)
(b) Also, relation between α and γ is given as,
γ = 3α
\ =
... (2)
(c) From equations (1) and (2),
α = =
i.e. α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3

Note: (Extra information for understanding not to

be included in the answer)
For the same rise in temperature,
(1) Percentage change in area =
2 × percentage change in length
(2) Percentage change in volume = Fig. 7.3 : Thermal Expansion Of Water
3 × percentage change in length
(vi) If water does not have this property, lakes and
Q.13. Explain the anomalous behaviour of water. ponds would freeze from the bottom till top,
(2 marks) which would destroy much of their animal and
Ans. plant life.
(i) Water exhibits anomalous behaviour. It
*Q.14. What is triple point of water ? Give its
contracts on heating between 0 oC and 4 oC. significance. (2 marks)
(ii) The volume of a given amount of water
Ans.
decreases as it is cooled from room temperature,
until its temperature reaches 4 oC. Below 4 oC, (i) The triple point of water is that point where
the volume increases and therefore the density water in a solid, liquid and gaseous state co-
decreases. exists in equilibrium. This occurs only at a
(iii) This means that water has a maximum density unique temperature and pressure.
at 4 oC as shown in the figure. (ii) The pressure at the triple point of water is
(iv) This property has an important environmental 4.58 mm of mercury and the temperature is
effect. Lakes and ponds, freezes first at the top. 273.16 K or (0.01oC).
Thermal Expansion 169

(iii) The physical significance of triple point of water Note :

is that it represents a unique condition and it is (1) Greater the value of specific heat, smaller will
used to define the absolute temperature. be the change in temperature of the body when
given amount of heat is supplied and vice-versa.
(iv) On the absolute or Kelvin scale, the absolute
zero is taken as the lower fixed point and the (2) The heat can also be expressed in calories.
triple point of water is taken as the upper fixed 1 cal = 4.2 joule
point. 1 kcal = 4200 joule
*Q.17. Why do we consider two specific heats of
7.5 Specific Heat Capacity a gas? Hence define principal and molar
Intext question textbook page no. 92 specific heat of a gas at constant volume and
*Q.15. Two bodies at different temperatures when at constant pressure. (3 marks)
brought in thermal contact do not necessarily
Ans.
settle to the mean temperature. Explain.
(i) In case of gas, slight change in temperature
(1 mark)
is accompanied with considerable changes in
Ans. By the principle of heat exchange
both, volume and pressure.
Heat lost = heat gained
(ii) If gas is heated at constant pressure, volume
m1 c1 (θ1 – θ) = m2 c2 (θ – θ2)
changes and hence some work is done on
surrounding in expansion. Hence more heat is
required.
depends upon mass of bodies and its specific (iii) Therefore, specific heat at constant pressure is
heat capacity. greater than specific heat at constant volume.
Q.16. Define and explain specific heat. (2 marks) (iv) So, it is necessary to define two specific heats
Ans. for gas:
(i) Specific heat of a substance is defined as (a) Specific heat of a gas at constant volume
the quantity of heat required to change the (cv) is defined as the quantity of heat
temperature of unit mass of a substance required to raise the temperature of unit
through 1 oC or 1 K. mass of a gas through 1 K or 1 oC when
(ii) The amount of heat required to change its volume is kept constant.
the temperature of a substance is directly
(b) Specific heat of a gas at constant pressure
proportional to the mass of the substance and
(cp) is defined as the quantity of heat
change in the temperature T, i.e.
required to raise the temperature of unit
Q ∝ m ∆T
mass of a gas through 1 K or 1 oC when
or Q = c m ∆T … (1)
its pressure is kept constant.
where c is called as specific heat or specific heat
capacity of the substance. (v) S.I. unit of principal specific heat is J/kg K.

(iii) From equation (1) we get, (vi) For unit mass of a gas, the specific heats are
called principal specific heats.
c = ... (2)
(vii) While defining the specific heats, if one mole of
(iv) S.I. unit of specific heat is J/kg oC or J/kgK. a gas is considered instead of unit mass, then the
(v) The specific heat of water is 4.2 J/gK, it means specific heats are called the molar specific heats.
that 4.2 J of energy must be added to 1 g of (a) Molar specific heat of a gas at constant
water to increase its temperature by 1 oC. volume (Cv) is defined as the quantity of
170 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

heat required to raise the temperature of Q.20. Explain conduction of heat on the basis of
one mole of the gas through 1 K or 1 oC, molecular theory. (3 marks)
when its volume is kept constant. Ans.
(b) Molar specific heat of gas at constant (i) Process of conduction can be explained on the
pressure (Cp) is defined as the quantity basis of molecular theory of matter. According
of heat required to raise the temperature to molecular theory,
of one mole of the gas through 1 K or 1 oC (a) The molecules of solid are always in state of
when its pressure is kept constant. vibration about their mean position, but they
(viii) S.I. unit of molar specific heat is J/kmole K. are not free to move in solids.
(ix) The molecular weight of a substance is equal to (b) When metal rod is heated at one end, the
the mass of 1 mole of the substance. Hence the molecules at that end receive thermal energy
molar specific heat and principal specific heat from the source of heat. Thus energy of these
are related as molecules increase and they begin to vibrate
Cp = M x cp and with larger amplitudes.
Cv = M x cv (c) Vibrating molecules collide with the
Where, M is the molecular weight of the gas. neighbouring molecules in which they transfer
a part of their energy to their neighbouring
7.6 Latent Heat
molecules.
Q.18. Define and explain latent heat. (2 marks) (d) These molecules in turn begin to vibrate more
Ans. vigorously, collide with their neighbours
(i) Whenever there is a change in the state of a and transfer a part of their energy to their
substance, heat is either absorbed or given out neighbouring molecules.
but there is no change in the temperature of the (e) This process goes on repeating and thus heat
substance. is transferred from molecule to molecule all
along the length of the rod from the hot end to
(ii) Latent heat of a substance is the quantity of heat
cold end.
required to change the state of unit mass of the
substance without changing its temperature. (f) In this process, molecules vibrate but do not
move along the length of the rod.
(iii) The S.I. unit of latent heat is J/kg.
(ii) Conduction of heat occurs mostly in solids,
*Q.19. Explain the term : (i) Latent heat of fusion (ii) and to some extent in liquids and gases.
Latent heat of vaporisation. (2 marks)
(iii) It is a relatively slow process of heat transfer.
Ans.
Note : (not part of answer to the question)
(i) The quantity of heat required to convert unit
(1) For conduction of heat to take place from one
mass of a substance from its solid state to the
point to another, following conditions must be
liquid state, at its melting point, without any
satisfied:
change in its temperature is called its latent
heat of fusion. (i) The two points should be at different
temperatures.
(ii) The quantity of heat required to convert unit
mass of a substance from its liquid state to (ii) There should be a medium between the
vapour state, at its boiling point, without any two points.
change in its temperature is called its latent (2) The substances, which conduct heat easily,
heat of vaporisation. are called good conductors. All metals are
Thermal Expansion 171

good conductors of heat, e.g., steel, silver, (viii) After some time, the thermometer readings
aluminium, etc. become stable, indicating that there is no
(3) The substances, which do not conduct heat further rise in the temperature of any section of
the rod. Then, the rod is said to be in a thermal
easily, are called bad conductors of heat
steady state.
or insulators. e.g. glass, wood, air, paper,
cloth, etc. (ix) At steady state, the different parts of the body
need not be at the same temperature and the
7.7 Heat Transfer heat continues to flow from a point at higher
temperature to a point at lower temperature.
*Q.21. Explain the term steady state using the
example of conduction of heat through a Q.22. Define and explain temperature gradient.
metal rod. (3 marks) (2 marks)
Ans. Ans. The rate of fall of temperature with distance
in the direction of flow of heat is defined as
(i) A thick metal rod of uniform cross section
temperature gradient.
has one of its end A maintained at a constant
temperature by steam. (i) If θ1 and θ2 are the temperatures at two cross
sections separated by distance x, then,
(ii) The opposite end B is maintained at a constant
lower temperature. Temperature gradient =

(iii) The rod is wrapped with a thermal insulator to (ii) If ∆θ is the temperature difference between two
prevent any heat loss from its longer surface. points separated by a small distance ∆x, then,

(iv) Thermometers are placed in holes drilled Temperature gradient =

into the rod, with a small amount of mercury (iii) S.I. unit of temperature gradient is K/m
in each hole to ensure good thermal contact or oC/m.
between the rod and the bulb of thermometer. C.G.S. unit of temperature gradient is
(v) Initially, as the end A is heated by steam, all the K/cm or oC/cm.
thermometers show a gradual rise in temperature. (iv) As the temperature decreases with increase
(vi) The section nearest to the steam end A always in x, temperature gradient is negative in the
remains hottest. direction of flow of heat.

7.8 Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity

Q.23. Define and explain coefficient of thermal

conductivity. (2 marks)
Ans.
(i) Thermal conductivity of a solid is a measure of
its ability to conduct heat through it.
Fig. 7.4 : Conduction through metal rod
(ii) The amount of heat that can pass from one point
(vii) At this stage, as heat is being conducted, every to another, through a material by conduction
section of the rod retains a part of this heat depends upon various factors.
(which raises its temperature) and transmits (iii) Consider a rod of uniform cross sectional area
the rest to the next section. A (Heat flows from M to N).
172 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(xi) The dimensions of coefficient of thermal

conductivity are [L1M1T–3K–1].
Intext question textbook page no. 95
θ2
*Q.24. Is thermal conductivity of metals and non-
Fig. 7.5 : Section of metal bar in the steady state
metals the same? (1 mark)
(iv) Consider an element MN of the rod of length Ans. Thermal conductivity depends on free electron
x. Let θ1 and θ2, be the temperatures at cross per unit volume. In non-metal, it is less than
sections M and N respectively in the steady metal.
state (θ1 > θ2). ∴ thermal conductivity of metal > thermal
(v) In the steady state, the temperature at two ends conductivity of non-metal.
of the section remains constant. Note:
(vi) Hence, quantity of heat entering the section per The coefficient of thermal conductivity of some
second is equal to quantity of heat leaving the conductors and insulators :
section per second.
Material Coefficient of thermal
(vii) It is found that the quantity of heat (Q) conductivity (kcal/smK)
conducted in the steady state through the Silver 0.097
section is directly proportional to, Copper 0.092
(a) its cross sectional area (A) Aluminium 0.049
(b) temperature gradient (dθ/dx) Brass 0.026
(c) time for which the heat is conducted (t). Steel 0.012
Glass 0.0002
Hence, Q ∝ A t
Water 0.00014
Air 0.0000057
Q = KA t
Q.25. Give some uses of good conductors and bad
Where, K is constant of proportionality. It is conductors. (2 marks)
called coefficient of thermal conductivity of the Ans.
material. (i) When hot water is poured in the glass beaker,
(viii) The coefficient of thermal conductivity is the inner surface of the glass expands on
defined as the quantity of heat conducted in the heating. Since glass is a bad conductor of heat,
steady state through a material per unit time the heat inside does not reach the outer surface
per unit area when unit temperature gradient quickly so outer surface doesn’t expand and
is maintained across its ends. glass cracks.
(ii) In summer, ice is packed in saw dust. Saw dust
(ix) Its value depends upon the material of the rod
is a bad conductor of heat and does not allow
used. For good conductors such as metals, K is
the heat from outside to enter ice. Therefore,
very large.
ice does not melt so rapidly.
(x) S.I. unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity
(iii) Cooking utensils are made of metals with
is J/smK.
handles of bad conductor. e.g. wood, ebonite
M.K.S. unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity etc. Heat can be easily conducted through
is kcal/smK. metals, as metals are good conductors of heat.
C.G.S. unit of coefficient of thermal conductivity Bad conductors will not conduct the heat from
is cal/scmK. the utensils to our hand.
Thermal Expansion 173

(iv) Mica is a bad conductor of electricity but good Q.27. Explain the formation of land breeze and sea
conductor of heat, so it is used as an electrical breeze. (3 marks)
insulator. It is coated over a coil of an iron for Ans.
ironing the clothes.
(i) Land and sea breezes are formed as a result of
(v) In winter, birds often swell their feathers. The convection currents in air.
air enclosed between their body and feathers
(ii) During day time, the land near the sea gets
acts as a bad conductor of heat and prevents
heated by the sun to a higher temperature
the flow of heat from the body of the bird to the
than the sea.
cold surroundings.
(iii) The specific heat of water is greater than that
*Q.26. Describe the process of transfer of heat by of land. As a result, the temperature of the sea
convection. (3 marks) does not rise as much as that of the land.
Ans. Convection of heat is defined as the process of
transfer of heat through a material medium,
in which the particles of the medium carry
thermal energy from the high temperature
region to a low temperature region.
(i) When the beaker containing water is placed on
a burner, the water at the bottom and above the
flame is the first to receive the heat, as a result
of which it expands and its density decreases.
(ii) This water thus becomes lighter and moves
upwards and is replaced by the heavier water
situated above and around it.
(iii) This water is in turn heated, it expands, its
density decreases and it moves upward. This
cycle goes on repeating so long as the water is
being heated.
(iv) This process of transfer of heat is called
convection of heat. Fig. 7.6 : Formation of convection current
(v) During convection, the particles of a liquid or (iv) Also due to the mixing up of the hot surface
gas themselves move towards the source of layers with the colder layers below them,
heat, receive thermal energy and then move the temperature of the sea is lower than that of
away. The motion of the particles of the liquid the land.
results in a liquid flow which is called the (v) As a result of this, the air above the land is
convection current. heated to a higher temperature, it becomes
(vi) Transfer of heat through liquids and gases lighter and rises upwards.
takes place by the process of convection. In (vi) It is replaced by the cooler air moving from the
solids, the molecules are firmly bound together sea towards land and the sea breeze is set up.
and cannot move freely. Hence, convection is (vii) At night, the condition is reversed. The sea
not possible in solids. takes more time to cool because of the greater
(vii) Convection is a relatively rapid process of heat value of specific heat of water as compared to
transfer. that of land, which cools rapidly.
174 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(viii) Therefore, the land is at lower temperature *Q.29. State Newton’s law of cooling. Explain how
than the sea. it can be experimentally verified. (4 marks)
(ix) The air above the sea is now hotter and lighter Ans. Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate
and it moves upwards, to be replaced by the
of fall of temperature of a body is directly
cooler air moving from the land to the sea.
proportional to the excess of temperature of
(x) In this way, land breeze is set up at night.
the body over the surroundings. Newton’s
*Q.28. Describe the process of transfer of heat by law holds good only for small difference
radiation. (3 marks) of temperature between the body and its
Ans. Radiation of heat is defined as the process of surroundings i.e. upto 40 oC.
transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic Mathematically this may be expressed as,
waves, for which material medium is not
∝ (θ – θ0)
necessary.
(i) For conduction and convection of heat, a
\ = k (θ – θ0)
material medium is necessary.
(ii) Between the sun and the earth, there is vacuum. where, k is constant of proportionality.
Therefore, transfer of heat from the sun to
Newton’s law can be verified experimentally
the earth by conduction or convection is not
as follows :
possible.
(iii) The transfer of heat from the sun to the earth (i) Fill the calorimeter up to two third of its
takes place by another process known as capacity with boiling water and cover it with a
radiation of heat. For radiation of heat, material holed lid as shown in figure (7.7).
medium is not necessary.
(iv) Radiation takes place in the form of
electromagnetic waves, which do not need
material medium for propagation.
(v) As electromagnetic waves travel with the
velocity of light (3×108 m/s), radiation is the
fastest mode of heat transfer.
(vi) The electromagnetic waves carrying heat
energy are similar to light waves, with the
only difference that light waves have smaller
wavelengths. Fig 7.7 Verification of Newton's law of cooling
(vii) If we sit near a fire, we receive heat by radiation.
(ii) Fix a thermometer through the hole in the lid
Note: (Extra information for understanding not to
and adjust the position of the thermometer
be included in the answer)
so that the bulb of the thermometer is fully
(1) The amount of heat that body can absorb or immersed in water.
radiate depends on the colour of the body.
(iii) Keep calorimeter vessel in constant
(2) We wear dark clothes in winter, because they temperature enclosure or just in open air
absorb most of the radiant energy incident since room temperature will not change much
upon them and therefore we feel warm. during experiment.
(3) On the other hand, we wear lighter clothes (iv) Note the temperature on the thermometer at
in summer, because they reflect most of the every one minute interval until the temperature
radiant energy incident upon them. of water decreases by about 25 oC.
Thermal Expansion 175

(v) Plot a graph of temperature (θ) against time (t). (viii) The intercept on the temperature axis gives the
This graph is called cooling curve as shown in temperature of surroundings, i.e. temperature
figure (a). (θ0) of the enclosure.

(ix) Figure (c) shows the graph of against

(θ – θ0). The graph passes through the origin

which verifies Newton’s law of cooling.
(x) It is seen from the graph that initially the
rate of cooling is higher and decreases as the
temperature of the water falls.
(xi) The above experiment shows that a hot body
loses heat to its surroundings in the form of
radiation. The rate of loss of heat depends on the
(vi) Draw tangents to the curve at suitable points on difference in the temperature between the body
the curve. The slope of each tangent gives the
and the surroundings provided the difference
rate of fall of temperature at that temperature.
is small.

(vii) Plot a graph of against corresponding

Q.30. Give Reasons:
temperature (θ ) as shown in figure (b). (i) Stainless steel cooking pan is fitted with
copper bottom.
Ans. Stainless steel is not a very good conductor of
heat, whereas copper is a very good conductor
of heat. When a stainless steel cooking pan
is placed directly over flame, hot spots are
developed which are hotter than the rest of the
bottom of the pan. Food gets quickly burnt at
these hot spots.
Therefore, to evenly distribute the heat of flame
and to prevent formation of hot spots, stainless
steel cooking pan is fitted copper bottom.
(ii) Two layers of cloth used to cover the body
retain body heat better than a single layer of
cloth having double the thickness.
Ans. When two layers of cloth is used to cover the
body, air gets trapped between the two layers
of cloth. Air being a bad conductor of heat,
reduces thermal conduction and helps to retain
body heat better than a single layer of cloth
having double the thickness.
(iii) Beakers crack when hot water is poured in it
Fig 7.8 Graphical representation of
Newton's law of cooling Ans. Refer to point (i) in the answer to Q. 25.
176 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) We can hold our fingers beside the candle Solution:

without harm but not above the flame. \ tC = – 183 oC
Ans. Due to convection currents above the candle We know,
flame, hot air rises up. Therefore, it is much =
hotter above the flame than beside the flame
where only a little amount of heat reaches by \ =
radiation.
\ Tk = 273.15 – 183
Hence, we can hold our fingers beside the
\ Tk = 90.15 K
candle without harm, but not above the flame.
*(3) At what temperature do the Kelvin and
(v) In summer one should wear white clothes Fahrenheit scales coincide? (2 marks)
and in winter one should wear black clothes.
Solution:
Ans. Black surfaces are good absorbers of heat Let the required temperature be x.
radiation whereas white surfaces are good \ x = tF = Tk
reflectors of thermal heat radiation. In summer
We know,
white clothes reflect most of the radiant heat
energy incident upon them. =

In winter black clothes absorb most of the =

radiant energy incident upon them and
\ 5x – 160 = 9x – 2458.35
therefore we feel warm.
\ x = 574.6 K
Hence, in summer one should wear white
or x = 574.6 oF
clothes and in winter one should wear black
clothes. Ideal gas equation

Solved Problems *(4) When the pressure of 1 litre of gas at 27oC

is doubled, its temperature rises to 114oC.
Temperature scales (oC, oF, K) : Calculate the final volume of the gas.
*(1) If the temperature in a room is 20oC, what is (2 marks)
its temperature in degree Fahrenheit ? Solution:
(2 marks) \ V1 = 1 litre = 1000 cm3
Solution: \ T1 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
\ tC = 20 oC \ T2 = 114 + 273 = 387 K
We know, P2 = 2 P1
By ideal gas equation,
=
=

\ =
\ V2 =

\ = tF – 32 \ V2 =
\ tF = 68 F
o
\ V2 = 645 cm3
*(2) The normal boiling point of liquid oxygen is
*(5) Certain mass of a gas at 20oC is heated until
–183 oC. What is this temperature in Kelvin
both its pressure and volume are doubled.
scale? (2 marks)
Thermal Expansion 177

Calculate its final temperature. D2 = 2.01 m, L1 = π D1 = 2.003π m,

(2 marks)
L2 = π D2 = 2.01π m, α = 12×10–6 / oC
Solution:
We have to heat the tyre until its internal diameter
T1 = 20 + 273.15 = 293.2 K
becomes 2.01 m. Let t2 be the temperature to which
P2 = 2P1 , V2 = 2V1 the tyre must be heated.
We have,
=
L2 = L1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)]
\ The final temperature of the gas is \ 2.01π = 2.003π [1 + 12 × 10–6 (t2 – 20)]
\ 2.01 = 2.003 [1 + 12 × 10–6 (t2 – 20)]
T2 =
\ 2.01 = 2.003 + 24.036 × 10–6 (t2 – 20)]
= 2 × 2 × 293.2 K = 1172.8 K
\ t2 – 20 =
\ T2 = 1172.8 K (or about 899.6 oC)

Coefficient of linear expansion \ t2 – 20 =

(6) How much gap should be left between two \ t2 – 20 = 291.23

rails of a railway track, if each rail is 10 m \ t 2 = 291.23 + 20 = 311.23 oC
long and the maximum rise in temperature is \ t2 = 311.23 oC
30oC? The coefficient of linear expansion of *(8) The length of a metal rod is 150 cm at 25oC.
the material of the rails is 2 × 10–5 o­ C–1. Find its length when it is heated to 150oC.
(3 marks) [α for the metal = 2.2 × 10–5 oC–1] (3 marks)
Solution: Solution:
L1 = 10 m , t2 – t1 = 30 oC , L1 = 150 cm
α = 2 × 10–5 oC–1 q1 = 25 oC
Let L2 be the length of each rail when the temperature q2 = 150 oC
rises by 30 oC. α = 2.2 × 10–5 oC–1
Increase in length is (L2 – L1), which is gap to be left L2 = L1 [1 + α(θ2 – θ1)]
between two rails. = (150) [1 + (2.2 × 10–5) × (150 – 25)
We have, = 150 + (1+2.2 × 125 × 10–5)
α =
= 150 (1 + 0.00275)
\ L2 – L1 = L1 α (t2 – t1) = 150 + 150 × 0.00275

\ L2 – L1 = 2 × 10–5 × 10 × 30 = 150 + 0.4125 = 150.41/cm

\ L2 = 150.41 cm
\ L2 – L1 = 6 × 10–3 m
*(9) A metal rod 1.8 m long, increases in length
\ L2 – L1 = 6 mm by 1.4 mm, when heated from 0 oC to 50 oC.
(7) An iron tyre is to be fitted on a wheel at 20 oC. Find the coefficient of linear expansion of the
The diameter of the wheel is 2.01 m and the metal. (3 marks)
inside diameter of the tyre is 2.003 m. To what Solution:
temperature must the tyre be heated before it L0 = 1.8 m
just slips on the wheel ? L – L0 = 1.4 mm = 1.4 x 10–3 m
(α for iron = 12 × 10–6 oC–1) (3 marks) θ0 = 0 oC
Solution: θ = 50 oC
t1 = 20 oC, D1 = 2.003 m, L – L0 = L0 α(θ – θ0)
178 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ The coefficient of linear expansion of the metal is of areal expansion of the metal. (3 marks)
α = Solution: A1 = 24 × 10–2 m2
θ1 = 20 oC
=
θ2 = 185 oC

= = 1.556 × 10–5 oC–1 ∆A = 0.8 cm2

= 0.8 × 10–4 m2
\ α = 1.556 × 10–5 oC–1
The coefficient of areal expansion is
*(10) The difference between the lengths of a
steel rod and a brass rod is 0.6 m at all β =
temperatures. What are their lengths at 0oC ?
[Linear expansivities for brass and steel are
1.8 × 10–5 oC–1 and 1.2 × 10–5 oC–1, respectively.] =
(3 marks)
Solution: LS–LB = LoS – LoB = 0.6 m =
αB = 1.8 × 10 –5 o
C –1

αS = 1.2 × 10–5 oC–1 β = 2.020 × 10–5 oC–1

(12) The volume of a metal increases by 0.12%

=
when its temperature is increased by 20 oC.
Find the coefficient of its linear expansion.
=
(2 marks)
= 1.5 Solution: V = 100
\ LOS = 1.5 LOB
× 100 = 0.12%
By the data,
LOS – LOB = 0.6 m \ =
\ 1.5 LOB – LOB = 0.6
t 2 – t 1 = 20 oC
\ 0.5 LOB = 0.6
We know,
\ LOB = = 1.2 γ =
\ LOB = 1.2 m
\ LOS – LOB = 0.6 \ γ =
\ LOS = LOB + 0.6
= 1.2 + 0.6 = 1.8 m \ γ = 6 × 10–5 oC–1
LOS = 1.8 m
\ γ = 3 α i.e.
\ The lengths of the steel and brass rods at 0 oC are
1.8 m and 1.2 m respectively.
\
Coefficient of areal expansion, coefficient of
cubical expansion \ α = 2 × 10–5 oC–1
*(11) The surface area of a metal plate is 2.4 × 10–2 m2
(13) The volume of water at 10 oC is 40 cm3. When
at 20 oC. When the plate is heated to 185 oC, its
water is heated upto 30 oC, its volume changes
area increases by 0.8 cm2. Find the coefficient
by 0.4 cm3. Calculate the coefficient of its
Thermal Expansion 179

cubical expansion. (2 marks)

\ = K ×
Solution:
t1 = 10 oC , t2 = 30 oC \ 644 = 92 ×
V1 = 40 cm3 , V2 – V1 = 0.4 cm3
\ = = 7 oC/m
We have,
\ Temperature gradient = 7 oC/m
γ =
*(16) Calculate the temperature difference between
two sides of an iron plate 2 cm thick, when
\ γ = heat is transmitted through the plate at the
rate of 600 kcal per minute per square metre.
γ = = 5 × 10–4 oC–1 Thermal conductivity of iron is 0.02 kcal/
msK. (2 marks)
γ = 5 × 10–4 oC–1
Solution:
d = 2 m = 0.02 m , Q = 600 kcal ,
Specific heat capacity, Latent heat and thermal
t = 1 min = 60 s , A = 1 m2 ,
conductivity
K = 0.02 kcal/msK
*(14) How much heat is required to raise the We have,
temperature of 500 g of kerosene from 10 oC Q = KA t
to 40 oC if the specific heat of kerosene is 0.51
kcal/kg oC? (2 marks) \ dθ =

Solution: Mass of kerosene,

\ dθ = = 10 oC
m = 500 g = 0.5 kg
Rise in temperature, \ Difference in temperature between two sides of
∆t = 40 – 10 = 30 oC iron plate is 10 oC.
Specific heat of kerosene, (17) A metal rod 25 cm long and 10 cm2 in cross-
c = 0.51 kcal/kg oC section has its one end placed in boiling water
We know, and the other end in melting ice. Calculate the
Q = m × c × ∆t mass of ice melted per minute, if K for metal
\ Q = 0.5 × 0.51 × 30 is 378 W/mK. Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80
kcal/kg. (J = 4200 J/kcal) (2 marks)
\ Q = 7.65 kcal
Solution: K = 378 W/mK , A = 10 cm2 = 10–3 m2
(15) Calculate the temperature gradient in a copper dx = 25 cm = 0.25 m , t = 60 s ,
plate, if heat is conducted through it at the dθ = 100 K , Lice = 80 kcal/kg
rate of 644 cal s–1m–2, when the steady state is We have,
reached. (Kcopper = 92 cal/ms oC) (2 marks) Q = K At
Solution:
Kcopper = 92 cal/ms oC \ Q = 378 × × 10–3 × 60

\ Q = 9072 J
= 644 cal/sm2
\ Q = kcal = 2.16 kcal
We have,
Q = KAt This is the amount of heat used to melt the ice in one
minute.
180 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Q = m Lice \ x = 100 – x
\ 2x = 100
\ m = \ x = 50 oC
Hence, rate of flow of heat,
\ m =
\ m = 0.027 kg =

\ Mass of ice melted per minute is 0.027 kg i.e. 27 g.

\ =
(18) A stone slab consists of two parallel layers
of different types of stones. The upper one is
10 cm thick and has a conductivity of 200 W/ \ = = 2.5 × 104 W
mK. The lower one is 5 cm thick and has a
conductivity of 100 W/mK. If the upper and \ = 2.5 × 104 W
lower faces are maintained at 100oC and 0oC
respectively and if the area of cross-section of *(19) The metal sphere cools at the rate of 1.6oC/
the slab is 0.25 m2, find the rate of conduction minute when its temperature is 70oC. At what
of heat through the slab. (3 marks) rate will it cool when its temperature is 40oC?
Solution: The temperature of the surrounding is 30oC.
(2 marks)
Solution:
θ1 = 70 oC, θ2 = 40 oC, θ0 = 30 oC

= 1.6 oC/minute
K1 = 200 W/mK
From Newton's law of cooling,
K2 = 100 W/mK
θ1 = 100 oC = K (θ1 – θ0)
θ2 = 0 oC
A = 0.25 m2 \ 1.6 = K (70 – 30)
L1 = 10 cm = 10 × 10–2 m \ K = 0.04/minute … (i)
L2 = 5 cm = 5 × 10–2 m The rate of cooling at 40 oC is given by,
Let the temperature of the junction of the two stones
= K (θ2 – θ0) … (ii)
be x.
We assume that rate of flow of heat throughout the
stone is constant. = 0.04 (40 – 30) = 0.04 × 10 … [from (i)]

\ =
\ = 0.4 oC/minute

\ =
*(20) Calculate the temperature difference between
the water at the top and bottom of a waterfall
\ = 200 m high. [Specific heat capacity of water =
4200 J/kg. oC] (3 marks)

\ = 1 Solution:
h = 200 m , c = 4200 J/kg oC , g = 9.8 m/s2
Thermal Expansion 181

The gravitational potential energy of water of mass cubical expansion of the material of the sphere.
m at a height h above the ground = mgh. If this entire (2 marks)
energy is converted to heat such that the temperature (8) When a brass rod of length 5 m at 0 oC is heated
of the water rises by ∆θ as it falls to the ground. to 100 oC its length increases by 1 cm. Find the
mgh = mc∆θ coefficient of linear expansion and superficial
\ The temperature rise is expansion of brass. (2 marks)

∆θ = (9) The temperature inside an air conditioned

room is maintained at 20 oC, when the outside
= temperature is 30 oC. Calculate the quantity
of heat conducted per minute through a glass
= = 0.4667 oC window pane of area 0.25 m2 and thickness
5 m, if the thermal conductivity of glass is
\ ∆θ = 0.4667 oC 0.84 W/mK. (3 marks)
(10) A layer of ice of thickness 2 cm is formed on
Problems for Practice the surface of a pond. If the temperature of air
(1) If the graduation of a brass scale is correct at above the pond is –10 oC, calculate the time
0 oC, find the length of an object that was read required for the thickness of the ice layer to
by the scale at 25 oC as 30.15 cm. Coefficient become 4 cm. (ρice = 0.9 g/cm3, latent heat of ice
of linear expansion of brass is 18 × 10–6 K–1. = 80 cal/g, Kice = 0.004 cal/Kcms) (3 marks)
(2 marks) (11) 5kg of ice at 0 oC is kept in a wooden box having
(2) A steel rod at temperature 27 C is heated
o
inner dimensions (40 × 40 × 100) cm3. The box
to 97oC. If the length of rod at 97oC is 1.0 m, is 1.92 cm thick. How long will it take for all the
calculate the original length of the rod. ice to melt, if the temperature of surrounding is
(αsteel = 12 × 10–6 oC–1) (2 marks) 30 oC? (Kwood = 6 × 10–5 M.K.S. units, latent heat
(3) A steel tyre is 100 cm in diameter at 25 oC. To of ice = 80 kcal/kg). (3 marks)
what temperature it must be heated so that (12) How much heat is lost per day by conduction
it will just slip on a cartwheel 100.3 cm in through the walls of a concrete building whose
diameter ? (αsteel = 12 × 10–5 oC–1) (2 marks) area is 100 m2 and thickness is 0.25 m. The inside
(4) A steel rod is found to be one metre long at temperature is 25 oC and outside temperature
0 oC when measured by a brass scale which is 0 oC. (K for concrete is 2 × 10–4 kcal/smK)
is correct at 0 oC. What will be the length of (3 marks)
the steel rod as measured by the brass scale (13) A rectangular brass plate of area 15 cm x 8 cm
when both are at 100 oC ? (αsteel = 1.1 × 10–5 oC–1, and thickness 0.8 cm has its opposite faces
αbrass = 1.9 × 10–5 oC–1) (2 marks) maintained at 372 K and 343 K respectively.
(5) Two rods X and Y differ in length by 0.4 m at How much heat will flow through the plate per
all temperatures. If αx = 1.8 × 10–5 oC–1 and αy = minute ? (K for brass = 109 W/mK) (3 marks)
1.2 × 10–5 oC–1, find the length of X and Y at 0 oC.
(2 marks) Answers
(6) The density of a solid decreases by 0.1% (1) 30.1635 cm (2) 0.9992 m (3) 275 oC
when it is heated from 10 oC to 60 oC. Find the
(4) 99.92 cm (5) 0.8 m, 1.2 m
coefficients of linear, superficial and cubical
expansion of the material of the solid. (3 marks) (6) 6.7 10–6 oC–1, 1.34 x 10–5 oC–1, 2.01 × 10–5 oC–1

(7) When the temperature of a metal sphere (7) 6 × 10–5 oC–1 (8) 2 x 10–5 oC–1, 4 × 10–5 oC–1
of radius 1 m is raised by 500 oC, its radius (9) 25.2 J (10) 2 hours (11) 2222 s
increases by 1 cm. Calculate the coefficient of
(12) 1.728 × 105 kcal (13) 2.8449 × 105 J
182 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Important Formulae Where, Q is the heat required to change the

state of the substance.
(1) The relation between Fahrenheit scale and
Celsius scale of temperature is given as, (12) Temperature gradient =
t F = 1.8 tC + 32
(13) The quantity of heat conducted in the steady
(2) The relation between Kelvin scale and Celsius
state through any section of a substance,
scale of temperature is given as,
T = tC + 273.15 Q =
(3) The relation between Fahrenheit scale and
Where, K is the coefficient of thermal
Kelvin scale is given as
conductivity of the substance.
(4) Coefficient of linear expansion of solid,
(14) Newton’s law of cooling:
(i) α =
= k (θ – θ0)

(ii) α = Where, θ0 is the temperature of the surrounding.

(5) Coefficient of areal expansion of solid, Multiple Choice Questions

(i) β = (1) The sum of all energies of all molecules in a

body is called as
(ii) β = (a) kinetic energy (b) potential energy
(c) vibrational energy (d) thermal energy
(6) Coefficient of volume expansion of solid,

(i) γ = (2) A system is said to be isolated if

(a) no exchange of heat occurs between the
(ii) γ = system and its surroundings
(b) exchange of heat occurs between the
(7) (i) α = system and its surroundings

(ii) α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3 (c) the system interacts with other systems

(d) in the system different parts are at same
(8) Specific heat of a substance,
temperature
c =
(3) Heat transfer takes place between the system
(9) (i) 1 cal = 4.2 joule and surrounding medium until
(ii) 1 kcal = 4200 joule (a) the body and surrounding medium are at
(10) The molar specific heat and principal specific same temperature
heat are related as, (b) body is at lower temperature than
(i) Cp = M x cp surrounding temperature

(ii) Cv = M x cv (c) surrounding temperature is lower than

the body temperature
(11) Latent heat of a substance,
(d) body becomes ice cool
L =
Thermal Expansion 183

(4) What is the temperature at which we get the [αmetal = 12 × 10–6/oC and αbrass = 18 × 10–6/oC]
same reading on both celsius and fahrenheit (a) 167 oC (b) 177 oC
scales ?
(c) 187 oC (d) 197 oC
(a) 40 (b) –40
(c) 20 (d) –20 (9) A piece of lead weighing 500 g gives out 1200
calories of heat when it is cooled from 90 oC to
(5) Select the WRONG statement
10 oC. Find its specific heat.
(a) Boyle's law states that at constant
(a) 0.003 cal/g oC (b) 0.033 cal/g oC
temperature, the volume of given mass of
gas is inversely proportional to its pressure. (c) 0.03 cal/g oC (d) 0.3 cal/g oC
(b) Charle's law states that at constant pressure,
(10) The rate of fall of temperature per unit length
volume of a given mass of gas is directly
of the rod, when the rod is in the steady state is
proportional to its absolute temperature.
known as
(c) The value of R is same for all gases.
(a) potential gradient
(d) Boyle's law states that at constant
(b) temperature gradient
temperature, the volume of a gas is
(c) velocity gradient
directly proportional to its pressure.
(d) pressure gradient
(6) Which of the following is the correct volume
(11) A metal sphere cools from 64 oC to 55 oC in 10
temperature graph for a gas at constant
minutes and to 42 oC in the next 10 minutes. The
pressure ?
ratio of fall of temperature of first 10 minutes to
(a) (b) next ten minutes is
V
(a) (b)

(c) (d)
T
(12) Two rods of length L1 and L2 are made up
(c) V (d) V
of different materials whose coefficients of
linear expansion are α1 and α2 respectively.
The difference between their lengths will be
independent of temperature if L1/L2 is equal to
T –273.15oC T

(a) (b)
(7) The length of a metal rod at 15 oC is 50 cm and
at 90 oC, is 50.15 cm. The coefficient of linear
expansion of the material of rod is (c) (d)
(a) 4 × 10 / C
–6 o
(b) 2.4 × 10 / C
–6 o

(c) 4.2 × 10–5 / oC (d) 4 × 10–5 / oC (13) The temperature of the surface of the sun is
about 6500 oC. What is this temperature in
(8) A metal sphere 10.01 cm in diameter is
kelvin scale?
placed on a brass ring of internal diameter
10cm and at the same temperature of 10oC. (a) 6227 K (b) 6500 K
The temperature upto which they should (c) 6773 K (d) 6873 K
be heated together so that the metal
sphere just passes through the ring is (14) The graph of temperature against time is
184 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(a) (b) (19) The temperature of water at the surface of deep

Q Q
lake is 2 oC. The temperature expected at the
bottom is
(a) 0 oC (b) 2 oC
t t (c) 4 oC (d) 6 oC

(c) Q (d) Q (20) An iron plate has a circular hole of a diameter

10 cm. Find the diameter of the hole when the
plate is uniformly heated from 10 oC to 90 oC.
[α = 12 × 10–6 / oC]
t t
(a) 10.0192 cm (b) 10.0096 cm
(c) 10.96 cm (d) 11.96 cm
(15) A body cools at the rate 0.50 oC/s when it is at
50 oC above the surrounding temperature. Its (21) Choose the WRONG statement.
rate of cooling when it is 30 oC above the same (a) The liquid-in-glass thermometer depends
surrounding temperature will be on the change in volume of the liquid with
temperature.
(a) 0.32 oC/s (b) 0.36 oC/s
(b) The constant volume gas thermometer
(c) 0.40 oC/s (d) 0.3 oC/s
uses pressure change with temperature.
(16) When hot water is poured in glass beaker, (c) The resistance thermometer uses the
change of electrical specific resistance of a
(a) the beaker becomes hot quickly
metal with temperature.
(b) the inner side of beaker becomes hot and (d) The constant pressure gas thermometer
outer side also, hence it expands uses volume change with temperature.
(c) the inner side of glass expands, the heat
(22) Increase in volume is
does not reach outer surface quickly hence
(a) directly proportional to original volume
glass cracks. (glass being bad conductor of
and inversely proportional to temperature
heat)
difference.
(d) the outer surface of beaker quickly radiates
(b) inversely proportional to original volume
heat to the surrounding
and directly proportional to temperature
difference.
(17) In case of gas slight change in temperature is
(c) directly proportional to both original
accompanied with considerable changes in
volume and temperature difference.
both pressure and volume. Hence there
(d) inversely proportional to both original
(a) are five types of specific heats for gas volume and temperature difference.
(b) are three types of specific heats
(c) are two types of specific heats (23) A beaker is completely filled with water at 4 oC.
(d) is only one type of specific heat It will overflow
(a) when heated, but not when cooled
(18) The upper fixed point of kelvin scale is
(b) when cooled, but not when heated
(a) boiling point of water (c) both when heated or cooled
(b) melting point of ice (d) when kept at constant temperature
(c) condensation point of vapour
(d) triple point of water (24) A body cools in 7 minutes from 60 oC to 40 oC.
Thermal Expansion 185

What time does it take to cool from 40 oC to temperature is 22.8oC. If the specific heat of
28 oC if the surrounding temperature is 10 oC ? iron is 0.08 cal/goC then the temperature of hot
Assume that Newton's law of cooling is valid. ball is
o
(a) 3.5 (b) 1.4 (a) 422.8 C (b) 400oC
(c) 7 (d) 10 (c) 62.8oC (d) 42.8oC

(25) The heat radiated by hot body depends on (30) The process of transfer of heat due to difference
(a) amount of the hot body in densities of the matter is called as
(b) initial temperature of the hot body (a) conduction (b) radiation
(c) the difference in the temperature between (c) thermal expansion (d) convection
the body and the surroundings
(31) During steady state of rod heated at one end
(d) final temperature and material of the body
and surrounded by bad conductor, the rate of
(26) A solid ball of metal has a spherical cavity flow of heat is
inside it. If the ball is heated, then volume of (a) same through any cross-section.
the cavity will
(b) more through near cross-section at higher
(a) decrease (b) increase temperature
(c) remain same
(c) more through nearer cross-section at
(d) initially increase and finally decrease
lower temperature.
(27) Which of the following graph represents the (d) different through any cross-section.
relation TF = TC + 32 ?
(32) A device in which heat measurement can be
(a) tF (b) tF made is called
212 100
(a) thermometer (b) calorimeter
°F (c) speedometer (d) absolute scale
32°F t°C t°C
O° °C 100 O (33) The water has maximum density at
(c) tF (d) tF o
(a) 0 C
o
(b) 2 C
o o
(c) 4 C (d) 6 C
°F °F
(34) A metal rod of diameter 1 cm measures 50 cm
o
tC tC in length at 65 C. If the coefficient of linear
°C °C
expansion of the rod is 16 × 10–6 / oC, the length
o
(28) Steel rods are used in RCC roofings because of the rod at 0 C will be

(a) cohesive force exists between steel and (a) 49.95 cm (b) 50 cm
concrete (c) 50.5 cm (d) 50.95 cm
(b) steel diffuses into concrete
(35) One mole of a gas at pressure 2 Pa and
(c) coefficient of expansion of both are equal o
temperature 27 C is heated till both pressure
(d) coefficient of expansion of steel is smaller
and volume are tripled. What is the temperature
than that of concrete
of the gas ?
(29) A hot ball of iron weighing 200 g is dropped (a) 300 K (b) 900 K
into 500 g of water at 10oC. The resulting (c) 2700 K (d) 2900 K
186 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(36) The range of mercury thermometer is (44) The rate of fall of temperature of a body is
o o o o
(a) –40 C to 100 C (b) –59 C to 200 C directly proportional to the excess temperature
o o o o
(c ) 0 C to 180 C (d) –39 C to 357 C of the body over the surroundings (for small
temperature difference), is
(37) A constant volume gas thermometer works on
(a) Snell's law
(a) Ideal gas law (b) Boyle's law
(b) Newton's law of heating
(c) Pascal's law (d) Charle's laws
(c) Boyle's law
o
(38) 1 litre of the ideal gas at 27 C is heated at a (d) Newton's law of cooling
o
constant pressure to 297 C. The final volume is
(45) The coefficient of cubical expansion of a solid is
approximately
the increase in volume per unit original volume
(a) 1.2 litre (b) 1.9 litre
at 0 oC per
(c) 2.4 litre (d) 19 litre
(a) unit rise in temperature
o
(39) If the room temperature is 20 C then the (b) unit volume
temperature on Fahrenheit scale is (c) degree rise in temperature
o o
(a) 300 F (b) 273 F (d) square metre
o o
(c) 68 F (d) 20 F
*(46) A bucket full of hot water is kept in a room
(40) The volume of a metal block changes by 0.84% and it cools from 75 oC to 70 oC in T1 minutes,
o
when heated through 200 C then its coefficient from 70 oC to 65 oC in T2 minute and from 65 oC
of cubical expansion is to 60 oC in T3 minutes. Then,
(a) 42 × 10–6 / oC (b) 84 × 10–6 / oC (a) T1 = T2 = T3 (b) T1 < T2 < T3
(c) 42 × 10–5 / oC (d) 8.4 × 10–5 / oC (c) T1 > T2 > T3 (d) T1 ≠ T2 ≠ T3

(41) Whenever there is a change in the state of a

substance, without change in temperature, then Answers
(a) heat is always absorbed (1) thermal energy
(b) heat is always given out (2) no exchange of heat occurs between the system
(c) heat is either absorbed or given out and its surroundings
(d) heat is neither absorbed nor given out (3) the body and surrounding medium are at same
temperature
(42) The quantity of heat which crosses unit area of
(4) –40
a metal plate during conduction depends on
(a) the density of the metal (5) Boyle's law states that at constant temperature,
(b) the temperature gradient perpendicular to the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
the area its pressure.

(c) the temperature to which the metal is (6)

V
heated
(d) the area of the metal plate
o
(43) A body cools at the rate of 1.5 C/min when
o –273.15oC T
its temperature is 30 C above that of the
surrounding. At what temperature above the
o
(7) 4 × 10–5 / oC
surrounding will it cool at the rate of 1 C/min ?
o o (8) 177 oC
(a) 10 C (b) 15 C
o o (9) 0.03 cal/g oC
(c) 20 C (d) 25 C
Thermal Expansion 187

(10) temperature gradient body and the surroundings

(26) increase
(11) (27) tF
212
(12)
°F

(13) 6773 K 32°F t°C

(14) O° °C 100
Q
(28) coefficient of expansion of both are equal
(29) 422.8 oC
(30) convection
t
(31) same through any cross-section.

(15) 0.3 oC/s (32) calorimeter

(16) the inner side of glass expands, the heat does (33) 4 oC
not reach outer surface quickly hence glass (34) 49.95 cm
cracks. (glass being bad conductor of heat) (35) 2700K
(17) are two types of specific heats (36) –39oC to 357oC
(18) triple point of water (37) Ideal gas law
(19) 4 oC (38) 1.9 litre
(20) 10.0096 cm (39) 68oF
(21) The resistance thermometer uses the change (40) 42 × 10–6 / oC
of electrical specific resistance of a metal with (41) heat is either absorbed or given out
temperature.
(42) the temperature gradient perpendicular to the
(22) directly proportional to both original volume area
and temperature difference.
(43) 20oC
(23) both when heated or cooled
(44) Newton's law of cooling
(24) 7
(45) degree rise in temperature
(25) the difference in the temperature between the
*(46) T1 < T2 < T3

vvv
188 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

ASSESSMENT - 7
Time : 1 hour Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) What do you understand by the term temperature and heat ?
(2) Explain the significance of absolute zero temperature.
(3) Explain the anomalous behaviour of water.
(4) Two rods X and Y differ in length by 0.4 m at all temperatures. If αx = 1.8 × 10–5 oC–1 and
αy = 1.2 × 10–5 oC–1, find the length of X and Y at 0 oC.
(5) A sheet of copper has area 40 cm2 at 20 oC. Find its area at 120 oC if the coefficient of linear
expansion of copper is 16 × 10–6 K–1.
(6) The volume of water at 10 oC is 40 cm3. When water is heated upto 30 oC, its volume
changes by 0.4 cm3. Calculate the coefficient of its cubical expansion.

Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)

(1) Define coefficient of areal expansion. Derive the necessary expression.
(2) A metal rod 25 cm long and 10 cm2 in cross-section has its one end placed in boiling
water and the other end in melting ice. Calculate the mass of ice melted per minute, if K
for metal is 378 W/mK. Latent heat of fusion of ice is 80 kcal/kg. (J = 4200 J/kcal)
(3) Define and explain coefficient of thermal conductivity.

Q.3. Attempt any ONE question: (4)

(1) (a) Derive the relation between γ and α.
(b) The volume of a metal increases by 0.12% when its temperature is increased by 20
o
C. Find the coefficient of its linear expansion.
(2) State Newton's law of cooling. Explain how it can be experimentally verified.

vvv
8 REFRACTION OF LIGHT

Points to Remember:
• Monochromatic light: A wave of light of single frequency is called monochromatic light. e.g.
LASER.
• When a ray of monochromatic light is incident obliquely on the interface of two media, part of
the light is reflected back into the same medium. This phenomenon is called partial reflection.
• The remaining part of light transmitted in the second medium is called as refraction of light.
• The angle made by incident ray with the reflecting surface or interface is called glancing angle.
• The angle between incident ray and reflected ray or refracted ray is called the respective angle
of deviation.
• Snell’s Law: For given pair of media, the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
of the angle of refraction is constant.
• It is written as

• The refractive index (1m2) of the medium 2 with respect to the medium 1 is defined as the ratio
of velocity of light (v1) in medium 1 to the velocity (v2) in medium 2.
• Principle of reversibility of light: If, after undergoing a number of reflections and refractions,
the direction of a ray of light is reversed. The ray traces its original path in the reverse direction.
• When a ray of light passing through a denser medium is incident on the surface of a rarer
medium at an angle greater than the critical angle, the ray is totally reflected in a denser medium.
This phenomenon is called total internal reflection.
• Critical angle: When a ray of light travels from an optically denser medium into an optically
rarer medium, the angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction
in the rarer medium is 90°, is called the critical angle for the given pair of media.
• Dispersion of light: The separation of white light into its constituent colours after passing
through a prism is called dispersion of light.
• For a prism, A + d = i + e and refractive index of material of prism (known as prism formula) is

• A prism having very small refracting angle is called a thin prism.

• Deviation through a thin prism: d = A (m – 1).

• The angular separation between two extreme colours in the dispersed beam of light is called
angular dispersion.

(189)
190 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• Angular dispersion = dv – dr = A (mv – mr) angular deviation for mean colour (yellow) =

• The ratio of the angular dispersion between the extreme colours to the deviation of mean
colour is called the dispersive power (w) of the material of a prism. \

• The Intensity (I) of scattered light is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength
(l) of light.
• The scattering of light helps or enables us to explain the blue colour of the sky, white colour
for the clouds, orange-reddish colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset.

S.I. unit of frequency is s–1 or Hertz (Hz) or rps.

Master Key Question Set - 8
Frequency of a light wave may be found using
8.1 Refraction of Monochromatic Light the equation,

Q.1. What is light? Define. (i) speed of light c=fl

(ii) wavelength of light (iii) frequency of light. Note: Extra information for understanding not
(2 marks) to be included in the answer.
Ans. Light is a range of electromagnetic radiation that Electromagnetic waves (Transverse wave)
can be detected by human eye. consist of oscillating electric and magnetic
fields at right angles to each other and to the
Speed of light (c) : The speed with which a light
direction of propagation of wave.
wave travels in a given medium.
Speed of light in vacuum or air is 299,792,458 m/s. Q.2. Give some characteristics of light. (2 marks)
Ans.
i.e. c = 3 × 108 m/s
(i) In a given medium, light waves always travel
Wavelength (l) : It is the distance travelled by light
in a straight line.
wave in the direction of wave in one cycle. OR
(ii) In a given medium, light waves travel with
The distance between two sucessive maxima or
constant speed, frequency and wavelength.
minima of wave is called wavelength.
(iii) If medium changes, the velocity and wavelength
S.I. unit of wavelength is metre, but the
of light changes. But, the frequency of the light
more convenient unit
remains unchanged.
for wavelength is
(iv) A light wave consisting of single frequency or
Angstrom (Å)
wavelength is called monochromatic light.
1 Å = 10-10 m e.g. LASER, sodium lamp etc.
Fig. 8.1
(v) A light wave consisting of two or more than two
For visible light, the wavelength ranges
frequencies or wavelengths is called composite
from 3900 AU to 7500 AU approximately.
light.
(i.e. violet to red colour)
(vi) A light wave consisting of many different
Frequency (f) : It is the number of wavelengths frequencies or wavelengths is called
travelled per second. polychromatic light.
e.g. white light (sunrays). (Mercury tube)
Refraction of Light 191

Q.3. What is refraction of monochromatic light?

m =
Also explain the laws of refraction. (2 marks)
Ans. The phenomenon of change in path of ray of This is called the Snell’s law.
light as it goes obliquely from one transparent Refractive index is also defined as the ratio of
medium to another is called refraction. velocity of light in first medium (c1) to velocity
Consider the surface XY, which separates two of light in second medium (c2).
transparent media-Rarer (air) and Denser (glass).
m =
1 2

This is called relative refractive index of the

medium 2 with respect to medium 1.
If the first medium is vacuum or air, then
m2 =
This is called absolute refractive index of the
Fig. 8.2: Laws of refraction of light medium.
Ray AO = Incident ray As, c = fl
Ray OB = Refracted ray and f = constant
i = angle of incidence \ c ∝ l
r = angle of refraction \ =
r’ = angle of reflection
1 medium
st
= air \ m =
1 2

2nd medium = glass

Also, 1m2 =
The laws of refraction are as follows:
(i) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
\ m =
normal all at the point of incidence lie in 1 2

the same plane.

\ m =
1 2
(ii) The incident ray and the refracted ray lie
on the opposite side of the normal to the Note:
surface. (1) The refractive index of a medium is greater for
(iii) The ratio of the sine of the angle of violet light (shorter wavelength) than that for
incidence to the sine of the angle of red light (longer wavelength).
refraction is constant for any given pair (2) Denser medium has higher value of refractive
index.
of media. i.e. m =
(3) Rarer medium has smaller value of refractive
(iv) The ratio of two velocities from rarer to index.
denser medium is constant. i.e. m = Its value depends upon the :
(1) Nature of pair of media,
8.2 Snell’s Law (2) Wavelength (colour of the light).
*Q.4. What is Snell’s law? Also explain refractive Some observations based on refraction are :
index. (2 marks) (1) A straight rod placed with its part in water
Ans. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to appears bent, due to refraction.
the sine of the angle of refraction is constant for (2) A pool of water appears to be less deep than it
given pair of media. actually is.
This constant is called as refractive index, (3) The sun is visible before the actual sun-rise and
denoted as m (mu). after the actual sun set.
192 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Principle of Reversibility

*Q.5. What is the principle of reversibility of light.

Using this principle, show that 2m1 x 1m2 = 1

(2 marks)
Ans. If after undergoing a number of reflections
and refractions, the direction of a ray of light is
reversed, the ray traces its original path in the
reverse direction.
This principle is applicable to prism and lens also.
Fig. 8.3
By the principle of reversibility of light, if the
The angle of refraction in air of the ray OP is
direction of light in medium 2 is reversed then
r = 90° – q. From figure,
the ray retraces the path.
x = d tan r = D tan i

\ m
2 1
=
\
\ m × 1m2 = 1
2 1

Intext question textbook page no. 104 … (i)

*Q.6 A lemon is kept in water in a glass beaker and From Snell’s law, n1 sin i = n2 sin r,
viewed from the sides. Does it look bigger or
smaller than the actual size? Why? (1 mark) sin i = … (ii)

Ans. Due to refraction of light at the single spherical

refracting surface (air-water) lemon appears
closer than it actually is and, hence, appears to and
be bigger in size.
… (iii)
Q.7. A tin can, of diameter x and depth D, is
from (i), (ii) and (iii)
filled to the brim with a liquid. An observer
in air looking along a direction q above the

horizontal can barely see the bottom edge of
the can. How deep below the surface does the
bottom appear to be to the observer? (3 marks)

Ans. The essential features of the situation are shown
in figure. A light ray that leaves the bottom edge
of the can at O is refracted at point P and appears \ d = … (iv)
to the observer to be coming from a virtual
image of the object at O’, whose depth d is less Thus, the apparent depth, d, depends not only
on the relative refractive index of the liquid, 2n1,
than the depth D of point O; D is called the real
but also on the angle at which it is observed.
depth and d is called the apparent depth.
[Note : At nearly normal incidence, i.e., q is large,
Let n1 and n2 be the absolute refractive indices
so that r is a relatively small angle.
of the liquid and air, respectively.
cos r = 1 and sin2 r << (2n1)2
Refraction of Light 193

Then, equation (iv) becomes, d =

Hence, the relative refractive index of the liquid.

2
n1 =

8.3 Total Internal Reflection

and Critical Angle
Q.8. Explain the phenomenon of total internal Fig. 8.4
reflection of light. (3 marks)
8.4 Critical Angle
OR
*With the help of neat ray diagram, explain the Q.9. What is a critical angle? (2 marks)
phenomenon of total internal reflection. OR
Ans. *Explain critial angle with the help of diagram.
(i) From the experimental observations of light Ans.
refraction through a medium, the angle of
(i) When light passes from denser medium into a
refraction varies as the angle of incidence is
rarer medium, the angle of refraction is always
changed, in accordance with Snell’s law.
greater than the angle of incidence.
(ii) When light passes from an optically denser
(ii) Hence the refracted ray bent away from the
(higher refractive index) to a medium of lower
normal.
refractive index, there is a maximum value of
(iii) As angle of incidence is increased, a certain
angle of incidence in the denser medium for
‘critical angle’ (ic) is reached for which the angle
which the angle of refraction is 90°. This angle
of refraction is 90°.
of incidence is called critical angle.
(iii) If this angle of incidence is increased further, no
further refraction can take place and all light is
reflected into the denser medium.
(iv) This is referred to as total internal reflection.
These reflected rays obey the laws of reflection.
(Intensity of the reflected ray remains unaffected)

Fig. 8.5: Critical Angle

(iv) Hence, the critical angle is defined as that angle
of incidence in the denser medium for which the
angle of refraction is 90°.
(v) To find the value of the critical angle:
Consider light travelling from denser (glass)
to rarer (air) medium. If angle of incidence is
increased, ‘r’ also increases, but at any instance,
r > i.
If angle of incidence is made equal to critical
angle,
i.e. i = ic, then r = 90°
According to Snell’s Law,

m =
g a
194 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) Mirage :
\ m =
g a

\ =

\ ic = sin–1

Hence, critical angle (ic ) depends on refractive

index of material.
Fig. 8.8
Critical angle
Medium Absolute (a) In summer, the air in contact with ground is hot
(ic)
and becomes cooler as one goes up.
Water 1.33 48˚36’
(b) As a result, the density and refractive index of
Crown glass 1.52 41˚08’
the air decreases towards ground.
Flint glass 1.65 37˚18’ (c) Hence, rays coming from top of a tall object (e.g.
Diamond 2.42 24˚24’ tree) undergo total internal reflection and reach
the observer.
Q.10. Explain a few applications of total internal
reflection and critical angle. (2 marks) (d) As a result, an apparent inverted image of the
OR object, as if the image in water, is seen by the
*State at least three applications of total observer.
internal reflection. (e) This causes the illusion that there is a pool of
Ans. water at the base of the tall object.
Applications: (f) This phenomenon of optical illusion is called
(i) Field of Vision of Fish : mirage.

(a) A fish inside water cannot see the entire surface (iii) Total Reflection Prisms:
of pond, instead it sees a circular patch of light, (a) In optical instruments like Cameras, Binoculars,
because only those light rays which are incident Periscopes etc. instead of plane mirrors, prisms
within a cone of semi-vertex angle “ic ” are are used.
refracted out of the water surface. (b) Critical angles for glass is less than 41°.
(b) All other rays are internally reflected. (c) Prism reflectors are used to give better image,
(c) For water the vertex angle is 97˚ 12’ (Twice of quality and brightness.
Critical Angle)
(d) Outside this cone, there is total darkness.

Fig. 8.7
Fig. 8.9: A Ray of Light Turned Through 90°
Refraction of Light 195

(i) The central part of the fibre is called core and

refractive index of material, is about 1.7. The
fibre is coated with a thin layer of a material
called cladding of lower refractive index
(about µ = 1.5).
(ii) Thus the core of the fibre is optically denser than
the outer layer.
Fig. 8.10: A Ray of Light Turned Through 180° (iii) The fibre is so thin that it can easily bend without
breaking.
Note: Use of mirror is avoided because the
intensity is diminished. (iv) When light is incident at a small angle at one end,
(iv) Erecting Prism: it gets refracted into the strands or fibres and gets
incident on the interface of fibres and coating.
(a) A prism, as shown in figure inverts the image
and hence such inverting prisms are used in (v) The angle of incidence being greater than the
binoculars or in the projection lanterns to give critical angle, the ray of light undergoes total
upright image of the object. internal reflection.
(b) These prisms invert the ray by 180°. (vi) Again the reflected light is incident on the wall
and in this way it suffers multiple internal
reflections before emerging out from the other
end of fibre.
(vii) The intensity of light emerging from the fibre is
almost equal to that of the light entering the fibre.
(viii) Each fibre acts as a pipe and such a bundle of
fibres can be used to convey images along zigzag
paths of any shape without any bending of light.
Fig. 8.11 : Inversion of Image by Prism
Advantages:
You can watch the sunset over a calm ocean once while
(i) They can be twisted in any form.
you lie on a beach and then once again when you stand
up. Surprisingly, by measuring the time between the (ii) There is very little absorption of light in the fibre
two observations, you can calculate approximately even over long distances.
the radius of the Earth. Uses of optical fibres:
R = 6400 km due to the properties of refraction of light. (i) Optical fibres are used in field of communication
and the computers. They are used for transmitting
8.5 Optical Fibre
and receiving electrical signals, which are
Q.11. What is an Optical Fibre? Explain its converted into light.
construction and working. Give its advantages (ii) Optical fibres are used for transmitting the
and uses. (3 marks) optical signals and two-dimensional pictures.
OR
(iii) Optical fibres are used for making medical
*Discuss the construction, working and uses of
investigations. Using an optical fibre device
the optical fibres.
called endoscope, a doctor can virtually examine
Ans.
the inside of the stomach, intestine, etc.
(iv) The optical fibres in the form of photometric
sensors are used for measuring the blood flow
in the heart.
Fig. 8.12 (v) The optical fibres in the form of photometric
196 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

sensors are used to determine the refractive PQ = Incident ray

indices of liquids. Q = Point of incidence.
(vi) The optical fibre sensors have been used to QR = Refracted ray.
measure temperature and pressure.
RS = Emergent ray.
Note: Extra information for understanding not to be
included in the answer A = Refracting angle of prism

In 1870, John Tyndall, a British physicist i = Angle of incidence

demonstrated that light could be made to follow r = Angle of refraction.
curved path along a thin stream of water coming
e = Angle of emergence.
out of a water tank. This effect was made use of
in illuminated fountains. The light follows curved d = Angle of deviation.
path as it suffers a series of total internal reflections. (LQ and MR are normals to the surfaces AB and
AC, extended to meet at D)
8.6 Prism Formula
When a ray of light passes through prism it gets
Q.12. What is a glass prism ? Define refracting angle
and refracting edge of prism. (2 marks) deviated.
Ans : Let ∠ DQR = r1 and ∠ DRQ = r2
A wedge shaped triangular transparent block From ∆ EQR, d = ∠ EQR + ∠ ERQ
having three rectangular planes and two
= (∠ EQD – DQR)+ (∠ ERD – DRQ)
triangular planes is called as Prism.
= (i–r1) + (e–r2)
The angle between the two plane surfaces is
called ‘refracting angle’ of the prism. = (i+e) – (r1 +r2) … (i)
The line along which the refracting surfaces meet From ∆ EQR, r1 + r2 + ∠ QDR = 180° … (ii)
each other is called ‘refracting edge’ of the prism.
From cyclic quadrilateral AQDR, we get
A + ∠ QDR = 180° ... (iii)
Thus from equations (ii) and (iii), we get
A = r1 + r2 ... (iv)
From equation (i), we get
Fig. 8.13
d=i+e–A
*Q.13. Derive the prism formula.
\ A + d = i + e ...(v)
OR
With the help of a neat ray diagram, obtain an From equation (v) we see that the angle of
expression for the refractive index of material deviation depends upon angle of incidence.
of a prism. (4 marks)
Ans. ABC is the principal section of the prism.

Fig. 8.15
Experimentally it is found that if the angle of
incidence is continuously increased, the angle of
Fig. 8.14 deviation initially decreases, reaches a minimum
Refraction of Light 197

value of deviation called the angle of minimum 8.7 Dispersion Of Light

deviation (dm) and then again increases. From the
graph of d against i, it is clear that for every angle *Q.15. What is : (i) Dispersion of light and
of deviation, there are two angles of incidence, (ii) Angular dispersion? (2 marks)
except for the angle of minimum deviation, for Ans.
which there is only one angle of incidence. (i) Dispersion of light:
Thus, when d = dm , The phenomenon of white light splitting up into
constituent colours is called Dispersion of Light.
i = e and r1 = r2 = r ... (vi)
If d v , d y and d r are the angles of minimum
From equation (iv) ⇒ A = r + r = 2r
deviations for violet, yellow and red colours
\ r = … (vii)
respectively and µv , µy and µr are the refractive
From equation (v) and (vi) ⇒ A + dm = i+i = 2i indices of the prism for these colours respectively
\ i = then dv > dy > dr and mv > my > mr.
The refractive index m of the material of the (ii) Angular dispersion:
prism is
Angular dispersion is defined as the angular
separation between the two extreme colours in
 A + δm  the dispersed beam of light.
sin   In the case of white light,
\  2 
µ= Angular dispersion = dv – dr
A
sin   But, dv = A(mv – 1) and dr =A(mr – 1)
2
This is the prism formula. \ Angular dispersion = A(mv – 1) – A(mr – 1)
*Q.14. Using the prism formula, derive expression \ Angular dispersion = A(mv – 1 – mr + 1)
for deviation due to a thin prism. (2 marks)
\ Angular dispersion = A(mv – mr)
Ans. Thin prism is a prism having very small
refracting angle. *Q.16. Define dispersive power. Also give its
expression. (3 marks)

…prism formula. Ans. Dispersive Power:

The ratio of angular dispersion between the
extreme colours to the deviation of the mean
colour is called the Dispersive Power (ω) of the
If q is small, then sin q @ q ;
material of the prism.
For a thin prism, the refracting angle A is very
Dispersive power =
small.
For a spectrum of white light, yellow colour is
\
taken as mean colour.

\ w =
\
But, dy = A(my – 1) and dv – dr = A(mv – mr)

\
\
This is the expression for Dispersive Power of
\ dm = A(m – 1)
the material of the prism.
198 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Intext question textbook page no. 110 *Q.19. Explain dispersion without deviation.
*Q.17. A glass prism is dipped in water, will its (3 marks)
dispersive power change? (1 mark) Ans. Let ‘A’ be the angle of prism of the material
having refractive index ‘m’ and for other prism,
Ans. \ due to presence of water Refractive let A’ and m’ be the angle of prism and refractive
Index will decrease. Hence, dispersive power index respectively
The two prisms are combined such that when a
will change.
beam of white light is incident, the ray of mean
8.8 Angular Dispersion colour (yellow) in the emergent light goes parallel
to the incident ray ie. deviation of the mean
*Q.18. Explain deviation without dispersion.
colour by one prism is cancelled by the other.
OR
What is an Achromatic prism? (2 marks)
Flint
Ans. Y
A V
Flint
A t
ligh R
R
White W hite Y
beam
te V
hi m R
W ea
b
V A’
Crown
A’
\ |dy| – |d’y| = 0
Crown
\ dy = d’y
Fig. 8.16 Deviation without dispersion \ A (my – 1) = A’ (m’y – 1)
Achromatic Prism where symbols have their usual meanings
(i) Dispersive power ω1 of flint glass is greater than A' (µ y − 1)
that of ω2 of crown glass. \ =
A (µ y ' − 1)
(ii) Prism of flint glass is combined with prism of
Net Angular dispersion = (dv – dr) – (d’v – d’r)
crown glass. Their angles of prism are very small
but different. = A (mv – mr) – A’ (m’v – m’r)
On simplifying we get,
(iii) When they are placed with their refracting
angles in opposite direction, the dispersion Net Angular dispersion = d(w – w’)
produced by the first is neutralized. 8.9 Rainbow
(iv) The deviations produced by the two prisms
Q.20. Explain the formation of rainbow. Explain
are unequal and therefore the beam finally
primary and secondary rainbow with suitable
emerges out with some net deviation without
ray diagram. (3 marks)
dispersion. Such a combination is called
OR
achromatic prism.
*What is a rainbow? How is it formed?
(v) Here net deviation is given by Ans.
d – d’ = 0 (i) Rainbow is nature’s most spectacular display of
white light.
\ (dv – dr) – (d’v – d’r) = 0
(ii) The rainbow is the spectrum of sunlight formed
d v – d r = d’v – d’r in the sky in the form of bright, concentric arcs of
\ A(mv – mr) = A’(m’v – m’r) different colours (VIBGYOR) due to reflection,
refraction and dispersion of sun rays by the
= water droplets suspended in air.
(iii) Rainbows are seen when the raindrops are
Refraction of Light 199

illuminated by the sunlight, when the sun is (a) Sometimes another rainbow which is less
behind the observer. bright, is seen a little distance above the
(iv) A rainbow is seen generally in the rainy season primary rainbow which is called secondary
in the morning in west or in the evening in east. rainbow.
(v) The rainbow is seen only when the inclination (b) It is formed due to two total internal reflections
of the sun i.e. the angle made by sun with the
inside the droplets as shown in Fig. 8.19.
horizontal is less than 42°.
(vi) Usually, only a fraction of the circle of the (c) The sequence of colours is reversed in secondary
rainbow is seen from the earth. However, if rainbow i.e. violet outside (outermost) and red
the observer goes to higher altitudes, larger inside (innermost).
and larger portion of the circumference is seen (d) The inclinations of red and violet arcs are
and a complete circle is seen when the sun, the
given as,
observer and the clouds are co-axial. This is
experienced by the observers in an aeroplane. qr = 50° and qv = 53°

Primary rainbow: In other words, secondary rainbow has average

inclination of 51.5° with angular width of 3°.

Intext question textbook page no. 112

*Q.21. Rainbows are seen in the afternoon. Is it

possible to view a rainbow in the morning?
(1 mark)
Ans. Rainbows are seen when the raindrops are
illuminated by the sunlights, when the sun is
behind the observer.
Fig. 8.18: Primary Rainbow In rainy season, rainbow is seen generally in the
(a) The primary rainbow is formed due to one total morning on the west or in the evening on the
internal reflection inside the water droplets as
east. The rainbow is seen only when the altitude
shown in the diagram.
of the sun,i.e., the angle made by the sun with
(b) The primary rainbow has VIBGYOR sequence of
the horizontal is less than 42°.
colours with red outside (outermost) and violet
inside (innermost). Intext question textbook page no. 112
(c) The inclinations of red arc and violet arc are *Q.22. Why is the appearance of sky in large industrial
given as, cities different from that in villages? (1 mark)
qr = 42° and qv = 40° Ans. Appearance of the sky is based on scattering
In other words, primary rainbow has average
of light. In the cities due to industrial waste,
inclination of 41° with angular width of 2°.
CO2, other polluted gases matter scatter more
Secondary rainbow: toward red colour than in villages, where it is
polluted less, pure air scattering towards the
blue colour.
8.10 Scattering of Light
*Q.23 Explain the phenomenon of scattering of light.
Also state Rayleigh’s law of scattering.
(3 marks)
Ans.
(i) When a ray of light is incident on extremely
Fig. 8.19: Secondary Rainbow small object, it gets deflected in different
200 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

directions. This phenomenon is called 8.11 Blue Colour Of The Sky

scattering of light.
Q.24. Why is the sky blue? (3 marks)
OR
*Why does the sky appear blue during the day.
Ans.

Fig. 8.20: Light Waves Are Scattered

By Air Molecules

(ii) The scattering of light is possible only when the Fig. 8.21: Scattering Of Light By Earth’s Atmosphere
linear dimensions of particles are considerably
(i) When sunlight passes through the earth’s
smaller than the wavelength of light.
atmosphere, the light is picked up by the
(iii) Earth’s atmosphere is composed mostly of air molecules and fine dust particles are set
nitrogen and oxygen with small amounts of into vibrations.
carbon dioxide and rare gases, whose size is (ii) These vibrating particles send out the absorbed
smaller than wavelength of light. light in some other direction.
(iv) The atmosphere also contains water vapour and (iii) Waves of light are being shown scattered at
fine particles of dust, smoke, ash etc. The size of random in all directions.
these particles is much larger than wavelength (iv) According to theory of scattering, the shorter
of light. wavelengths are scattered more readily than

(v) Hence, the sunrays incident on dust particles longer wavelengths. From the Rayleigh’s law
or water droplets are scattered equally by these
of scattering I = .
particles.

(vi) However, the sunlight incident on air molecules (v) The short wavelengths of violet light are
gets scattered in different directions for different scattered about ten times the longer wavelengths
of red light. The other colours are scattered by
colours. Since their size is very small as
intermediate amounts.
compared to wavelength of light.
(vi) When sunlight enters the earth’s atmosphere,
(vii) Lord Rayleigh studied the scattering of light by
violet and blue light are scattered the most,
small matter particles in 1871 and such scattering
followed by green, yellow, orange and red
is frequently called Rayleigh scattering. respectively.
(viii) Rayleigh’s law of scattering states that the (vii) At noon on a clear day when the sun is directly
intensity of the light in the scattered light overhead an observer at point A, the whole sky
varies inversely as the fourth power of its can be seen as light blue.
wavelength. (viii) This is composite colour of the mixture of
\ i.e. Is = colours violet, blue, green and yellow scattered
by the air molecules.
Refraction of Light 201

8.12 Colour Of The Sun At Sunrise Solved Problems

And Sunset Snell’s law
*Q.25. Why does the sun appear orange-red at (1) A piece of ice has a refractive index of 1.309.
sunrise and sunset? (3 marks) A light of wavelength 5890 Å passes through it.
Ans. What is its wavelength and frequency in ice?
(2 marks)
Solution:
m = 1.309, c = 3×108 m/s ,
l1 = 5890 Å
(a) l2 = ? (b) f=?

(i) Refractive index, m =

\ v =

\ v =
Fig. 8.22: Scattering Of Light Causes Sun To Appear
White At (A), Yellow At (B), \ v = 2.29 × 108 m/s
Orange At (C) And Red At (D) \ Velocity of light in ice = 2.29 × 108 m/s
(i) When observer is at point A it is noon day. (ii) Refractive index , m =
The sunlight has to travel through a relatively
Where l2 is wavelength of light in ice.
short dust path. As a result, very little violet
and blue colours are scattered away and the \ l2 =
sun appears white.
\ l2 =
(ii) However, as day progresses at B and C, the
sunlight has to travel through a longer thickness \ l2 = 4500 Å
or increasing dust path of atmosphere. (iii) Frequency, f =
(iii) This results in the blue and violet colours
being scattered out along the way and colours \ f =
coming through to the observer are red,
\ f = 5.1 × 1014 Hz
orange, yellow and green. They interfere and
appear to be light yellow. \ f remains the same in air and ice.

(iv) Just before sunset when observer is at D, the \ l2 = 4500 Å, f = 5.1 × 1014 Hz
rays pass through 10 to 100 km of dust and (2) A ray of light is incident on a glass plate
smoke particles. As a result, all waves other making an angle of 60° with the normal at the
than the red waves are scattered out and the point of incidence. If the reflected and refracted
sun appears red. rays are perpendicular, find the R.I. of glass.
(v) Similarly during sunrise when the observer is (2 marks)
at D, with the same observer all waves other Solution: From the fig. it is seen that
than the red waves are scattered out and the ∠ CBD = 90°
sun appears red.
\ Angle of refraction r = 30°
202 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Using usual symbols,

a g
m x gmw x wma = 1 and amw =

m =
g w

\ m =
g w

\ m =
g w
0.9048
Let ic be the critical angle, then
° ° C
By Snell’s law, m = m =
w g

°
\ sin ic = = g mw
\ m =
\ sin ic = 0.9048
\ ic = sin-1 (0.9048) = 64°48’
\ m = \ ic = 64°48’

*(5) Find the critical angle for a ray of light at

\ m = = 1.732 glass water interface if refractive indices for
\ The R.I. of glass is 1.732. glass and water are 1.62 and 1.32 respectively.
(2 marks)
*(3) A ray of light is incident on the surface of Solution:
water at an angle of incidence of 70°. The ray is Let µg = Refractive index of glass = 1.62
deviated through 25° towards the normal when µg = Refractive index of water = 1.32
it enters the water. Calculate the refractive ic = ?
index of water. (2 marks)
Solution: i = 70°, d = 25°, d = i – r, µ =
w g

r = i – d = 70° – 25° = 45°

= (sin ic)-1
m =
\ = (sin ic)-1
\ m =
∴ sin ic =
\ m = = 1.33
\ sin ic = 0.8148
\ m = 1.33 \ ic = sin-1 (0.8148) = 54°341
(4) Find the critical angle between water and \ ic = 54°341
glycerine. (µ for water = 1.33 and for glycerine
*(6) Find the refractive index of water given that
= 1.47). (2 marks)
the velocities of light in air and water are
Solution: Glycerine is optically denser than water. respectively 3 × 108 m/s and 2.25 × 108 m/s.
Hence, a ray of light travelling from glycerine to (2 marks)
water and meeting the glycerine water surface at Solution:
critical angle gets totally reflected in glycerine. Velocity of light in air = cair = 3 × 108 m/s
Refraction of Light 203

Velocity of light in water = vwater = 2.25 × 108 m/s

µω = refractive index of water \ 1.5 =
µω = ?

µω = = 1.333

µw = 1.333 \ 1.5 =

Prism formula and minimum deviation

\ 1.5 sin (22.5°) =
(7) A prism deviates a ray of light through 45°
when the angle of incidence is either 50° or
55°. Find the refracting angle of the prism. \ = 0.57405
(2 marks)
Solution: \ = sin-1 (0.57405)
We can write by the principle of reversibility,
i = 50°
\ = 35° 2’
e = 55° and δ = 45°
Now, d = i + e - A \ 45° + dm = 70° 4’

\ 45° = 50° + 55° - A \ dm = 70° 4’ - 45° = 25° 4’

\ 45° = 105° - A \ dm = 25° 4’
\ A = 105° - 45° *(10) Calculate the angle of minimum deviation of
\ A = 60° a ray of light passing through an equilateral
prism of refractive index 1.62. (2 marks)
*(8) A ray of light incident at an angle of 50° on
Solution:
one face of an equilateral prism gets deviated
A = 60°, m = 1.62
through 37°. Find its angle of emergence.
(2 marks)
Solution: m =
i = 50°, d = 37°
A = 60°
i + e = A + d \ =
\ e = 60° + 37° - 50° = 47°
\ e = 47° \ = 1.62

(9) A glass prism has a refracting angle of 45°.

If the refractive index of glass is 1.5, find the \ =
minimum deviation produced by the prism.
(3 marks) \ = 0.81
Solution:
\ = sin-1 (0.81)
m =

\ = 54° 6’
204 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ A + dm = 2 × 54° 6’
w= = = 0.0472
\ A + dm = 108° 12’
\ dm = 108° 12’ – A ∴ w = 0.0472
\ Angular dispersion = 0.24°, w = 0.0472
\ dm = 108° 12’ – 60°
\ d m = 48° 12’ (13) A ray of light is incident on a refracting face of
a glass prism with refracting angle 25°. If ray
*(11) A thin prism of 3° angle gives a deviation of emerges normally from the second refracting
1.6°. What is the refractive index of material of face, find the angle of incidence (mglass = 1.5).
prism? (2 marks) (2 marks)
Solution: Since the ray emerges normally from the
Solution:
second face, r’ = 0
A = 3°, d = 1.6°
Now, A = r + r’ = r
µm = ? \ r = 25°
d = A (µm - 1) Now, m =
= µm - 1 \ sin i = m sin r
\ sin i = 1.5 sin 25
µm = +1
\ sin i = 1.5 × 0.4226
\ sin i = 0.6339
= + 1 = 0.533 + 1 = 1.533
\ i = sin-1 (0.6339) = 39° 20’
\ µm = 1.533 \ i = 39° 20’

*(12) The refractive indices of the material of the (14) A ray of light is obliquely incident on a refracting
prism for red and yellow colour are 1.620 face of a glass prism of refracting angle 50°. If
and 1.635 respectively. Calculate angular the angle of refraction at this face is 30°, find
dispersion and dispersive power, if refracting (i) the angle of incidence (ii) the angle of
angle is 8°. (3 marks) emergence and (iii) the angle of deviation of the ray
Solution: (mglass = 1.5). (3 marks)
µr = 1.620, µy = 1.635, A = 8° Solution : From Snell’s law,

w = dispersive power = ? m =
Angular dispersion = ? \ sin i = m × sin r
µ y = \ sin i = 1.5 × sin 30°

∴ 2µy = µv + µr \ sin i = 1.5 ×

∴ 2µy - µr = µv \ sin i = 0.75

∴ 2 (1.635) - 1.620 = µv \ i = sin-1 (0.75)
∴ µv = 1.650 \ i = 48° 35’
∴ Angular dispersion = dv - dr Now, A = r + r’

= A (µv - µr) \ 50° = 30° + r’
Angular dispersion = 8 (1.650 - 1.620) \ r’ = 20°
Angular dispersion = 0.24° \ m =
w = dispersive power =
\ sin e = 1.5 sin 20°
Refraction of Light 205

\ sin e = 0.5130
\ sin r2 =
\ e = sin-1 (0.5130)
\ e = 30° 52’ \ sin r2 =
Now, d = i + e - A \ sin r2 = 0.6547
\ e
\ d = 48° 35’ + 30° 52’ - 50° r 2 = sin-1 (0.6547)
\ d = 28° 85’ \ r 2 = 40° 54’
\ i = 48° 35’, e = 30° 52’, d = 28° 85’ Now, A = r1 + r2
\ r1 = A - r2
(15) What must be the refracting angle of a prism of \ r1 = 60° - 40° 54’
refracting index 1.6 in order that a ray of light \ r1 = 19° 06’
incident on one face at an angle of 45° may
suffer minimum deviation in passing through Now, = m
the prism? (3 marks) \ sin i = m sin r1
Solution: From Snell’s law,
\ sin i = × sin 19° 06’
m =
\ sin i = 1.527 × 0.3272
\ sin r = \ sin i = 0.4996
\ i = sin-1 (0.4996) = 20° 58’
\ sin r = \ i = 20° 58’

\ sin r = (17) A ray of light is incident normally on one face

of a glass prism. What is the angle of prism
\ sin r = 0.4420 if the ray just emerges from the other face?
(m = 1.5) (3 marks)
\ r = sin-1 (0.4420)
Solution: i = 0
\ r = 26° 14’ r 1 = 0
For minimum deviation, e = 90°
m = 1.5
A = 2r
\ A = 52° 28’

(16) The R.I. of a prism with refracting angle of 60° is

. What is the limiting angle of incidence for a e
ray that can be transmitted through the prism?
(3 marks)
Solution:

e m = =

\ sin r2 =

\ sin r2 =
From the above fig, m =
\ sin r2 =
m =
\ sin r2 = 0.667
206 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ r2 = sin-1 (0.667) (19) A thin glass prism has a refracting angle of

\ r2 = 41° 18’ 4.5°. The refractive index of the glass for violet
Now, A = r1 + r2 and red colour is 1.61 and 1.59 respectively.
But, r1 = 0 Find the angular dispersion produced by the
prism for violet and red colours. Also find the
\ A = r2
constringence of the material for these two
\ A = 41° 18’ colours. (3 marks)
*(18) For certain prism, the angle of minimum Solution: Angular dispersion = dv - dr
deviation is equal to the refracting angle of the = A (mv - mr)
prism. The refractive index of the material of
= 4.5° × [1.61 - 1.59]
the prism is 1.7. Find (i) the angle of minimum
deviation (ii) the angle of incidence when the = 4.5° × 0.02
minimum deviation takes place. (3 marks) = 0.09°
Solution: A = dm , m = 1.7 = 5’
Dispersive power is given as,

w =
m =

where, my =

\ my = 1.6
\ m =
\ w =

\ m = \ w =

\ w =

Constringence is given as,

\ m =
v =

\ v =
\ m = 2 cos
\ v = 30
\ cos = \ Angular dispersion = 5’ and v = 30

= = 0.85 (20) Refractive indices of crown and flint glass

prisms for red and violet colours are given
\ = cos-1 (0.85) below :
Crown Flint
\ = 31° 47’ Red 1.53 1.70
Violet 1.54 1.73
\ A = 63° 34’
Calculate the dispersive powers of the two
\ d m = 63° 34’
materials. (3 marks)
Solution : w =
Now, i =
For crown glass,
\ i = A
my =
\ i = 63° 34’
Refraction of Light 207

\ m y =

\ m y = 1.535

\ w = \ r = sin-1 (0.4285) = 25° 22’
δ = i - r = 40° - 25° 22’ = 14° 38°
\ w =
\ δ = 14° 38°
\ wc = 0.01869
*(23) The depth of a pond is 10m. What is the
For flint glass,
apparent depth for a person looking normally
m y =
to the water surface? (mwater = 4/3)
Given : mw = 4/3; Real dreal = 10m
\ m y =
To find : Apparent dapparent = ?
\ m y = 1.715 (3 marks)
dreal
w = Solution : mw =
dapparent
real 10 30
\ dapparent = = = = 7.5m
w = m 4/3 4

\ dapparent = 7.5m
w =
*(24) A thin prism produces an angular dispersion
w f = 0.04196
of 18’. If the refracting angle of prism is 2° and
\ wc = 0.01869, wf = 0.04196 the R. I. of its material for violet light is 1.74,
calculate the R.I. of its material for red light.
*(21) A thin hollow prism of refracting angle 3° filled
with water gives a deviation 1° . What is the Given : dv – dr = 18’, A = 2°, mv = 1.74
refractive index of water? (3 marks) To find : mr = ?
Solution: (2 marks)
A = 3° δ = 1°
Solution : dv – dr = A (mv – mr)
mw = ?
18’ = 2° (1.74 – mr)
A(mw – 1) = δ
18’
= 1.74 – mr
mw = +1 20
0.3°
\ mr = 1.74 –
= + 1 = 1.333 2°
mr = 1.74 – 0.15
\ mw = 1.333

*(22) A ray of light is incident at an angle of 50° with mr = 1.59

the surface of glass of refractive index 1.5. Find
the deviation of ray when it enters the glass. *(25) In an equilateral glass prism, for two angles
(3 marks) of incidence, differing by 10°, the angle of
Solution : i = 90° – 50° = 40° deviation is found to be 40°, find these angles
m = 1.5 of incidence. (2 marks)
208 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Given : A = 60°, i – e = 10°, dv = 40° index 1.6 is equal to the minimum angle of
To find : i = ? e = ? deviation. What is the refracting angle?
(3 marks)
Solution : A + d = i + e
(8) A ray of light is incident at an angle of 55° on
i + e = 60° + 40°
one of the refracting faces of a glass prism of
i + e = 100° ..............(1) refracting angle 60°. If the refractive index of
\ Also, i – e = 10° ..............(2) glass is 1.516, find the angle through which the
ray is deviated by the prism. (3 marks)
Adding equations (1) and (2) we get
(9) A certain prism is found to produce a minimum
2i - 110°
deviation of 51°, while it produces a deviation of
i = 55° 62°48’ for two values of the angle of incidence,
Substituting ‘i’ in equation (1), we get namely 40°6’ and 82°42’ respectively. Determine
the refracting angle of prism, the angle of
55 + e = 100
incidence at minimum deviation and refractive
e = 100 – 55 index for material of prism. (3 marks)
e = 45°
(10) The refracting angle of a glass prism is 50°. If a ray
of light incident on one of the refracting faces at
\ The two angles of incidences are 55° and 45°
an angle of 40° suffers minimum deviation, find
the refractive index of the material of the prism.
Additional Problems For Practice (3 marks)
(1) A ray of light, travelling in air is incident on a (11) For a glass mv = 1.65, mr = 1.63, A = 5°. Calculate
glass surface, in a direction making an angle the dispersive power of the prism. (2 marks)
of 40° with the surface. Find the deviation of (12) Calculate the dispersive power of a diamond
the ray when it enters glass. (m of glass = 1.5) prism from the following data : mv = 2.46, my =
(2 marks) 2.42, mr = 2.4. (2 marks)
*(2) The depth of a pond is 10 m. What is the apparent
(13) The index of refraction of the material of a prism
depth for a person looking normally to the water
of angle 2° for red ray is 1.58 and for violet ray
surface? (mwater = 4/3). (2 marks)
is 1.6. Calculate for the two rays the deviation
*(3) A light of wavelength 6000 A.U. in air, enters
produced and also the dispersion. (3 marks)
a medium of refractive index 1.5. What will be
the frequency and wavelength of light in the (14) A prism of material A deviates red ray by 10°
medium? (2 marks) and the violet ray by 16°. Prism B deviates red
*(4) Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose ray by 8° and violet ray by 14°. Which of the two
critical angle is 49° (ca = 3.00 × 108 m/s). materials has greater dispersive power?
(2 marks) (3 marks)
(5) A prism of refracting angle 60° produces a Answers
minimum deviation of 45°. Find the refractive
index of the material. (2 marks) (1) 19° 17 (2) 7.5 m (3) 5 × 10 14 Hz, 4000 A.U.

(6) A ray of light passing through an equilateral (4) vm = 2.26 × 108 m/s (5) 1.59 (6) 54° (7) 73° 44’
prism suffers minimum deviation. If the angle (8) 39° 2’ (9) 60°, 55° 30’, 1.648 (10) m = 1.5209 (11) 0.03125
of minimum deviation is 48°, what must be the
(12) 0.04225 (13) 1.16°, 1.2°, 0.04° (14) prism B has
angle of incidence? (3 marks)
greater dispersive power
(7) The refracting angle of a prism of refractive
Refraction of Light 209

Formula Map (13) i = 2r

(1)

\ m = 2 cos r = 2 cos
(2) u (wave no.)

\ i = 2 cos-1
(3) (Total internal reflection)

(4) Prism formula : Important Formulae

(i) A = r1 + r2 (1) Refraction:
(ii) i+e=A+d (i) m =
1 2

(iii)
(ii) In terms of wavelength of light:
(iv) d = dm ⇒ i = e and r1 = r2
m
1 2
=

(iii) In terms of velocities of light:

(v)
m
1 2
=
(5) Thin prism : A < 10°
d = dm = A (m – 1) (iv) m
1 2
=

(6) Dispersion with thin prism :

(v) m =
(i) dv = A (mv – 1) dy = A (my – 1) 1 2

(2) Total internal reflection:

dr = A (mr – 1)
m =
(ii) Angular dispersion = dv – dr = A (mv – mr)
(3) Prism:
(iii) Dispersive power
(i) d = (i + e) – (r1 + r2)
(ii) A = (r1 + r2)
(iii) A + d = i+e
(7) c = naλa v = ngλg
na = ng ⇒ frequency of a light wave remain (iv) m =
same in any medium.
where,
(8) Net d = deviation without dispersion
m = refractive index of material of prism
Net d = d(w - w’) dispersion without deviation A = refracting angle of the prism
dm = angle of minimum deviation
(9) Intensity of scattered light
(v) For thin prism,
(10) Glancing angle q = 90 - i (i.e. angle made by d = A (m – 1)
incident ray with the surface) (4) Angular dispersion and dispersive power:
(11) Law of reflection i = r
(i) Angular dispersion = dv – dr = A(mv – mr)
(12) sin 2q = 2 sin q cos q
(ii) Dispersive power of a thin prism is
210 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

given as, (4) The refractive index of water relative to air is

w = . A ray of light passing from water into air is
incident at the interface at an angle of 32° with
where, the normal. What angle does the refracted ray
mv = refractive index for violet colour make with the normal ?
my = refractive index for yellow colour (a) 61° 2’ (b) 8°
mr = refractive index for red colour (c) 62° l’ (d) 60° 1’
(iii) For deviation without dispersion (5) The optical fibre acts as a
(Achromatic vision of prism), (a) thin wire of metal through which light
flows
Net deviation =
(b) thick wire of metal through which light
flows
(iv) For dispersion without deviation
(c) pipe through which light flows
(Direct vision of prism),
(d) pipe for storage of light energy
Net deviation = d(w – w’)
*(6) The refractive index of medium with respect to
(5) Rayleigh’s law of scattering:
air, for the critical angle 60° is
Amount of scattering (a) 1.6 (b) 1.5
(c) 1.2 (d) 1. 15
i.e. Intensity of scattering, Is = (7) The separation of white light into its constituent
colours after passing through a prism is called
as ...................... of light.
Multiple Choice Questions
(a) deviation (b) refraction
Select and write the most appropriate answer from (c) scattering (d) dispersion
the given alternatives.
(8) The angle between incident ray and .....................
(1) The ray of light travelling from an optically ray is called angle of deviation.
denser medium to optically rarer medium (a) reflected (b) refracted
bends (c) emergent (d) normal
(a) towards the normal
(b) along the normal (9) A prism of angle 4° gives a deviation of 2.4°. The
(c) away from the normal refractive index of the material of the prism is
(d) by reversing its path (a) 1.5 (b) 1.55
(c) 1.6 (d) 1.8
(2) If the ray of light travels from medium 1 to
medium 2 and ultimately reverses its path then (10) A ray of light is incident normally on one
the phenomenon is face of a prism of refracting angle A. After
(a) principle of reflection travelling through prism, the ray emerges from
(b) principle of refraction the second refracting surface making an angle
(c) principle of reversibility of deviation of d. The refractive index of the
(d) principle of wave theory material of prism is

(3) The principle used in optical fibre is

(a) scattering (a) (b)
(b) successive reflections
(c) refraction
(d) total internal reflection
(c) (d)
Refraction of Light 211

(11) A beam of light composed of red and green ray (a) graze along the surface with 90° of the
is incident obliquely at a point on the face of angle of refraction
rectangular glass slab. When coming out on (b) be reflected into another medium
the opposite parallel face, the red and green (c) reflects all the incident light
rays emerge from (d) has refractive index exactly matching with
(a) two points propagating in two different the R.I. of surrounding fluid.
non-parallel directions (18) An object immersed in a fluid becomes invisible,
(b) two points propagating in two different if it
parallel directions (a) behaves as a perfect reflector
(c) one point propagating in two different (b) absorbs all light falling on it
directions (c) reflects all the incident light
(d) one point propagating in same direction (d) has refractive index exactly matching
(12) In case of secondary rainbow, ...................... with the R.I. of surrounding fluid.
colour is at the top. (19) When a ray of light passes from air to denser
(a) red (b) orange medium, its speed is reduced by 30%. What is
(c) violet (d) pink the refractive index of the medium ?
(13) The intensity of scattered light, according to (a) 1.33 (b) 1.43
Rayleigh’s law is (c) 1.5 (d) 1.1
(a) directly proportional to the wavelength of (20) The sky will appear red instead of blue if
light (a) atmospheric particles scatter blue light
(b) inversely proportional to the wavelength more than red light
of light (b) atmospheric particles scatter all colours
(c) inversely proportional to the square of the equally
wavelength of light (c) atmospheric particles scatter red light
(d) inversely proportional to the fourth power more than blue light
of the wavelength of light (d) scattering does not take place
(14) The net angular dispersion produced without (21) The rainbow is due to
deviation for crown glass (m = 1.56) and flint (a) scattering of sunlight by water droplets
glass (m = 1.7) is (b) refraction and total internal reflection by
(a) positive (d) zero water droplets
(c) negative (d) infinite (c) dispersion, reflection and refraction of
(15) Rayleigh’s law of scattering assumes sunlight by water droplets
(a) scattering of light by extremely small particles (d) only reflection and refraction by water
(b) scattering of light by particles of twice the droplets
size of the particle (22) A monochromatic ray of light travels through
(c) scattering of light by very large particles an equilateral prism such that angle of
(d) scattering of light by dust particles only deviation is 30°. If the difference between
(16) A person swimming at the bottom of a angles of incidence and emergence is 10°, then
swimming pool looks up to the diving board. i and r respectively are,
The board, (a) 45°, 55° (b) 50°, 40°
(a) is not seen at all (b) appears nearer (c) 35°, 45° (d) 30°, 40°
(c) appears farther (23) If the refractive index of violet colour is (mv)
(d) appears at the correct position and that of red colour is (mr) then which of the
(17) A yellow light travels from rarer medium to following is CORRECT ?
denser medium. At the value of critical angle, (a) mv = mr (b) mv < mr
the ray will (c) mv >>> mr (d) mv > mr
212 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(24) A, B, C in the diagram represents rays of light (c) 51.5° (d) 53°
incident upon a face of a right-angled prism. (31) Beyond the earth’s atmosphere, the sky will
Before emerging from the prism. Which ray (or look
rays) will experience total internal reflection ? (a) dark (black) because there is no scattering
(b) white only because there is equal scattering
(c) blue because there is medium scattering
(d) violet because there is maximum scattering
(32) If medium changes
(a) only velocity of light changes
(b) only wavelength of light changes
(c) only frequency of light changes
(d) velocity and wavelength of light changes
(a) ray A (b) ray B but frequency remains the same
(c) ray C (d) ray A and C
(33) When a ray of monochromatic light is incident
(25) When the ray of light travels from an optically normally on glass surface then refracted ray
denser medium to optically rarer medium the (a) bends away from the normal
maximum value of angle of refraction is (b) bends towards the normal
(a) 30° (b) 45° (c) travels along the same path without any
(c) 60° (d) 90° deviation
(26) If m1 and m2 are absolute refractive indices of (d) will make an angle of 60° with the normal
medium 1 and medium 2 respectively, then (34) If I is the intensity of light entering into the
(a) (b) optical fibre and Ie is that emerging from the
fibre then
(c) 1m2 = m1m2 (d) (a) I = Ie (b) I <<Ie
(27) When white light passes through prism then
(c) I >> Ie (d) Ie =
constituent colours are obtained because
(a) different colours are due to different (35) The angle between the two plane rectangular
velocities and different wavelengths refracting surface is called
(b) different colours are due to same velocity (a) refracting angle of the prism
and different wavelength (b) angle of refraction
(c) different colours are already present in prism (c) reflecting angle of the prism
(d) same colour appears different due to (d) dispersion angle
different frequency in another medium
(36) The critical angle ic is given by (m is the
(28) When a glass prism is placed inside water, its
refractive index of optically denser medium
dispersive power
with respect to air)
(a) decreases
(b) remains the same (a) ic = sin-1 (m) (b) ic = sin-1
(c) increases
(d) may increase or decrease depending on
(c) ic = sin-1 (m) (d) ic = 2 sin-1
refracting angle of prism
(29) The first explanation of rainbow was given by (37) Dispersive power of a prism depends on
(a) Rayleigh (b) Demini (a) angle of prism
(c) Huygen (d) Newton (b) angle of mean deviation
(c) angle of deviation for yellow colour
(30) The average angle of inclination of the
(d) the material of prism
secondary rainbow with the axis is
(a) 41° (b) 50° (38) The relation between i, e, A and d for prism is
Refraction of Light 213

(a) i + e = (b) i = A + d + e
(c) A = i + e + d (d) i + e = A + d
(39) The complete circle of rainbow can be seen
when
(a) the sun and observer are co-axial
(b) the observer and clouds are co-axial
(c) the sun, the observer and clouds are not
co-axial (a) red (b) orange
(d) the sun, the observer and clouds are co-axial (c) pink (d) indigo
(40) Angular width of primary rainbow is (46) The refractive index of glass is 1.520 for red
(a) 2° (b) 3° light and 1.525 for blue light. Let dr and db
(c) 5° (d) 6° be the angle of minimum deviati on for red
(41) Blue colour of sky is due to phenomenon of and blue light respectively in a prism of thin
(a) reflection (b) refraction glass, then
(c) scattering (d) dispersion (a) dr = db (b) dr > db
(42) Just after the sunrise, the sun is very close to (c) dr < db (d) both (a) and (c)
horizon, so the sunlight has to travel (47) A narrow beam of white light passes through
(a) longer path through the atmosphere to glass slab having parallel faces. Then,
reach the observer
(a) the beam inside the slab remains as white
(b) shorter path through the atmosphere to
light
reach the observer
(b) the emergent beam is red in colour
(c) cold atmosphere of the path
(c) the beam inside the slab undergoes
(d) hot atmosphere of the sun
dispersion
(43) The refractive index of air with respect to glass (d) the glass slab never causes dispersion
is . The refractive index of diamond with Answers
respect to air is . Then, the refractive index (1) away from the normal (2) principle of
of glass with respect to diamond will be reversibility (3) total internal reflection
(4) 62°l’ (5) pipe through which light
(a) (b)
flows (6) 1.15 (7) dispersion (8) emergent

(c) (d) (9) 1.6 (10) (11) two points

(44) The straight line joining the sun and the propagating in two different parallel directions
observer along which centre of both the (12) violet (13) inversely proportional to
primary and secondary rainbow lies is called the fourth power of the wavelength of light
(a) axis of rainbow (14) negative (15) scattering of light by extremely
(b) principal line of rainbow small particles (16) appears farther (17) graze along
(c) radius of primary rainbow the surface with 90° of the angle of refraction
(d) radius of secondary rainbow (18) has refractive index exactly matching with the
(45) The figure shows the view through the R.I. of surrounding fluid. (19) 1.43 (20) atmospheric
eyepiece of a prism spectrometer with its slit particles scatter red light more than blue light
illuminated by the source of light emitting (21) dispersion, reflection and refraction
three wavelengths corresponding to yellow of sunlight by water droplets (22) 50°, 40°
(Y), green (G) and unknown colour (X). The (23) mv > mr (24) ray B (25) 90°
colour X may be
214 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(26) (27) different colours are due to prism (36) ic = sin-1 (37) the material of prism
different velocities and different wavelengths (38) i + e = A + d (39) the sun, the observer and clouds
(28) decreases (29) Demini (30) 51.5° (31) dark (black) are co-axial (40) 2° (41) scattering (42) longer path
because there is no scattering (32) velocity and
wavelength of light changes but frequency remains through the atmosphere to reach the observer (43)
the same (33) travels along the same path without (44) axis of rainbow (45) indigo (46) dr < db (47) the
any deviation (34) I = Ie (35) refracting angle of the beam inside the slab undergoes dispersion

ASSESSMENT - 8
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Select and write the most appropriate answer from the given alternatives for each
subquestion. (4)
(1) To an observer on the earth, the stars appear to twinkle. This can be ascribed to
(a) the fact that stars do not emit light continuously.
(b) frequency absorption of star light by their own atmosphere.
(c) frequency absorption of star light by the earth’s atmosphere.
(d) the refractive index fluctuations in the earth’s atmosphere.
(2) Velocity of light in diamond, glass and water decreases in the following order
(a) water > glass > diamond (b) diamond > glass > water
(c) diamond > water > glass (d) water > diamond > glass
(3) Indicate the correct statement in the following:
(a) The dispersive power depends upon the angle of prism.
(b) The angular dispersion depends upon the angle of the prism.
(c) The angular dispersion does not depend upon the dispersive power.
(d) The dispersive power in vacuum is one.
(4) The velocity of light in glass whose refractive index with respect to air is 1.5 is 2 × 108 m/sec.
In a certain liquid, the velocity of light is found to be 2.5 × 108 m/sec. The refractive index
of the liquid with respect to air is
(a) 0.64 (b) 0.80 (c) 1.20 (d) 1.44
Q.2. Attempt any FIVE questions (10)
(1) What is refraction of monochromatic light? Also explain the laws of refraction.
(2) What is the principle of reversibility of light. Using this principle, show that 2m1 × 1m2 = 1.
(3) Explain Total Reflection Prism.
(4) Calculate the speed of light in a medium whose critical angle is 49°. (ca = 3.00 × 108 m/s).
(5) The depth of a pond is 10 m. What is the apparent depth for a person looking normally to the
water surface? (mwater = 4/3).
(6) A ray of light is incident on a glass plate making an angle of 60° with the normal at the point
of incidence. If the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular, find the R.I. of glass.
Q.3. Attempt any TWO questions (6)
(1) Explain the formation of rainbow. Explain primary and secondary rainbow with suitable
ray diagram.
(2) A piece of ice has a refractive index of 1.309. A light of wavelength 5890 Å passes through
it. What is its wavelength and frequency in ice ?
(3) Calculate the angle of minimum deviation of a ray of light passing through an equilateral
prism of refractive index 1.62.

vvv
Ray Optics 215

9 Ray Optics

Points to Remember:
• The straight line path along which light travels is called ray of light.
• A bundle of rays of light is called a beam of light.
• The study of light without considering diffraction effect is called ray optics.
• There are two types of spherical mirrors – concave mirror and convex mirror.
• The geometrical centre of a spherical mirror is called its pole.
• The line joining the pole and the centre of curvature of spherical mirror is known as principal
axis.
• The distance between the pole (P) and the principal focus (F) is called focal length of the
spherical mirror.
• It is denoted by ‘f’. The distance PF = f.

• The focal length of spherical mirror is equal to half of the radius of curvature

1 1 1
• Mirror formula is represented as = +
f v u

• Lens formula is represented as

• Conjugate foci are a pair of points such that an object placed at one of them has its real image
at the other.
• The effective focal length is given by

• The least distance of an object from eye at which the object can be seen clearly without strain-
ing eyes is called ‘distance of distinct vision’.
• Distance of distinct vision is about 25 cm for a normal human eye.
• The magnifying power of a simple microscope is defined as the ratio of angle subtended at
the eye by the image to the angle subtended at unaided eye by the object kept at distance of
β
distinct vision. i.e. MP =
α
• The magnifying power of compound microscope is defined as the ratio of angle sub-tended
at eye by the final image to the angle subtended at unaided eye by the object at distance of
β
distinct vision. i.e. MP =
α

(215)
216 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• Magnifying power of a telescope is defined as the ratio of the angle sub-tended at eye
by the final image to the angle sub-tended at eye by the distant object. It is represented as
B f
M= =− o
α fe
• A telescope, which uses mirror objective, is called Reflecting Telescope / Cassegrain Telescope.
µ µ µ − µ1
• Refraction through single curved surface can be given as; 2 − 1 = 2
v u R
1  µ2  1 1
• Lens maker's equation is represented as; = − 1  − 
f  µ1   R1 R1 
D D D
• Magnifying power of simple microscope can be given as; MP = = +
u v f
Special cases
case (i) Image formed at DDV.
∴ v = D

∴ MP =  1 + D 
 f 
case (ii) Image formed at infinity.

∴ v = ∞
D
∴ MP =
f
 v v 
• Magnifying power of compound microscope can be given as : MP = M o × M e  − o   e 
 uo   ue 

Laws of reflection:
MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 9

9.1 Reflection of light by spherical mirrors

Q.1. What is ray optics? (2 marks)
Ans.
(i) When light meets a surface separating two
transparent media, reflection and refraction
occur and light rays bend.
(ii) Light rays also bend round the edge of an Fig. 9.1
obstacle, but this bending is very small because (i) The angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
of very small wavelength of light radiation. incidence.
This is called diffraction of light.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the
(iii) Study of light without considering diffraction normal to the reflecting surface at the point of
effect is called Ray Optics. incidence, lie in the same plane.
Q.2. What is reflection of light? State the laws of (iii) The incident ray, the reflected ray lie on the
reflection. (2 marks) opposite sides to that of normal.
Ans. Reflection of light is the phenomenon of change
in the path of light without change in medium.
Ray Optics 217

Note : (Extra information for understanding not to

be included in the answer.)
(1) When light is reflected from a rarer medium,
its phase remains unchanged. However, on
reflection from a denser medium, a phase
change of radians is introduced.
(2) There is no change in frequency on reflection. Fig. 9.3: (a) Fig. 9.3: (b)
(i) Pole: The mid-point or the geometric centre (P)
Q.3. What is a spherical mirror? What are the types of the spherical surface is called its pole.
of spherical mirrors? (2 marks) (ii) Centre of curvature: The centre (C) of the sphere
Ans. A spherical mirror is the mirror whose of which the given surface forms a part is called
reflecting surface is part of a sphere. the centre of curvature of the surface.
The surface from which reflection takes place is (iii) Radius of curvature: The radius of the sphere
called the reflecting surface. of which the spherical surface forms a part is
(i) There are two types of spherical mirrors called the radius of curvature of the surface.
i.e., concave mirror and convex mirror. (PC = R)
(iv) Principal axis: The straight line (PC) passing
(ii) A convex mirror has spherical reflecting
through the pole and the centre of curvature of
surface which is convex towards the rarer
the spherical surface is called the principal axis.
medium or the reflecting surface is away
from the centre of spherical surface, as Q.5. For a spherical mirror, explain the following
shown in figure 9.2 (a). terms : (i) Principal focus (ii) Focal length
(iii) Focal plane. (3 marks)
Ans.
(i) Principal focus: A narrow parallel beam of
light incident on a spherical mirror parallel to
the principal axis and close to it, after reflection
converges to a fixed point on the principal
Fig. 9.2: (a) Convex Mirror axis in case of a converging mirror or appears
(iii) A concave mirror has a spherical to diverge from a fixed point on the principal
reflecting surface which is concave axis in the case of diverging mirror. This fixed
towards the rarer medium or reflecting point is called principal focus of the mirror.
surface is towards the centre of spherical OR, The point an a principal axis at which all
surface, as shown in figure 9.2 (b). the reflected rays meet is called principal focus
denoted by F.

Fig. 9.2: (b) Concave mirror

*Q.4. For a spherical mirror, define the following Fig. 9.4 : Focus of Concave Mirror
terms: (i) Pole (ii) Centre of curvature (iii) Radius (ii) Focal length: Focal length of a spherical mirror
of curvature (iv) Principal axis. (4 marks)
is the distance between pole of the mirror and
Ans.
the principal focus. denoted by ƒ.
218 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Fig. 9.5 : Focus of Convex Mirror

(iii) Focal plane : If the parallel beams are incident Fig. 9.7
with some angle with principal axis, the In Fig. 9.7,
reflected rays converge at a point in a plane (a) PB is negative (distance of object)
through F normal to the principal axis. This (b) PB’ is negative (distance of image)
plane is called the focal plane of the mirror. (c) BA is positive (size of object)
(d) B’A’ is negative (size of image)
(e) PC is negative (radius of curvature)
Note :
(1) Real image : If the rays after reflection at a
spherical surface converge to a point, that
point is considered as real image.
(2) Virtual image : If the rays after reflection at
spherical surface diverge, the point where the
Fig. 9.6 : Focal Plane of Concave Mirror rays drawn backward meet is the virtual image.
Note : ( 3) As the rays are reflected back into the rarer
(1) For both types of mirrors, the focal length (f) is medium by the spherical surface,
(i) the converging rays form a real image
given by,
in the rarer medium i.e. v is negative for
Where, R is the radius of curvature of mirror. real image.
(2) For a plane mirror radius of curvature (R) is (ii) the diverging rays form a virtual image
infinite. Hence focal length (f) is also infinite. in the denser medium i.e. v is positive
for virtual image.
*Q.6. State the New Cartesian sign conventions
used in ray optics. (3 marks) Q.7. Derive the mirror equation for spherical mirror.
Ans. OR
(i) All the ray diagrams are drawn with incident *Obtain the mirror equation for spherical
light travelling from left to right. mirror system. (3 marks)
(ii) All the distances are measured from the pole of Ans.
the mirror or optical centre of the lens (in case (i) Consider the object AB placed at distance u
of thin lenses). from the pole P.
(ii) The rays emanating from point A, intersect at
(iii) Distances measured to the left of pole of mirror
point A’ after reflection, which is the image of
(or optical centre) are regarded as negative and
point A.
those to the right are regarded as positive.
(iii) This is equally applicable to every points of
(iv) Distances measured above the principal axis are
object AB. The A’B’ is the image formed at
taken positive and those below are taken negative.
distance V from the pole P. (as shown in fig. 9.8)
Ray Optics 219

Dividing by v on both sides and simplifying,

\ =
Fig. 9.8
(iv) As the point M is close to P, MP can be This is called the mirror equation.
considered straight. Hence, from the figure, Note : (Extra information for understanding not to
∆A’B’F and ∆MPF are similar. be included in the answer)

(1) For a Convex mirror

\ =
(i) The image formed by convex mirror is always
OR = ( MP = AB) … (1) on the opposite side, virtual and erect.

(ii) If the object is at infinity, the image is formed
(v) Since ∠APB = ∠A’P’B’, the ∆A’B’P and ∆ABP at principal focus of the mirror and highly
are also similar. diminished i.e. v = f.

\ = … (2) (iii) If the object is anywhere between infinity

and pole of the mirror, the image is formed
(vi) Comparing equation (1) and equation (2) we between the principal focus and pole i.e. v < f.
get,
(2) For a concave mirror :
=
(i) If the object is placed beyond the focal length
But, B’F = B’P – PF i.e. u > f, then the reflected rays are converging
and the image formed is on the same side, real
\ = … (3) and inverted.

(ii) If the object is at the principal focus of the

(vii) From the figure,
mirror i.e. u = f, the reflected rays are parallel
B’P = – v to the principal axis of the mirror, the image is
PF = – f formed at infinity and highly magnified.

BP = – u (iii) If the object is placed within the focal length

i.e. u < f, then the reflected rays are diverging
Substituting in equation (3),
and the image formed is on the opposite side
= of the mirror, virtual, erect and magnified.

Q.8. What is lens? Explain different types of

\ = lenses. (2 marks)

Ans. A lens is a transparent material, bound either

\ = by two curved surfaces or by one curved
surface and one plane surface.
220 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

The curved surfaces of commonly used lenses (b) Plano-concave lens:

are classified into two groups : It is the one in which one surface is plane
and one is concave.
(i) Convex lens:
(c) Convexo-concave lens:
When a parallel beam of light is incident
It is the one in which one surface is
on a convex lens, all the rays of light after
concave and one surface is convex.
passing through the lens, approach one
another and converge at a point on the other The distinguishing feature of concave lenses is
side of the lens. Therefore, it is also known that it is thin at the centre and thicker at the
as converging lens. There are three types of edges.
convex lenses.
9.2 Refraction at a single curved surface

*Q.9. For a single spherical surface, derive the

relation between µ, u, v and R.
OR

Fig. 9.9: Types of convex lenses Explain refraction at single curved surface
(convex) and obtain relation among µ, u, v
(a) Bi-convex or double convex lens:
and R. (4 marks)
In this type of lens, both the surfaces are convex.
Ans.
(b) Plano-convex lens :
In this type of lens, one surface is convex and
the other surface is plane.
(m1) (m2)
(c) Concavo-convex lens:
In this type of lens, one surface is convex, while
the other surface is concave.
The distinguishing feature of a convex lens is
that it is thicker at the centre and thin at the
edges. Fig. 9.11 : Refraction at a spherical surface
(ii) Concave lens: Let,
When a parallel beam of light is incident on i = angle of incidence
a concave lens, all rays move away from one r = angle of refraction
another. They all appear to diverge from
α = angle made by DO with principal axis
a single point on the same side of the lens.
β = angle made by DI with principal axis
Therefore, it is also known as diverging lens.
δ = angle made by DC with principal axis
m1 = refractive index of first medium
m2 = refractive index of second medium
(i) Let APB be a section of a spherical surface
of radius of curvature R, separating two
Fig. 9.10: Types of concave lenses media of absolute refractive indices m1 and m2
Concave lenses are also of three types: respectively as shown in Fig. 9.11.
(a) Bi-concave or double concave lens:
(ii) Let m2 be greater than m1 and C be centre of
A bi-concave lens is the one in which
curvature of the curved surface. O is a point
both the surfaces are concave.
Ray Optics 221

object situated on the principal axis of the \ α µ1 + δ µ1 = δ µ2 – β µ2

curved surface. \ α µ1 + β µ2 = δ (µ2 – µ1)
(iii) A ray OP is incident normally on the surface
APB and is therefore, refracted into other \
medium without any deviation.
… [From (1)]
(iv) OD is another ray incident obliquely on the
surface. This ray bends towards the normal \ =
and travels along DI. These two refracted
This relation is also obeyed even if ray travels
rays meet at I and form the real image of the
from the denser medium into the rarer medium.
object O.
(v) According to new cartesian sign conventions, Q.10 Can a virtual image be photographed by
Object distance PO = – u camera? (1 mark)

Image distance PI = + v Ans. Yes, our eye (simple microscope) forms a real
Radius of curvature PC = + R image on the retina, even a camera lens forms
a real image on the film.
(vi) Assuming that D is very close to point P, and
arc PD is approximately straight. 9.3 Lens Maker’s Equation
*Q.11. Derive the lens maker’s equation and deduce
the lens formula from it. (4 marks)
Ans.
(vii) As the angles are small, tan α ≈ α, tan β ≈ β,
tan δ ≈ δ.

\ … (1)

(viii) In ∆DOC, i is an exterior angle.

\ i = α + δ ...(2)
In ∆CID, δ is an exterior angle.
\ δ = r + β v1

\ r = δ – β … (3) Fig. 9.12

(ix) According to Snell’s law, (i) Consider a thin convex lens with two surfaces
of radii of curvature R1 and R2 and centres
µ =
1 2
of curvature C1 and C2. Let µ1 and µ2 be the
refractive indices of medium surrounding the
\ = … lens and the material of the lens respectively.
(ii) Consider a luminous point object O placed
(x) Since the angles are very small, on the principal axis at a distance u from the
optical centre P of the lens.
sin i ≈ i and sin r ≈ r
(iii) The ray OP incident along the principal axis of
\ = the lens, passes through the lens without any
deviation. Another ray OA which is incident
\ i µ1 = r µ2
on the lens, is refracted at A and travels along
\ (α + δ) µ1 = (δ – β) µ2 … [From (2) and (3)] AB in the lens.
222 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) In the absence of the second refracting surface This relation is true for any position of the
of the lens, this ray would have gone along a object placed on the axis of the lens.
straight line meeting the principal axis at the (xii) If the object is at infinity, the image is formed at
point I’. Thus, I’ would be the image of the the focus of the lens (f).
object O formed by the first refracting surface
Thus, if u = ∞, v = f
of the lens.
Substituting these values in equation (4) we
The corresponding image distance is PI’ = v’.
have,
(v) For refraction at a spherical surface,
= ... (5)
= ... (1)

(vi) Now, the refractive index of air, This equation is called the lens maker’s equation.
µ1 = 1 (xiii) To determine the values of R1 and R2 in order
and the refractive index of glass, to prepare a lens of the desired focal length, on
µ2 = µ comparing the two equations (4) and (5) we have,
Object distance OP = u = ... (6)
Image distance PI' = v’
Radius of Curvature PC1 = R1 i.e. R = R1 This is known as lens formula.

(vii) Substituting these values in equation (1) we Note : (Extra information for understanding not to
have, be included in the answer.)
(1) For a convex lens, as per the new cartesian sign
= ... (2)
convention, R1 is positive and R2 is negative.
(viii) The lens has two surfaces. Therefore at the Hence for a convex lens,
second surface at B, the ray AB suffers a
second refraction and travels along BI. I is the \ =
final image produced by the lens. I’ acts as the
virtual object for the second refraction. Let v be
\ = … (7)
the distance of the final image I from the lens.
(ix) But, for the second refraction, light travels from As µ > 1, focal length of a convex lens is positive.
glass to air, (2) For a concave lens, R1 is negative and R2 is positive.
Refractive index of glass (µ1) = µ
\ =
Refractive index of air (µ2) = 1
Object distance PI' = v’
Image distance PI = v \ = – … (8)
Radius of curvature PC2 = R2
Hence, focal length of concave lens is negative.
(x) Substituting these values in equation (1) we
Q.12 If a thin lens is dipped in water, will its focal
have,
length change? (2 marks)
= ... (3)
Ans. According to Lens Makers formula,
(xi) Adding equations (2) and (3) we have,
when this lens is in air.
=

when this lens is in water.

\ = … (4)
\ fw > fa
Ray Optics 223

Example: mg = 3/2 mw = 4/3 ma = 1 Ans.

then fw = 4fa (i) Consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal
Thus the focal length will change. lengths f1 and f2 placed coaxially in contact as
shown in Fig. 9.14.
9.4 Concept of conjugate foci
(ii) Let O be the object placed at a distance u from
*Q.13. Explain the concept of conjugate foci. the combination of lenses on their principal
(2 marks) axis. I is the image produced at a distance v
Ans. from the combination of lenses.
(i) Consider an object O at distance u1, from lens L1 (iii) The formation of the image may be considered
as shown in Fig. 9.13 Its real image I1 is formed in the following two stages.
at a distance v1.
(ii) The rays starting from object O and forming (a) Refraction through the first lens:
image at point I1 are completely reversible. It In the absence of the second lens L2, the rays
means, the positions of object and image are refracted through the first lens will travel
interchangeable. If an object is placed at point straight to meet the principal axis at I’. Hence I‘
B, its image will be formed at point A. These will be the real image of the object O formed at
two points are called conjugate foci. a distance v’ due to refraction through the first
lens L1. Then, according to lens formula

= … (1)

(b) Refraction through the second lens:

In the absence of the first lens L1, the ray
incident on the second lens are not coming
from any real object. Hence for refraction
Fig. 9.13 : Image formation by a convex lens through second lens L2, the image I’ acts as a
(iii) For a fixed distance between object and image, virtual object and the final real image is formed
there exist two lens positions of good image at I. The object distance will be (– v’). In this
formation. case, according to lens formula,
(iv) If the lens is moved to position L2 and if the
= … (2)
object distance is u2 = v1, then its image is
formed at v2 = u1, as shown in Fig. 9.13.
(iv) Adding equations (1) and (2),
9.5 Combination of thin lenses in contact
= … (3)
*Q.14. Derive the expression for equivalent focal
length of two thin convex lenses in contact. (v) Now let the combination be replaced by an
OR
equivalent lens. The equivalent lens of a
Discuss the system, which uses two thin
combination of lenses is that single lens which
convex lenses in contact. (2 marks)
produces the same effect as that produced by
combination of lenses. The equivalent lens
forms the final real image at I at a distance v
for an object O placed at a distance u from it. If
f is the focal length of the equivalent lens, then
according to lens formula

= … (4)
Fig. 9.14 : Thin lenses in contact
224 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(vi) Comparing equation (4) with equation (3), (iv) Power of the lens is,
P = P1 + P2
=
\ P =
Thus, the reciprocal of the focal length of the
equivalent lens is equal to the sum of the reciprocals
\ P =
of the focal lengths of the lenses in contact.
(vii) This formula holds only in the case of thin
\ P =
lenses in contact.
Thus, the power of the lens is equal to the
Q.15. Define power of a lens and name its unit.
Using the expression for power of a single reciprocal of its focal length.
spherical surface, derive the expression for Q.16. Define linear magnification and derive the
power of a lens. (2 marks) necessary expression for it. (2 marks)
Ans. Power of a lens is the ability of the lens to Ans. Linear magnification produced by a lens in a
converge or to diverge a beam of light and direction perpendicular to the principal axis
it is measured by the reciprocal of its focal is defined as the ratio of the linear size of the
length, measured in metre. image to the linear size of the object.
P = Thus, linear magnification is given by,

The unit of power (D). linear size height of the image h

= M = i
The power is expressed in dioptre when the linear size of the object ho
focal length is expressed in metre. Power of a
lens is one dioptre if the focal length of the lens
is one metre.
Power of a converging lens is positive while
that of a diverging lens is negative.
(i) The power of a single spherical surface is given Fig. 9.15
by, (i) In the given figure, AB is the linear size of the
P = object placed at a distance u from the lens of
Where, µ2 and µ1 are the refractive indices of focal length f. A'B' is the linear size of the image
image space and object space respectively and formed at a distance v from the lens.
R is radius of curvature of the spherical surface. (ii) Linear magnification,
(ii) Consider a convex lens of focal length f. Let
M =
R1 and R2 be the radii of curvatures of the lens
surfaces and µ be the refractive index of its (iii) From the similar triangles ABO and A’B’O,
material.
\ =
(iii) The power of the lens is equal to the sum of the
powers of its two surfaces. Power of the first M = … (1)
surface is,
P1 = … ( µ2 = µ, µ1 = 1) Hence, linear magnification can also be
expressed as,
Power of the second surface is,
M =
P2 = … ( µ2 = 1, µ1 = µ)
Ray Optics 225

(iv) From the lens formula, (iii) The clarity of image formed on retina of eye
depends on the angle subtended by object at
=
the eye (visual angle). When we bring object
closer to eye, this angle increases and clarity
\ = increases.
(iv) But, there is limit on this distance. When the
\ = distance is less than D.D.V., eyes get strained.
(v) A convex lens of short focal length solves this
\ = problem and is used to see minute details of
Hence linear magnification, various small size objects.
A magnifying glass, an ordinary double convex
M = … (2) lens having a short focal length is called a
(v) Also from the lens formula, simple microscope.
(vi) The reading lens and hand lens are instruments
=
of this type. Watchmakers, jewellers, palmists
and electronic technicians use it.
\ =
(vii) When an object is placed nearer to its principal
focus i.e. within its focal length, an image
\ v =
produced is erect and larger than the original
object.
\ =
(viii) The image formed is virtual i.e. it cannot be
Hence linear magnification, projected on a screen as can a real image.

\ M = … (3) *Q.18. Derive the equation for magnifying power

of a simple microscope. (4 marks)
Equations (1), (2) and (3) give the linear Ans. Linear magnification is the ratio of size of image
magnification produced by a lens in terms of to the size of object. Angular magnification or
the object distance, image distance and the magnifying power is defined as the ratio of visual
focal length of the lens. angle subtended by final image to the visual
*Q.17. What is a simple microscope? (2 marks) angle subtended by the object on the eye, when
both are at the least distance of distinct vision.
Ans. An optical instrument that uses a lens or a
combination of lenses to produce magnified The magnifying power of a simple microscope
images of small objects, especially of objects too is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by
small to be seen by the unaided eye is called a the final image at the eye when seen through
microscope. the instru­ment to the angle subtended by the
object at the eye when the object is held at the
(i) To see a distant object clearly it should be brought
distance of distinct vision and seen directly.
close to eyes. However, if the object is brought
very close to eyes, eyes get strained and one can (i) Suppose that an object of size y1 is placed at the
not see clear image. distance of distinct vision D from the eye and
seen directly. Let the angle subtended by the
(ii) There exists least distance of an object from eye
object at the eye be α.
at which the object can be seen clearly without
straining the eyes. This distance is called the
distance of distinct vision (D.D.V.). It is about
25 cm for a normal human eye.
Fig. 9.16 : Angle made by object at DDV with eye
226 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Then, according to sign convention,

\ tan α = \ M.P. = =

Since α is very small,

\ tan α ≈ α
\ M.P. = =
\ α =
Case I : Image formed at the distance of distinct
(ii) Now suppose that the same object is placed at
vision (D).
a distance u from a convex lens (u < f) and seen
For a thin lens, according to lens formula,
through the lens. Let the virtual image formed
by the lens be at a distance v from the lens and =
let its size be y2. Let the angle subtended by the
image at the lens be β. In this case both µ and v are negative, while f is
positive and v = D.
Lens
\ =

Multiplying both sides by D we get,

\ =
Fig. 9.17 : Image formed by simple microscope
i.e. Magnifying power of the lens,
Then, according to sign convention,
M =
tan β = … (1)
Since β is very small, Case II : Image formed at infinity.
\ tan β ≈ β In this case, u is negative, f is positive, while v = ∞

\ β = \ =
Since the eye is very close to the lens, β can
\ =
also be regarded as the angle subtended by the
image at the eye when seen through the lens.
\ =
(iii) Now in the given figure, triangles A1B1P and
ABP are similar. i.e. Magnifying power of the lens,

\ = M.P. =

*Q.19. Explain the construction and working of

\ = … (2)
compound microscope with a neat diagram.
Also give its uses. (4 marks)
\ β = =
Ans. Construction :
… [From (1) and (2)]
(i) The compound microscope consists of two
Hence, magnifying power of the lens, convex lenses called the objective and the
eyepiece.
M.P. =
Ray Optics 227

*Q.20. Derive the expression for magnifying power

of a compound microscope. (4 marks)
Ans. The magnifying power of compound
microscope is defined as the ratio of angle
subtended at eye by the final image to the
angle subtended at unaided eye by the object
at D.D.V.
Fig. 9.18 : Image formed by compound microscope (i) Suppose that an object is placed at the distance
(ii) The lens which is towards the object is called of distinct vision D from the eye and seen
the objective. It has a very small focal length (fo) directly. Let the angle subtended by the object
and small aperture. at the eye be α.
(iii) The lens towards the eye is called the eyepiece.
The eyepiece is of larger focal length (fe) and
larger aperture.
(iv) The objective is fixed at one end of hollow tube.
Fig. 9.19 : Angle made by object at DDV with eye.
The eyepiece is fixed at one end of another
Then, according to sign convention,
hollow tube.
(v) Both the lenses have a common axis. The tan α =
distance between the two lenses (L) can be Since α is very small,
changed by a rack and pinion arrangement. \ tan α ≈ α
Working: \ α =
(i) A small object AB is placed just beyond the
focus of the objective O. (ii) Now suppose that the same object is placed
at a distance uo from the objective of the
(ii) The object distance (uo) is slightly greater than
the focal length (fo) of the objective. compound microscope and seen through the
eyepiece. Let the virtual image formed by the
(iii) The objective forms a real, inverted and
compound microscope be at a distance ve from
magnified image A1B1 at a distance vo on the
the eyepiece. Let the angle subtended by the
other side.
image at the lens be β.
(iv) The distance between the two lenses (L) can be
For diagram refer Q. 19.
adjusted such that this image lies within the
focal length of the eyepiece. Then, according to sign conventions,

(v) The eyepiece acts as a simple microscope and tan β =

produces a virtual and magnified image A2B2 Since β is very small,
on the same side as A1B1. \ tan β ≈ β
(vi) The final image A2B2 is inverted with respect to
\ β =
the object AB and it is viewed by keeping the
eye close to the eyepiece. Since the eye is very close to the lens, β can
Uses: also be regarded as the angle subtended by the
The compound microscope is used to observe minute image at the eye when seen through the lens.
objects such as blood corpuscles, plant and animal (iii) Magnifying power of the compound microscope,
cells, bacteria etc., which cannot be seen by the naked
eye.
M.P. = =
228 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

consequently, its aperture or light gathering

\ M.P. = … (1) power, is also small. Hence, the object to be
(iv) For objective lens, viewed must be brightly illuminated.

*Q.22. Explain the construction and working of

simple astronomical telescope with a neat ray
diagram. (4 marks)
\ =
Ans.
(v) This represents linear magnification produced
by the objective and Me is magnifying power
of eyepiece, which is working as simple
microscope. Magnifying power of compound
microscope,
M.P. = Mo × Me Fig. 9.20 : Image formation in telescope
(normal adjustment)
\ M.P. =
Construction:
(vi) Using new cartesian sign convention, the (i) The simple astronomical telescope consists of
distances D, uo, ue are negative, while vo is two convex lenses called objective and eyepiece.
positive. (ii) The objective has large focal length (fo) and
\ M.P. = … (2) large aperture.
(iii) The eyepiece has short focal length (fe) and
Here, negative sign indicates that magnified small aperture.
image is inverted with respect to object. (iv) These two lenses are fitted at the ends of hollow
Case (i) : When the final image is formed at D.D.V. tube and the distance between them can be
adjusted.
M.P. = … (3) Working:
(i) The given figure shows the ray diagram for
Case (ii) : When the final image is formed at
simple astronomical telescope.
infinity.
(ii) Parallel beam of light rays from distant object
M.P. = … (4) enter the objective O.
(iii) It forms a real and inverted image AB at its
*Q.21. Why do the objects viewed through a focal plane.
compound microscope must be brightly
(iv) This image acts as an object for the eyepiece E,
illuminated? (2 marks)
which works as simple magnifier.
Ans. The magnifying power of compound (v) Eyepiece then forms its virtual, erect and
microscope is directly proportional to the magnified image anywhere from D.D.V. to
linear magnification M produced by the infinity.
 vo 
objective. For large M =   , the object (vi) The final image is thus, inverted with respect to
 uo  the object.
distance for the objective (uo) must be small
Hence, for a real image, the objective must have *Q.23. Derive an expression for magnifying power
a very short focal length so that the object can of simple astronomical telescope. (4 marks)
be placed just beyond the focal length. For such Ans. Magnifying power of a telescope is defined as
a short focal length, the size of the lens and, the ratio of the angle subtended at eye by the
Ray Optics 229

final image to the angle subtended at eye by According to new sign convention, fo is positive
the distant object. and fe is negative.
(i) To determine the magnifying power of \ M.P. = – … (2)
telescope, it is assumed that the eye is very close
to eyepiece and the distance between objective Here, negative sign indicates that final image is
and eyepiece is negligibly small as compared inverted with respect to object.
to the distance of the object from objective. Intext question textbook page no. 124
(ii) The image formed by objective is at its focal
*Q.24 Suppose the upper half of a convex lens is
plane. In the normal setting, the eyepiece is
painted black, what change is produced in
moved in such a way that image AB is at its focal the real image formed by the lens? (1 mark)
plane and the final image is formed at infinity.
Ans. Final image is due to all the rays from top to the
(iii) The distance between two lenses is called the
bottom of the lens converged and formed the
length (L) of the telescope and is given by,
image. So if half of the convex lens is painted
L = fo + fe ... (1) black, image is formed at the same place,
(iv) Magnifying power of telescope, but number of rays converged will decrease.
Therefore, intensity of light in the image will
be halved.
M.P.
*Q.25. With a neat diagram explain the working of
reflecting telescope (Cassegrain telescope).
\ M.P. = Also give the advantages of reflecting
telescope over refracting telescope. (4 marks)
Ans.

Fig. 9.21 : Image formation in telescope

(normal adjustment)
(v) As the angles β and α are very small, they can Fig. 9.22 : Reflecting Telescope (Cassegrain Telescope)
be expressed as, Working:
tan α ≈ α = and (i) The given figure shows the schematic diagram
of reflecting telescope.
tan β ≈ β = (ii) Large concave parabolic objective mirror
(vi) Magnifying power of telescope, reflects the rays coming from the distant object.

M.P. = (iii) A small convex mirror fixed at focal point of the

objective reflects the collected rays to eyepiece
\ M.P. = having a small focal length (fe).
(iv) Eyepiece works as a simple magnifier. It then
\ M.P. = – forms its virtual, erect and magnified image
anywhere from D.D.V. to infinity.
\ M.P. = (v) The final image is thus, inverted with respect
to the object.
230 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(vi) One such large telescope is installed at Kovalam (ii) A convex lens can be considered to be a set of
(Tamil Nadu). Its reflecting objective is 2.34 m thin prisms placed vertically with their vertices
in diameter. It is used by Indian Institute of placed towards the periphery.
Astrophysics, Bangalore. (iii) The extent of deviation depends on the
Advantages over refracting type telescope: refractive index of the medium.
(i) In case of refracting type telescope, for (iv) Hence, when white light is incident on a convex
observing fainter objects and for high resolving lens, the violet rays are converged to greater
power, the objective must have large diameter.
extent than the red rays.
(ii) With large size, weight of objective increases
(v) Hence, the violet rays are brought to a focus
and becomes difficult to support its weight by
closer to the lens than the red rays.
its edge.
(vi) The focal length for violet rays (fv) is therefore
(iii) Also, with large lenses chromatic and spherical
shorter than that for the red rays (fr).
aberration increases.
(iv) All these problems are solved in reflecting (vii) Thus, image formed is spread out over a small
telescope (Cassegrain telescope), which uses region. This deviation for different colours, is
mirror objective having a large focal length. termed as chromatic aberration.
(v) There is no chromatic aberration with mirrors
Solved Problems
and no spherical aberration with parabolic
mirrors. Refraction from curved surface
(vi) As the weight is less, it can be supported over (1) A glass sphere has a radius 6 cm and an air
its entire back surface. bubble is trapped inside it at a distance of
1 cm from the centre. Determine the apparent
Q.26. Explain (i) spherical aberration and position of the bubble when viewed from
(ii) chromatic aberration. (3 marks) (refractive index of glass = 1.5)
Ans. (i) nearest surface, (ii) farthest surface (4 marks)
(1) Spherical aberration:
Solution: Observation for the nearest surface,
(i) When a wide, parallel beam of light is incident u = – 5 cm, µ1 = 1.5
on a convex lens paral­lel to its principal axis,
R = 6 cm µ2 = 1
the rays which are close to the axis of the lens
are called paraxial rays, while the rays away
from the axis are called marginal rays.
(ii) After refraction through the lens, the marginal
rays come to a focus (fa) nearer to the lens, while
the paraxial rays come to a focus (fp) further
away.
(iii) Thus, the lens is unable to focus a wide beam of
parallel rays at a single point. This defect of the
lens is called spherical aberration.
(iv) The same defect is also observed with a concave For refraction at spherical surface
lens. µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1
− =
v u R
(2) Chromatic aberration :
1 1.5 1 − 1.5
(i) White light passing through a prism is – =
v (-5) 6
dispersed into its constituent wavelengths and
1 − 0.5 3
hence colours. \ = –
v 6 10
Ray Optics 231

1 −1
\ = – 3 \ =
v 12 10
1 −13
\ = \ =
v 60
−60
\ v = = – 4.615 cm \ =
13

\ = –

\ v = – = –9.52 cm
Negative sign indicates that the image is on the same
side of the surface as the object.

(3) A glass slab has concave surface of radius of

curvature 2 cm. The glass has refractive index
Observation from the farthest surface. of 1.5. If a point object is placed at a distance
u = – 7 cm, µ1 = 1.5 of 18 cm from concave face, find the position
and nature of image. (3 marks)
R = – 6 cm, µ2 = 1
Solution:
For refraction at spherical surface,
R = – 2 cm, µ2 = 1.5, µ1 = 1, µ = –18 cm, v = ?
µ 2 µ1 µ − µ1
− = 2 µ 2 µ1 µ 2 − µ1
v u R ∴ − =
1 1.5 1 − 1.5 v u R
– = 1.5 1 1.5 − 1
v (−7) −6 ∴ − =
v (−18) −2
1 0.5 1.5
\ = – 3 1 −1
v 6 7 ∴ + =
2 v 18 4
1 1 3 3 1 1
\ = – ∴
v 12 14 =− −
2v 4 18
1 −11 3 1  1 1
\ = ∴ =−  + 
v 84 2v 2  2 9
–84 3 1  11 
\ v = = – 7.636 cm ∴ =−  
11 2v 2  18 
(2) A glass sphere of radius 25 cm has a small
∴ v = − 54
air bubble trapped in it at a distance of 13 cm 11
from the centre. The bubble is viewed along ∴ v = –4.9 cm
a diameter of sphere from side nearer to it.
∴ the image is formed on same side of object,
How far from the surface of the sphere does it
its an erect image.
appear? (refractive index of glass = 1.5)
(3 marks) Lens maker’s equation and lens formula
Solution: u = –12 cm, R = –25 cm, µ1 = 1.5 (glass), (4) The radii of curvature of a double convex lens
µ2 = 1 (air) are 15 cm and 20 cm and the refractive index
For refraction at spherical surface, of the material of the lens is 1.5. Find the focal
= length of the lens. Also determine the power
of the lens in diopter. (3 marks)

\ = Solution: R1 = 15 cm, R2 = – 20 cm, µ = 1.5
232 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ R1 = 0.5 × 60 = 30 cm
=
\ R1 = 30 cm

\ = *(7) Determine the focal length of a bi-convex

lens (mg = 1.5) of radii of curvature 30 cm and
\ = 40 cm. What will be its focal length if the lens
is immersed in water (mw= 4/3)? (3 marks)
\ f = = 17.14 cm Solution: R1 = +30 cm, R2 = – 40 cm

P = =

\ P = = 5.833 D
\ =

(5) An object is placed at a distance of 16 cm from a
convex lens of focal length 8 cm. Determine the \ =
position of the image and the magnification.
(3 marks) \ = 34.3 cm
Solution: u = –16 cm, f = 8 cm
=
(lens formula)

\ = \ =

\ = \ = = 137 cm

\ =
\ fw = 137 cm
\ v = 16 cm
(8) Find the nature, position and magnification
Magnification,
of the image of an object placed at a distance
M =
of 8 cm in front of a diverging lens of focal
\ M = –1 length 12 cm. (3 marks)
\ The image is of same size and inverted. Solution: u = – 8 cm, f = – 12 cm
(f is –ve for a diverging lens)
*(6) A plano-convex lens has a focal length of
60 cm. If the refractive index of the material is = (lens formula)
1.5, find its radius of curvature. (2 marks)
\ =
Solution: µ2 = 1.5, µ1 = 1, R2 = ∞, f = 60 cm

= \ =

\ =
\ =
v = = – 4.8 cm
\ =
Magnification produced,
Ray Optics 233

= (lens formula)
M =
\ =
\ The image formed is at a distance of 4.8 cm from
the lens on the same side as object.
\ =
It is virtual, erect and 0.6 times the size of the
\ 3u = –15 × 4 = – 60
object.
\ u = –20 cm
(9) An object is placed at a distance of 25 cm from When virtual image is formed,
a converging lens of focal length 20 cm. Find M = +3
the nature, position and magnification of the
\ M = = 3
image. (3 marks)
Solution: u = – 25 cm, f = + 20 cm \ v = 3u

(f is +ve for a converging lens.) = (lens formula)

= (lens formula)
\ =
\ =
\ =

\ = \ 3u = –2 × 15 = –30
\ 3u = –30
\ =
\ u = –10 cm
\ v = 100 cm = 1 m
(11) Two lenses of powers + 1.5 D and – 2.5 D
The image formed is real and on the opposite side.
are combined to form a lens combination.
Magnification produced, Determine the focal length of the combination
M = and find the nature of the combination.
(3 marks)
\ M = = – 4 Solution: P1 = +1.5 D, P2 = –2.5 D
The power of combination is,
\ Negative sign shows that the image is inverted. P = P1 + P2
The image is formed at a distance of 1 m from the
\ P = –2.5 + 1.5
lens on the side opposite to the object. It is real,
\ P = –1 D
inverted and magnified four times.
Focal length,
(10) A convex lens has a focal length of 0.15 m.
At what distance an object should be placed f = = –1 m
from the lens so as to obtain an image whose
\ Foacal length of the combination = – 1m
size is three times the size of object? (3 marks)
The lens combination is diverging.
Solution: f = 0.15 m = 15 cm, M = ±3
When real image is formed, (12) A plano convex lens of glass has radius of
M = = –3 curvature of 30 cm. If the glass has refractive
index of 1.6, find the focal length of lens.
\ v = –3u
(3 marks)
234 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solution: power, if the final image is formed at D.D.V.

f = ?, µ2 = 1.6, µ1 = 1, R1 = ∞, R2 = –30 cm (2 marks)
1  µ2  1 1 Solution:
∴ = − 1  − 
f  µ 1  1R R 1
uo = – 4.0 cm, fo = 3.0 cm
fe = 5.0 cm, D = 25 cm
1  1.6   1 1 
∴ = − 1  −  For objective we have,
f  1   ∞ −30 
1 1 = (lens formula)
∴ = 0.6 ×
f 30
∴ f = +50 cm \ =
Magnifying power and compound microscope
\ vo = 12 cm
(13) The focal length of magnifying glass is
M.P. =
10 cm. If a person whose least distance of
distinct vision is 25 cm uses the glass, find the
maximum magnification possible. (2 marks) \ M.P. = = –18
Solution: f = 10 m, D = 25 cm
The magnification is maximum, when the image is \ M.P. = –18
formed at the distance of distinct vision.
Negative sign indicates that the image is
Magnification produced,
inverted.
M = (16) A compound microscope has an objective
of focal length 2 cm and eyepiece of focal
\ M = = 3.5 length 3 cm. When the final image is formed
at the distance of distinct vision, the distance
\ M = 3.5
between the lenses is found to be 10 cm. How
*(14) A convex lens of focal length 4.0 cm is used far in front of the objective must the object
as simple microscope. Find its magnifying have been placed? (2 marks)
power when (i) image is at infinity (ii) image Solution:
is at D.D.V. (3 marks) Since the final image is formed at the least distance
Solution: of distinct vision,
f = 4.0 cm ve = –25 cm, fe = 3 cm

M.P. = = (lens formula)

Where D = 25 cm
\ =
\ M.P. = = 6.25
\ = +
When image is at D.D.V.

M.P. = \ =

\ M.P. = = 7.25 \ ue =
*(15) For a compound microscope, the focal lengths Distance between the lenses,
of objective and eyepiece are 3.0 cm and L = vo + ue
5.0 cm respectively. A small object is placed at \ vo = L – ue
4.0 cm from the objective. Find the magnifying
Ray Optics 235

(18) A compound microscope has an objective and

\ vo = eyepiece of focal lengths 2.5 cm and 6.0 cm
\ vo = 7.32 cm respectively. the lenses are 20 cm apart. A small
object is kept at 3 cm from the objective. Find
= (lens formula) the distance of final image from eyepiece and
magnifying power of microscope. (4 marks)
\ = Solution:
fo = +2.5 cm, fc = +6 cm, L = 20 cm, µo = –3 cm,
\ = ve = ?, MP = ?

(i) for objective

\ = 1 1 1
= −
fo vo µ o
\ uo = – 1 1 1
= −
\ uo = –2.75 cm 2.5 vo (−3)
2 1 1
Thus, object is placed at a distance of 2.75 cm − =
5 3 vo
in front at the objective.
∴ vo = +15 cm
*(17) For a compound microscope, the eyepiece
and objective have focal lengths of 20 cm and (ii) for lens
5 cm respectively. The final image is formed L = vo + ue
at a distance of 25 cm from the eyepiece. If 20 = 15 + ue
the object is 6 cm from the objective, find the
ue = –5 cm
magnification produced. (2 marks)
Solution: fo = 5 cm, fe = 20 cm –ve sign indicates, object on L. H. S. of eyepiece
For the objective, (iii) for eyepiece
uo = – 6 cm 1 1 1
= −
fe ve µ e
= (lens formula)
1 1 1
= −
\ = 6 ve (−5)
1 1 1
\ vo = 30 cm − =
6 5 ve
Magnification of objective,
∴ ve = –30 cm

Mo = vo ve
(iv) MP = − ×
Magnification of eyepiece, u o ue
−(15) (−30)
Me = = ×
(−3) (−5)
\ Me = MP = + 30

\ Me = 1 + 1.25 = 2.25 Astronomical telescope
Total magnification
(19) The length of the astronomical telescope in the
M = Mo × Me
normal adjustment is 5.1 m. If the magnification
\ M = –5 × 2.25 = –11.25
produce is 50, find the focal length of the
\ M = – 11.25 objective and eye-piece. (3 marks)
Negative sign shows that the final image is inverted Solution:
with respect to the object. L = 5.1 m
236 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

In normal adjustment the length of telescope, \ 19fe + fe = 60

L = fo + fe = 5.1 m \ 20 fe = 60
Magnification of telescope,
\ fe = 3 cm ........... (iii)
M = = 50
Put eq (iii) in eq (ii)
fo + fe = 5.1 \ fo = 19fe
\ 50fe + fe = 5.1 \ fo = 19 x 3
\ 51fe = 5.1
\ L = 57 cm
\ fe =
*(22) An optical system uses two thin convex lenses
Now, = 50 30
in contact having effective focal length of
4
\ fo = 50 × fe cm. If one lens has focal length of 30cm, find
\ fo = 50 × 0.1 m = 5 m the focal length of the other lens. (3 marks)
\ fe = 0.1m, fo= 5m Solution:
30
(20) A Galilean telescope has an objective of f = cm
4
focal length 1.5 m and the eyepiece of focal f1 = 30 cm
length 3 cm. Find :
To find
(i) Magnifying power, (ii) Length of the
telescope (3 marks) f2 = ?

Solution: For thin convex lens system

fo = 1.5 m, fe = 3 cm = 0.03 m 1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2
Magnifying power,
1 1 1
= +
M = 30 30 f2
4
\ M = = 50

4
= 1 + 1
30 30 f2
Length of telescope 1 4 1
L = fo + fe = –
f2 30 30
\ L = 1.5 + 0.03 1 3
\ L = 1.53 m =
f2 30
\ M = 50, L = 1.53 m \ f2 = 10 cm
*(21) The objective and eyepiece of an astronomical
telescope are 60 cm apart. If the magnifying *(23) A compound microscope has a magnifying
power of telescope is 19, find the focal lengths power of 40. Assume that the final image is
of both the lenses. (3 marks) formed at DDV. If the focal length of eyepiece
Solution: is 10 cm, calculate the magnification produced
L = fo + fe = 60 ........... (i) by objective. (3 marks)
fo
M = = 19 Solution:
fe
fe = 10 cm
fo = 19 fe ........... (ii)
M = 40
Substitute eq (ii) in eq (i)
D = 25 cm
Ray Optics 237

To find : Mo = ? (25) A convex lens used as simple microscope has

For a compound microscope focal length of 2.5 cm. Find its magnifying
power for of the image at DDV and the
M = Mo × Me
position of object. (3 marks)
where:
Solution:
 D
Me =  1 +  f = 2.5 cm
 f
To find : MP = (at DDV)
 25 
Me =  1 +  µ = ?
 10 
Me = 3.5 We know that;

M = Mo × Me  D
MP =  1 +  when image is formed at DDV.
 f

40 = Mo × 3.5  25 
∴ MP =  1 + 
40  2.5 
Me = = 11.42
3.5 ∴ MP = 11
*(24) A convex lens has focal length 20 cm, which Now,
produces an image four times larger than D
∴ MP =
object. Calculate the possible positions of µ
objects. [Hint = MP = D/u = v/u] (3 marks) D 25
∴ µ= = = 2.27 cm
Solution: MP 11

f = 20 cm To find u = ? ∴ µ = –2.27 cm
M = ± 4 –ve sign indicates, object is kept on left hand
Case (i) M = + 4 side of lens.
\ M = 4 = v/u (26) An object is placed at 15 cm from the convex
\ v = 4u mirror having radius of curvature 20 cm. Find
Using lens equation the position and kind of image formed by it.
1 1 1 (3 marks)
= – u
f v
Solution:
1 1 1 R
= – u µ = –15 cm, R = +20 cm, f = = +10cm
20 4u 2
1 1 1
1 –3u ∴ = +
= f v µ
20 4u2
1 1 1
u = –15 cm ∴ = +
10 v −15
Case (ii) M = – 4
1 1 1
\ M = – 4 = v/u ∴ + =
10 15 v
\ v = – 4u 15 + 10 1
∴ =
Using lens equation 10 × 15 v
1 1 1
= – u 150
f v ∴ v = = +6cm
25
1 1 1
= – u ∴ the mirror is convex, the image formed is
20 −4u
1 virtual and erect.
–5u
=
20 4u2
u = –25 cm
Here –ve sign indicates object is on left of lens.
238 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Additional Numericals for Practice Magnifying power and compound microscope

Refraction from curved surface (11) In an optical system, two thin convex lenses
used are in contact. If their focal lengths are
(1) A convex surface separates two media of
15 cm and 10 cm, find the effective focal length
refractive indices 1.3 and 1.5. If the radius
of the system. (2 marks)
of curvature is 20 cm and an object is placed
260 cm from the refracting surface, calculate (12) Find the nature, position and magnification of
the distance of image from surface. (2 marks) the image of an object placed at a distance of
(2) An object is placed at a distance of 6 cm from 10 cm in front of a diverging lens of focal length
a concave mirror having radius of curvature 15 cm. (2 marks)
30 cm. Find the position and nature of the (13) One of the surface of a thin double-convex
image. (3 marks) lens of focal length 15 cm is silvered. When an
object is placed at a distance of 7.5 cm in front
Lens maker’s equation and lens formula
of the unsilvered surface, its image is found to
(3) A concave lens has radii of curvature of 10 cm coincide with the object itself. Find the radius
and 15 cm and the refractive index of the lens of curvature of the silvered surface of the lens.
is 1.5. Find its focal length. (2 marks) (2 marks)
(4) Power of a convex lens is 5 D. What is the object
Astronomical telescope
distance so that the image formed by the lens
is magnified 4 times? Find the object distances (14) A compound microscope has an objective of
for both the real and virtual images. (3 marks) focal length 1.5 cm and an eyepiece of focal
length 4.5 cm. The distance between the
(5) Find the focal power of a symmetrical double
objective and eyepiece is 24 cm. If the distinct
convex lens whose each surface has a radius of
image is formed at a distance of 36 cm from the
curvature of 25 cm. (µ of glass = 1.5) (2 marks)
eyepiece, calculate the magnifying power of
(6) Calculate the focal length of a concave lens the compound microscope. (3 marks)
of radii of curvature 20 cm and 25 cm, if the
(15) A compound microscope has an objective
refractive index of the lens is 1.6. (2 marks)
of focal length 2 cm and an eyepiece of focal
(7) An object is placed at a distance of 6 cm from length 5 cm. Find the magnifying power of the
a convex mirror. If the focal length of mirror is microscope when the final image is formed
12 cm, find the position and nature of the at a distance of 25 cm from the eyepiece. The
image. (2 marks) distance between the two lenses is 20 cm.
(8) A convex lens of glass having focal length of (3 marks)
20 cm in air is placed in water. The refractive (16) A telescope has an objective of focal length
index of water is 4/3 and the refractive index 200 cm and an eyepiece of focal length 8 cm.
of glass is 1.5. Calculate the focal length of the Find the magnifying power and the length of
lens in water. (2 marks) telescope. (3 marks)
(9) A small glass sphere of radius 18 cm has a
small air bubble 6 cm from its centre. How far Answers
from its surface will it appear when seen along (1) 300 cm (2) –10 cm (3) –12 cm (4) –25 cm, –15 cm
a diameter of the sphere from the side of the (5) 4 D (6) –18.518 cm (7) 4 cm (8) 78.4 cm
air bubble? (Refractive index of glass = 1.5) (9) –10.28 cm (10) 16.7 cm (11) 6 cm (12) v = –6 cm,
(3 marks) M = 0.6 (13) –15 cm (14) 84 (15) 23 (16) 25, 2.08 m
(10) An object is placed at a distance of 25 cm from
a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Determine Important Formulae
the position of image. (2 marks) (1) The focal length of spherical mirror,
Ray Optics 239

f = M.P. =

(2) The mirror equation for spherical mirror, (10) Magnifying power of a compound microscope:
(i) When the image is formed at distance of
= distinct vision (strained eye),

(3) For refraction at a spherical surface of radius of M.P. =

curvature R,
(ii) When the image is formed at infinity
=
(relaxed eye),
(4) Lens maker’s equation, M.P. =
=
(11) Magnifying power of a telescope: When the
For convex lens, (i) image is formed at infinity (relaxed eye),
f = +ve R1 = +ve R2 = –ve M.P. =
For concave lens, (ii) Length of the telescope is,
f = –ve R1 = –ve R2 = +ve
L = fo + fe
For plano convex lens,
f = +ve R1 = +ve R2 = ∞
Multiple Choice Question
(1) The geometrical centre of surface of spherical
For plano concave lens,
mirror is called its
f = –ve R1 = ∞ R2 = +ve
(a) centre of curvature (b) focus
(5) The lens formula: (c) pole (d) optical centre
= (2) A convex mirror gives an image which is
(a) real and inverted
(6) Focal power of a lens: (b) virtual and inverted
P = (c) virtual and magnified
P is in dioptre and f is in metre. (d) virtual and diminished
(3) A convex mirror may be used for all but it
(7) Linear magnification,
CAN NOT be used for
M = (a) a magnifying mirror
(b) a reflecting mirror
(8) When two thin lenses are in contact coaxially,
(c) a dentist mirror
focal length (f) of the combination is given by,
(d) a carving mirror
= (4) Given a point source of light, which of the
(9) Magnifying power of a simple microscope following can produce a parallel beam of
(magnifying glass): light?
(a) convex mirror (b) concave lens
M.P. =
(c) concave mirror (d) a plane mirror
(i) When the image is formed at distance of (5) An object is placed at a distance equal to focal
distinct vision (strained eye), length of a convex mirror. If the focal length of
M.P. = a mirror be f, then the distance of image from
the pole of the mirror is
(ii) When the image is formed at infinity
(a) less than f (b) equal to f
(relaxed eye),
240 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(c) more than f (d) infinity (a) 8 cm (b) 20 cm

(6) A virtual object is placed between the pole and (c) 30 cm (d) 40 cm
principal focus of a convex mirror produces an (15) A beam of light is incident on a convex lens
image which is parallel to its principal axis. As one moves
(a) real, magnified and erect away from the optical centre of the lens on its
(b) virtual, diminished and inverted other side, the intensity of light
(c) virtual, magnified and inverted (a) continuously decreases
(d) real, diminished and inverted (b) first decreases and then increases
(c) continuously increases
(7) An object is at a distance of 10 cm from a
(d) first increases and then decreases
concave mirror and the image of the object is
(16) A diverging lens may NOT have
at a distance of 30 cm from the mirror on the
(a) positive focal length
same side as that of the object. The radius of
(b) negative focal length
curvature of the concave mirror is
(c) one plane surface
(a) +15.0 cm (b) +7.5 cm
(d) one convex surface
(c) –7.5 cm (d) –15.0 cm
(17) For convex lens, the radii of curvatures of the first
(8) The field of view is maximum for and second surface are R1 and R2 respectively.
(a) plane mirror (b) concave mirror Using new cartesian sign conventions they are
(c) convex mirror (c) parabolic mirror (a) –R1, –R2 (b) –R1, +R2
(9) Which spherical mirror is divergent? (c) +R1, +R2 (d) +R1, –R2
(a) Convex (b) Concave (18) When an object is kept in front of a convex lens,
(c) Plane (d) Concavo plane the distance between it and the real image is
(10) A ray of light falls on a spherical mirror 54 cm. If the magnification produced is 2, the
normally, the values of angle of incidence 'i' focal length of the lens is
and angle of reflection 'r' respectively are (a) 4 cm (b) 6 cm
(a) i = 0°, r = 90° (b) i = 90°, r = 0° (c) 12 cm (d) 24 cm
(c) i = 90°, r = 90° (d) i = 0°, r = 0° (19) A screen is placed 90 cm away from an object. The
(11) While deriving expression for refraction at image of the object on the screen is formed by a
single curved surface, the object is considered as convex lens at two different locations separated
(a) linear object (b) thick object by 20 cm. The focal length of the lens is
(c) point object (d) any size object (a) 20.4 cm (b) 21.4 cm
(12) An object is kept at 0.2 m from a convex lens of (c) 22.5 cm (d) 28.5 cm
focal length 0.15 m. The position of the image is (20) A single lens, which will form the image of a
(a) 0.3 m (b) 0.6 m given object at the same point as is formed by
(c) 8 m (d) 11.6 m the combination of two or more thin lenses, is
(13) What is the focal length of double convex lens called as
for which radius of curvature of either of the (a) equivalent lens (b) added lens
surfaces is 30 cm? (aµg = 1.5) µ (c) concave-convex lens
(a) 50 cm (b) 30 cm (d) convexo-concave lens
(c) –30 cm (d) –50 cm (21) Two thin lenses may be combined so as to
(14) A convex glass lens (µg = 1.5) has focal length (a) produce diminished image
of 10 cm when placed in air. What is the focal (b) produce magnified image
length of the lens when it is immersed in water? (c) look beautiful
(d) cancel images and no image is formed
(22) The magnifying power of simple microscope is 6
when the image is formed at distance of distinct
Ray Optics 241

vision (25 cm) from its optical centre. The focal when final image is formed at distance of distinct
power of the simple microscope in dioptre is vision? (using new cartesian sign conventions)
(a) –20 (b) –2
(c) 2 (d) 20 (a) (b)

(23) The clarity of image formed on retina of eye

depends on the (c) (d)
(a) visual angle
(b) environmental conditions (30) Compound microscope has an objective of
(c) distance of eye-lens from retina comparatively.
(d) material of the object whose image is observed (a) large aperture and large focal length
(b) small aperture and large focal length
(24) A normal eye is unable to see objects at a
(c) small aperture and small focal length
distance less than distance of distinct vision. It
(d) large aperture and small focal length
is because
(a) the focal length of the eye-lens is equal to (31) The magnifying power (M.P.) of astronomical
the distance of distinct vision telescope for normal adjustment is given by
(b) the distance between eye-lens and retina (fo = focal length of eye-piece objective,
is equal to distance of distinct vision fe = focal length of eye-piece)
(c) the eye-lens cannot decrease its focal (a) M.P. = (b) M.P. = fo × fe
length beyond a limit
(d) the eye-lens cannot decrease its distance (c) M.P. = (d) M.P. =
from the retina beyond a limit
(32) To see terrestrial objects, the final image must be
(25) When a convex lens of 25 cm focal length is
(a) inverted and magnified
used as a magnifying glass, normal eye can
(b) diminished, inverted and magnified
see an object clearly at a distance of 25 cm. The
(c) real, erect and diminished
magnifying power of the instrument is
(d) virtual, erect and magnified
(a) 110 (b) 100
(c) 11 (d) 10 (33) The objects which are at large distance as
compared to the focal length of the lens (greater
(26) In a compound microscope, the intermediate
than 10 × f) are referred as
image is
(a) decade objects (b) nearer object
(a) virtual, erect and magnified
(c) distant object (d) unpredictable object
(b) real, erect and magnified
(c) real, inverted and magnified (34) The focal lengths of objective and eye-
(d) virtual, erect and diminished piece of astronomical telescope are 2 m and
5 cm respectively. The magnifying power
(27) A compound microscope has a magnifying
of telescope when final image is formed at
power of 35. Assume that the final image is
infinity is
formed at DDV (25 cm). If the focal length of
(a) –40 (b) –50 (c) –80 (d) –100
eyepiece is 8 cm, the magnification produced
by objective is (35) The intermediate image formed by the
(a) 1.3 (b) 8.48 objective is
(c) 14.12 (d) 12.84 (a) in the focus plane of objective
(b) within the focus of objective
(28) The length (L) of compound microscope when
(c) beyond the focus of eye-piece
final image is formed at D.D.V. is given by
(d) at twice the distance of focal length of
(a) (vo + ue) (b) (vo – uo)
eye-piece
(c) (uo + vo) (d) (uo + uo)
(36) The objective of reflecting telescope is
(29) Which of the following is NOT an expression
(a) small concave mirror
for magnifying power of compound microscope
(b) small concave parabolic mirror
242 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(c) large concave parabolic mirror (c) 2 M.P. (d) 3 M.P.

(d) convex mirror (42) A diminished virtual image can be produced
(37) An object is placed at a distance u from a only with
concave mirror and its real image is formed on (a) a plane mirror (b) a concave mirror
the screen placed at distance v from the mirror. (c) a convex mirror (d) a convex lens
If f is the focal length of the mirror, then the
(43) The factor is called as
graph between is (magnitude only)
(b) (a) focal length of surface
(a)
(b) power of surface
(c) refractive index of medium
(d) absolute refractive index
(44) An astronomical telescope of ten fold angular
magnification has length of 44 cm. The focal
(c) (d) length of objective is
(a) 4 cm (b) 40 cm (c) 44 cm (d) 440 cm
(45) A plano-convex lens has focal length of 20 cm.
The radius of curvature of its spherical surface
(if aµg = 1.5) is
(a) 20 cm (b) 15 cm (c) 10 cm (d) 7.5 cm
(38) The distance between an object and the screen
Answers
is 75 cm. When a convex lens of focal length
12 cm is placed in between the object and the (1) pole (2) virtual and diminished (3) a carving
screen, magnification of real image formed can mirror (4) concave mirror (5) less than f (6) real,
be (magnitude only) magnified and erect (7) –15.0 cm (8) convex mirror
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16 (9) Convex (10) i = 0°, r = 0° (11) point object
(39) Two thin lenses, one convex of focal length (12) 0.6 m (13) 30 cm (14) 40 cm (15) first increases
10 cm and other concave lens are kept in and then decreases (16) positive focal length
contact to form a composite lens of focal length (17) +R1, –R2 (18) 12 cm (19) 21.4 cm (20) equivalent
130 cm. If the combination acts as a converging lens (21) produce magnified image (22) 20 (23)
lens then the focal length of second lens is visual angle (24) the eye-lens cannot decrease
(a) – 43.33 cm (b) – 5.65 cm its focal length beyond a limit (25) 11 (26) real,
(c) +5.65 cm (d) +43.33 cm inverted and magnified (27) 8.48 (28) (vo + ue)
(40) If the object is placed at A and the image
is formed at B when the rays are refracted (29) (30) small aperture and small
through a convex lens. The positions of A and
B are changeable, such pair of points is called focal length (31) M.P.= (32) virtual, erect and
(a) pair of focal points magnified (33) distant object (34) – 40 (35) in the
(b) pair of object and focal points focus plane of objective (36) large concave parabolic
(c) conjugate foci
(d) pair of foci mirror (37) (38) 4 (39) – 43.33 cm (40)
(41) Magnifying power of an astronomical
telescope is M.P. If the focal length of the eye-
piece is doubled, then its magnifying power conjugate foci (41) (42) a convex mirror
will become (43) focal length of surface (44) 40 cm (45) 10 cm
(a) (b)
Ray Optics 243

ASSESSMENT - 9
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) State the sign conventions used in ray optics.
(2) A convex lens of focal length 4.0 cm is used as simple microscope. Find its magnifying power
when (i) image is at infinity (ii) image is at D.D.V.
(3) The length of the astronomical telescope in the normal adjustment is 5.1 m. If the magnification
produced is 50, find the focal length of the objective and eye-piece.
(4) Explain the construction and working of simple astronomical telescope with a neat ray
diagram. What are the advantages of reflecting telescope (any 4 points)
(5) What is lens? Explain different types of lenses.
(6) An object is placed at a distance of 25 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Determine
the position of image.
Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)
(1) For a single spherical surface, derive the relation between µ, u, v and R.
(2) Define linear magnification and derive the necessary expression for it.
(3) A glass sphere has a radius of 6 cm and an air bubble is trapped inside it at a distance of 1 cm
from the centre. Determine the apparent position of the bubble when viewed from (refractive
index of glass = 1.5) (a) nearest surface. (b) farthest surface.
Q.3. Attempt any ONE question: (4)
(1) (a) Derive the lens maker's equation and deduce the lens formula from it.
(b) The focal length of a simple microscope is 2 cm. Find its magnifying power when the
image is formed at (i) D.D.V. (ii) infinity.
(2) (a) For a spherical mirror, define —
(i) focal length (ii) focal plane.
(b) A compound microscope has an objective of focal length 2 cm and eye-piece of focal
length 3 cm. When the final image is formed at the distance of distinct vision, the distance
between the lenses is found to be 10 cm. How far in front of the objective, the object must
have been placed?

vvv
10 Electrostatics

Points to Remember:
• The electricity developed on objects, when they are rubbed with each other, is called frictional
electricity.
• Electric charge can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it is transferred from one part of a
system to other part of the system, so that total charge of an isolated system remains constant.
• Glass rod and ebonite rod are used for demonstrating electrification by friction.
• T
he electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point electric charges at rest is
directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of two charges and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between them. The force acts along the line joining the charges.

• The dimensions of ∈0 are [L-3M-1T4I2]. F =

• Coulomb is defined as the magnitude of that charge,if placed one metre distance apart from
a charge of the same magnitude and sign, will repel the later with a electrostatic force of
9 x 109 N and is denoted by C.
• The ratio of the permittivity of the medium to the permittivity of vacuum is called dielectric
constant of the medium with respect to vacuum.
• Dielectric constant of medium can be defined as the ratio of force between two charges at a
certain distance apart in vacuum to the force between the same two charges separated by the
same distance in the medium.
• When a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a given charge is the vector sum
of individuals forces exerted on the given charge by all other charges.
• When the charge is not accumulated in some part but is spread uniformly, then it is called
uniform charge distribution.
• More charge is accumulated at the curves and sharp points. Such distribution of charge is
called non-uniform charge distribution.
• When the charge is distributed uniformly over a thin conductor in space, then charge per unit
length of conductor is called linear charge density.
dq
• Linear charge density is given by or λ =
dL
• SI unit of linear charge density is coulomb /metre (c/m). Dimensions of λ are [L–1M0T1I1]
• When the charge is distributed uniformly over an area in space, then charge per unit area is
called surface charge density.
dq
• Surface charge density is given by s =
dA
• SI unit of surface charge density is coulomb/square metre (C/m2).

(244)
Electrostatics 245

• Dimensions of σ are [L–2M0T1I1]

• When the charge is distributed uniformly over a volume in space, then charge per unit volume
is called volume charge density.
• SI unit of volume charge density is coulomb/cubic metre (C/m3).
Q dq
• Volume charge density ρ = or ρ =
V dV
• Dimensions of ρ are [L–3M0T1I1].
• The space surrounding an electric charge, in which any other electric charge experiences a force
is called electric field of the charge.
• The electric field intensity due to point charge at any point in the electric field is defined as the

electrostatic force exerted by it on a unit positive charge placed at that point, i.e.

• SI unit of electric intensity is Newton/Coulomb or volt/metre.

• Dimensions of are [L1M1T–3I–1].
• The line of force is defined as, a curve such that the tangent at any point to this curve gives the
direction of the non-uniform electric field at that point.
• Definition of dipole: Two equal and opposite charges, separated by a finite distance, form an
electric dipole.
• A straight line drawn perpendicular to the axis and passing through centre ‘o’ of electric dipole
is called equator of dipole.
• The product of magnitude of one of the charges and the distance between the two charges
forms electric dipole is called dipole moment (p) of the electric dipole.
• SI unit of dipole moment is coulomb metre (C–m) and the dimensions of dipole moment are
[L1M0T1I1].
• The electric potential energy of a system of point charges is defined as the work required to
assemble the system of charges by bringing them from infinity to their present locations.
• Electric potential at a point in electric field is defined as the amount of work done to bring a
unit positive charge from infinity to that point against the direction of electric intensity.
• SI unit of potential gradient is volt/metre (v/m).
• The electric potential difference between two points is said to be one volt, if one joule of work is
done in moving a charge of one coulomb from one point to another point against the direction
of electric field intensity.

i.e. , i.e.

• In atomic and nuclear physics, a small unit of energy called electron–volt is frequently used.
• An electron–volt is defined as the amount of energy gained by an electron when it is displaced
from one point to another point whose potential is higher by one volt.
246 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• Electric flux is defined as the total number of electric lines of force passing normally through
a given area in an electric field.
• Total electric flux through whole surface area is given by
• SI unit of electric flux is volt–metre (V–m)
• SI unit of electric flux density is volt per metre (V/m).
• Electric flux density is the total number of electric lines of force passing normally Per unit
surface area in an electric field.

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 10 (viii) When an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, then
there is transfer of electrons from fur to ebonite
10.1 Frictional Electricity rod Hence, ebonite rod acquires negative
Q.1. Explain electric charge using the concept of charge due to gain of electrons and fur acquires
frictional electricity. (3 marks) positive charge due to loss of electrons.
Ans. The electricity developed on objects when they Note : Extra information for understanding not to
are rubbed with each other is called frictional be included in the answer.
electricity. (1) The magnitude of charge on a proton or
(i) It is observed that when certain substances are an electron is called elementary charge.
rubbed with certain particular substances, then The magnitude of the charge on proton or
they acquire a property of attracting (small) electron is 1.6 x 10–19 C.
light objects like bits of paper, pith etc. (2) Matter consists of only protons and electrons
as charged particles. Therefore, the charge
(ii) For example, when a glass rod is rubbed with
on a body must be integral multiple of ± e,
silk or an ebonite rod is rubbed with fur, they
i.e. the charge on any object must be equal to
can attract light objects.
q = ± ne, where n is an integer.
(iii) This attraction is due to the charge acquired by (3) Further, the charge on an object can be
the rods. The charge acquired by the glass rod increased or decreased only in multiples of
is known as positive charge and by ebonite e. This is known as quantization of charge.
rod is known as negative charge. (4) All observable charges are always integral
(iv) When two glass rods are rubbed with silk multiple of elementary charge e. The
or two ebonite rods are rubbed with fur and quantization effects of charge can be
brought near each other, they repel each other. observed only at microscopic level.
(v) When glass rod is rubbed with silk and ebonite (5) The number of electronic charges constituting
rod is rubbed with fur and brought near each one coulomb charge is given by,
other, they attract each other.
(vi) From these observations it can be concluded
that like charges repel each other and unlike
10.2 Charges and their Conservation
charges attract each other.
(vii) When glass rod is rubbed with silk, then there Q.2. State and explain the law of conservation of
is transfer of electrons from glass to silk. Hence, electric charge. (2 marks)
glass rod acquires positive charge due to loss Ans. Electric charge can neither be created nor
of electrons, while silk acquires negative be destroyed, but it is transferred from one
charge due to gain of electrons. part of a system (substance) to other part of
Electrostatics 247

the system, so that total charge of an isolated ε0 = 8.85 x 10–12 C2/Nm2

system remains constant.
and = 9 x 109 Nm2/C2
(i) In any physical process, the charge may get
transferred from one part of the system to another, k = dielectric constant of medium
but net charge will always remain the same. This value of the constant A is defined in S.I.
(ii) In other words, we can say that charge can system.
neither be created nor destroyed. (iv) From equations (3) and (4) Coulomb’s law for
(iii) For example, when a glass rod is rubbed air or vacuum is written as,
with silk cloth, glass rod becomes positively F = …(5)
charged and silk becomes negatively charged.
(v) If F21 is the force exerted on charge q2 by charge
The amount of positive charge on the glass rod
q1, then
is exactly equal to the negative charge on silk.
=
(iv) Thus, the system of glass rod and silk, which
has zero net charge before rubbing, still where, is a unit vector directed from charge
possesses zero net charge after rubbing. q1 to q2.
(vi) If is the force exerted on charge q1 by the
10.3 Coulomb’s law and dielectric constant
charge q2, then
*Q.3. State and explain Coulomb’s law and also
=
express it in vector form. (3 marks)
Ans. Coulomb’s law states that, "the force of where, is a unit vector directed from the
attraction or repulsion between two point charge q2 to charge q1.
electric charges at rest kept in any medium (vii) Now, and are oppositely directed hence,
is directly proportional to the product of
= –
magnitudes of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance Thus, the forces between two point charges are
between them." oppositely directed. However, they have same
magnitude.

| |= | |=

Fig. 10.1 : Coulomb forces between two like charges Note :
(i) Let q1 and q2 be two point charges separated by One coulomb is that quantity of charge, which when
distance r, then force of attraction or repulsion placed in vacuum or air at a distance of one metre
F is from an identical charge, repels it with a force of
F ∝ q1q2 … (1) 9 x 109 N. If q1 = q2 = 1C and r = 1m, then
and F ∝ … (2) F = x = 9 x 109 N
(ii) Combining equations (1) and (2),
*Q.4. What is meant by a dielectric constant of a
F ∝ medium? (2 marks)
Ans.
\ F = A … (3)
(i) Dielectric constant of a medium is defined as
(iii) Here, A is proportionality constant given as, the ratio of the permittivity of a medium (ε) to
the permittivity of vacuum or air (ε0).
A = … (4)
k =
where, ε0 is permittivity of free space (vacuum)
or air. \ ε = ε0k … (1)
248 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) Hence, Coulomb’s force between two charges 10.5 Continuous distribution of charges
in a medium having dielectric constant k,
Q.7. What is continuous charge distribution?
F = Explain (i) Uniform charge distribution
(ii) Non-uniform charge distribution.
(iii) Since ε > ε0, we can conclude that due to presence
(2 marks)
of a medium, Coulomb’s force reduces. It will
Ans.
be maximum when placed in air or vacuum.
(i) The electric field is not continuous but it is made
For other media,
up of integral multiples of certain minimum
F = electric charge.
Intext question textbook page no. 131 (ii) This fundamental charge, denoted by symbol
e, has the magnitude 1.602 x 10–19 C.
*Q.5.
Whether dielectric constant decides the
strength of electric-field? (1 mark) (iii) Any physically existing charge q can be written
as ‘ne’, where n is a positive or negative integer.
Ans. Yes, E = electric intensity is inversely
(iv) When any physical quantity exists in discrete
proportional to k (dielectric constant) packets rather than in continuous amounts,
\ k = 1 air \ E maximum that physical property is said to be quantized.
k = 80 water \ E minimum Charge is also quantized.
(v) In most of the practical situations, charge on
10.4 Superposition principle of forces
a charged body is so large as compared to the
*Q.6. What is the principle of superposition of magnitude of charge on an electron or proton,
forces? (3 marks) that the quantization of charge may be ignored.
Ans. The resultant force on a point charge due to (vi) So, we can assume that the charge on the
the presence of two or more point charges charged body of reasonable size has continuous
in its vicinity is the vector sum of the forces
distribution.
simultaneously exerted by the individual
(vii) The continuous distribution of charge may be
charges.
one, two or three dimensional. Accordingly,
(i) Consider two point charges q1 and q2 in
the distribution of charge is called linear,
vacuum exerting forces simultaneously
surface or volume charge distribution.
on a third point charge q3 .
(viii) When the charge is not accumulated in some
(ii) Then, the forces and are, part but is spread uniformly, then it is called
uniform charge distribution.
= r̂13
(ix) If the shape of conductor is irregular, then the
= r̂23 charge will be distributed non-uniformly over
its surface. More charge is accumulated at the
where, r̂13 is a unit vector directed from q1 curves and sharp points. Such distribution
to q3 and r̂23 is a unit vector directed from of charge is called non-uniform charge
q2 to q3 . distribution.
(iii) The resultant force on q3 is .
10.6 Concept of charge density
= +
Intext question textbook page no. 132
\ =
*Q.8. Whether surface charge density depends on
shape of the conductor? Justify. (1 mark)
Ans. Yes, for arbitrary shape of the conductor, if
Electrostatics 249

charge distribution is non-uniform, surface (v) If the charge is not distributed uniformly over
charge density is inversely proportional to a thin conductor, then
radius of curvature.
λ =
Q.9. What is charge density? Explain (i) Linear
charge density (ii) Surface charge density \ λ =
(iii) Volume charge density. (3 marks)
Surface charge density (σ):
Ans.
(i) When the charge is distributed uniformly over
(i) The charge on a body usually resides on its
an area in space, then charge per unit area is
surface.
called surface charge density.
(ii) On an insulator the charge is localised, but on
(ii) If q is the charge distributed uniformly over
conductor charge distributes itself over the
the area A, then surface charge density is
surface of conductor.
σ =
(iii) The term 'charge density' is used to give a
quantitative representation of the charge
distribution.
(iv) Depending upon the distribution of charge, the
term charge density is used in three different
ways.
Linear charge density (λ):
Fig. 10.3 : Metal Plate
(i) When the charge is distributed uniformly over
a thin long conductor in space, then charge per (iii) S.I. unit of surface charge density is coulomb/
unit length of conductor is called linear charge metre square (C/m2). Dimensions of σ are
density. [L–2M0T1I1].
(iv) If the charge q is distributed uniformly over
surface area of a spherical conductor of radius
r, then
σ =

(v) If the metallic conductor is of irregular shape,

then
σ =

Fig. 10.2 : Thin long conductor

σ =
(ii) If q is the charge distributed uniformly over
a thin conductor of length L, then its linear Volume charge density (ρ):
charge density (λ) is given by, (i) When the charge is distributed uniformly over
a volume in space, then charge per unit volume
λ =
is called volume charge density.
(iii) S.I. unit of linear charge density is coulomb/
metre (C/m). Dimensions of λ are [L–1M0T1I1].
(iv) If the charge q is distributed uniformly over a
circular ring of radius r, then

λ =
Fig. 10.4 : Metal Sphere
250 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(ii) If q is the charge distributed uniformly over Ans.

volume V, then volume charge density is (i) Consider a point charge q situated at point A.
ρ = Let a test charge q0 is situated at point B, at a
distance r from q.
(iii) S.I. unit of volume charge density is coulomb/
metre cube (C/m3). Dimensions of ρ are
[L–3M0T1I1].
(iv) If the charge is not distributed uniformly, then
(ii) If ûr is the unit vector directed from A to B the
ρ = Coulomb’s force acting on q0 is given by,

ρ = = ûr …(1)

10.7 Electric field intensity due to a point charge where, ε0 - permittivity of vacuum or air.

*Q.10. What is electric field? Define and explain (iii) Here, the unit vector ûr gives the direction of
electric field intensity. (2 marks) the Coulomb’s force. Hence, electric intensity
Ans. at point B is given by,
(i) Two like or unlike electric charges exert force
of repulsion or attraction on each other even =
though there is no medium between them.
(ii) This is only because of the electric field formed \ = ûr … (2)
around an electric charge.
(iii) Every charge forms an electric field around (iv) If the charge q is positive, the intensity is
it. When any other charge is brought in this directed away from it and if charge q is
region or field, it experiences a force due to the negative, the intensity is directed towards it.
first charge. (v) The magnitude of the electric intensity is given
(iv) The electric intensity is the measure of the by
strength of the electric field. \ = … (3)
(v) The electric intensity at any point in an electric
field is the force acting on a unit positive charge (vi) From equation (3), it is observed that electric
placed at that point. intensity is inversely proportional to the
(vi) If a small test charge q0 is placed in an electric square of the distance. As the distance of the
field of certain charge and is the force acting point from charge increases, the intensity at the
on charge q0, then electric intensity is given point decreases.
by
Intext question textbook page no. 134
=
*Q.12. What will happen if a test charge is kept
(vii) Electric intensity is vector quantity. beyond the electric field due to a certain
(viii) The S.I. unit of electric field intensity is charge? (1 mark)
newton/coulomb and volt/metre as these are
Ans. If a test charge is not kept within the vicinity of
dimensionally valid.
electric field strength, then a test charge does
(ix) The dimensions of electric field intensity are
not experience force.
[M1L1T–3I–1].
*Q.11. Derive an expression for electric field Q.13. Give the physical significance of the
intensity due to a point charge. (3 marks) expression of electric field intensity (3 marks)
Electrostatics 251

Ans.
(1) Uniform electric field :
When magnitude as well as direction of electric
field intensity is same at all the points in the
electric field, then it is called uniform electric
field. It is represented by a set of equidistant, Fig. 10.8 (a) : Isolated Fig. 10.8 (b) : Isolated
parallel straight lines. negative charge positive charge

Fig. 10.5 : Uniform electric field

(2) Non-uniform electric field :
Fig. 10.8 (c) : An Electric Dipole
When magnitude or direction or both of electric
The electric lines of force have the following
field intensity are different at different
properties :
points in the field, then it is called non-uniform
(i) The lines of force start from the positive charge
electric field.
and end at the negative charge.
(ii) The lines of force always originate or terminate
at right angles to the surface of the charge.
(iii) The lines of force do not pass through a
Fig. 10.6 : Non-uniform electric field conductor. It indicates that the electric field
(3) Radial electric field : inside a conductor is always zero.
When electric field intensity at any point in (iv) The tangent drawn to a line of force at any
the electric field is directed towards or away point gives the direction of the electric field at
from the same fixed point, then the field is that point.
called radial electric field. (v) The lines of force never intersect each other. In
case two lines of force intersect at a point, then
it will mean that at that point, electric field has
two directions. As it is not possible, the lines of
force can never intersect each other.
(vi) The relative closeness of lines of force in
Fig. 10.7 : Radial electric field different regions of space gives the idea about
the relative strengths of the electric field in the
10.8 Electric lines of force different regions. The region where lines of
*Q.14. What are electric lines of force? State the force are closer, the electric field is strong and
properties of lines of force. (3 marks) vice-versa.

Ans. An electric line of force is defined as the path (vii) The lines of force contract longitudinally, i.e.
described by a free positive charge placed in an length-wise. This property of lines of force
electric field. leads to explain attraction between two unlike
charges.
The lines of force in different electric fields are
shown below : (viii) The lines of force exert a lateral pressure on
each other. This property of lines of force leads
to explain repulsion between two like charges.
252 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

10.9 Electric dipole and electric dipole moment (iii) Now = q is the force acting at point B,
in the direction of field and equal force q is
*Q.15. What is electric dipole? Define electric dipole acting at A in direction opposite to field.
moment and state its SI unit. (2 marks)
(iv) These equal and opposite forces separated by a
Ans.
distance BP form a couple. The moment of this
(i) Two equal and opposite charges, separated by couple is given by,
a finite distance, form an electric dipole.
torque = (one force) x (distance between two
forces)
\ τ = qE x (BP)

(ii) As shown in figure, charges –q and +q (v) In ∆ ABP,

separated by distance 2l, forms electric dipole. sin q =
(iii) The total charge of dipole is zero. But since \ BP = AB sin q
these charges do not coincide with each other, \ τ = qE x (AB sin q)
dipole exhibits electric properties. \ τ = qE x 2l sin q … (2)
(iv) The product of the positive charge and the
(vi) From equation (1) and (2),
distance between the two charges is called the
\ τ = pE sin q … (3)
dipole moment of the electric dipole. In vector form,
\ p = 2ql
= x … (4)
(v) Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity. Its Note :
direction is from the negative charge to positive (1) Moment of couple is maximum when θ =
charge. 90°, i.e. axis of dipole is perpendicular to the
(vi) A straight line passing through the two charges direction of field. This maximum value is given
forming the dipole is called axis of dipole. by,
(vii) A straight line passing through the centre of τ = pE (sin 90° = 1)
dipole and perpendicular to its axis is equator When, E = 1
of dipole. τ = p
SI unit of electric dipole moment coulomb
(2) Hence, the dipole moment of an electric dipole
metre (c-m) is equal to the moment of couple acting on the
Q.16. Derive an expression for torque acting on dipole when held perpendicular to a uniform
an electric dipole in uniform electric field. electric field of unit intensity.
(3 marks)
10.10 Electric potential energy
Ans.
(i) Consider two charges +q and –q placed in an *Q.17. What is electric potential energy? Explain
electric field of uniform intensity at points the concept electric potential. (3 marks)
A and B respectively. Let distance between the OR
two charges be 2l. Define electric potential.
B OR
What is meant by electric potential difference?
Ans.
(i) The electrostatic potential energy of a system of
A P point charges is defined as the work required
to assemble the system of charges by bringing
(ii) Hence, its dipole moment is given as, them from infinity to their respective locations.
p = 2ql ... (1) (ii) When a charge is moved from one point to
Electrostatics 253

another in an electric field, we need to do work (i) Consider a charge q situated at point O. Let P
against the force due to electric field. This work be a point at a distance r from O.
done is called the electric potential energy. (ii) Let A and B are the two points on OP produced
(iii) As the force is proportional to the charge, the such that A is situated at a distance x from O
work done is also proportional to the charge. and distance AB is dx.
The work done is found to be independent of (iii) The intensity of the electric field at point A is
the path taken to move the charge from the first given by,
point to the other. E = … (1)
(iv) Let the work done in moving the charge q from
(iv) This intensity is nothing but a force acting on
infinity to point A be W. Positive work has to be
unit positive charge placed at point A. Hence
done to move the charge from infinity to A.
work done in displacing the unit positive
(v) It is observed that W is proportional to q.
charge from A to B is given by,
\ = constant dW = – E dx
(vi) This constant is defined as the electric potential \ dW = – dx … (2)
V at point A. Hence, electric potential at point
Negative sign shows that this work is done
A,
against the direction of electric intensity.
V = (v) Hence, total work done in displacing the unit
Electric potential at a point in electric field is positive charge from infinity to point P is given
defined as the amount of work done to bring a by,
unit positive charge from infinity to that point V = ∫ dW
against the direction of electric intensity. \ V =
(vii) It is a scalar quantity and is denoted by V. The
electric potential due to a positive charge will \ V = –
be positive and the potential due to a negative
charge will be negative. \ V = –
(viii) The S.I. unit of electric potential is joule/
coulomb (J/C) and it is named as volt (V). \ V = –
(ix) Dimensions of electric potential are
[M1L2T–3I–1].

(x) The electric potential at point in an electric
field is said to be one volt if one joule of work
is done in bringing one coulomb of positive
\ V = –
charge from infinity to that point against the
direction of electric intensity.
\ V = –
1 volt =

\ V = + … (3)
10.11 Electric potential due to a point charge
(vi) Equation (3) is the required expression for the
*Q.18. Derive an expression for electric potential
electric potential at any point due to a point
due to a point charge. (3 marks)
charge q.
Ans.
(vii) From equation (3), it can be concluded that
V ∝
Hence, as the distance of the point from electric
254 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

charge increases the value of electric potential (ii) Since A and B are close to each other, intensity
at the point decreases. at both the points can be assumed to be same.
Note : Extra information for understanding not to be (iii) Let be the intensity at point A. Hence work
included in the answer. done in moving a unit positive charge from A
(1) By the superposition principle, the potential to B is given as,
V at any point due to the system of charges is dW = –Edx ...(1)
the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the Negative sign shows that work and intensity
individual charges. are oppositely directed.
V = V1 +V2 + ... + Vn (iv) Let VA and VB be electric potentials at points A
and B. Then VB > VA, as potential decreases in
\ V =
the direction of the intensity.
\ dV = VB – VA ... (2)
\ V =
(v) We know,

\ V = V =

(2) Potential energy of a system of two point For unit positive charge, q0 =1 C
charges : \ V = W ...(3)
P.E. = (vi) From equations (2) and (3), we have
\ dV = VB – VA
dV = WB – WA = dW ... (4)
\ P.E. =
(vii) From equations (1) and (4), we get
dV = –E dx
\ P.E. =
\ E = – ...(5)
Intext question textbook page no. 138
Equation (5) is the required relation between
*Q.19. Electric field intensity and electric-potential at electric intensity and electric potential.
a point due to a point charge vary with distance
(viii) The quantity is known as potential gradient.
from the point charge. Justify (2 marks)
Hence, from equation (5) we can say that the
Ans.
electric intensity at any point in an electric field
E=
is the negative potential gradient at that point.
(ix) From equation (5), unit of electric intensity can
V=
be written as volt/metre.
Since E is inversely proportional to square of *Q.21. Derive an expression for electric potential
distance and potential is inversely proportional due to an electric dipole. (4 marks)
to distance, E and V vary with distance from Ans.
point charge.
*Q.20. Derive the relation between electric field
intensity and electric potential. (2 marks)
Ans.

(i) Consider a charge q placed at point O. Let

A and B be two points separated by a small
distance dx, in the field of charge. Fig. 10.9 : Electric potential due to an electric dipole
Electrostatics 255

(i) Consider an electric dipole AB having charge (ix) Since, r » l, r2 – l2 cos2θ ≈ r2

–q at a point A and charge +q at point B. Let
\ V =
AB = 2l.
Note :
(ii) Let O be the centre of dipole and P be any point
(1) When point P lies on the axial line nearer to +q.
at a distance r from the centre of dipole, where
θ = 00 and cos θ = 1
electric potential due to an electric dipole is to
be determined. \ V =
(iii) Let ∠ POB = θ and r>>l. Let AA' be the (2) If point P lies on the axial line nearer to –q.
perpendicular from A to PO and BB' be the θ = 180° and cos θ = –1
perpendicular from B to PO. As l is very small
compared to r, \ V =
AP ≈ A'P
(3) When point P lies on the equatorial line,
\ AP = OP + OA'
θ = 90° or 270° and cos θ = 0
\ AP = OP + AO cos θ
\ V = 0
\ AP = r + l cos θ
(iv) Similarly, 10.12 Equipotential Surface
BP ≈ B'P Q.22. Explain the concept of equipotential surface.
\ BP = OP– OB' (3 marks)
\ BP = OP – OB cos θ OR
\ BP = r – l cos θ *What do you mean by an equipotential
(v) The potential at point P due to charge – q is, surface? What is the shape of equipotential
V1 = surfaces for a special case of (a) a uniform
field (b) a single point charge?
V1 = Ans.
(i) An equipotential surface is a surface with
(vi) The potential at point P due to charge +q is, constant value of potential at all points on the
surface.
V2 =
(ii) For a point charge q, the potential is given by
V2 =
V =

(vii) The net potential at P due to dipole is,
This shows that V is a constant if r is constant.
V = V1 + V2

\ V =

\ V =

\ V =

\ V =
Fig. 10.10 : Equipotential Surfaces
(viii) Since, q x 2l = p, the electric dipole moment of
the dipole, then (iii) Thus, equipotential surfaces of a single point
charge are concentric spherical surfaces centred
V = at the charge.
256 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) Now the electric field lines for a single charge is present, then no work will have to be done.
q are radial lines starting from or ending at the Hence, potential energy will be zero.
charge, depending on whether q is positive (iii) Consider a system of single point charge q,
or negative. Hence, the electric field at every placed in an external field of intensity E. In this
point is normal to the equipotential surface case, some work will have to be done against
passing through that point. this field to bring the given charge from infinity
(v) This is true in general for any charge to its present position.
configuration, i.e. equipotential surface (iv) This electric field E is not produced by the
through a point is normal to the electric field at given point charge, but it is produced by some
that point. external source which may be unknown.
(vi) If the field were not normal to the equipotential (v) We assume that the charge q does not
surface, it would have non-zero component significantly affect the sources producing the
along the surface. external field. This is true if q is very small.
(vii) To move a test charge against the direction (vi) Even if q is finite, its influence on the external
of the component of the field, work has to sources may still be ignored as long as very
be done. But this is in contradiction to the strong sources far away at infinity produce a
definition of equipotential surface i.e. there is finite field E in the region of interest.
no potential difference between any two points
(vii) The external electric field E and the
on the surface and no work is required to move
corresponding external potential V may vary
a test charge on the surface.
from point to point. By definition, V at a given
(viii) The electric field must, therefore, be normal to point is the work done in bringing a unit
the equipotential surface at every point. positive charge from infinity to that point.
(ix) For a uniform electric field E, say, along the (viii) Thus, work done in bringing a charge q from
x-axis, the equipotential surfaces are planes infinity to the given point in the external field
normal to x-axis i.e. planes parallel to the y–z is qV.
plane, as shown in the figure.
(ix) This work is stored in the form of potential
energy of charge q. Hence, potential energy of
charge q in an external field,
P.E. = qV
where V is the potential at a given point.
(x) If a point charge q placed in an external electric
Fig. 10.11 : Equipotential Surface for a Uniform field is moved from a point A having potential
Electric Field VA to a point B at potential VB without
acceleration, then
10.13 Potential energy in an external field
work done = change in P.E.
Q.23. Derive an expression for potential energy of a W = qVB – qVA
single charge in an external field. (2 marks) W = q x (VB – VA)
Ans.
*Q.24. Derive an expression for potential energy of
(i) Potential energy of a system of point charges is a system of two charges in an external field.
the work done to assemble the point charges by (4 marks)
bringing them from infinity to their respective Ans.
locations. (i) Potential energy of a system of point charges is
(ii) For a single point charge, if no external field the work done to assemble the point charges by
Electrostatics 257

bringing them from infinity to their respective *Q.25. Derive an expression for potential energy of
locations. an electric dipole in an external field. (3 marks)
(ii) Consider the two charges q1 and q2 lying at Ans.
points A and B with position vectors and (i) When an electric dipole is placed in an external
relative to same origin in an external field E. electric field , a torque acts on it which tends
to rotate it.
(ii) Suppose an external torque ext is applied in
such a manner that it just neutralises this torque
and rotates the dipole in the plane of paper from
angle θ0 to angle θ at an infinitesimal angular
speed i.e. without angular acceleration.

Fig. 10.12 : A system of two isolated point charges

(iii) The work done in bringing the charge q1 from

infinity to the point A is given by,
Fig. 10.13 : Potential energy of an electric dipole in
WA = q1V1 an external field
where V1 is the potential at point A. (iii) The amount of work done by the external
torque will be given by,
(iv) Consider the work done in bringing the charge
q2 to the point B. In this case, work is done W =
not only against the external field E but also
\ W =
against the field due to q1.
Hence, work done on q2 against external field, \ W =
WB = q2V2
1 \ W =
where, V2 is the potential at point B. Also work
done on q2 against the field due to q1, \ W = –

WB = \ W =
2

where r12 = AB, distance between q1 and q2. (iv) This work is stored as the potential energy of
the system. We can then associate potential
(v) Total work done in bringing q2 to the point B,
energy U(θ) of the dipole with the angle θ made
WB = q2v2 + by the dipole with the external electric field.
\ U(θ) = pE (cos θ0 – cos θ)
(vi) Potential energy of the system is the total work Note :
done in assembling the configuration. Hence, (1) If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the
potential energy of a system of two point field E, i.e. θ0 = 90°, then
charges is given as, U(θ) = pE (cos 90° – cos θ)
P.E. = WA + WB \ U(θ) = – pE cos θ
\ P.E. = q1V1 + q2V2 + \ U(θ) = – .
258 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(2) If initially the dipole is parallel to the field E i.e. Ans.

θ0 = 00, then (i) The total number of lines of force passing
U(θ) = pE (cos 0° – cos θ) normally through a given area, drawn in an
\ U(θ) = pE (1 – cos θ) electric field, is called the electric flux through
that area.
10.14 Volt, electron-volt
Q.26. Define and explain electron-volt. (2 marks)
OR
*What is electron-volt?
Ans.
(i) In atomic and nuclear physics, a small unit of
energy called electron-volt is frequently used.
(ii) An electron-volt is defined as the amount Fig. 10.14 : Electric flux through a small area
of energy gained by an electron when it is (ii) Consider a small surface area ‘ ’ in an electric
displaced from one point to another point
field. Let ‘ ’ be the intensity at the centre of
whose potential is higher by one volt.
this area. Since area ‘ds’ is small, E is uniform
(iii) Work must be done to displace a charge from throughout the area.
a point of lower potential to the point of
higher potential without acceleration against a (iii) Let ‘θ’ be the angle between and . Now
uniform electric field. This work done, increases electric intensity is equal to the electric flux per
the potential energy of charge. Potential energy unit area. Hence, the electric flux dφ through
gained by charge, area ds is equal to the product of the area and
W = charge x potential difference the perpendicular component of electric field
\ W = qV intensity.
(iv) 1 eV = e x 1 volt dφ = ds (E cos θ)
\ 1 eV = 1.602 x 10–19 coulomb x 1 volt \ dφ = E ds cos θ
\ 1 eV = 1.602 x 10–19 J \ dφ = .
(v) The electron-volt can also be defined as the (iv) In a uniform electric field , electric flux through
kinetic energy gained by an electron when it
a plane surface of area will be given as,
is accelerated through a potential difference of
φ = ∫ dφ
one volt.
\ φ = ∫ .
Note : Extra information for understanding not to be
\ φ = .
included in the answer.
\ φ = E s cos θ
(1) 1 keV = 1.602 x 10–16 J
1 MeV = 1.602 x 10–13 J (v) S.I. unit of electric flux is volt-metre (Vm).

(2) If charge moves without acceleration in an (vi) Dimensions of electric flux are [M1L3T–3I–1].
electric field, then work done is converted into
Electric flux density :
potential energy.
It is defined as the electric flux per unit area.
(3) If charge moves with acceleration in an electric
SI unit : Volt per metre (V/m) or Weber per
field, the work done is converted into kinetic
square metre (Wb/m2).
energy.
It is equivalent to electric field intensity.
Q.27. Define and explain electric flux and electric
flux density. (3 marks)
Electrostatics 259

Solved Problems (2) Calculate the number of electrons in a charge

of 2 C. (2 marks)
Charges, Coulomb’s law and dielectric constant Solution :
q = 2 C, e = 1.6 x 10–19 C
*(1) Two small spheres are charged positively, the
Since charge is an integral multiple of the charge of
combined charge being 5.0 x 10–5 C. If each
an electron i.e.
sphere is repelled from the other by a force
q = ne
of 1.0 N when the spheres are 2.0 metre apart,
how is the total charge distributed between \ n = = 1.25 x 1019
the spheres? (3 marks) \ n = 1.25 x 1019 electrons
Solution :
*(3) How many electrons would have to be
Let the charge on two spheres be q1 and q2 respectively.
removed from a coin to leave it with a charge
Hence, of 10–7 C? [e = 1.6 x 10–19 C] (2 marks)
q1 + q2 = 5 x 10–5 C ... (i) Solution :
q = 10–7 C, e = 1.6 x 10–19 C
Force of repulsion between the two spheres is 1 N
e = 1.6 x 10–19 C
when kept 2 m apart.
q = ne
F = \ The number of electrons that must be removed
is
\ 1 = 9 x 109 x n =

\ q1q2 =
= 0.625 x 1012

\ q1q2 = 4.44 x 10–10 n = 6.25 x 1011

Force acting on electric charges

\ q 2 = … (ii)
(4) In a nitrogen atom, the electrons and protons
Substitute equation (ii) in (i), are separated by a distance of 6.6 x 10–12 m.
Find the force of attraction between them.


\ + 4.44 x 10 –10
= (5 x 10 ) q1
–5 (2 marks)
Solution :
\ – (5 x 10–5) q1 + 4.44 x 10–10 = 0 q1 = q2 = 1.6 x 10–19 C
−b ± b2 − 4 ac r = 6.6 x 10–12 m
x =
2a F =
−( −5 × 10 −5 ) ± ( −5 × 10 −5 )2 − 4(1) ( 4.44 × 10 −10 )
q1 =
2(1) \ F = 9 x 109 x

10 −5 (5 ± 25 − 17.76) \ F = 5.3 x 10–6 N

2 (5) What charge when placed at 10 cm from a
\ q1 = 3.83 x 10–5 C or 1.17 x 10–5 C charge of 100 nC, will produce a force of 0.1 N
q2 = 1.17 x 10–5 C or 3.83 x 10–5 C in air? (2 marks)
q1 = 3.83 x 10–5 C and q2 = 1.17 x 10–5 C Solution :
F = 0.1 N, r = 10 cm = 10–1 m
260 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

q1 = 100 nC The resultant force is obtained by applying the

q1 = 100 x 10 C
–9
law of parallelogram of forces.
F = F =

θ = 60°
\ 0.1 =
\ F =
\ q 2 =
\ F = 27.38 N
Suppose that the resultant force makes an angle α
\ q 2 = with 1.
\ q 2 = 0.111 x 10–5 \ tan α =
\ q 2 = 1.11 x 10-6 C
\ tan α =
(6) Three point charges 6 µC, 8 µC and 10 µC
are placed in vacuum at the corners of an \ tan α = 0.6928
equilateral triangle ABC of each side 20 cm.
\ α = tan–1 (0.6928)
Find the resultant force on the largest charge.
(3 marks) \ α = 34°43'
Solution : The resultant force on q3 is 27.38 N and acts along a
line making an angle of 34°43' with the direction of
1
as shown in the figure
(7) The force acting on a charge of 50 pC is 0.05 N.
Find the electric intensity of the electric field.
(2 marks)
Solution :
q = 50 pC
\ q = 50 x 10–12 C
q1 = 6 µC, q2 = 8 µC, q3 = 10 µC F = 5 x 10–2 N
r = 0.2 m
ε = kε0 = ε0 E =
( K = 1 for vacuum)
Let be the force on q3 due to q1. \ E =
1

\ F 1 = \ E = 1 x 109 N/C

Electric dipole, charge density, Electric field intensity

\ F 1 =
(8) In an electric dipole, the two point charges of
\ F 1 = 13.5 N 1.6 x 10–19 and –1.6 x 10–19 C are separated by
Let be the force on q3 due to q2. a distance of 3 A.U. Find the electric dipole
2
moment. (3 marks)
\ F 2 =
Solution :
q = 1.6 x 10–19 C
\ F 2 = 2l = 3 x 10–10 m
\ F 2 = 18 N p = 2 ql
Electrostatics 261

\ p = 3 x 10–10 x 1.6 x 10–19

\ U = –20 x cos 300 = –20 x
\ p = 4.8 x 10–29 cm
The electric dipole moment is 4.8 x 10–29 C-m. \ U = –30 J

(11) Two point charges (+ 10 µC) and (– 16 µC) are

*(9) An electric dipole consists of two opposite
situated in air at a distance of 9 cm from each
charges each of magnitude 1.0 µC separated
other. Find the potential at a point in between
by a distance of 2.0 cm. The dipole is placed
the charges at a distance of 5 cm from the
in an external uniform field of 1.0 x 105 N/C.
positive charge. (3 marks)
What maximum torque does the field exert on
the dipole? (3 marks) Solution :
q1 = 10 x 10–6 C
Solution :
q2 = –16 x 10–6 C
q = 1.0 µC
r1 = 5 x 10–2 m
\ q = 1.0 x 10–6 C
r2 = 4 x 10–2 m
2l = 2 cm = 2.0 x 10–2 m
E = 1.0 x 105 N/C Potential at the point due to q1 is,

θ = 90° Vq =
1
\ τ = pE sin θ
\ τ = (q x 2l) E sin θ Vq =
1

\ τ = 10–6 x 2 x 10–2 x 105 x sin 90° \ Vq = 18 x 105 V

1
\ τ = 2.0 x 10–3 Nm
Similarly, potential at the point due to q2 is,
*(10) An electric dipole of length 2.0 cm is Vq =
placed with its axis making an angle of 30° 2

to a uniform electric field of 105 N/C. If it

\ Vq =
experiences a torque of 10 Nm, calculate 2

(i) the magnitude of charge on the dipole and \ Vq = –36 x 105 V

2
(ii) potential energy of the dipole. (3 marks)
Solution : Resultant potential at that point,
2l = 2 cm = 2 x 10–2 m Vr = Vq + Vq
1 2
θ = 30°, E = 105 N/C \ V r = 18 x 105 + (–36 x 105)
τ = 10 Nm \ V r = –18 x 105 V
τ = pE sin θ
\ p = *(12) What is the force experienced by a test charge
of 0.20 µC placed in an electric field of 3.2 x
\ p = 106 N/C? (2 marks)
Solution :
\ p = q0 = 0.20 µC = 2 x 10–7 C,
E = 3.2 x 106 N/C
\ p = 20 x 10–5 Cm
The force on the test charge,
and q = F = q0E
= (2 x 10–7) (3.2 x 106)
\ q = x 10–2 C
\ F = 0.64 N
and U = –pE cos θ
262 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(13) What is the electric potential at the centre of a

square of side 1 m if point charges 1 x 10–8 C,
–2 x 10–8 C, 3 x 10–8 C and 2 x 10–8 C are placed
at the corners of the square? (3 marks)
Solution :
q1 = 1 x 10–8 C Solution :
q2 = –2 x 10–8 C
q1 = 1 x 10–8 C
q3 = 3 x 10–8 C
q2 = –2 x 10–8 C
q4 = 2 x 10–8 C
1/4πε0 = 9 x 109 N.m2/C2 q3 = 3 x 10–8 C

The distance of the point of intersection O of the q4 = 2 x 10–8 C

diagonals, from each charge is a = 1 m

\ r = U=
q1 q4
A D
= (9 x 109) (10–16)

0
1m

B C
q2 1m q3

The potential at a distance r from a charge q is = 9 x 10–7

V =

As potential is a scalar quantity, the total electric = 9 x 10–7

potential at O is
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
\ U = – 6.365 x 10–7 J
= (q1 + q2 + q3 + q4)
*(15) Consider a point charge q = 1.5 x 10–8 C.
= (i) What is the radius of an equipotential
surface having a potential of 30 V?
(ii) Are surfaces whose potential differ by
= a constant amount (say, 1.0 V) evenly
spaced in radius? (3 marks)
\ V = 509.2 V
Solution :
*(14) What is the electric potential energy of the q = 1.5 x 10–8 C
following charge configuration?
= 9 x 109 N.m2/C2
Take q1 = +1 x 10–8 C, q2 = –2 x 10–8 C,
q3 = +3 x 10–8 C, q4 = 2 x 10–8 C and a = 1 m. V = 30 V
Assume the charges to be in vacuum. (i) An equipotential surface surrounding an
(3 marks) isolated point charge is a sphere centred
on the charge. Let r be the radius of such an
equipotential surface for which V = 30 V.
Electrostatics 263

V = OB =

\ r = \ OB =

= (9 x 109) \ OB = OA = OC = OD = 0.707 m
\ r = 4.5 m Potential at O due to charge at A, B, C and D is
(ii) For a given point charge q, V =

V =
V =
where, C = is a constant. Since is not a
linear function of r, equipotentials with equal \ V =
potential differences between adjacent surfaces
are not evenly spaced in radius. \ V =
*(16) What is the magnitude of a point charge such
that the electric field 50 cm away from it has \ V = 50.9 x 103 V
magnitude 2.0 N/C? (3 marks) \ V = 50.9 kV
Solution :
r = 50 cm = 0.5 m, E = 2.0N/C Potential energy in an external electric field
= 9 x 109 N.m2/C2 (18) What is the energy gained by an electron
when it is accelerated through a potential
The magnitude of the electric field intensity is
difference of 100V? (2 marks)
E =
Solution :
\ The magnitude of the charge is V = 100 V
q = e
q = \ q = 1.6 x 10–19 C
Kinetic energy gained,
K.E. = eV
= x 10–10
\ K.E. = 100 x 1.6 x 10–19 = 1.6 x 10–17
\ q = 5.556 x 10 –11
C \ K.E. = 1.6 x 10–17 J
(17) Calculate the potential at the centre O of the
(19) Find the work done when a point charge 4 x
square of side 1 m with the charges at the
10–9 C is moved from a point at a potential of
vertices as shown. (3 marks)
–1000 V to a point at a potential of –500 V.
qA = 1 µC, qB = –2 µC, qC = 3 µC, qD = 2 µC
(2 marks)
Solution : Solution :
The distance of each charge will be same from O. q = 4 x 10–9 C
V1 = –1000 V
OA = OB = OC = OD V2 = –500 V
BD2 = CD2 + CB2
Potential difference
= 12 + 12 = 2
P.D. = (V2 – V1)
\ BD = m
\ P.D. = –500 – (–1000)
264 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ P.D. = –500 + 1000 (22) Consider a point charge with q = 1.5 x 10–8 C.
\ P.D. = 500 V (i) What is the radius of an equipotential
surface having a potential of 30 V?
\ Work done,
(ii) Are surfaces whose potential differ
\ W = qV
by constant amount (say 1.0 V) evenly
\ W = 500 x 4 x 10–9 spaced in radius? (3 marks)
\ W = 2000 x 10–9 = 2 x 10–6 Solution :
Work done 2 x 10–6 J q = 1.5 x 10–8 C
An equipotential surface having a potential of 30 V
*(20) Two protons in a nucleus of U238 are
is a sphere of radius r with charge q as the centre,
6.0 x 10–15 metre apart. What is their mutual
such that
electric potential energy? (2 marks)
Solution : V =
q1 = q2 = 1.6 x 10–19 C
\ r = … (i)
r12 = 6.0 x 10–15 m

U = \ r = 9 x 109 x

\ r =
\ U = 9 x 109 x
\ r = 4.5 m
\ U = 3.84 x 10–14 J
Now,
\ U = 2.4 x 105 eV
r = … [From (i)]
*(21) Three point charges +q, +2q and Q are placed
at the three vertices of an equilateral triangle. \ r =
Find the value of charge Q (in terms of q), so Where,
that electric potential energy of the system is
K =
zero.
Let r1, r2 and r3 be the radii of 3 equipotential surfaces
(3 marks)
whose potential differ by constant amount, say 1 volt.
Solution : Let V1 = 1 V
q1 = +q V2 = 2 V
q2 = +2q
V3 = 3 V
q3 = +Q
Let a be the side of the triangle \ r 1 =
U = W12 + W13 + W23
\ r 1 = K … (ii)

\ U = Also,
r2 =
\ U = (q x 2q) + (q x Q) + (2q x Q) \ r 2 = 0.5K … (iii)

\ U = (2q + 3Q) \ r 3 =
\ r 3 = 0.333K … (iv)
\ 2q + 3Q = 0 i.e Q = – q ( U = 0)
From (ii), (iii) and (iv), it is clear that the surfaces
\ whose potential differ by constant amount are not
Q = – q evenly spaced in radius.
Electrostatics 265

*(23) An electric dipole consists of two unlike e = 1.6 x 10–19 C

charges of magnitude 2 x 10–6 C separated by q = 5 (1.6 x 10–19 C)
4 cm. The dipole is placed in an external field = 8 x 10–19 C
of 105 N/C. Find the work done by an external
agent to turn the dipole through 180°. Initial KE = KEi = mu2 = 0
(3 marks)
Solution : \ ∆KE = KEf – KEi = KEf
q = 2 x 10–6 ∆KE = qV
2l = 4 cm = 4 x 10–2 m, \ The final KE, KEf = qV
E = 105 N/C, θ = 180° + θ0 KEf = (8 x 10–19) (8900)
Let us assume the dipole to be initially aligned
= 7.12 x 10–15 J
parallel to the field, i.e., θ0 = 0.
Then, θ = 180° =
The work done by an external agent,
W = pE (1 – cos θ) = 4.45 x 104 eV

= q (2l) E (1 – cos 180°) = (4.45 x 10–2) x 106 eV

= (2 x 10–6) (4 x 10–2) (105) [1–(–1)] \ ∆KE = 4.45 x 10–2 MeV
= 16 x 10–3
*(26) An electron is circulating around the nucleus
\ W = 16 x 10–3 J of an H-atom in a circular orbit of radius
5.3 x 10–11 m. Calculate the electric potential
*(24) Find the work done when a point charge of energy of the atom in eV. (3 marks)
2mc is moved from a point at a potential of Solution :
–10v to a point at which the potential is zero.
e = 1.6 x 10–19 C
(3 marks)
Solution : r = 5.3 x 10–11 m
v2 = –10V = 9 x 109 N.m2/C2
v2 = 0V
The charge of the single proton in the nucleus of a
q = 2mc = 2 x 10–6 C
hydrogen atom, q1 = + e
\ potential difference
= 1.6 x 10–19 C
PD = (V2 – V1)
The charge on the electron
PD = [0 – (–10)]
q2 = – e = –1.6 x 10–19 C
PD = 10V
The potential energy of an H-atom,
\ Work done = q x V
= 2 x 10–6 x 10 U =
Work done = = 2 x 10 J –5

= 9 x 109 x
*(25) A particle carrying 5 electrons starts from
rest and is accelerated through a potential =
difference of 8900 V. Calculate the KE
acquired by it in MeV. [Charge on electron = = –4.347 x 10–18 J
1.6 x 10–19 C] (3 marks) Since 1 eV = 1.6 x 10–19 J
Solution :
q = 5e U = = –27.17

u = 0
\ U = –27.17 eV
V = 8900 V
266 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(27) A proton and an α-particle are accelerated from (5) Positive charges of 9 nC and 4 nC are placed
rest through the same potential difference. at the points A and C respectively of a right
Compare their final speeds. Charge on an angled triangle ABC in which ∠B =90°,
α-particle = 2 x charge on a proton, mass of an
AB = 3 cm and BC = 2 cm. Find the electric field
α-particle = 4 x mass of a proton. (3 marks)
intensity at B. (3 marks)
Solution :
Let q1 = charge on an α-particle, q2 = charge on a (6) A particle carrying 5 electrons starts from rest and
proton, m1 = mass of an α-particle, m2 = mass of a is accelerated through a potential difference of
proton, v1 = final speed of the α-particle, v2 = final 8900V. Calculate the K.E. acquired by it in MeV.
speed of the proton (Charge on electron = 1.6 x 10–19 C)
\ = 2 and =4 (3 marks)

(7) Two point charges A and B are 25 cm apart.

\ =
The work done to move a charge of 5 C from
If the particles are accelerated from rest, through a A to B is 25 J. What is the P.D. between A and
potential difference V, B? Which point is at a higher potential? What

= q1 V and = q2 V is the electric field intensity between A and B?

(3 marks)

\ = (8) An electron is circulating around the nucleus

of H-atom in a circular orbit of radius
\ = 5.3 x 10–11 m. Calculate the electric potential
energy of the atom in eV.
\ = (3 marks)

\ (9) A charge of + 2 nC is separated from a charge

= 0.707 of – 2 nC by 1.5 cm forming an electric dipole.
What torque acts on the dipole when its dipole
Additional Numericals for Practice moment vector makes an angle of 30° in the
(1) How many electrons would have to be removed clockwise sense with the field of magnitude
from a coin to leave it with charge of 10–7 C? 5000 N/C? (2 marks)
(2 marks)
(10) An electric dipole consists of two opposite
(2) What charge placed 9 cm from a charge of 100
charges of magnitude 2 x 10–6 C, separated by
µC will experience a force of N in air? 4.0 cm. The dipole is placed in an external field
(2 marks) of 105 N/C. Find the work done by an external
(3) What is the force experienced by a test charge agent to turn the dipole through 180°.
of 0.20 µC placed in an electric field of 3.2 x 106 (3 marks)
N/C? (2 marks)
(4) An oil drop of mass 0.03 g carrying a negative Answers
charge of 3e is held in equilibrium between
(1) 6.25 × 1011 (2) 10–3 µC (3) 0.64 N (4) 6.125 x 1014
two metal plates 1.5 cm apart and across which
a P.D. is maintained. What is the intensity of V/m, 9.187 x 1012 V (5) 12.73 104 N/C making α = 45°
electric field and P.D. between the plates? with E1 or E2 (6) 0.045 MeV (7) 5 V, point B, 20 V/m
[e =1.6 x 10–19 C, g= 9.8 m/s2] (2 marks) (8) – 27.17 eV (9) 7.5 × 10–8 Nm (10) 0.016 J
Electrostatics 267

Important Formulae (10) Potential energy of a point charge in an external

field :
(1) Coulomb’s law : P.E. = qV
(i) For vacuum or air,
(11) Work done in moving a point charge in an
F = , external field from point A to point B without
(ii) For a medium of dielectric constant k, acceleration :
W = q x (VB – VA)
F =
(12) Potential energy of a system of two point
(2) (i) Linear charge density :
charges in an external field :
λ =
P.E. = q1V1 + q2V2 +
(ii) Surface charge density :
(13) Potential energy of an electric dipole in an
σ =
external field :
(iii) Volume charge density : U(θ) = pE (cos θ0 – cos θ)
ρ =
U(θ) = pE (1 – cos q)
(3) Electric field intensity :
(14) 1 eV = 1.602 x 10–19 J
(i) =
(15) Electric flux through an area ds in an electric field :
(ii) E = dφ = .

(4) Electric dipole moment : (16) Work done in rotating a dipole in an external
p = 2ql electric field from θ1 to θ2
(5) Torque acting on an electric dipole in uniform W = – pE (cos θ2 – cos θ1)
electric field :
(i) = x
Multiple Choice Questions
(ii) = pE sin θ
(1) When a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth, then
(6) Electric potential : V
(a) glass rod acquires positive charge and silk
(i) V = cloth acquires equal negative charge
(b) there is no transfer of charge
(ii) V = (c) glass rod acquires negative charge and
silk cloth acquires equal positive charge
(7) E = (potential gradient) (d) glass rod acquires negative charge and
silk cloth becomes neutral
(8) Electric potential due to an electric dipole : (2) The property of attraction or repulsion acquired
V = by the material body when it is rubbed is due
to its,
(a) charge (b) mass
V = r >>L
(c) resistance (d) inductance
(9) Potential energy of a system of two point (3) How many electrons will constitute a charge of
charges (no external field) : one coulomb?
(a) 6.25 x 1018 (b) 6.25 x 1019
P.E. =
(c) 5.25 x 1018 (d) 5.25 x 1019
268 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(4) Three charges + 4q, Q and q are placed in a (12) A charge q1 exerts some force on a second
straight line of length l at points distance 0, l/2 charge q2. If third charge q3 is brought near
and l respectively. What should be Q in order charge q1, the force of q1 exerted on q2
to make the net force on q to be zero?
(a) decreases
(a) –q (b) –2q (b) increases
(c) –q/2 (d) 4q (c) remains unchanged
(5) There are two charges +1 micro coulomb and (d) increases if q3 is of the same sign as q1 and
+3 micro coulombs. The ratio of the forces decreases if q3 is of opposite sign
acting on them will be
(13) If 6.24 x 1018 electrons carry a total charge of
(a) 1 : 5 (b) 1 : 1 11 coulomb then how many electrons would
(c) 5 : 1 (d) 1 : 25 carry a total charge of 96500 C?
(6) Dielectric constant of a medium is also known (a) 6.02 x 1023 (b) 1.6 x 1019
as (c) 6.02 x 1018 (d) both (a) and (b)
(a) relative permeability
(14) Electric charges of 1µC, –1 µC and 2 µC
(b) permeability
(c) permittivity are placed in air at the corners A, B and C
(d) relative permittivity respectively of an equilateral triangle ABC
having length of each side 10 cm. The resultant
(7) Two bodies get charged when they are rubbed
force on the charge at C is
with each other due to transfer
(a) photons (b) atoms (a) 0.9 N (b) 1.8 N
(c) molecules (d) electrons (c) 2.7 N (d) 3.6 N

(8) Infinite charge of magnitude q each are lying at (15) A charge q is placed at the centre of the line
a = 1, 2, 4, 8, …… metres on x-axis. The value of joining two equal charges Q. The system of the
intensity of electric field at point x = ∞ due to three charges will be in equilibrium if q is equal
these charges will be to
(a) 12 x 109 q N/C (b) zero
(a) (b)
(c) 6 x 109 q N/C (d) 4 x 109 q N/C
(9) A current of 5 A flows through a conductor (c) (d)
for 1 s then how many electrons would flow
through the conductor in the same time? (16) When any physical quantity exists in the form
of discrete packets it is said to be
(a) 6.02 x 1013 (b) 2 x 1019
(c) 3.2 x 10–20 (d) 3.1 x 1019 (a) magnetised (b) polarised
(c) quantized (d) electrolysed
(10) In a hydrogen atom, the distance between
proton and electron is 5.3 x 10–11 m. The electrical (17) 10 µC charge is uniformly distributed along a
force of attraction between them will be wire of length 5 m. Its linear charge density is
(a) 6.3 x 10–8 N (b) 8.2 x 10–8 N (a) 2 x 10–6 C/m (b) 5 x 10–6 C/m
(c) 9.6 x 10–8 N (d) 12.2 x 10–8 N (c) 10 x 10–6 C/m (d) 3 x 10–6 C/m
(11) Force between two charges, when placed in free (18) A sphere of radius 10 cm is given a charge of 20
space is 10 N. If they are in a medium of relative µC on its surface. The surface charge density of
permittivity 5, the force between them will be sphere is
(a) 2 N (b) 50 N
(a) 3.18 x 10–4 C/m2 (b) 2 x 10–6 C/m2
(c) 0.5 N (d) 10 N
(c) 3 x 10–9 C/m2 (d) 1.59 x 10–4 C/m2
Electrostatics 269

(19) A charge of magnitude 2 µC is distributed (a) 2000 m/s2 (b) 200 m/s2
uniformly through out the solid metal sphere (c) 500 m/s2 (d) 20 ms/2
of radius 1 cm, then volume charge density of
(24) A charge Q is placed at the centre of a circle of
sphere is
radius R. The work done in moving a charge q
(a) 0.48 C/m2 (b) 0.56 C/m2 from A to B so as to complete a semicircle is
(c) 0.2 C/m2 (d) 0 C/m2
(20) Figure shows the electric lines of force
emerging from a charged body. If the electric
field at A and B are EA and EB respectively
and if the displacement between A and B is
r then

(a) zero (b)

(c) (d)

(a) EA > EB (b) EA < EB

(25) The electric potential V as a function of distance
(c) EA = (d) EA = x (in metres) is given by V = (5x2 + 10x –9) volt.
The value of electric field at x = 1 m would be
(21) In the figure ABC is an equilateral triangle.
(a) 2 V/m (b) 6 V/m
Charges +q is placed at each corner of ∆ABC.
(c) 11 V/m (d) –20 V/m
The electric intensity at O will be
(26) The figure given below shows two parallel
equipotential surfaces A and B kept at a small
distance r from each other. A point charge of –q
coulombs is taken from the surface A to B. The
amount of net work done will be given by

(a) (b) (a) (b)

(c) zero (d) (c) (d) zero

(22) The figure shows some of the electric field lines (27) The distance between the two charges 25 µC
corresponding to an electric field. The figure and 36 µC is 11 cm. At what point on the line
suggests joining the two, the intensity will be zero?
(a) At a distance of 5 cm from 25 µC
(b) At a distance of 5 cm from 36 µC
(c) At a distance of 10 cm from 25 µC
(d) At a distance of 11 cm from 36 µC
(a) EA > EB > EC (b) EA = EB = EC (28) From the following figure, choose correct option.
(c) EA = EC > EB (d) EB < EA < EC
(23) The acceleration of a particle of charge of
0.5 C and 500 mg mass kept in an electric field
of intensity 200 N/C is
270 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(a) q1 is negative, q2 is positive

(b) q1 is positive, q2 is negative
(c) q1, q2 are both positive
(d) q1, q2 both are negative
(29) An electric dipole consisting of two opposite
(a) 6 x 10–2 J (b) 2 x 10–2 J
charges of 2 x 10–6 C each and are separated
(c) 0 J (d) 1 J
by a distance of 3 cm. It is placed in an electric
field of 2 x 105 N/C. The maximum torque on (36) If 4 x 1020 eV energy is required to move a
the two dipole will be charge of 0.25 coulombs between two points
(a) 12 x 10–1 N m (b) 12 x 10–3 N m then potential difference between them will be,
(c) 24 x 10–1 N m (d) 24 x 10–3 N m (a) 178 V (b) 256 V
(30) Two charges +3.2 x 10–19 C and –3.2 x 10–19 C (c) 356 V (d) 450 V
placed at 2.4 m apart from an electric dipole. It (37) A cloud is at a potential of 8 x 106 volts relative
is placed in a uniform electric field of intensity to the ground. A charge of 40 coulombs is
4 x 105 V/m. The electric dipole moment is transferred in lightening stroke between the
(a) 15.36 x 10–29 C m (b) 15.36 x 10–19 C m cloud and the ground. The energy dissipated is
(c) 7.68 x 10–9 C m (d) 7.68 x 10–29 C m (a) 5 x 10–6 J (b) 3.2 x 10–7 J
(31) When an electric dipole is placed in a (c) 3.2 x 108 J (d) 3.2 x 10–8 J
uniform electric field , then at what angle (38) When a charge particle of charge q and mass m
between and the value of torque will be is accelerated from rest by a potential difference
maximum? V, then velocity attained by particle is
(a) 90° (b) 0°
(c) 180° (d) 45° 2q qV
(a) (b)
Vm 2m
(32) When axis of electric dipole lies along the
direction of field then torque acting on dipole is (c) qVm (d) 2qV
2 m
(a) zero (b) pE
(c) pE/2 (d) –pE (39) If a charge q is moved around a charge Q in
circular path of radius r with Q as centre then
(33) Which of the following charge can form an
potential difference between any two points on
electric dipole?
circumference is
(a) +1 µC, –1 µC
(a) 1 mV (b) 0 V
(b) +5 x 10–3 C, –2 x 10–3 C
(c) 1 µV (d) 1 V
(c) +10–3 µC, –1 µC
(d) –1 C, –1C (40) The electric potential at a distance of 10 m from
(34) An electric dipole of moment p is placed a point charge of 25 µC is
normal to the lines of force of electric intensity (a) 2500 V (b) 22500 V
E. Then the work done in deflecting through an (c) 2000 V (d) 20500 V
angle of 180° is
(41) A hollow metal sphere of radius 10 cm is
(a) pE (b) +2PE charged such that the potential on its surface is
(c) –2E (d) zero 80 volt. The potential at the centre of the sphere
(35) In the figure given below, Q1 = +8 µC, is
Q2 = –4 µC, Q3 = +5 µC. Then the potential (a) 800 volt (b) 0 volt
energy of charge Q1 is (c) 8 volt (d) 80 volt
Electrostatics 271

(42) In the graph shown below calculate electric

field at r = 6 cm

(a) 15 V/m (b) 5 V/m

(c) 10 V/m (d) 0 V/m
(a) least along the path AB
(43) In the given figure, electric potential at P is
(b) least along the path AD
(c) zero along any one of the path AB, AC,
AD and AE
(a) 0 V (b) 1 V (d) least along AE
(c) 2 V (d) 3 V (48) The electric flux through a surface is maximum
(44) The potential energy gained by a charge of when angle between electric field E and normal
π C is 154 kJ. Then, the potential difference to area S is
with which the charge is accelerated is (a) 90° (b) 0°
(c) 45° (d) 120°
(a) 49 V (b) 49 x 102 V
(c) 49 kV (d) 49 x 103 mV (49) The energy gained by a charge 2 x 10–19 C when
accelerated through a potential difference of
(45) If a unit charge is taken from one part to another
8 V is
over an equipotential surface
(a) 1 eV (b) 10 eV
(a) work is done on the charge
(c) 0.1 eV (d) 5 eV
(b) work is done by the charge
(c) work done on the charge is infinite (50) Electric charges q, q and –2q are placed at the
(d) no work is done corners of an equilateral triangle ABC of side
l. The magnitude of electric dipole moment of
(46) An electric dipole has the magnitude of charge the system is
q and dipole moment p. It is placed in a uniform
(a) q l (b) 2 q l
electric field. If its dipole moment is along the
direction of the field, then the force on it and its (c) q l (d) 4 q l
potential energy are respectively
(a) 2 qE and minimum Answers
(b) qE and minimum (1) glass rod acquires positive charge and silk
(c) zero and minimum cloth acquires equal negative charge (2) charge
(d) qE and maximum
(3) 6.25 x 1018 (4) – q (5) 1 : 1 (6) relative permittivity
(47) In the electric field of a point charge q, certain (7) electrons (8) 12 x 109 q N/C (9) 3.1 x 1019
charge is carried from point A to B, C, D and E
(10) 8.2 x 10–8 N (11) 2 N (12) remains unchanged
as shown in figure. The work done is
(13) 6.02 x 1023 (14) 1.8 N (15) (16) quantized
272 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(17) 2 x 10–6 C/m (18) 1.59 x 10–4 C/m2 (19) 0.48 C/m2
(36) 256 V (37) 3.2 x 108 J (38) 2qV (39) 0 V
(20) EA > EB (21) zero (22) EA = EC > EB (23) 200 m/s2 m
(24) zero (25) –20 V/m (26) zero (27) At a distance (40) 22500 V (41) 80 volt (42) 5 V/m (43) 3 V
of 5 cm from 25 µC (28) q1 is positive, q2 is negative (44) 49 kV (45) no work is done (46) zero and
(29) 12 x 10–3 N m (30) 7.68 x 10–19 C m (31) 90° minimum (47) zero along any one of the path AB,
(32) zero (33) +1 µC, –1 µC (34) zero (35) 0 J AC, AD and AE (48) 0° (49) 10 eV (50) ql

Assessment - 10
Time : 30 Min. Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions : (10)

(1) State and explain the law of conservation of electric charge.
(2) What is dielectric constant of a medium?
(3) What are electric lines of force? Also state their properties.
(4) An electric dipole consist of two opposite charges each of magnitude 1.0 µC separated by a distance of
2.0 cm. The dipole is place in an external uniform field of 1.0 x 105 N/C. What maximum
torque does the field exert on the dipole?
(5) What is the force experienced by a test charge of 0.20 µC placed in an electric field of
3.2 x 106 N/C?

(6) Three point charges +q, +2q and Q are placed at the three vertices of an equilateral triangle.
Find the value of charge Q (in terms of q), so that electric potential energy of the system is zero.

Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions : (6)

(1) Derive an expression for electric potential due to an electric dipole.
(2) Three point charges 6 µC, 8 µC and 10 µC are placed in vacuum at the corners of an equilateral
triangle ABC whose side is 0.2 m. Find the resultant force on the largest charge.
(3) An oil drop of mass 0.03 g carrying a negative charge of 3e is held in equilibrium between two
metal plates 1.5 cm apart and across which a P.D. is maintained. What is the intensity of electric
field and P.D. between the plates? [e = 1.6 x 10–19 C, g = 9.8 m/s2].
Q.3. Attempt any ONE question : (4)
(1) Derive an expression for electric potential due to a point charge.
(2) (a) Define and explain electric flux. (1)
(b) Consider a point charge with q = 1.5 x 10–8 C. (3)
(i) What is the radius of an equipotential surface having a potential of 30 V?
(ii) Are surfaces, whose potentials differ by constant amount, (say 1.0 V) evenly spaced
in radius?

vvv
11 CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Points to Remember:
• The electric current is the rate of flow of charges, flowing across the area of conductor. SI unit
of current is ampere.
• As long as physical state of a conductor remains the same, the electric current flowing through
a given conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference applied across it.
I ∝ V i.e. V = RI
• Resistance of a conductor is the opposition to flow of current in the electric circuit.
• Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance. Its SI unit is Siemens (S or Ohm–1)
• While moving, electrons continuously collide with vibrating atoms and their motion is
opposed and electrons move with constant velocity called drift velocity.
• The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length (l), and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section (A).
• ρ is constant of proportionality and is called as specific resistance or resistivity of conductor.
• Reciprocal of the resistivity is called conductivity of the material.
SI unit of conductivity is Siemens/metre.
• Those materials whose resistivity is negligibly small are called conductors
e.g. silver, copper, aluminium etc.
• Those materials whose resistivity is very high are called insulators.
e.g. glass, rubber etc.
• Those materials whose resistivity lies between that of conductors and insulators are called
semi conductors.
e.g. Silicon, germanium etc,
• The temperature coefficient of resistance is defined as the increase in resistance per unit
original resistance at 0° C, per degree rise in temperature.
• Thermistor is temperature sensitive semi-conductor device. Its resistance changes very rapidly
with change in temperature.
• Thermistor is a semiconductor device and represented as (symbol of Thermistor)
• Thermistors are used in digital thermometer that have very high accuracy. It is also used in
remote temperature sensing, voltage stabilization and protection at motor windings.
• For some metals and alloys, resistivity suddenly becomes zero at a particular low temperature
is called as critical temperature.
• The phenomenon of losing resistivity completely at a particular temperature called super-
conductivity.
• The energy spent by source of emf in circulating unit charge through external resistance is
called potential difference (p.d) of the cell.
• The rate at which work is done by the electric source is called electric power, or the rate at
which energy is drawn from the electric source is called electric power.
• The electric energy dissipated or consumed is given by joule = watt-second.
• The commercial unit of electrical energy is ‘kWh’
• 1kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule.

(273)
274 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 11

11.1 Ohm’s Law

Q.1. Define electric current and also define ampere.
(2 marks)
Ans. Electric current is defined as the rate of flow
of electric charge through any section of a
conductor.
The S.I. unit of current is the ampere (A). Fig. 11.1 : Graph of V vs I
1
The dimensions of current are [M°L°T°I ]. If V is the potential difference applied between
A current flowing through a conductor is said the ends of a conductor and I is the current
to be one ampere if a charge of one coulomb flowing through the conductor, then according
flows through a cross section of the conductor to Ohm’s law
in one second. I ∝ V or V ∝ I
1 ampere =
i.e. = Constant
Note: Extra information for understanding not to be
included in the answer. This constant is called the resistance of conductor
(1) If charge q flows in a time t through any and it is denoted by R.
section of a wire, then
Thus = R
I =
(2) If charge dq flows through a wire in small time The S.I. unit of resistance is ohm (Ω), in CGS
dt, then unit is Ohm.
I = The dimensions of resistance are [M1L2T–3I–2].

(3) If n carriers of electricity, each having charge Intext question textbook page no. 147
e across any section of the conductor in time t,
*Q.4. In a picture tube of T.V., electrons move from
then
rear to the front. What is the direction of the
I = (q = ne) current? (1 mark)
Intext question textbook page no. 147 Ans. In a picture tube of T.V. under the action of
*Q.2. When a current is passed through a conductor, Electric and magnetic field, electrons move
will it be charged? (1 mark) from rear to the front. But conventional current,
i.e., opposite flow of –ve electron will be in
Ans. No, it will not be charged. Current is flowing
opposite direction, i.e., from the front to rear.
from one point to other due to net flow of
charge of the same conductor. There is no
11.2 Resistance
excess charge carriers to produce charge.
Q.5. What do you mean by resistance of a wire?
*Q.3 State and explain Ohm’s law (2 marks)
OR
Ans. As long as the physical state, i.e., length, area
Explain the cause of resistance. (2 marks)
of cross-section, material, temperature of a
conductor remains constant, the ratio of the Ans.
potential difference applied at the ends of a (i) The resistance of a conductor implies the
conductor to the current flowing through it opposition which the conductor offers to the
remains constant. flow of charge through it.
Current Electricity 275

(ii) When a potential difference is applied across a (iv) According to Ohm's law, current increases
conductor, an electric field is set up across its with potential difference. But, when current
two ends. increases, temperature of conductor increases,
(iii) Due to this, the free electrons get accelerated. As which in turn increases resistance of conductor
the electrons move, they collide against the ions and hence decrease the current slightly.
and atoms and their motion is thus opposed (v) Ohm's law does not consider this temperature
dependence.
(iv) This opposition offered by the ions and atoms
is termed as the resistance of the conductor. 11.3 Specific resistance (Resistivity)
Intext question textbook page no. 147
*Q.8. Define specific resistance, and give its SI
*Q.6. When the external electric potential difference unit. (3 marks)
is applied across the conductor, electrons
Ans. It is found that at constant temperature, the
flow in the direction opposite to the current.
resistance (R) of a metallic conductor is
Whether the number of free electrons in the
conductor decrease? (1 mark) (i) directly proportional to its length (l),
(ii) inversely proportional to the area of cross
Ans. When the external potential difference is
section (A), and
applied, electron travels from low potential
to high potential. There is no change in (iii) depends upon the material of the conductor.
the number of electrons in the closed path. i.e. R ∝
Therefore, the number of free electrons in the
conductor remain same. \ R =

*Q.7. State and explain the limitations of Ohm's

\ ρ =
law. (3 marks)
Ans. where, ρ is called the resistivity or specific
(i) The limitation of Ohm's law is that it does resistance of the material of the conductor.
not consider the effect of temperature in the
If, l = 1 m and A = 1 m2
relation between potential difference (V) and
current (I). then R = ρ (numerically)
The resistivity or specific resistance of a
material is numerically equal to the resistance
of conductor of unit length having unit area of
cross-section at a given temperature.
The S.I. unit of resistivity is ohm-metre (Ω m).
The dimensions of resistivity are [M1L3T–3I–2].
Reciprocal of the resistivity is called conductivity
Fig. 11.2 : V v/s I
of the material.
(ii) Though Ohm's law is obeyed by various 1
σ =
materials, there exist some materials and ρ
devices for which the linearity of relation The S.I. unit of conductivity is mho/metre
between V and I is not obeyed. ( m–1) or siemens/metre (Sm–1).
(iii) The diagram shows V-I curve for a good Note: Extra information for understanding not to be
conductor. The dotted curve represents ideal included in the answer.
Ohm's law and solid line represents actual Resistivity of some conductors, semiconductors
observations. and insulators :
276 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Conductors: that of conductors and insulators are called

Material Resistivity semiconductors.
at 0°C (Ω m) e.g., silicon, germanium, etc.

Silver 1.6 × 10–8 11.4 Temperature dependence of resistance

Copper 1.7 × 10 –8
*Q.10. Define and explain temperature coefficient
Aluminium 2.7 × 10–8 of resistance.
Tungsten 5.6 × 10–8 OR
Iron 10 × 10–8 *Explain the effect of temperature on
Nichrome 100 × 10–8 resistance. (3 marks)
Manganin 4.8 × 10–8 Ans. Consider a metallic conductor having resistance
R0 at 0°C and resistance Rt at temperature T.
Semiconductors: The increase in resistance (Rt – R0) is found to be
Material Resistivity (i) directly proportional to the initial resistance R0
at 0°C (Ω m) at 0°C,
Carbon 3.5 × 10–8 (ii) directly proportional to the rise in temperature (t).
i.e. (Rt – R0) ∝ R0 and (Rt – R0) ∝ t
Germanium 0.46
i.e. (Rt – R0) ∝ R0 t or (Rt – R0) = α (R0 t)
Silicon 2.3 × 103
where, α is constant of proportionally and is
Insulators: called temperature coefficient of resistance of
Material Resistivity the material.
at 0°C (Ω m) \
Wood 108 – 1011
The temperature coefficient of resistance is
Glass 1010 – 1014
defined as the increase in resistance per unit
Amber 105 – 1014
original resistance at 0°C per degree rise in
Mica 1011 – 1015 temperature.
Rubber 1013 – 1016
Its S.I. unit is °C–1 or K–1
Q.9. Explain the classification of materials Also, resistance at particular temperature (t) is
depending upon resistivity. (3 marks) given by,
Rt = R0 (1 + a.t)
Ans. Depending upon resistivity, the materials
are classified as conductors, insulators and Note:
(1) The resistivity of metal conductors increases
semiconductors.
with temperature. Such materials have positive
(i) Conductors:
temperature coefficient (PTC) and the graph of
Those materials whose resistivity is negligibly resistivity versus temperature is almost linear
small are called conductors. at high temperatures but non-linear at low
e.g., silver, copper, aluminium, etc. temperatures as shown in figure. e.g., silver,
(ii) Insulators: copper, aluminium, etc.
Those materials whose resistivity is very high
are called insulators.
e.g., glass, rubber, etc.
(iii) Semiconductors :
Those materials whose resistivity lies between

Fig. 11.3 : Resistivity for Metals

Current Electricity 277

(2) Semiconductors have negative temperature (iii) That is, thermistors have large temperature
coefficient of resistance (NTC). Their resistance coefficient of resistance and therefore they are
decreases with temperature as shown in figure. used as temperature sensors.
(iv) Thermistors may have positive temperature
coefficient (PTC) or negative temperature
coefficient (NTC).
(v) The resistance of PTC thermistors increase
non-linearly with temperature and resistance
of NTC thermistors decreases non-linearly
Fig. 11.4 : Resistivity for semiconductors
with temperature as shown in figure.
(3) Alloys like nichrome and manganin have large
(vi) Thermistors are made from oxides of iron,
resistivity but very small temperature coefficient
nickel, cobalt and copper or semiconductors
of resistance (0.0001/°C). Hence their graph of
like silicon, germanium.
resistivity versus temperature is straight line
having very small slope as shown in figure. (vii) These oxides are mixed in a suitable proportion
Because of very small temperature coefficient of and ground into a fine powder which is then
resistance, the resistance of such alloy does not compressed into desired shape.
change for small change in temperature. (viii) They are available in different shapes such as
For this reason, alloys like manganin are used beads, discs and rods.
in the production of high precision resistors. (ix) The symbol for thermistor is as shown in the
figure.

(x) Thermistors' resistance ranges from 0.1 Ω to

10 kΩ and thermistors of temperature range of
–100 °C to 300 °C are available in the market.
Fig. 11.5 : Resistivity for manganin
Q.12. State the uses of thermistors. (2 marks)
Thermistor Ans.

Q.11. Write a short note on thermistor. (2 marks) (i) Thermistor provides electrical quantity related
Ans. to temperature. When connected in a circuit,
the voltage across thermistor can be read and
processed by a computer. Hence, thermistors are
used in automatic temperature control systems.
(ii) Thermistors are used in digital thermometers
that have very high accuracy.
(iii) Negative temperature coefficient type of
thermistors are used as safeguard against
current surges in electrical circuits where this
Fig. 11.6 : Variation in resistance of thermistor could be harmful.
with temperature
(iv) Thermistors are also used in remote
(i) Thermistor is a temperature sensitive device.
temperature sensing, voltage stabilization and
(ii) Its resistance changes very rapidly with change
protection of motor windings.
in temperature.
278 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Superconductivity Resistances in series and in parallel

Q.13. Explain phenomenon of superconductivity. Q.15. Explain resistances in series connections.
(2 marks) (2 marks)
Ans.
Ans. Resistances are said to be connected in series if
(i) Resistivity of metals and alloys decreases as
they are connected in such a way that the same
temperature decreases.
current flows through each resistance.
(ii) For some metals and alloys, resistivity suddenly
A series connection of resistances is shown in
becomes zero at a particular low temperature.
This temperature is called critical temperature the following circuit :
(Tc).

Fig. 11.8 : Resistances in series connection

(i) In the above circuit, the same current I
Fig. 11.7 : Superconductivity flows through, the resistors R1, R2 and R3.
(iii) The phenomenon of losing resistivity (ii) The effective resistance of a series
completely at a particular temperature is called combination is equal to the sum of all the
superconductivity. individual resistance connected.
(iv) Such materials lose their resistivity completely (iii) For the circuit shown above, the effective
and become perfect conductors. resistance is, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3.
e.g. resistivity of mercury becomes zero at 4.2 K. (iv) The potential difference across each
Q.14. State the applications of superconductivity. resistance is different and the total
(2 marks) potential difference is equal to the sum of
Ans. the potentials across individual resistances.
(i) Superconducting cables can be used for power i.e., in above circuit, VAB = V1 + V2 + V3.
distribution without loss. (v) The value of effective resistance is greater
(ii) The speed of computer can further be increased than the values of individual resistances
with superconducting wires. connected.
(iii) Superconductors are used to produce very i.e., Rs > R1, Rs > R2, Rs > R3 (with reference
strong magnetic fields. Once a large current is to above circuit)
set in a superconducting coil, it can continue
to flow for several years without the need of Q.16. Explain resistances in parallel connections.
power supply. (2 marks)
Note: Extra information for understanding not to be Ans. Resistances are said to be connected in parallel, if
included in the answer. they are connected in such a way that the potential
(1) The only problem with the use of difference across each resistance is same.
superconductors is that, superconductivity A parallel connection of resistance is shown in
exists at very low temperatures. the following circuit.
(2) The scientists all over the world are trying
hard to obtain superconducting at normal
temperature.
Current Electricity 279

Resistance in series Resistance in parallel

4 The equivalent resistance 4 The reciprocal of the
of the combination is equal equivalent resistance
to the sum of individual is equal to the sum of
resistances. the reciprocals of the
i.e., R = R + R + … + R individual resistances. i.e.
s 1 2 n

5 This arrangement is used 5 This arrangement is used

to increase the overall to decrease the overall
resistance of the circuit and resistance in the circuit
Fig. 11.9 : Resistances in parallel connection to decrease the value of the and to increase the value of
current through it. current through it.
(i) In the above circuit, the potential difference
across the resistors R1, R2 and R3 is same. 11.5 Colour code for resistors
(ii) The reciprocal of effective resistance of Q.18. Write a short note on colour code for resistors.
resistances connected in parallel is equal to the OR
*Explain the colour code system for resistors.
sum of reciprocals of individual resistance.
(2 marks)
(iii) For the circuit shown above, the effective
Ans.
resistance is given by,
(i) Resistors having different values of resistances
are widely used in electrical circuits.
(ii) Different methods are used to indicate the
(iv) The currents flowing across individual value of resistance of the resistors.
resistances is different and the total current (iii) The colour band system is used to indicate the
flowing through the circuit is equal to the sum value of resistance on carbon resistors which
of currents flowing through each resistance, are most widely used.
i.e., in above circuit, I = I1 + I2 + I3. (iv) Every carbon resistor has a set of coloured
(v) The value of effective resistance is lesser than rings marked on it.
the values of individual resistances, (v) The first ring close to the edge gives the first
i.e., Rp < R1, Rp < R2 and Rp < R2 (with reference digit, the next ring gives the second digit. The
third ring denotes the decimal multiplier and
to above circuit).
the fourth ring gives the tolerance of the resistor.
Q.17 Distinguish between resistance in series and Standard colour code for resistors:
resistance in parallel. (3 marks) Colour Number Multiplier Tolerance
0
Ans. Black 0 10 -
1
Brown 1 10 -
Resistance in series Resistance in parallel
Red 2 102 -
1 In the series arrangement 1 In the parallel arrangement,
3
of resistances, two or more two or more resistances are Orange 3 10 -
resistances are connected connected between two Yellow 4 10 4
-
one after another end to common points. 5
end. Green 5 10 -

2 The same current flows 2 The potential difference Blue 6 106 -

7
through each resistance. across each resistance is Violet 7 10 -
the same. 8
Grey 8 10 -
3 Equivalent resistance is 3 Equivalent resistance 9
White 9 10 -
greater than individual is less than individual
resistances. resistance. Gold - 10–1 ± 5%
i.e., Rs > R1, Rs > R2, … Rs i.e., Rp < R1, Rp < R2, Silver - 10–2 ± 10%
> Rn … Rp < Rn No colour - - ± 20%
280 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Note: (ii) Electromotive force (e.m.f.):

(1) The colour coding is standardised by Electronic The e.m.f. of cell is defined as the energy
Industries Association (EIA). supplied by the cell to drive a unit charge once
(2) The following serves as an aid to memorise the round the complete circuit.
colour code scheme : It is denoted by E.
B.B. Roy of Great Britain has Very Good Wife
The S.I. unit of e.m.f. is volt (V).
*Q.19. Evaluate the resistance for the following The dimensions of e.m.f. are [M1L2T–3I–1].
colour coded resistors. (3 marks) The e.m.f. of cell is called one volt, if one joule
(i) Yellow - Green - Red - Silver of work is performed by the cell to drive one
(ii) Green - Red - Orange - Golden coulomb of charge once round the circuit.
(iii) Orange - White - Red - Golden (iii) Terminal potential difference:
Ans.
The potential difference between the two poles
(i) If the colour code for a resistor is
of a cell in a closed circuit, i.e., when current
Yellow Green Red Silver Resistance
is drawn from the cell, is called Terminal
4 5 × 10 ± 10% ⇒ 45 × 102Ω ± 10%
2

potential difference.
Here, 10% tolerance means that there could be
a 10% error in the value of its resistance. It is denoted by V.
The value of the resistance is thus. 4500 Ω ± 450 Ω Its unit and dimensions are same as that of
e.m.f.
(ii) If the colour code for a resistor is
Green Red Orange Golden Resistance 11.6 Emf and internal resistance of cell
5 2 × 103 ± 5% ⇒ 52 × 103 Ω ± 5%
Here, 5% tolerance means there could be a 5% Q.21. Explain the relation between the e.m.f. of a
error in the value of its resistance. cell and the potential difference between its
The value of its resistance is thus 52 kΩ ± 5%, terminals.
i.e. 52 kΩ ± 2.6 kΩ. OR
This shows that the actual value of resistance *Explain application of Ohm's law to the
varies between 54.6 kΩ and 49.4 kΩ. complete circuit. (3 marks)
(iii) If the colour code for a resistor is Ans.
Orange White Red Golden Resistance (i) Consider a circuit formed by connecting a
3 9 × 102 ± 5% ⇒ 39 × 102 Ω ± 5% resistance R between the terminals of a cell of
The value of resistance is thus 3900 ± 195Ω e.m.f. E and internal resistance r.
Q.20. Define (i) Internal resistance *(ii) Electromotive
force *(iii) Terminal potential differences.
(3 marks)
Ans.
(i) Internal resistance:
The resistance offered by the electrolyte and
electrodes of the cell, when the electric current
flows through it is known as internal resistance
Fig. 11.10 : Relation between e.m.f. of a cell
of the cell.
(ii) Let I be the current flowing through the
It is denoted by r.
circuit, V be the P.D. across the external
For a freshly prepared cell, the value of internal
resistance R and v be the P.D. across the
resistance is very low but as the cell is put to
internal resistance r.
more and more use, its internal resistance goes
on increasing. (iii) Let a charge q be circulated once round the circuit.
The internal resistance of an ideal cell is zero. The total energy supplied by the cell is (q E).
Current Electricity 281

(iv) The energy spent in sending the charge through *Q.22. How can the voltage rating of a battery be
the internal resistance r is (q v) and the energy increased? (1 mark)
spent in sending the charge through the external Ans. The voltage rating of a battery of cells can be
resistance R is (q V). increased to n times the emf of a single cell by
(v) According to the law of conservation of energy, connecting n cells in series.
q E = q V + q v … (i) *Q.23. How can the current rating of a battery be
\ q E = q (V + v) increased? (1 mark)
\ E = V + v … (ii) Ans. The current rating of a battery of cells can be
(vi) But v = Ir increased to n times the current supplied by a
and V = I R … (iii) single cell by connecting n cells in parallel.

Substituting these values in equation (ii), 11.7 Work done by electric current
E = IR+Ir Q.24. Explain heating effect of electric current.
\ E = I (R + r) (3 marks)
Ans.
\ I = … (iv)
(i) Joule's law of electric heating states that when
(vii) This is the general form of Ohm's law applied to a current passes through a wire, the heat
the complete circuit, i.e. developed is proportional to
Current in the circuit = (a) the square of the current,
(b) the resistance of the wire,
(c) the time for which the current is passed.
(ii) Let I be the current through a conductor of
(viii) From equation (ii),
resistance R when a potential difference V is
V = E – v … (v) applied between the terminals of the conductor.
But v = Ir (iii) The quantity of charge passing through the
Substituting it in equation (v), conductor in time t is given by,

V = E–Ir Charge = Current × Time

i.e. q = I t
It can be seen that the terminal potential difference
of a cell is less than the e.m.f. of the cell, i.e., V ≤ E (iv) The electrical work done (W) by the cell is
in most of the case but during charging, V > E. given by,
Work done = P.D. × charge
Special Cases:
\ W = Vq
(1) When the cell is an open circuit, i.e., I = 0, \ W = V I t … (i)
V = E (v) We know,
Thus the e.m.f. of a cell is equal to the terminal V = I R
potential difference of the cell, when the cell is an \ W = (I R) (I t) … [From equation (i)]
open circuit. \ W = I2 R t … (ii)

(2) When the internal resistance is zero, i.e., r = 0, (vi) Also, I =

V = E
\ W = … [From equation (i)]
Thus the e.m.f. of a cell is equal to the terminal
potential difference of the cell, when the internal
resistance is zero. \ W = … (iii)
282 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(vii) This work done by the cell is converted into heat Solved Problems
in the resistor.
\ H = V I t = I2 R t = … (iv) Resistance, potential difference, resistivity

Note: (1) A potential difference of 200 V is maintained

The quantity of heat generated in the resistor across a conductor of resistance 100Ω. Calculate
can be expressed in different forms. The the number of electrons flowing through it in
expression for heat generated in calories : one second. (Charge on electron, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
(2 marks)
\ H = … (v) Solution: V = 200 volt, R = 100 ohm, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C

Where, J = 4.18 joule / cal I =

11.8 Power in electric circuit The charge flowing in 1 s,
*Q.25. Define and explain electric power. (2 marks) q = I t = 2 × 1 = 2 C
Ans. Electric Power is the electrical work done per Hence, the number of electrons flowing
unit time. through the conductor in 1 s,

Electric Power (P) = n = = 1.25 × 1019

\ P = … (i) \ n = 1.25 × 1019

or P = … (ii) *(2) Find potential difference between terminals

of the battery if 240 joule of work is required
or P = … (iii) to transfer 20 coulombs of charge from one
terminal to the other terminal. (2 marks)
S.I. unit of power is joule/second or watt (W).
Solution: W = 240 J, q = 20 C, V = ?
If a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current
of 1 ampere to flow through a conductor, the V =
power consumed by conductor is 1 watt.
or = = 12 V
If an electrical device consumes electric energy
at the rate of 1 joule per second, the power of \ V = 12 V
the device is said to be 1 watt.
*(3) A wire has resistance of 8 Ω, if its length is
Note:
halved by folding, find its resistance after the
(1) Electric energy is the work done by an electric
free ends are connected to each other. (2 marks)
current in a given time. The electric energy
Solution: After folding the wire into two equal parts,
consumed by an electrical device can be
each part will have resistance 4 Ω (as R ∝ l).
expressed in terms of its power.
Joining the free ends together forms a parallel
Electric Energy = Electric Power × Time
combination of the two equal resistances whose
W = P × t

effective resistance R is given by,
(2) S.I. unit of electric energy is joule and the
practical unit of electric energy is kilowatt- =
hour (kWh) or board of trade unit (B.O.T.).
\ R = 2 Ω
1 kWh = 1kW × 1h
\ 1 kWh = 1000 watt × 3600 s (4) A cell is connected across a resistance to form
\ 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J an electrical circuit. On adding 5 Ω to the
Current Electricity 283

resistance, the current in the circuit is reduced (6) The resistivity of pure germanium is 6 ×
to 5/6 of its original value. Find the original 10–6 Ωm. What is the resistance across the
resistance in the circuit. (2 marks) length of a block of pure germanium of
Solution: Initial current = I1, Final current = I2, dimensions 50 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm? (2 marks)
Original Resistance = R Ω, Solution: l = 50 cm = 0.5 m, b = 2 cm = 2 × 10–2 m,
Final Resistance = (R + 5) Ω h = 1 cm = 10–2 m, ρ = 6 × 10–6 Ω m
I2 = A = b × h
\ A = (2 × 10–2) × (10–2) = 2 × 10–4 m
I1 =
R =
I2 =

\ R = = 0.015 Ω
\ =

\ R = 0.015 Ω
\ =
*(7) A constantan wire of length 50 cm and
\ = 0.4 m diameter is used in making a resistor.
\ 6R = 5R + 25 If the resistivity of constantan is 5 × 10–7 Ω-m,
\ 6R – 5R = 25 calculate the value of the resistor. (2 marks)
\ R = 25 Ω Solution: l = 50 × 10–2 m, d = 0.4 × 10–3 m = 4 × 10–4 m,
\ R = 25 Ω r = 2 × 10–4 m, ρ = 5 × 10–7 Ω–m, R = ?

(5) A wire of circular cross-section and 30 Ω R =

resistance is uniformly stretched until its new
length is three times its original length. Find =
its new resistance. (2 marks)

Solution: R1 = , R2 = =

\ = … (i) = = 1.99 Ω

Since the volume of wire remains the same in \ R = 1.99 Ω

the two cases,
l1 A1 = l2 A2 *(8) A silver wire has resistance 2.1 Ω at 27.5o C.
If the temperature coefficient of silver is 3.94
\ =
× 10–3 oC–1, find the wire resistance at 100o C.
Substituting this in equation (i), (2 marks)
Solution: R1 = 2.1 Ω, t1 = 27.5 C, t2 = 100 C,
o o

= α = 3.94 × 10–3 oC–1

\ R2 = 9 R1 The wire resistance at 100o C is

\ R2 = 270 Ω OR R2 = R1 [1 + α (t2 – t1)

R2 = R1n2 = 2.1 [1 + 3.94 × 10–3 (100 – 27.5)]
R2 = R1(9) = 30 × 9 = 270 Ω = 2.1 [1 + 3.94 × 10–3 (72.5)]
\ R2 = 270 Ω = 2.1 [1 +285.65 × 10–3]
284 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ R2 = [2.1 + 2.1 × 285.65 × 10–3] If 3 such branches are connected in parallel,

= [2.1 + 599.865 × 10–3] then the potential across the parallel connection
would be 3 V and total current would be the
= 2.1 + 0.599865 = 2.699 Ω
sum of current flowing in each branch.
\ R2 = 2.699 Ω
\ I = I1 + I2 + I3

*(9) A conductor has resistance of 15 Ω at 10o C and = 500 + 500 + 500

18 Ω at 400o C. Find the temperature coefficient = 1500 mA
of resistance of the material. (2 marks) The series parallel combination is as shown,
Solution: R1 = 15 Ω, t1 = 10o C, R2 = 18 Ω, t2 = 400o C

α =

\ Number of cells required would be 6.

α =

α = 0.000513 = 5.13 × 10–4/oC (12) A battery of e.m.f. E and internal resistance

r gives a current of 0.5 A with an external
\ α = 5.13 × 10–4/oC
resistor of 12 ohm and a current of 0.25 A
(10) The resistance of a copper wire at 0oC is 198 with an external resistor of 25 ohm. Calculate
Ω. find the increase in resistance when it is (i) internal resistance of the cell (ii) e.m.f. of
heated to 20o C. Temperature coefficient of the cell. (3 marks)
resistance for copper is 0.038o C–1. (2 marks) Solution: When an external resistance R is connected
Solution: R0 = 198 Ω, T = 20o C, α = 0.038o C–1 to a battery of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r,
the current in the circuit is given by,
RT = R0 + R0 α T
\ RT – R0 = R0 ∝ T I =

\ RT – R0 = 198 × 0.038 × 20 Case I:

\ RT – R0 = 150.48 Ω R = 12 Ω
I = 0.5 A
\ ∆R = 150.48 Ω
\ 0.5 = … (i)
Series, parallel combination, EMF
Case II:
*(11) How many cells of 1.5V/500 mA rating would R = 25 Ω
be required in series parallel combination to I = 0.25 A
provide 1500 mA at 3 V? (2 marks)
\ 0.25 = … (ii)
Solution: E = 1.5 V, I = 500 mA, V = 3 V
Total current I = 1500 mA Dividing equation (i) by (ii),
Number of cells = ?
=
Connecting 2 cells in series will give a total
potential difference of 3 V and the current
\ 2 =
flowing through them would be 500 mA.
\ 24 + 2r = 25 + r
\ r = 1 Ω
Current Electricity 285

From equation (I), Now, the terminal voltage of the battery,

E = 0.5 (12 + r) V = I R
\ V = 0.5 × 17 = 8.5 V
\ E = 0.5 (12 + 1) = 0.5 (13) = 6.5 V
\ R = 17 Ω, V = 8.5 V
\ r = 1 Ω , E = 6.5 V

*(13) A voltmeter is connected across a battery (15) What will be the resistance bet ween P and Q
of e.m.f. 12.0 V and internal resistance of in the following circuit?
10 Ω. If the voltmeter resistance is 230 Ω, what
reading will be shown by voltmeter?
(3 marks)
Solution: E = 12.0 V, r = 10 Ω , \ R = 230 Ω
V = ?
V = E – Vr (2 marks)
V = E – I.r Solution: The 3 Ω resistors are in parallel with each
other, hence their equivalent resistance is,
Also I =
=
I = =
\ =
I = =
=
V = E – I.r
\ Rp = 1Ω
= Now, the 2Ω resistors are in series with Rp,
= 12 – 0.5 = 11.5 V therefore the resistors between A and B is
RAB = 2 + Rp + 2 … series connection
\ V = 11.5 V
\ RAB = 2 + 1 + 2 = 5Ω
(14) A battery of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance \ RAB = 5Ω
3 Ω is connected to a resistor. If the current
through the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the (16) Five resistances are connected as shown in
resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal figure. Find the equivalent resistance between
voltage of the battery, when the circuit is A and B.
closed? (3 marks)

Solution: E = 10 V, r = 3 Ω, I = 0.5 A
Let R be the resistance of the resistor.

\ I =
(2 marks)
\ R =
Solution: a = 50 Ω, b = 50 Ω, c = 100 Ω, d = 50 Ω,
e = 100 Ω
\ R = – 3 = 17 Ω
Consider the combination of a and b connected
\ R = 17 Ω in series.
Let R1 be the equivalent resistance of the
286 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

combination. (17) What is the equivalent resistance across the

\ R1 = a + b = 50 + 50 = 100 Ω points A and B in the circuit given below?
Consider the combination of R1 and c connected
in parallel.
Let R2 be the equivalent resistance of the
combination.

\
(2 marks)
Solution: 10 Ω and 2.5 Ω resistors are in parallel,
\ =

\ R2 = 50 Ω

Consider the combination of R2 and d connected

in series.

Let R3 be the equivalent resistance of the \ R1 =

combination.
=

R1 = 2 Ω
Now, R1 and 10 Ω resistors are in series,

\ R3 = R2 + d = 50 + 50 = 100 Ω
Consider the combination of R3 and e connected \ R2 = 10 + 2
in parallel. R2 = 12 Ω
Now, R2 and 12 Ω resistors are in parallel,
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the
combination.

\ \ R3 =

=
\
\ R3 = 6 Ω
\ Requi = 50 Ω
Now, R3 and 10 Ω are in series,
Thus, the equivalent resistance (R) between A
and B is 50 Ω.
Current Electricity 287

\ R4 = R3 + 10 Now, resistors in branch AC and CB are in

= 6 + 10 series,
\ R4 = 16 Ω
Now, R4 and 16 Ω resistors are in parallel,
Hence resistance across ACB is,
RACB = R + R = 2R

Now, Resistance in branch ACB and AD are in

parallel,
\ R5 =

\ R5 = 8 Ω
R5 is the equivalent resistance between points
A and B
Hence, equivalent resistance across AB is,

RAB =
\ RAB = 8 Ω
\ RAB =
(18) What is the effective resistance between
points A and B? (2 marks) Heating effect, Electrical power
(19) Find the cost of using five bulbs of 60 W each
and three fans of 100 W each for 6 hours at the
rate of ` 2 per unit. (3 marks)
Solution:
No. of bulbs = 5
Power rating of each bulb = 60 W
Solution:
No. of fans = 3
Points B and D are equipotential. Hence Power rating of each fan = 100 W
resistors in branches CD and CB are parallel. Time = 6 h
\ Equivalent resistance across branch CB is Cost = ` 2/kWh
Energy consumed = Power × time
RCB =
Energy consumed by the 5 bulbs,
= E1 = 5 × 0.06 kW × 6 h

\ RCB = R \ E1 = 1.8 kWh

Energy consumed by 3 fans,
E2 = 3 × 0.1 kW × 6 h
\ E2 = 1.8 kWh
Total energy consumed,
E = E1 + E2
\ E = (1.8 + 1.8) kWh
288 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ E = 3.6 kWh Solution:

Total cost of this energy, P = V I

Cost = ` 2/kWh × 3.6 kWh = ` 7.20 \ I =

\ Cost = ` 7.20
\ I =
(20) An electric installation consists of 100 lamps
each drawing 0.2 A at 220 V. Find the cost of \ I = 0.26 A
running the installation for a month of 30 days Let R be the resistance of the lamp,
at 5 hours if energy is charged at the rate of
` 2 per unit. (3 marks) \ R =

Solution:
\ R =
I = 0.2 A, V = 220 V,
Number of lamps = 100, Daily usage = 5 hours/ \ R = 884.6 Ω
day, Total period = 30 days, Rate = ` 2/kWh Heat produced in 10 minutes is given by,
Power of each lamp,
H =
P = V I
\ P = 200 × 0.2 \ H =
\ P = 44 W
Total power of 100 lamps, \ H =
PT = 100 × P \ H = 8571 cal
\ PT = 100 × 44 W
\ I = 0.26A, R = 884.6 Ω, 4 = 2.64 cal
\ PT = 4400 W
*(22) An electric heater takes 6 A current from
\ PT = 4.4 kW 220 V supply line. Calculate the power of heater
Electric energy consumed per day, and electric energy consumed by it in 2 hours.
E = 4.4 kW × 5 hours/day (3 marks)
Solution:
\ E = 22 kWh/day
I = 6 A, V = 220 V, t = 2 hrs,
Electrical energy consumed in 30 days,
P = ?, W = ?,
ET = 22 kWh/day × 30 days
P = V × I
\ ET = 660 kWh = 220 × 6
Hence, total cost is given as, = 1320 W
Cost = ` 2/kWh × 660 kWh
\ P = 1.32 kW
\ Cost = ` 1320
W = V.I × t
(21) Find the current passing through a lamp = 1320 × 2 hrs
marked 230 V, 60 W when burning at full = 2640 Wh
power. Find the resistance of this lamp and
\ W = 2.64 kWh
the amount of heat produced in 10 minutes.
(J = 4.2 joule/cal) (3 marks) \ P = 1.32 kW, W = 2.64 kWh

\ I = 0.26A, R = 884.6 Ω, 4 = 8571 cal

Current Electricity 289

Problems for Practice (10) How much work is done in moving a charge
of 3 coulomb from a point 120 V to a point at
(1) In an electric circuit, P.D. across a lamp is 240
200 V? (2 marks)
volts and current through the lamp is 0.25 A.
Find (i) resistance of the lamp (ii) charge flowing (11) A silver wire has resistance of 2.1 Ω at
across a section of the filament in 10 seconds. 27.5 °C. If temperature coefficient of silver is
(2 marks) 3.94 × 10–3/°C, find the silver wire resistance at
100°C. (2 marks)
(2) A piece of Eureka wire of length 2.4 m has
resistance of 10 Ω. What is the resistance of (12) When two resistances are connected in series,
the wire of the same material and of the same the equivalent resistance of the combination is
sectional area but of length 1.2 m? (2 marks) 18 Ω. When they are connected in parallel, the
equivalent resistance of the combination is 4 Ω.
(3) A copper wire of resistance R is stretched till
Find the two resistances. (3 marks)
its length is increased to n times its original
length. What will be its new resistance? (13) What is the effective resistance between points
(2 marks) A and B? (3 marks)

(4) The resistivity of a metal is 0.55 × 10–6 Ωm.

A solid cube of this metal of side 0.01 m is
stretched into a uniform wire of length 2 m.
Calculate the resistance of the wire. (3 marks)
(5) A wire has resistance of 8 Ω. If its length is
made half by folding, find its resistance after (14) Three wires of the same materials and having
the free ends are connected to each other. the same cross section are connected in parallel.
(2 marks) The lengths of the wires are in the ratio 2 : 3 : 5.
(6) The resistivity of pure germanium is 6 × 10–6 How will a current of 31 A be divided through
Ωm. What is the resistance across the length them? (3 marks)
of a block of pure germanium of dimensions (15) Two cells of 2 V/500 mA rating are connected
50 cm × 2 cm × 1 cm? (3 marks) in parallel. Find battery output voltage and
(7) The colour bands marked on a carbon resistor current capacity. (2 marks)
are brown, black, orange and gold in order. What (16) A refrigerator has power rating of 250 watt,
is the value of the resistance and its tolerance? which operates for 8 hours a day. Calculate
(2 marks) the cost of electrical energy to operate it for a
(8) A battery has e.m.f. E and internal resistance month of 30 days. The cost of electrical energy
of 6 Ω. When an external resistance of 14 Ω is is Rs. 3 per kWh. (Assume that there is no load
connected, the current through the circuit is 0.5 shedding or power cut). (3 marks)
A. Find the current through the circuit if the Answers
external resistance is increased to 24 Ω.
(3 marks) (1) 960 Ω, 2.5C (2) 5 Ω (3) n2R (4) 2.2 Ω (5) 2 Ω
(9) Three equal resistors connected in series across (6) R = 0.015 Ω, (7) 10K Ω ± 5% (8) (9) 90 W (10)
a source of e.m.f. dissipate 10 W of power.
What would be the power dissipated if the 240 joule (11) 2.699 Ω (12) 6 Ω and 12 Ω (13)
same resistors are connected in parallel across
(14) 15 A, 10 A and 6 A (15) 1 A (16) ` 180
the same source of e.m.f.? (3 marks)
290 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Important Formulae Formula Map

(1) If a charge q flows through the cross-section of
(1) i= = 1 mA = 10–3A
a conductor in time t, then
1 mA = 10–6A
I =
e = 1.6 × 10–19C 1 nA = 10–9A
(2) From Ohm's law,
1 pA = 10–12A
V = IR
(3) The resistance of a conductor of length l and (2) v = i R \
area of cross-section A is given by,
G= unit Ω–1 OR siemens
R =
where, ρ is the resistivity of the material of the (3) S= unit Ω–m
conductor.
σ=
(4) Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity,
i.e. σ = (4)

(5) The temperature coefficient of resistance is given as,

(5)
α =
(6) B. B. Roy of Great Britain has very good wife
Where, R0 is resistance at 0°C and Rt is resistance
has gold silver necklace.
at temperature t.
(7) Rs = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
(6) For n resistances connected in series,
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + … + Rn Rs = nR, (R1 = R2 = … = Rn = R)

(7) For n resistances connected in parallel, (8) V1 = i (R1), V2 = i (R2) V3 = i (R3)

=

(8) For a battery of e.m.f. E and internal resistance
r, terminal potential difference is given by, (9)
V = E–Ir
where, I is the current flowing through the circuit.
But, V = IR
\ I = (10)

(9) If a current I flows through a conductor of

resistance R, when a potential difference of V
is applied between its terminals, then the heat
produced in the conductor (H) in time t is given (11) \ W = E × Q
by,
H = V I t = I2 R t = (12) , E = V + i (r)
(10) Electrical power (P) is given as,
(13) (cells in series)
P = V I = I2 R =
(14) (cells in parallel)
Current Electricity 291

(b) opposite type of charge in same direction

(15) J : Mechanical equivalent of heat of field
(c) same type of charge in same direction of field
= 4.18 joule/cal (d) conventional current through the material
(7) The direction of conventional current flowing
through a metal due to applied potential
(16) difference or electric field is
(a) same as direction of field
(b) from higher potential end to lower potential
(17) Power =
end
(c) from lower potential end to higher potential
(18) 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 joule
end
(19) 1 hp = 746 watt (d) both (a) and (b)
(8) The average number of electrons crossing any
Multiple Choice Questions
section in one direction is equal to which of the
(1) Ohm's law gives relationship between following
(a) current and resistance (a) average number of electrons crossing that
(b) potential difference and resistance section in opposite direction
(c) current and potential difference (b) average number of electrons crossing that
(d) resistance and power section in same direction
(2) A wire carries a current of 1.2 A, when a (c) average number of protons crossing that
potential difference of 1.8 V is applied across it. section in opposite direction
What is the conductance of the wire? (d) average number of neutrons crossing that
(a) 0.75 S (b) 0.67 S section in opposite direction
(c) 1.53 S (d) 0.53 S (9) Which of the following graphs represent an
(3) In 10s, 3 × 10 free electrons enter one end of
20 ohmic resistance?
conductor and leave the other end. The current is (a) (b)
(a) 3 × 1020 A (b) 300 A
(c) 30 A (d) 4.8 A
(4) For the validity of Ohm's law, which of the
following quantity is constant?
(a) Length (b) Temperature
(c) Material (d) All of these (c) (d)
(5) A potential difference of 200 V is maintained
across a conductor of resistance 100Ω. The
I
number of electrons flowing through it in one
second is
V
(a) 12.5 × 1019 (b) 12.5 × 1022
(c) 1.25 × 1019 (d) 1.25 × 1017
(10) When an electric field is set up, the electrons
(6) Under the action of electric field, a material is acquire drift velocity which is directed
said to be a conductor of electricity if there is (a) opposite to the field
flow of (b) in the direction of field
(a) same type of charge in opposite direction (c) perpendicular to direction of field
of field (d) tangentially with field
292 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(11) The drift velocity of electrons is of the order Total output voltage is
(a) 10–8 m/s (b) 10–3 m/s (a) 6 V (b) 2 V
–5
(c) 10 m/s (d) 10–10 m/s (c) 3/2 V (d) 4 V
(12) A wire of resistance 1 Ω having diameter d1 is (20) The terminal of a cell measured by a voltmeter
stretched, so that the diameter change to half of
during discharge is
the original. The resistance of wire will become.
(a) always equal to actual e.m.f.
(a) (b) 32 Ω (b) less than the actual e.m.f.
(c) 16 Ω (d) 8 Ω (c) more than the actual e.m.f.
(13) The resistance of a given conductor is directly (d) always zero
proportional to the mth power of the length of (21) The e.m.f. of the cell E becomes equal to the
conductor and nth power of the area of cross terminal potential difference when
section then values of m and n are (a) circuit is open
(a) 1, 1 (b) –1, 1 (b) internal resistance is negligible
(c) 1, –1 (d) –1, –1 (c) circuit is closed (d) both (a) and (b)
(14) The specific resistance of a conductor is (22) The heating element connected to 220 V draws
independent from a current of 4 A. The amount of heat dissipated
(a) length of conductor in 15 minutes is
(b) nature of material of the conductor
(a) 1.9 × 102 cal (b) 1.9 × 102 kcal
(c) area of cross section
(c) 1.9 × 105 kcal (d) 1.9 kcal
(d) climatic condition
(15) A nichrome wire of length 100 cm and area of (23) Find the current passing through a lamp
cross section 0.5 mm2 has a resistance of 2.2 Ω. marked 230 V, 60 W when burning at full
The resistivity of nichrome is power. Also find the resistance of the lamp.
(a) 110 Ω m (b) 0.11 Ω m (a) 0.26 A, 8880 Ω (b) 0.36 A, 0.8 Ω
(c) 121 Ω m (d) 11 × 10–7 Ω m (c) 0.26 A, 884.6 Ω (d) 0.36 A, 8.84 k Ω
2
(16) A wire 50 cm long and 1 mm in cross section
(24) The work done by the source when 7 A of
carries a current of 4 A when connected to 2 V
current flows through it for 13.3 s is 0.349 kJ
battery. The resistivity of the wire is
the p.d of cell is
(a) 5 × 10–6 Ω m (b) 2 × 10–6 Ω m
(a) 3.95 V (b) 3 V
(c) 4 × 10–6 Ω m (d) 10–6 Ω m (c) 4 V (d) 3.75 V
(17) The current capacity of battery of series
combination and each individual cell (25) An electric installation consists of 100 lamps
(a) is same (b) is different each drawing 0.2 A at 220 V. The electrical
(c) may be same or different energy consumed in 30 days at 5 hours a
(d) is always zero day is
(18) The e.m.f. of a cell is independent of (a) 600 kWh (b) 560 kWh
(a) quantity of electrolytes (c) 660 kWh (d) 720 kWh
(b) distance between electrolytes
(c) area of electrodes (d) all of these (26) The I-V graph for a conductor makes an angle
q with y-axis. Here V denotes voltage and I
(19) In the following figure
denotes current. The resistance of conductor is
Picture
given by
(a) sin q (b) cos q
(c) tan q (d) cot q
(27) Two cells of each 1.5 V and one cell of 1 V are
connected in series. The battery voltage is
Current Electricity 293

(a) 2 V (b) 3 V (35) Which of the following represents the colour

(c) 5.5 V (d) 4 V scheme?
(28) Resistance of any conductor at absolute zero is (a) First two colour rings give first two digits
(a) maximum (b) zero of value of resistance
(b) Third ring indicates decimal multipliers
(c) half of maximum (d) of maximum
(c) Tolerance rings are always present
(29) A copper wire has resistance of 1.5 Ω at 0 °C.
(d) both (a) and (b)
If the temperature coefficient of resistance is
(36) The temperature at which resistance of certain
5 × 10–3/°C, then the temperature at which the
metals completely disappear is known as
resistance of wire will be 3 Ω is
(a) curie temperature
(a) 205 °C (b) 105 °C
(b) neutral temperature
(c) 200 °C (d) 210 °C
(c) critical temperature
(30) The current which is assumed to be flowing in
(d) ampere temperature
a circuit from positive to negative terminal is
called *(37) The quantity represents
(a) electronic current
(a) rate of change of resistance with time
(b) conventional current
(b) rate of change of resistance with temperature
(c) alternating current
(c) rate of change of resistance with pressure
(d) pulsating current
(d) rate of change of resistance with volume
(31) A battery of e.m.f. E and internal resistance r (38) Thermistor is a temperature sensitive
gives a current of 0.5 A with an external resistor (a) insulator (b) conductor
of 12 Ω and a current of 0.25 A with an external (c) semiconductor (d) none of these
resistor of 25 Ω. The internal resistance of the
circuit is Answers
(a) 0.1 Ω (b) 1 Ω
(1) current and potential difference (2) 0.67 S (3) 4.8 A
(c) 0.5 Ω (d) 1.1 Ω
(4) All of these (5) 1.25 × 1019 (6) same type of charge
(32) A 1 m long wire has a resistance of 1 Ω. If it is in opposite direction of field (7) both (a) and (b)
uniformly stretched, so that its length increases (8) average number of electrons crossing that
by 25% then its resistance will increase by section in opposite direction (9) ........... (10)
(a) 25% (b) 50% opposite to the field (11) 10–3 m/s (12) 16 Ω
(c) 56.25% (d) 77.33% (13) 1, –1 (14) climatic condition (15) 11 × 10–7 Ω m
(33) A flow of 107 electrons per second in a (16) 10–6 Ω m (17) is same (18) all of these (19) 2V
conducting wire constitutes a current of (20) less than the actual e.m.f. (21) both (a) and (b)
(a) 1.6 × 10–26 A (b) 1.6 × 10–12 A (22) 1.9 × 102 kcal (23) 0.26 A, 884.6 Ω (24) 3.75V (25)
(c) 1.6 × 10–13 A (d) 1.6 × 10–25 A 660 kWh (26) tanq (27) 4V (28) zero (29) 200°C (30)
(34) If the colour code for a resistor is orange, white, conventional current (31) 1 Ω (32) 56.25% (33) 1.6
red, golden then its resistance is × 10–12 A (34) 3900 Ω ± 5% (35) both (a) and (b) (36)
(a) 3900 Ω (b) 3.9 Ω critical temperature (37) rate of change of resistance
(c) 3900 Ω ± 5% (d) 3990 Ω with temperature (38) semiconductor

vvv
294 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

ASSESSMENT - 11
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Select and write the most appropriate answer from the given alternatives : (4)
(1) Which material has α = 0 for small change in temperature:
(a) Copper (b) Manganin (c) Iron (d) Silicon
(2) In colour code significant digit corresponding to red colour :
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 5
(3) Resistance between A and B is :

(a) 2 W (b) 9 W (c) 7/3 W (d) 6 W

(4) In I – V graph in Ohm’s law slope is :
(a) Conductance (b) Resistivity (c) Conductivity (d) Ohm

Q.2. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) Write a note on Superconductors.
(2) Define
(a) Insulator
(b) E. M. F.
(3) Define and explain resistivity.
(4) Find potential difference between terminals of the battery if 240 joules of work is required to transfer
20 coulomb of charge from one terminal to the other terminal.
(5) Evaluate resistance for the colour code black-yellow-black-silver.
(6) Write colour code of the following resistor.
R = 150 M W ± 30 M W

Q.3. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)

(1) (a) Derive an expression
(b) Explain special cases when E = V.
(2) A silver wire has resistance of 2.1 W at 27.5 °C. If temperature coefficient of silver is 3.94 × 10–3/°C,
find the silver wire resistance at 100°C.
(3) A battery of e.m.f. 10 V and internal resistance 3 W is connected to a resistor. If the current through
the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage of the battery,
when the circuit is closed?

vvv
12 Magnetic Effect of
Electric Current

Points to Remember:
• In 1820, Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish Physicist discovered that there is a relationship
between current electricity and magnetism.
• The deflection of the needle increases with increase in the magnitude of current. It shows that
strength of magnetic field depends upon current flowing through a wire. This phenomenon
is known as magnetic effect of electric current.
• The S.I. unit of magnetic induction is Wb/m2 or tesla or N/A.m.
• The magnetic induction is said to be 1 tesla if a conductor of length 1m carrying current of
1 ampere experiences a force of 1N when it is placed with its length perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic field.
• Right hand Rule: When current carrying conductor is held in right hand such that outstretched
thumb indicates the direction of current, then curled fingers around the conductor indicate
the direction of magnetic field.
• Biot Savart’s Law: The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point due to a small element of
current carrying conductor is
(i) directly proportional to the current
(ii) directly proportional to the length of the element
(iii) directly proportional to the line of the angle between the element and the line joining the
centre of element to the point
(iv) inversely proportional to the square of the distance of the point from the centre.
• The magnitude of the magnetic induction due to an infinitely long and straight conductor,
carrying a
current, at a point at a distance ‘a’ from the conductor is given by B = .

• Magnitude of total magnetic induction at a distance “x” due to the current carrying circular

coil of n turns, each of radius ‘a’ carrying current I is given by B =

• Magnetic field at the centre of coil is (x = 0).

• When a point P lies far away from centre of coil then x >> a, (a2 + x2)3/2 = x3

(295)
296 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• A charged particle moving in both electric and magnetic field experiences a force called
Lorentz force.
• Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch the thumb, first finger and middle finger of the left hand
so that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the first finger points in the direction
of magnetic field and middle finger in the direction of current, then the thumb will point in
the direction of force acting on the conductor.
• The force of attraction or repulsion between two parallel conductors is given by

• A current of 1 ampere is that current flowing through each of two very long, straight parallel
conductors kept 1 m apart in free space produces a force of attraction or repulsion of
on each conductor.

(d) Press the tap key, so that an electric current

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 12 passes through the wire from B to A. The
needle is deflected as shown in figure 12.1 (b).
Introduction
(e) Release the tap key so that current in the wire
Q.1. Explain Oersted’s experiment to show the is cut off. The needle returns to its original
relationship between electric current and position. This shows that magnetic field is
magnetic field. (2 marks) produced by the electric current.
Ans. (f) Interchange the connections of the battery and
(i) The magnetic effect of electric current was press the tap key. The current in the wire is now
discovered by Danish physicist Hans Christian reversed and it flows from A to B as shown in
Oersted in 1820. figure 12.1 (c). The needle is deflected in the
(ii) He observed that magnetic field is produced opposite direction.
around a wire when electric current is passed
through it.
(iii) The experiment can be conducted as follows :
(a) Take a magnetic needle and place it on a stand
to move freely. It comes to rest in the north-
south direction.
(b) Take a conducting wire AB and stretch it above
Fig. 12.1 : (a), (b), (c) Relation between electric
a magnetic needle in such a way that its length current and magnetic field
is parallel to the axis of the needle.
(g) Again release the tap key, so that current stops
(c) Connect the wire AB to a battery through a tap and the needle comes back to its original position.
key, as shown in figure 12.1 (a).
Conclusions:
(i) The deflection of the magnetic needle indicates
that a current carrying conductor produces a
magnetic field in the surrounding space.
(ii) The direction of the magnetic field is
conventionally taken as the direction in which
the north-pole of the needle is deflected. Hence,
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 297

we can conclude that the magnetic field at any (ii) Consider a conductor carrying a current I and
point is perpendicular to the conductor and the P be any point at a distance r from the centre of
line joining the conductor to that point. the element.
*Q.2. Define magnetic induction. State its SI unit. (iii) Imagine the conductor to be made of
(2 marks) infinitesimal small elements.
Ans. The strength of the magnetic field is expressed Let be one such element of a conductor at a
in terms of a vector quantity called the magnetic distance r from the point P.
induction . (iv) According to Biot-Savart’s law the magnetic
The magnetic induction at any point in a induction dB at the point P due to the current
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux per element is given by
unit area at that point.
dB ∝
\ Magnetic induction (B) =
where, q is angle between and
S.I. unit of magnetic induction is weber/m2
(Wb/m2) or tesla (T). \ dB = K
Note:
In S.I. system,
(1) Magnetic flux is defined as the number of
magnetic lines of force passing normally K = = 10–7 Wb/Am
through the given area.
where, µ0 is the permeability of free space.
(2) S.I. unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
\ dB =
12.1 Biot-Savart’s Law (Laplace’s law)
*Q.3. State and explain Biot-Savart’s law or Laplace’s (v) The direction of is same as that of ×
law. (3 marks) where, is position vector from centre of the
OR element to P. Hence in vector form,
*State Biot-Savat’s law and write it in vector
\ = .
form. (2 marks)
Ans. (vi) The resultant magnetic induction is sum
(i) According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic of contributions due to all such elements. It is
induction at a point due to an element of a current found by the process of integration.
carrying conductor is directly proportional to
\ = ∫
(a) the magnitude of current,
(b) length of the element, *Q.4. State the formula for magnetic induction
(c) sine of the angle between element and the line at a point due to a straight current carrying
joining the centre of the element to the point, conductor. (2 marks)
(d) inversely proportional to the square of the Ans.
distance of the point from the centre of the element.

Fig. 12.3 : Magnetic Induction at a point due

Fig. 12.2 : Biot-Savart’s law to a straight current
298 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

The magnitude of the magnetic induction due carrying a current I in anti-clockwise direction.
to an infinitely long and straight conductor, (ii) Suppose that the loop is divided into number of
carrying current I, at a point at a distance ‘a’ infinitesimal elements each of length dl. Consider
from the conductor is given by a small element of length .

B= . (iii) According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude

of the magnetic induction at O, due to current
12.2 Right Hand Thumb Rule element is given by,

*Q.5. State right hand thumb rule for magnetic field dB =

due to a current carrying wire. (2 marks)
where, θ is angle between and .
Ans.
Right hand thumb rule: From the figure,
Imagine a conductor carrying a current to be held in θ = 90°, sin θ = 1
your right hand with fingers curled around it and the \ dB = … (1)
thumb stretched along its length in the direction of the
current. Then the curled fingers indicate the direction (iv) Using right hand thumb rule, direction of
of the magnetic field produced by the current. If is perpendicular to plane of paper and pointing
outwards. For every such element, it is same.
Thus, resultant magnetic induction at point O
will be
B = ∫ dB
\ B = ∫

\ B = ∫ dl … (2)
(v) Also,
Fig. 12.4 : Right hand thumb rule ∫ dl = 2 π r, (the circumference of coil)
Hence, equation (2) becomes
current in conductor flows in the upward direction
then the magnetic field around the conductor is in B = × 2πr
anti-clockwise direction. And if current in conductor
flows in the downward direction then the magnetic \ B =
field around the conductor is in clockwise direction.
(vi) If the coil has n turns, then.
12.3 Magnetic induction at the centre of a
B =
circular coil carrying a current
*Q.6. Derive an expression for the magnetic induction (vii) The direction of is perpendicular to plane of
at the centre of a circular coil carrying current. coil and directed outwards when the current is
(3 marks) in anti-clockwise direction and vice-versa.
Ans.

Fig. 12.5 : Magnetic induction at the centre of

circular coil carrying current Fig. 12.6
(i) Consider a circular loop of wire of radius r
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 299

12.4 Magnetic induction at a point along the axis dB at the point P is equal to sum of all the sin α
of a coil carrying current components of dB (along the axis of coil.)

*Q.7. Derive an expression for magnetic induction

at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying \ B = ∫ dB sin α = ∫
current. (4 marks)
Ans. Consider a circular coil of radius a, carrying  sin α =
a current I with its plane perpendicular to the
plane of the paper as shown in figure. \ B =

But, ∫ dl = 2πa = total length of the loop, i.e.

circumference of coil.

B =

=
Fig. 12.7 : Magnetic induction at a point along
the axis of a coil carrying current In ∆AOP
Consider point P on the axis at a distance x from r2 = a2 + x2
centre of coil (OP = x). To find the magnetic
r = (a2 + x2)1/2
induction at point P, let us consider coil to be
r3 = (a2 + x2)3/2
divided into even number of small elements
each of length dl. Consider the element at the Hence,
point A, join AP, distance between point A and
B =
P is ‘r’ and ∠APO = α. The magnetic induction
at a point P due to this small element of length Case:
dl is given by Biot-Savart’s law.
(i) If we consider a circular coil of n turns, each
turn produces the same magnetic induction.
dB = Magnitude of total magnetic induction due to
the current carrying coil is
But r is perpendicular to the element then θ =
B = .n
90° and sin 90° = 1
The magnetic induction is directed along the
dB =
axis of the coil and perpendicular to the plane
Magnetic induction is perpendicular to of figure.
both dl and r. Now, can be resolved into (ii) Magnetic field at the centre of coil (x = 0) is
two mutually perpendicular components - dB
cos α and dB sin α. B =

Similarly, consider an element which is (iii) When point P lies far away from centre of coil
diametrically opposite. The components - dB (loop) then x >>> a, \ a2 + x2 = x3
cos α are equal and opposite hence cancel each
B =
other. Hence, the resultant magnetic induction
300 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Q.8. Explain the equivalence between a current

is acted upon by force , given by
carrying coil and magnetic dipole. (2 marks)
Ans. = q ( x ) … (1)
(i) A current carrying coil as well as a magnetic (ii) The direction of force is same as that of vector
dipole produces magnetic field around them. ( x ). Magnitude of force is
(ii) The lines of magnetic induction due to a F = q v B sin θ … (2)
magnet and current carrying coil are similar.
where, θ is angle between and .
(iii) One face of plane conducting coil acts like N-pole
and the other face acts like S-pole. When the
current in the loop is in clockwise direction, a
south pole is observed and when the current is in
anti-clockwise direction, N-pole is observed.

Fig. 12.9 : Magnetic force on a current carrying

conductor
Fig. 12.8 : Equivalence between current carrying
(iii) Consider a current carrying conductor is
circular coil and magnetic field
placed in a uniform magnetic field of induction
(iv) The magnetic induction at a distance x along . When current passes through conductor,
the axis of a short magnetic dipole is given as, electrons move in opposite direction of
current.
B = … (1)
(iv) Let dq be charge flowing through the conductor
(v) The magnetic induction at a distance x along in a direction opposite to the direction of
the axis of a current carrying coil of radius a current, which is equivalent to charge + dq
such that a << x, flowing in the direction of current. Thus force
B = … (2) on charge dq is,
= dq ( × )
(vi) Comparing equations (1) and (2), the quantity
(nIA) is called the magnetic moment of current
(v) Now, =
carrying coil.
(vii) The direction of the magnetic moment is along where, is infinitesimal displacement of
the axis of the coil given by right hand rule. charge in time dt seconds.

12.5 Force acting on a conductor carrying

\ =
current in a magnetic field

*Q.9. Derive an expression for force experienced

\ =
by a current carrying conductor placed in
uniform magnetic field. Discuss when will be (vi) But, = I = rate of flow of charge
the force maximum and minimum. (3 marks)
Ans. Thus, force acting on current element
when situated in magnetic field of induction is,
(i) If particle of charge q is fired with velocity
in a uniform magnetic field of induction , it = I ( × )
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 301

(vii) Net force acting on conductor of length l can be 12.6 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
obtained by integration,
*Q.11. State Fleming’s left hand rule.
= I (∫ × )
(2 Marks)
\ = I ( × ) Ans. Stretch the index finger, middle finger and
( ∫ dl = l = length of conductor) the thumb of the left hand in such a way
Here, has direction as that of motion of that they are mutually perpendicular to each
positive charge or as that of current. other. Now, hold the hand in such a way that
(viii) If θ is angle between and then magnitude the index finger denotes the direction I of the
of force is,
F = I l B sin θ
(ix) The direction of force is given by direction in
which right hand screw advances when rotated
from to .
Note:
(1) When θ = 0° or 180º then Fig. 12.10 : Fleming’s left hand rule
sin 0° = 0 or sin 180º = 0
magnetic field and the middle finger denotes
\ F = 0
the direction of the current in the conductor.
i.e. force is minimum.
Then, the thumb denotes the direction of the
(2) When θ = 90°
force acting on the conductor.
sin 90° = 1
\ F = I l B 12.7 Force between two infinitely long current
i.e. force is maximum. carrying parallel conductors

Q.10. What is Lorentz force equation? (2 marks) *Q.12. Derive an expression for the force per unit
Ans. length between two parallel conductors
(i) Static charge produce an electric field, whereas carrying current. (3 marks)
moving charge produce magnetic field in Ans.
addition to an electric field.
(ii) Let us consider a point charge q moving with a
velocity v at a given time t in presence of both
the electric and magnetic field.
(iii) Force due to electric field,
= q
Force due to magnetic field,
= q ( × )
(iv) It is found to obey the principle of superposition. Fig. 12.11 : Force between two long parallel current
Hence, the force on an electric charge q due to carrying conductors
both of them, can be written as
(i) Consider two long, straight parallel conductors
= + separated by distance ‘a’ carrying currents I1
\ = q +q( × ) and I2 respectively in the same direction.
\ = q [ +( × )] (ii) Each conductor lies in the magnetic field
This equation is known as Lorentz force produced by other. Thus, each will experience
equation. force as shown in figure.
302 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iii) The magnetic induction due to, conductor at 12.8 Definition of Ampere
distance a from it is,
*Q.13. Define the S.I. unit of current. (2 marks)
B1 = … (1)
Ans.

(iv) If we consider length l of second conductor (i) Two long straight parallel conductor carrying
then since B1 is at right angles to l, the force current exert force of attraction on each other
acting on it will be when direction of current is same, and exert
force of repulsion when direction of current is
F2 = B1 I2 l
opposite.

F2 = (ii) This force of attraction or repulsion per unit

length of each conductor is

\ F 2 = f = = =

(v) Thus, force per unit length where, I1 and I2 are the currents in the two
conductors and a is the distance between them.
= … (2)
(iii) Substitute I1 = I2 = 1 A, l = 1 m and a =1 m
Using Fleming’s left hand rule, force is directed \ F1 = F2 = ×2
towards the conductor carrying current I1.
But, µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am
(vi) Similarly magnetic induction due to second
conductor carrying current I2 at a distance a \ F1 = F2 = 2 × 10–7 N
from it is, (iv) Hence, 1 ampere is the constant current which
when passing through each of the two long
B2 = … (3)
straight parallel conductors, separated by a
distance of 1 metre in space will produce a
(vii) For length l conductor carrying current I1, force
force of 2 × 10–7 N.
acting on it will be
\ F 1 = B2I1l 12.9 Torque on a current loop in magnetic field

*Q.14. Derive an expression for torque acting on a

\ F 1 =
rectangular current loop carrying coil placed
in a uniform magnetic field. (3 marks)
(viii) Thus, force per unit length is,
Ans.
= … (4)

By Fleming’s left hand rule, this force is directed

towards the conductor carrying current I2 .
(ix) Thus, from equations ((2) and (4), two conductors
attract each other with equal forces.
Fig. 12.12 : Torque on rectangular current loop
(x) If the direction of flow of current of one of the
conductor is reversed, the force also get reversed (i) A rectangular coil carrying a steady current
in direction. Thus two parallel conductor I and placed in a uniform magnetic field (B)
carrying current in opposite direction repel each experiences a torque. It does not experience a
other with equal forces. net force.
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 303

(ii) As shown in figure, the field exerts no force on (vi) The force on arms AB and CD are equal.
the two arms AD and BC of the coil. But in the F1 = F2 = I b B
perpendicular arm AB of the coil, field exerts a
force F1 on it, which is directed into the plane of
coil. Its magnitude is
F1 = I b B
(iii) Similarly it exerts a force F2 on the arm CD and
F2 is directed out of plane of the paper.
F2 = I b B = F1

Fig. 12.15
(vii) The magnitude of the torque on the coil is,

t =

\ t = I b B (a sin θ)
But, F1 = F2 = I b B and ab = A
\ t = IAB sin B τ
Fig. 12.13
\ t = MB sin θ
(iv) Thus the net force on the coil is zero, but lines
(viii) As deflection tends to zero (θ → 0), the
of force do not coincide. So there is torque
perpendicular distance between the forces of
acting on the coil. This torque is
the couple also approaches zero. This makes
the net force and torque zero.
t =
(ix) Torque is vector product of magnetic moment
and magnetic field.
\ t = F1 a (As F1 = F2)
= ×
\ t = I b B a
(x) Magnetic moment of the current loop having n
\ t = I (ab) B turns,
\ t = I A B = n I
M = n I A
(v) If plane of the coil is not along the magnetic
field but makes an angle with it, then the forces Solved Problems
on the arm BC and DA are equal and opposite Biot-Savart’s law
and act along the axis of the coil which connects (1) Find the magnetic induction at a distance of
the centre of mass BC and DA. Being collinear 3 cm from a long straight wire carrying a
along the axis they cancel each other and current of 5 A. (µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am) (2 marks)
resulting in no net force. Solution:
I = 5A, a = 3 cm = 3 × 10–2 m
µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am

B =

\ B = = 3.33 × 10–5 Wb/m2

Fig. 12.14 \ B = 3.33 × 10–5 Wb/m2

304 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Magnetic induction in circular current carrying coil \ B = 0.8 × 10–5 Wb/m2

*(2) A straight wire carries a current of 5 A. Calculate \ B = 8 × 10–6 Wb/m2

the magnitude of the magnetic induction at a
*(5) A current of 10 A passes through a coil having
point 10 cm from the conducting wire. (2 marks)
5 turns and produces a magnetic field of
Solution:
magnitude 0.5 × 10–4 T at the centre of the coil.
I = 5A
Calculate the diameter of the coil. (2 marks)
a = 10 cm = 0.1 m,
µ0/4π = 10–7 T.m/A Solution:
The magnitude of the magnetic induction, I = 10 A, N = 5, B = 5 × 10–5 T, µ0/4π = 10–7 Tm/A

B = B =

\ The diameter of the coil,

= (10–7). = 10–5 T
2r =
\ B = 10 T (10 µT)
–5

(3) A flat circular coil of radius 8 cm and 15 d =

turns carries a current of 4 A. Determine the
\ d = 4 × 3.142 × 10–1 = 1.257 m
magnetic induction at the centre of the coil. ( 2
marks) \ d = 1.257 m
Solution: (6) The frequency of revolution of the electron
r = 8 cm = 8 × 10–2 m, n = 15 turns, I = 4 A in the innermost orbit of hydrogen atom is
B = 6 × 1015 Hz. If the radius of the orbit is 4 × 10–11
m, calculate the value of magnetic induction at
\ B = the centre of the orbit. (charge on the electron
= 1.6 × 10–19 C) (µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am)(2 marks)
\ B = 15π × 10–5 = 47.1 × 10–5 Wb/m2
Solution:
\ B = 47.1 × 10–5 Wb/m2 n = 6 × 10–15 Hz, r= 4 × 10–11 m, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
(4) A conductor of length 16 cm, situated in air is An electron moving in a circle is equivalent to a tiny
bent in the shape of an arc of a circle of radius 4 current carrying loop. The current in the loop is equal
cm. Find the magnitude of magnetic induction to quantity of charge passing across any point in the
at centre of curvature of the arc when a current loop in 1 second.
of 0.8 A is sent through the conductor.
i.e. I = = ne
(2 marks)
n = frequency of revolution of electron
Solution:
l = 16 cm = 16 × 10–2 m, r = 4 cm = 4 × 10–2 m, e = charge on the electron
I = 0.8 A \ I = 6 × 1015 x 1.6 × 10–19
Now, as the centre of curvature of the conductor is \ I = 9.6 × 10–4 A
bent in the shape of an arc of a circle, the value of B
B =
is given by
B =
\ B = = 15.08 × 10–10 Wb/m2
(∫ dl = l; the total length of the conductor)
\ B = 15.08 × 10–10 Wb/m2
\ B =
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 305

*(7) Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic

\ =
induction due to a circular coil of 400 turns
and radius 0.05 m, carrying a current of 5 A, at a
\ B1 : B2 = 2 : 9
point on the axis of the coil at a distance 0.1 m.
(9) A circular coil of radius 5 cm and having 125
(2 marks)
turns is situated in air and carries a current of
Solution:
120 mA. Find the value of magnetic induction
n = 400, a = 0.05 m = 5 × 10–2 m, I = 5 A,
at a point on its axis at a distance of 3 cm from
x = 0.1 m, µ0/4π = 10–7 T.m/A
its centre. (2 marks)
The magnitude of the magnetic induction, Solution:
a = 5 cm = 0.05 m, n = 125, x = 3 × 10–2 m,
B = I = 120 mA = 0.12 A

B =
=

=
\ B =
=
\ B = 1.188 × 10–4 Wb/m2
= 1.397 × 10–3 m3
\ B = 1.188 × 10–4 T
A = πa2 = 3.142 (25 × 10–4 m2)
Force acting on a conductor carrying current
= 7.855 × 10–3 m2
in a magnetic field

∴ B = (10) A particle carrying a charge of 100 µC moves

at an angle of 30° through uniform magnetic
field of induction 5 × 10–5 Wb/m2 with a speed
= 10–7 × of 1.5 × 105 m/s. Calculate the force acting on
the particle. (2 marks)
= Solution:
q = 100 µC = 10–4 C, θ = 30°, B = 5 × 10–5 Wb/m2,
B = 2.249mT v = 1.5 × 105 m/s,
(8) Two circular coils have radii in ratio 3 : 4 and F = q v b sin θ
the ratio of number of turns is 2 : 3. The ratio \ F = (10–4) (1.5 × 105) (5 × 10–5) sin 30°
of currents through coils is 1 : 4. Find the \ F = 10–4 × 1.5 × 5 ×
ratio of magnetic induction at their centres.
(2 marks) \ F = × 10–4 = 3.75 × 10–4 N
Solution: \ F = 3.75 × 10–4 N
= , = , = (11) A straight conductor 50 cm long carries a
current of 6 A. It is placed in an uniform
B1 = and magnetic field of induction 0.3 T, with its
length making an angle of 30° with the
B2 = direction of the field. Find the force acting on
the conductor. (2 marks)
\ = Solution:
l = 50 cm = 50 × 10–2 m, I = 6 A, B = 0.3 T, θ = 30°
\ = F = B I l sin θ
306 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

\ F = 0.3 × 6 × 50 × 10–2 sin 30° Solution:

v = 2 × 107 m/s, B = 1.6 × 10–6 T, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
\ F = 0.3 × 6 × 50 × 10–2 ×
The magnetic force on the proton is
\ F = 45 × 10 –2
Fm = evB
\ F = 0.45 N =
(1.6 × 10–19) (2 × 107) (1.6 × 10–6)

(12) A wire carrying a current of 40 A and 2 m = 5.12 x 10–18 N

in length is placed in a magnetic field of 0.5 \ Fm = 5.12 × 10–18 N
Wb/m2. Find the force acting on the wire if it
is placed (i) at right angles to the field (ii) at *(15) A charged particle moves with velocity
45° to the field (iii) along the field. (3 marks) 3 × 106 m/s at right angles to a uniform
magnetic field of induction 0.005 T. Find
Solution:
the magnitude of the charge if the particle
I = 40 A, l = 2 m, B = 0.5 Wb/m2, F = B I l sin θ experiences a force of 2 × 10–2 N. (2 marks)
(i) θ = 90°
Solution:
F = 0.5 × 40 × 2 × 1 v = 3 × 106 m/s, B = 5 × 10–3 T, Fm = 2 × 10–2 N
\ F = 40 N Fm = qvB
(ii) θ = 45° \ The charge on the particle,

F = 0.5 × 40 × 2 × = 28.28 N q= =
\ F = 28.28 N
=
(iii) Along the field,
= 1.333 × 10–6 C
θ = 0°
\ q = 1.333 µC
F = B I l sin 0° = 0
(13) Find the force per unit length between the *(16) A straight current-carrying conductor 30 cm
parallel wires kept 0.1 metre apart and carrying long carries a current of 5 A. It is placed in
a current of 4 A and 3 A in the same direction. a uniform magnetic field of induction 0.2 T,
(2 marks) with its length making an angle of 60° with
Solution: the direction of the field. Find the force acting
a = 0.1 m, I1 = 4 A, I2 = 3 A on the conduction. (2 marks)
Solution:
= l = 30 cm = 0.3 m, I = 5 A, B = 0.2 T, θ = 60°
The magnitude of the force on the conductor,
\ = = 24 × 10–6 N F = IlB sin θ
= (5) (0.3) (0.2) sin 60°
= 0.3 × 0.866 = 0.2598 N
\ = 24 × 10–6 N
\ F = 0.2598 N
*(14) A cosmic ray proton enters the Earth’s magnetic
*(17) Two long parallel current-carrying conductors
field in a direction perpendicular to the field.
are 0.4 m apart in air and carry currents 5 A
If the speed of the proton is 2 × 107 m/s and
and 10 A. Calculate the force per metre on
B = 1.6 × 10–6 T, find the force exerted on the
each conductor, if the currents are in the same
proton by the magnetic field. [Charge on a
direction and in the opposite direction.
proton, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C] (2 marks)
(2 marks)
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 307

Solution: B = 2 T, q = 1 C, t = 5 s
a = 0.4 m, I1 = 5 A, I2 = 10 A, The current in the conductor,
µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/A.m
The force per unit length acting on each conductor is I=
The magnitude of the force on the conductor,
=
F = IlB sin θ

= (10–7) = 2.5 × 10–5 N/m (i) θ1 = 0° \ sin θ1 = 0 \ F = 0 N

(ii) θ2 = 90° \ sin θ2 = 1
\ = 2.5 × 10 N/m –5
\ F = IlB = (0.2 A) (0.25 m) (2 T)
If currents are in same direction, the force of F = 0.1 N
attraction = 2.5 × 10–5 N and if currents are in opposite (iii) q3 = 30° \ sin θ3 = 0.5
direction, the force of repulsion = 2.5 × 10–5 N.
\ F = IlB sin θ3 = (0.1 N) (0.5)
(18) Two long, straight parallel conductors, carry
F = 0.05 N
currents in opposite directions. They are
separated by a distance of 3 cm in air. The (20) A straight conductor experiences a force of
current in one conductor is twice that in the 10 × 10–5 N per metre when placed at right
other. If each conductor repels the other with
angles to a uniform magnetic field of induction
a force of 5 × 10–6 N/m, find the values of
5 × 10–5 Wb/m2. Find the current through
currents in each of them. (3 marks)
conductor. (2 marks)
Solution:
a = 3 cm = 3 × 10–2 m, F = 5 × 10–6 N/m Solution:
Let the current in the two conductors be I1 and I2
= 10 × 10–5 N/m, θ = 90°, B = 5 × 10–5 Wb/m2
respectively. Then,
I2 = 2I1 F = I l B sin θ

= \ = I B sin θ

\ 10–4 = I × 5 × 10–5 × sin 90°

\ 5 × 10–6 =
\ 10–4 = I × 5 × 10–5

\ = \ I =

\ = 0.375 \ I = 0.2 × 10 = 2 A
\ I1 = 0.61 A
\ I = 2 A
\ I2 = 2 I1
\ I2 = 2 × 0.61 *(21) A circular loop of radius 10 cm is carrying
\ I2 = 1.22 A a current of 0.1 A. Calculate its magnetic
\ I1 = 0.61 A, I2 = 1.22 A moment. (2 marks)
Solution:
*(19) A conductor of length 25 cm is placed (i)
R = 10 cm = 0.1 m, I = 0.1 A
parallel (ii) perpendicular (iii) inclined at
an angle 30°, to a uniform magnetic field of The magnetic moment,
induction 2 T. If 1 C of charge passes through M = IA = I (πR2)
it in 5 s, calculate the force experienced by the = (1) (0.1 A) (3.142) (0.1 m)2
conductor in each case. (3 marks)
= 3.142 × 10–3 A.m2
Solution:
l = 25 cm = 0.25 m, θ1 = 0°, θ2 = 90°, θ3 = 30°, \ M = 3.142 × 10–3 A.m2
308 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Additional Numericals for Practice a uniform field of magnetic induction 2 T. If a

charge of 1 C passes through it in 5 s, calculate the
(1) Find the magnetic induction at a distance of force experienced by the conductor. (3 marks)
5 cm from a long, straight wire carrying a current
(11) Find the force per unit length between the
of 5 A. ( µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am) (2 marks)
parallel wires kept 0.1 metre apart and carrying
(2) Calculate the magnetic induction at a distance of a current of 2 A and 3 A respectively in the same
8 cm from a long straight conductor carrying a direction. What is the nature of force? (2 marks)
current of 4 A. (µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am) (2 marks) (12) Two long straight wires carry current of 2 A and
(3) A flat circular coil of 70 turns and radius 10 cm, 5 A respectively. If a force of 4 × 10–5 N/m is
carries a current. If the magnetic induction at exerted by one wire on the other, calculate the
the centre of the coil is 0.003 Wb/m2, find the distance between the two conductors. (2 marks)
value of current. (3 marks)
Answers
(4) The magnetic induction at the centre of a
circular coil is 12.56 × 10–4 Wb/m2. If the coil (1) 2 × 10–5 Wb/m2, (2) 1 × 10–5 Wb/m2, (3) 6.82 A,
has a radius of 7.5 cm and 50 turns, calculate (4) 3 A, (5) 2.0 × 10–4 Wb/m2, (6) 2.78 A, (7) 3.14 × 10–3
the current flowing through the coil. (2 marks) Am2, (8) 5.12 × 10–18 N, (9) 1.333 × 10–6 C, (10) zero,
(5) The number of turns in a circular coil of wire 0.1 N, 0.05 N, (11) 12 × 10–6 N, Attractive, (12) 5 cm
is 10 and the average radius of each turn is
8 cm. A current of 5 A is passed through the Important Formulae
coil. Find the magnetic induction due to the
(1) Biot-Savart’s law or Laplace’s Law:
current at a point distant 6 cm on the axis of
the coil from the centre. (3 marks) dB =
(6) Through a coil of radius 3 cm and 25 turns, a
(2) Magnetic induction at a distance ‘a’ from a
current is passed so as to produce a magnetic
very long straight conductor carrying a current
induction of 10π × 10–5 Wb/m2, at a point
I is given by,
distant 4 cm from the centre of the coil on its
axis. Find the current. (3 marks) B =

(7) A circular loop has a radius 10 cm and it (3) Magnetic induction at the centre of a circular
is carrying a current of 0.1 A. Calculate its coil of radius r having n turns is given by,
magnetic moment. (2 marks)
B =
(8) A proton from cosmic rays enters the earth’s
magnetic field in a direction perpendicular to (4) Magnetic induction at a distance x along the
the field. If the velocity of proton is 2 × 107 m/s axis of a circular coil of radius ‘a’ having n
and B = 1.6 × 10–6 Wb/m2, find the force exerted turns is given by,
on the proton by the magnetic field. (Charge on
B =
a proton (e) = 1.6 × 10–19 C) (2 marks)
(9) A charged particle moves with velocity
3 × 106 m/s, at right angle to a uniform field of B = [A = πa2]
magnetic induction 0.005 T. Find the value of
the charge of the particle if it experience a force (5) Force acting on particle having charge q and
of 2 × 10–2 N. (2 marks) moving with velocity v in uniform magnetic
(10) A conductor of length 25 cm is placed (i) parallel field of induction B is given by,
(ii) perpendicular (iii) inclined at an angle 30° to F = q v B sin θ
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 309

(6) Force acting on a straight conductor of length (a) directly proportional to current
l carrying current I placed in magnetic field of (b) directly proportional to square of distance
induction B is given by, of point from centre of element
F = B I l sin θ (c) inversely proportional to the distance of
point from centre of element
(7) Force between two parallel conductors
separated by distance ‘a’ and carrying currents (d) inversely proportional to length of
I1 and I2 is given by, conductor

f= (6) A tangent to a point on the magnetic lines of

force gives us the direction of
Force per unit length, (a) magnetic flux (b) magnetic induction
f = (c) magnetic moment (d) magnetic dipole

(7) The direction of magnetic field produced

Multiple Choice Questions around a long straight conductor is given by
(1) The phenomenon in which magnetic field (a) right hand thumb rule
is produced in the space near a conductor (b) left hand thumb rule
carrying current is called (c) Fleming’s left hand rule
(a) thermionic effect (d) both (a) and (c)
(b) photoelectric effect
(c) heating effect (8) If a particle of charge ‘q’ is moving with a
(d) magnetic effect of electric current velocity ‘v’ in a direction opposite to the
magnetic field B, then the force acting on the
(2) The magnitude of magnetic strength at any particle is
point in magnetic field is (a) qvB (b) –qvB
(a) electric flux (c) 0 (d) qvB/2
(b) electric flux per unit area
(c) magnetic flux (9) A conductor of length 1 m and carrying current
(d) magnetic flux per unit area of 1 A is placed at an angle 45° to the magnetic
field of 1 oersted. The force acting on conductor
(3) The minimum value of magnetic induction at a is
point due to a small current carrying conductor
when angle between element and line joining (a) (b)
point and centre of element is
(a) 90° (b) 180° (c) (d)
(c) 0° (d) both (b) and (c)
(10) The maximum force acting on a straight
(4) The magnitude of magnetic induction at
conductor of length 15 cm, placed in a magnetic
a distance 4 cm due to straight conductor
field of induction 5 × 10–5 N/Am is 3 × 10–4 N.
carrying a current of 10 A is
Then, the current flowing in conductor is
(a) 5 × 10–6 Wb/m2 (b) 5 × 10–5 N/Am
(a) 40 mA (b) 4 × 10–3 A
(c) 5 × 10–5 gauss (d) 5 × 10–6 tesla
(c) 400 mA (d) 40 A
(5) The magnitude of a magnetic induction at a
(11) A force of 1.732 × 10–2 N acts on a particle of
point due to a small current carrying conductor
charge moving with a velocity 1/1000th of the
is
310 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

velocity of light in a magnetic field of induction of 0.8 T. The torque acting on coil is
(a) 0.69 N m (b) 0.96 N m
Wb/m2 and perpendicular to the
(c) 0.096 N m (d) 0.69 N m
field then q is
(18) The magnetic moment of a square coil having
(a) 5000 C (b) 5000 µC
5 turns, each side measuring 4 cm and carrying
(c) 500 µC (d) 500 C
a current of unit ampere is
(12) The force acting on a particle of charge q moving (a) 20 × 10–3 Am2 (b) 8 × 10–3 Am2
in a uniform magnetic field with velocity ‘v’ is (c) 8 Am2 (d) 16 × 10–3 Am2
(a) parallel to both and . (19) For a given conductor the directions of current
(b) perpendicular to both and . and magnetic induction are shown in the
(c) parallel to r and perpendicular to . following figure.
(d) perpendicular to , and parallel to . Which of the following represents direction of
force ?
(13) In Bohr’s model of hydrogen atom, the electron
circulates around nucleus in a path of radius
0.5 Å at a frequency of 6.8 × 1015 rev/s. The
magnetic field at the centre will be
(a) 13.7 T (b) 1 T
(c) 13.7 gauss (d) 13 gauss

(14) Two circular coils are made of two identical

(a) 1 (b) 2
wire of same length. If the number of turns
(c) 3 (d) 4
of coil are 4 and 2 then the ratio of magnetic
induction at centre will be (20) Two long and straight conductors, placed
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 1 : 4 parallel to each other are separated by 10 cm,
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 2 : 1 carrying current of 2 A and 4 A respectively in
opposite direction. The force per unit length
(15) A circular coil having 50 turns each of radius
exerted by each conductor on the other is,
0.05 m carries a current of 1 A. The magnitude
of magnetic induction at a point 0.2 m from its (a) 16 × 10–5 N/m (b) 1.6 × 10–5 N/m
centre on its axis is (c) 32 × 10–5 N/m (d) 3.2 × 10–5 N/m
(a) 9 × 10–6 gauss (b) 9 × 10–5 N/Am (21) Two long straight conductors of length 1 m
(c) 9 × 10 T –4
(d) 9 × 10 Wb/m
–6 2
each separated by a distance of half metre
(16) The ratio of magnetic induction at a point and carrying currents of 200 A and 50 A
along the axis of a circular coil of radius ‘a’ at a respectively in opposite directions. Then the
distance ‘x’ to a point where x tends to zero is force of attraction is
[x >> a] (a) 4 × 10–4 N (b) 4 × 10–3 N
(a) x3/a3 (b) a3/x3 (c) 2 × 10–3 N (d) zero
(c) 2a3/x2 (d) 2x3/a2 (22) When the current flowing in two long straight
(17) A square coil of side 10 cm consists of 20 turns conductors parallel to each other and separated
and carries 12 A. The coil is suspended vertically by a finite distance are flowing in opposite
and the normal to the plane makes an angle of direction. The force that exists between the
30° with the direction of uniform magnetic field conductors is
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current 311

(a) force of attraction equal to the radius of coil carrying a current of

(b) force of repulsion 0.5 A is
(c) force due to torque (a) (b)
(d) force due to friction
(c) (d)
(23) A long straight wire carries a current of 50 A.
An electron moving at 107 m/s is 5 cm away
Answers
from the wire. The force acting on electron, if
its velocity is directed towards the wire, will be (1) magnetic effect of electric current, (2) magnetic
(a) 1.6 × 10–6 N (b) 3.2 × 10–16 N flux per unit area, (3) both (b) and (c), (4) 5 × 10–5 N
(c) 4.8 × 10–16 N (d) 1.8 × 10–16 N Am, (5) directly proportional to current, (6) magnetic
induction, (7) right hand thumb rule, (8) 0, (9)
(24) There is no force on moving charge, in magnetic
field, when its direction of motion is (10) 40 A, (11) 5000 µC, (12) perpendicular to both
(a) parallel to the direction of magnetic field and , (13) 13.7 T, (14) 4 : 1, (15) 9 × 10–6 Wb/m2,
(b) at an angle of 45° to the magnetic field (16) a3/x3, (17) 0.96 N m, (18) 8 × 10–3 Am2, (19) 1,
(c) at an angle of 30° to the magnetic field (20) 1.6 × 10–5 N/m, (21) zero, (22) force of repulsion,
(d) perpendicular to the magnetic field (23) 3.2 × 10–16 N, (24) parallel to
the direction of magnetic field, (25)
(25) The magnetic induction at a point on the axis
of a circular current carrying coil at a distance

vvv
312 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

ASSESSMENT - 12
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) State and explain Fleming’s left hand rule.
(2) Define the S.I. unit of current.
(3) A straight conductor experiences a force of 10 × 10–5 N per metre when placed at right angles to a
uniform magnetic field of induction 5 × 10–5 Wb/m2. Find the current through conductor.
(4) Calculate the magnetic induction at a distance of 8 cm from a long straight conductor carrying a
current of 4 A. (µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am)
(5) State and explain Biot-Savart’s law.
(6) Two circular coils have radii in ratio 3 : 4 and the ratio of number of turns is 2 : 3. The ratio of currents
through coils is 1 : 4. Find the ratio of magnetic induction at their centres.

Q.2. Attempt any TWO questions: (6)

(1) Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two parallel conductors carrying current.
(2) Through a coil of radius 3 cm and 25 turns, a current is passed so as to produce a magnetic induction
of 10π × 10–5 Wb/m2, at a point distant 4 cm from the centre of the coil on its axis. Find the current.
(3) The frequency of revolution of the electron in the innermost orbit of hydrogen atom is 6 × 1015 Hz.
If the radius of the orbit is 4 × 10–11 m, calculate the value of magnetic induction at the centre of the
orbit. (Charge on the electron = 1.6 × 10–19 C) (µ0 = 4π × 10–7 Wb/Am)

Q.3. Attempt any ONE question: (4)

(1) Derive an expression for torque acting on a rectangular current carrying coil placed in a uniform
magnetic field.
(2) (a) Define and explain magnetic induction.
(b) Two long, straight parallel conductors, carry currents in opposite directions. They are separated
by a distance of 3 cm in air. The current in one conductor is twice that in the other. If each
conductor repels the other with a force of 5 × 10–6 N/m, find the values of currents in each of
them.

vvv
13 Magnetism

Points to Remember:
• Certain substances possess a property of attracting small pieces of iron. This property is called
magnetism.
• A freely suspended magnet always points in N-S direction in horizontal plane. It’s north-seeking
pole is called N-pole and south seeking pole is called S-pole.
• Like poles repel and unlike poles attract each other.
• The strength of electric field is expressed in terms of a vector quantity called the electric
intensity .
• The strength of the magnetic field is expressed in terms of a vector quantity called the magnetic
induction .
• Magnetic flux is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through
the given area.
• SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb)
• The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point in a magnetic field is equal to the magnetic
flux per unit area at the point.

SI unit of magnetic induction is or tesla (T).

• Pole strength is defined as the concentration of strength of magnetism at the poles. For north
pole it is ‘+m’ and for south pole it is ‘–m’. It’s SI unit is ampere metre. (A-m)
• The magnitude of magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of its pole strength and
its magnetic length (2l)
∴ M = m.2l
• SI unit of magnetic moment is Am2.
• SI unit of pole strength (m) is Am.
• Torque acting on a bar magnet is given by =
• A study of earth’s magnetic field is called terrestrial magnetism. It is also called as Geomagnetism.
• The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographic meridian at a place is known as
magnetic declination.
• The angle between the earth’s magnetic field at a place and the horizontal is known as the
angle of dip at that place.
• The magnitude of earth’s magnetic field at a given place in terms of horizontal (BH) and vertical
(BV) components of the earth’s magnetic field is given by

(313)
314 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

• A current carrying coil as well as a magnetic dipole produces magnetic field around it. The lines
of magnetic induction are similar to a magnetic dipole.
• A solenoid is an arrangement in which a long insulated wire is wound in a closely packed helix.
• The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point on the axis at a large distance (r) from the centre
of a solenoid carrying a current (l) is given by

But for a solenoid, M = nIA

Hence,

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 13 by the vector sum of spin and orbital dipole
moments.
13.1 Origin of Magnetism due to Moving Charges ( = + )
Q.1. What is magnetism? OR Thus, each electron in an atom has a magnetic
*Explain origin of magnetism on the basis of moment.
circulating charges. (vii) The overall magnetic moment of the atom, also
(3 marks) known as the atomic magnetic dipole is given
Ans. Magnetism is a property of materials that by the vector sum of the magnetic moments of
responds at an atomic or subatomic level to an all the electrons in the atom.
applied magnetic field. (viii) If the vector sum ∑ vanishes i.e. it is zero,
(i) Magnetism has its origin in the circulating then the atom has no magnetisation. It is then
charges in an atom. called a non-magnetic or diamagnetic atom.
(ii) An atom of an element consists of electrons (ix) If the vector sum ∑ is finite, then the atom
revolving as well as rotating in circular orbits has magnetic moment vector and magnetisation.
about the nucleus at the centre. These circulating It is then called an atomic magnetic dipole.
electrons behave like a ring of wire carrying (x) Thus, the cause of magnetisation of matter lies
current. with the motion of electrons in an atom.
(iii) From the knowledge of magnetic effect of electric
current, we know that a current carrying loop Q.2. What is magnetic field? Define magnetic lines
acts like a magnet, which has orbital magnetic of force and give their properties. (3 marks)
dipole moment (Mo). Ans. The space around a magnet (or a current
(iv) Further each electron spins about its axis and it carrying conductor) in which its magnetic effect
has magnetic moment due to its spin (Ms). can be experienced, is called the magnetic field.
(v) The direction of these magnetic moments A magnetic line of force is a curve drawn in a
depend on the direction of revolution of the magnetic field in such a way that the tangent to
electron in the orbit and on the direction of spin. the curve at any point gives the direction of the
(vi) The net magnetic moment of the electron is given magnetic field at that point.
Magnetism 315

Magnetic lines of force are also called lines of Q.4. Define and explain magnetic induction.
induction. (2 marks)
Ans. The strength of the magnetic field is expressed
in terms of a vector quantity called the magnetic
induction ( ).
The magnetic induction at any point in a
magnetic field is equal to the magnetic flux per
unit area at that point.

S.I. unit of magnetic induction is weber/m2
(Wb/m2) or tesla (T).
Fig. 13.1: Magnetic lines of force due to
current carrying coil. Dimensions = [M1L0T–2A–2]

Properties of magnetic lines of force: Note:

(i) Magnetic lines of force start from the north pole 1) Magnetic flux is defined as the number of
(N) and end on the south pole (S) of a magnet. magnetic lines of force passing normally
through the given area.
(ii) The tangent drawn to a line of force at any point
gives the direction of the magnetic field at that 2) S.I. unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb).
point. 13.2 Definition of Magnetic Dipole
(iii) No two lines of force ever intersect each other. Moment and its Unit
This follows from the fact that at any point, the *Q.5. What is magnetic dipole? Define the following
magnetic field has only one direction. terms for a magnetic dipole : (2 marks)
(iv) The lines of force have a tendency to contract (i) magnetic length (ii) pole strength
in length. This property explains attraction (iii) magnetic axis (iv) magnetic equator.
between unlike poles.
Ans. An arrangement of two magnetic poles of equal and
(v) The lines of force exert lateral forces of repulsion opposite strengths separated by a finite distance is
on each other. This property explains repulsion called a magnetic dipole. Magnetic dipole is the
between like poles. simplest magnetic structure. A magnetic needle,
(vi) The lines of force are straight lines parallel to bar magnet etc. are magnetic dipoles.
each other in uniform magnetic field. (i) Magnetic length:
(vii) The lines of force are curved lines in a non- The distance between the two fictitious poles of
uniform magnetic field. a bar magnet is called the magnetic length.
Intext question textbook page no. 167 The fictitious poles are not situated exactly at the
*Q.3. In a Magnet, poles are not situated at the ends two ends of the bar magnet, but a small distance
inside the magnet. The magnetic length of a
of the magnet. Why? ( 1 mark)
magnet is smaller than its geometric length.
Ans. Yes, poles are fictitious, slightly inside the
5
magnet. Magnetic field produced by bar magnet Magnetic length = — × (Geometric length)

can be explained by magnetic lines of force. 6

These lines are closed loops, starts from N pole (ii) Pole strength:
and reaches to S pole externally and inside the Magnetic pole strength gives a measure of the
magnet S pole to N pole. strength of the pole of the bar magnet. The pole
∴ Poles are the point where this lines of force strength of the north pole (N) is denoted by (+m)
appear to meet inside the magnet. and that of south pole (S) is denoted by (–m).
316 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

S.I. unit of pole strength is ampere-metre (Am). Intext question textbook no. 168
Dimension = M0L1T0A1 *Q.7. A thin iron nail is attracted at the ends of the
(iii) Magnetic axis: bar magnet. But it is not attracted to the middle
The line passing through the fictitious poles of portion of the magnet. Why? (1 mark)
a magnetic dipole is called the magnetic axis of Ans. N-Pole and S-pole are fictitious poles which
the dipole. produce magnetic strength at the ends of
magnet. At the middle portion of the bar magnet
strength of magnetic field neutralize each other
and produces no field. Hence thin iron nail is
attracted at the ends of the bar magnet due to N
pole and S Pole but not in the middle portion.

13.3 Torque acting on a magnet in uniform

magnetic induction
*Q.8. Derive an equation for torque acting on magnet
placed in a uniform magnetic induction.
Fig. 13.2: Magnetic length, axis and equator (3 marks)
of a bar magnet Ans.
(iv) Magnetic Equator:
The line passing through the centre of the
magnet and perpendicular to the axis of the
magnet is called magnetic equator.
Q.6. Define and explain magnetic dipole moment.
OR
*Define magnetic moment and state its S.I. Fig. 13.4: Torque on a bar magnet
units. (2 marks) (i) Consider a bar magnet of magnetic dipole
Ans. moment M placed in a uniform external
(i) Consider a bar magnet as shown in the figure. magnetic field of induction B, making an angle
It consists of two equal and unlike fictitious θ with direction of the field.
magnetic poles of pole strengths (–m) and (+m) (ii) Let ‘m’ be the pole strength of the magnet.
separated by small distance 2l. Let 2l be the magnetic length of the magnet.
The magnetic dipole moment of the magnet is
M= 2ml.
(iii) Due to the magnetic field, a force of magnitude
mB will act on the N-pole in the direction of the
field and equal force will act on the S-pole in
Fig. 13.3
opposite direction.
(ii) The magnitude of magnetic dipole moment is
defined as the product of its pole strength and (iv) The moment of the couple or torque is given by,
its magnetic length (2l). τ = one force × perpendicular distance between
∴ M = m × 2l forces
(iii) It is a vector quantity and expressed as, ∴ τ = mB × NP
=m× (v) From ∆ NPS, sin θ =
where, is a vector directed from (–m) to (+m) NP = NS sin θ
i.e. from S-pole to N-pole along the axis. ∴ NP = 2l sin θ ( NS = 2l)
(iv) S.I. unit of magnetic moment (M) is A-m2. ∴ τ = mB × (2l sin θ)
Dimension = M0L2T0A1 ∴ τ = (2ml) B sin θ
Magnetism 317

∴ τ = MB sin θ ( M = 2ml) ... (1) 13.3 (a) Equivalence between a Magnetic

In vector form, Dipole and Current Carrying Coil
= × ... (2) *Q.9. Explain the equivalence between a magnetic
(vi) Due to this couple, the magnet will rotate. It will dipole and current carrying coil. (2 marks)
come to rest when axis is parallel to the direction Ans.
of the field.
Direction : Right hand thumb rule
Unit : Nm
Note:
(1) If B = 1 and θ = 90°
The moment of the couple is given by,
τ=M Fig. 13.6
This shows that when magnet is kept (i) A current carrying coil as well as a magnetic
perpendicular to a magnetic field of unit dipole produces magnetic field around them.
induction, the torque acting on the magnet is (ii) The lines of magnetic induction due to a magnet
equal to M i.e. Maximum. and current carrying coil are similar.

Magnetic moment of the magnet can be defined (iii) One face of plane conducting coil acts like
N-pole and the other face acts like S-pole. When
as the torque required to hold the magnet with
the current in the loop is in clockwise direction,
axis perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field
a south pole is observed and when the current is
of unit induction.
in anti-clockwise direction, N-pole is observed.
(2) A current carrying coil also acts as a magnetic
dipole. When kept in external magnetic field of
induction B, it experiences a torque given by,
τ = (n I A) B sin θ
The quantity (n I A) is called the magnetic
moment (M) of the coil. Fig. 13.7: Magnetic polarities of a current
M = n I A, when n = 1 carrying circular coil
M=IA (iv) A magnetic dipole is acted upon by a torque,
Hence, magnetic moment M is the product of when placed in an external uniform magnetic
current flowing through the loop and area (A) field of induction B. It is given by,
of the loop. τ = MB sin θ ... (1)
(v) When a current carrying coil is suspended in a
(3) The direction of magnetic moment is along the
uniform magnetic induction B, the magnitude
axis of the coil given by right hand rule i.e. it is
of torque acting on it is given by,
directed out of the plane of the coil if current
τ = (n I A) B sin θ ... (2)
is flowing in anti-clockwise direction and vice- Where n is number of turns, A is area of cross-
versa. section of the coil and θ is the angle between
magnetic field vector and unit vector normal to
the coil.
(vi) Comparing equations (1) and (2), the quantity
(n I A) is called the magnetic moment of current
carrying coil.
(vii) The direction of the magnetic moment is along
Fig. 13.5 the axis of the coil given by right hand rule.
318 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

13.3 (b) Equivalence between a Magnetic 13.4 Earth’s Magnetic Field

Dipole and a Solenoid
Q.11. Write a short note on earth’s magnetic field.
*Q.10. Explain the equivalence between a magnetic
(2 marks)
dipole and solenoid. (2 marks)
Ans.
Ans. (i) A study of earth’s magnetic field is called
(i) A solenoid is an arrangement in which a long terrestrial magnetism. It is also called as
insulated wire is wound in a closely packed Geomagnetism.
helix. (ii) The force acting on a suspended magnet is
(ii) The length of the helix is very large as compared due to magnetic field which is present all over
to its diameter. the space around the earth as if earth was
magnetised.
(iii) As shown in figure, the magnetic field lines are
similar to a bar magnet. (iii) The magnetic field near the surface of the
earth can be represented as if caused by a huge
imaginary bar magnet within the earth.
(iv) T h e i m a g i n a r y m a g n e t h a s i t s n o r t h
pole towards south and south pole towards north.
(v) The strength of the earth’s magnetic field on the
surface of the earth is of the order of 10–4 tesla.
(vi) It is found that the axis of earth’s magnetic
dipole does not coincide with the axis of
rotation of the earth but is inclined at an angle
of nearly 11.5° to it.
Fig. 13.8: Solenoid (vii) The strength and direction of the earth’s
(iv) The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point magnetic field not only varies from place
on the axis at a large distance (r) from the centre to place, but also varies over a long period of time.
of a solenoid carrying a current (I) is given by,
Q.12. Define following terms with respect to earth’s
... (1) magnetic field : (3 marks)
(i) magnetic meridian (ii) magnetic axis
where, n = total number of turns
(iii) magnetic equator
A = area of cross-section of coil
OR
(v) The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point *What are magnetic elements? Explain in detail.
along the axis at a distance r from the centre of
Ans.
a short magnetic dipole is given by,

... (2)

(vi) Comparing equation (1) with equation (2), the

magnetic moment of the solenoid is given by,
M=nIA
(vii) The direction of the magnetic moment is along
the axis of the solenoid given by right hand rule.
(viii) Hence, a solenoid behaves like a magnetic
dipole.
Fig. 13.9: Geometric field near the earth’s surface
Magnetism 319

(i) Magnetic meridian: It is a vertical plane passing varies from the geographic meridian by a certain
through the magnetic north and south of the angle.
earth. (iii) The angle between the magnetic meridian and
(ii) Magnetic axis: It is a straight line passing the geographic meridian at a place is known as
through the magnetic poles of the earth. It is magnetic declination at that place, as shown in
inclined to the earth’s geographic axis by nearly the figure.
11.3°. (iv) The magnetic declination differs from place to
(iii) Magnetic equator: It is a great circle on the place on the surface of the earth.
surface of the earth, in a plane perpendicular
Q.14. Define and explain angle of dip. (3 marks)
to the magnetic axis.
Ans. The angle between the earth’s magnetic field at
It happens to pass through India near Trivandrum
a place and the horizontal is known as the angle
(Thiruvananthapuram).
of dip at that place.
Note:
(1) Geographic meridian:
It is a vertical plane passing through the
geographic north and south of the earth.
(2) Geographic axis:
It is a straight line around which earth spins.
(3) Geographic equator:
It is a great circle on the surface of the earth, in
a plane perpendicular to the geographic axis.

Q.13. Define and explain magnetic declination of

earth’s magnetic field. (3 marks) Fig. 13.11: Angle of dip
Ans. (i) A dip needle is a compass needle pivoted
(i) It is observed that a compass needle does horizontally about its centre of gravity, so that
not point directly north and everywhere the it is free to rotate in a vertical plane.
direction is not same. (ii) When it is placed in the magnetic meridian,
it will turn itself so as to point exactly in the
direction of earth’s magnetic field B as shown
in the figure.
(iii) The angle between the needle and the horizontal
is the angle of dip at that place. It varies over the
earth’s surface.
(iv) Angle of dip is zero on the magnetic equator
because dip needle rests horizontally there.
(v) The angle of dip is 90° at the magnetic poles of
the earth.
(vi) At other places, its value lies between 0° and 90°.
Fig. 13.10 (vii) If δ is the angle of dip at a place, then the
(ii) This shows that the magnetic meridian does earth’s magnetic induction B has a horizontal
not coincide with the geographic meridian. It
320 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

component BH and vertical component BV as Uses:

shown in figure. (i) Electromagnets are generally used to lift
(viii) Using trigonometry, ferromagnetic substances like iron parts, car or
BH = B cos δ and scrap.

BV = B sin δ (ii) They are also used in technology and in relays,

circuit breakers, breaking system of the train etc.
(iii) Cyclotrons, which are charged particle

accelerators, use high power electromagnets.
(ix) Also,

13.6 Magnetic Induction due to a bar magnet

at a point along the axis and a point
along the equator

*Q.16. Derive an expression for magnetic induction

at a point along the axis of a bar magnet. Also
deduce an expression for magnetic induction
due to short dipole. (4 marks)
Ans.

Fig. 13.12

13.5 Electromagnet and Factors Affecting their Strength

*Q.15. What are electromagnets? Give their uses.
OR
What are electomagnets? State the factors Fig. 13.13: Magnetic Induction along axis
affecting their strength. (3 marks) (i) Consider a bar magnet of pole strength m and
Ans.
magnetic length 2l. Magnetic moment is given
(i) Electromagnet consists of a solenoid in which a
by,
soft iron core is kept.
(ii) Due to current flowing through the coil of the M = m × 2l
solenoid, a strong magnetic field is produced (ii) Let P be any point on the axis of the magnet at
along the axis of the solenoid. distance r from its centre O.
(iii) The iron core is strongly magnetised and a strong
(iii) The magnetic induction at point P due to the
magnetic field is produced.
bar magnet is vector sum of magnetic induction
(iv) The material of an electromagnet must have high
value of saturation magnetisation, which makes due to the two poles of the magnet at that
the electromagnet very strong. point.
(v) The material should have low retentivity and (iv) The magnetic induction B1 at the point P due to
coercivity. N-pole of the magnet is given by,
(vi) The hysteresis loss of the material should
be small, so that the heating effect during
magnetisation and demagnetisation would be
very less. This will make the electromagnet very where, µ 0 is magnetic permeability of free
strong. space.
Magnetism 321

is directed away from the magnet along the

axis.
This expression gives the magnitude of magnetic
(v) The magnetic induction B2 at the point P due to
induction due to bar magnet at an axial point.
S-pole of the magnet is given by,
(viii) The direction of is same as that of magnetic
dipole moment . Hence in vector form,

(ix) If the magnet is very short, l << r and hence l2
is directed towards the magnet along the axis. can be neglected. Hence,

(vi) If is the resultant magnetic induction,

= +

(vii) Since and are acting in opposite directions,

magnitude of is given as,

Baxis = B1 – B2

\ Baxis =
In vector from,

\ Baxis =

Note : (Extra information for understanding not to

\ Baxis =
be included in the answer)
(1) Magnetic permeability is the measure of the
\ Baxis = ability of a material to support the formation
of a magnetic field within itself.
(2) Magnetic permeability of free space (µ0), is a
\ Baxis =
measure of the amount of resistance encountered
when forming a magnetic field in free space.
(3) Magnetic permeability of free space is a
constant given by,
µ0 = 4p × 10–7 Wb/A-m

Intext question textbook page no. 173

*Q.17. Magnetic equator and geographic equator of

the Earth are the same. Is this true of false?

(1 mark)
322 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Ans. False. Magnetic equator is a great circle on the The components B1 cosθ and B2 cosθ are along
surface of the Earth in a plane perpendicular the diagonal PR and gets added, whereas
to the magnetic axis. Geographic equator is a
components B1 sinθ and B2 sinθ are acting exactly
great circle on the surface of the Earth in a plane
perpendicular to geographic axis. There is angle opposite to each other, balanced each other.
between the two axis. ∴ Resultant Magnetic field is along
Q.18. Prove that Baxis = 2 Beq for equal distance point
Beq = B1 cosθ + B2 cosθ (B1 = B2)
for a short bar magnet. (2 marks)
Ans. = 2 B1 cosθ

NP = cosθ =

∴ Beq =

Beq =

Fig. 13.14 For short dipole r > > l r2 + l2 ≈ r2

∴ Beq =

∴ Beq =

In vector form,

i.e. towards S - Pol

*Q.19. Derive an expression for the magnetic
induction at a point along the equator of a bar Solved Problems
magnet. Also deduce an expression for magnetic
induction due to short dipole. (4 marks) Magnetic dipole moment, pole strength, magnetic
Ans. B2 cos θ + B1 cos θ length :

(1) A short bar magnet has a magnetic moment of

2 A-m2. If its magnetic length is 5 cm, calculate
its pole strength. (2 marks)
Solution:
2l = 5 c = 0.05 m
M = 2 A-m2

Fig. 13.5

∴ m = 40 A-m
Magnetism 323

(2) A flat circular coil of 20 turns and radius 10 ∴ 2l = 0.15 m

cm carries current of 10 A. Find the magnetic Now,
dipole moment of the coil. (2 marks) M = m × 2l
Solution: n = 20, r = 10 cm = 0.1 m, I = 10 A ∴ M = 100 × 0.15 = 15 Am2
A = πr2

∴ M = 15 Am2
∴ A = 3.14 × (0.1)2
We have, Torque acting on a magnet
M =nIA
(6) Find the magnitude of the magnetic moment
∴ M = 20 × 10 x 3.14 × (0.1)2 = 6.28 Am2 of a magnet if a couple exerting torque 0.5 N-m
∴ M = 6.28 Am2 is required to hold the magnet with its axis
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of
*(3) A rectangular coil of length 8 cm and breadth induction 2 × 10–3 T. (2 marks)
5 cm has 200 turns of insulated wire. Find the
Solution: τ = 0.5 N.m; B = 2 × 10–3 T, θ = 90°
magnetic moment of the coil, when a current
of 2 A flows through it. (2 marks) τ = MB sin θ

= 250 A- m2
Given : l = 8cm = 8 × 10–2 m; b = 5 cm = 5 × 10–2 m
n = 200, i = 2A
To find: M = ? ∴ M = 250 A-m2
Solution: A = l × b = 8 × 10-2 × 5 × 10-2 = 40 × 10-4m2 (7) Find the torque required to hold a bar magnet
∴ M = n i A perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of
M = 200 × 2 × 40 × 10 –4
induction 6 × 10–5 Wb/m2, if the magnetic dipole
∴ M = 1.6 Am2 moment of the magnet is 0.8 Am2. (2 marks)

(4) Calculate the magnetic moment of a flat circular Solution: B = 6 × 10-5 Wb/m2, M = 0.8 Am2, θ = 90°
coil of 500 turns each of radius 10 cm, when a ∴ sin 90° = 1
current of 0.1 A flows through the coil. We have,
(2 marks) τ = MB sin θ
Solution: n = 500 = 10 cm = 10 × 10-2 m, = 10-1 m ∴ τ = MB
I = 0.1 A ∴ τ = 0.8 × 6 × 10-5 Nm = 4.8 × 10-5 Nm
M = n I A
∴ τ = 4.8 × 10-5 Nm
∴ M = n I (πr2)
∴ M = 500 x 10-1 × 3.142 × (10-1)2 (8) A magnetic dipole of magnetic moment 5
∴ M = 157.1 × 10 Am = 1.57 Am
-2 2 2 Am2 is placed in a uniform magnetic field
of induction 10–3 Wb/m2. Find the maximum
∴ M = 1.57 Am2
torque acting on the dipole. (2 marks)
*(5) A bar magnet of geometric length 18 cm has Solution: M = 5 Am2, B = 10-3 Wb/m2, τ = MB sin θ
pole strength 100 Am. Find the magnetic dipole
The torque will be maximum when θ = 90°
moment of the bar magnet. (2 marks)
∴ τmax = MB ( sin θ = sin 90° = 1)
Solution: Geometric length = 18 cm, m = 100 Am
∴ τmax = 5 × 10-3 Nm
Hence maximum torque,

∴ τmax = 5 × 10–3 Nm

324 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*(9) A magnet of magnetic dipole moment 2 Am2 ∴ BV = 1.4 × 10–5 Wb/m2

is deflected through 30° from the direction of a
magnetic field of induction 2 Wb/m2. Find the
magnitude of the torque or couple. (2 marks)
Solution: M = 2 Am2, θ = 30°, B = 2 Wb/m2 = 3.769 × 10-5 Wb/m

τ = MB sin θ ∴ B = 3.769 × 10-5 Wb/m2

∴ τ = 2 x 2 x sin 30° *(12) Find the magnetic induction due to a bar magnet
= 2 Nm of magnetic moment 0.5 Am2 at a point on its

axis at a distance of 15 cm from the nearest pole.
∴ τ = 2 Nm The magnetic length of the magnet is 10 cm.
*(10) A bar magnet of moment 7.5 A.m2 experiences a [µ0 = 4π x 10–7 Wb/Am] (2 marks)
_
torque of magnitude 1.5 × 10 4 N.m when placed Solution: r = 15 + 5 = 20 cm, 2l = 10 cm, M = 0.5 Am2
inclined at 30° in a uniform magnetic field.
Find the magnitude of the magnetic induction
of the field. (3 marks)
Solution: M = 7.5 A.m2, τ = 1.5 × 10-4 N.m, θ = 30°
τ = MB sin θ
∴ The magnitude of the magnetic induction,

∴ Baxis = 1.422 × 10-5 Wb/m2

*(13) A bar magnet has pole strength of 10 Am and

a magnetic length of 5 cm. Find the magnetic
induction at a point 10 cm from either of its

two poles. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am] (3 marks)
-
∴ B = 4 × 10 5T Solution: M = 10 Am, 2l = 5 × 10-2 m
In this case, point is along the equator of a
Magnetic Induction
magnet.
*(11) A magnetic needle free to rotate in a vertical
plane parallel to the magnetic meridian, has
its north tip pointing down at 21° 48’ with the
horizontal. If the horizontal component of
the earth’s magnetic induction at that place is
3.5 × 10–5 Wb/m2, determine the earth’s magnetic M = m (2l)
induction at that place. (3 marks)
∴ M = 10 × 5 × 10-2
Solution:
δ = 21° 48’ ∴ M = 0.5 Am2
BH = 3.5 x 10–5 Wb/m2 Substituting in above equation we get,

∴ BV = BH tan δ
= 5 × 10-5 T
∴ BV = 3.5 × 10 × tan 21° 48’
–5

∴ BV = 3.5 × 10–5 × 0.4 ∴ Beq = 5 × 10-5 T

Magnetism 325

(14) Find the magnetic induction at an axial point Solution: Baxis = Beq
30 cm away from a short magnetic dipole of
moment 15 Am2. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am]
(2 marks)
Solution: M = 15 Am2, r = 30 cm = 0.3 m
For a short dipole,

∴ r1 : r2 = 1.26 : 1

(17) A short bar magnet has magnetic moment

20 Am2. The axis of the magnet is in the magnetic
meridian with the south pole pointing north.
= 1.111 × 10-4 Wb/m2 The horizontal component of earth’s magnetic
field at that place is 3 × 10–5 T. Find the point on
∴ Baxis = 1.111 × 10-4 Wb/m2 the axis of the magnet at which the resultant
magnetic field is zero. [Such a point is called a
(15) Calculate the distance from the centre of a neutral point.] (3 marks)
short bar magnet of moment 3 Am 2 on the
Solution: BH = 3 × 10-5 Wb/m2, M = 20 Am2
equatorial line where the magnitude of
magnetic induction is 1.92 × 10-3 Wb/m2. [µ0 = Let B1 be the magnetic induction produced by
4π × 10-7 Wb/Am] the bar magnet at the neutral point.
(2 marks) ∴ B1 = BH
Solution: Beq = 1.92 × 10-5 Wb/m2, M = 3 Am2 and have opposite directions and the
For a short dipole, same magnitude.

∴ r = 25 × 102 m ∴ r = 0.5109 m

(16) The magnetic induction at an axial point *(18) The vertical and horizontal components of the
is equal to the magnetic induction at an Earth’s magnetic induction at a place are 2 × 10–5
equatorial point. Calculate the ratio of their T and 3.464 × 10–5 T, respectively. Calculate the
distances from the centre of the dipole. dip and the magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic
(2 marks) induction at that place. (3 marks)
326 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Solution: *(20) A short magnetic dipole has magnetic moment

0.5 A.m2. Calculate the magnitude of its magnetic
Bv = 2 × 10-5 T, BH = 3.464 × 10-5 T
induction at 20 cm from the dipole centre on
(i) the axis (ii) the equator.
[µ0/4π =10-7 T.m/A]
(3 marks)
Solution :

M = 0.5 A.m2 (short dipole)

The magnitude of the Earth’s magnetic d = 20 cm = 0.2 m, µ0/4π = 10-7 T.m/A

induction, µ0 M
Baxis =
4p d3
2(0.5 A.m2)
= (10–7 T/m/A)
(0.2 m)3
Baxis = 1.25 x 10–5 T
µ0 M Baxis
Bequator = =
4p d3 2

= 12.5 x 10 = 6.25 × 10–6 T

–6

2
∴ δ = 30°, B = 4 × 10-5T ∴ Baxis = 1.25 × 10-5 T
Beq = 6.25 × 10–6T
*(19) Show that the magnitude of the magnetic
induction at a point on the axis of a short bar
magnet is twice the magnitude of the magnetic Additional Numericals for Practice
induction at a point on its equator at the same
distance. (2 marks) (1) A short bar magnet has a moment of 4 Am2. If
its magnetic length is 5 cm, calculate its pole
Solution:
strength. (2 marks)
At a distance d from the centre of a bar magnet
of magnetic length 2l and magnetic moment , (2) Find the magnetic moment of a small circular
the magnitude of the magnetic induction is coil of 100 turns each of area 50 cm2 when a
(i) at an axial point, current of 0.1 A is flowing through the coil.
(2 marks)
*(3) A rectangular coil of length 8 cm and breadth

5 cm has 200 turns of insulated wire. Find the
(ii) at an equatorial point,
magnetic moment of the coil, when a current of
2 A flows through it. (2 marks)

(4) Find the magnetic moment of a magnet if a

For a short barmagnet, l2 << d2, so that couple having moment of 3 × 10–4 Nm is required
to hold the magnet with its axis perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field of induction 3 × 10–5
Wb/m2. (2 marks)
(5) A bar magnet of moment 7.5 Am2 experiences

a torque of 1.5 × 10–4 Nm, when placed inclined
So that, at the same distance d,
at 30° in a uniform magnetic field. Find the
Baxis = 2Bequator magnetic induction of the field. (2 marks)
Magnetism 327

(6) The vertical and horizontal components of Important Formulae

earth’s magnetic field at a place are 2 × 10–5 T and
5
3.464 × 10–5 T respectively. Calculate the angle of
(1) Magnetic length = — × (Geometric length)
dip and resultant earth’s magnetic field at that 6
place. (3 marks)
(2) Magnetic dipole moment,
(7) A bar magnet having magnetic length of 10 cm
has pole strength of 10 Am. Find the value of M = m × 2l
magnetic induction at an equatorial point 12 (3) Magnetic dipole moment of the coil,
cm from the centre of the magnet. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7
M=nIA
Wb/Am] (3 marks)
(4) Torque experienced by a bar magnet in a
(8) A bar magnet has magnetic length of 6 cm. The
magnitude of magnetic induction at an axial magnetic field,
point 2 cm away from the north pole of the τ = MB sin θ
magnet is 5 × 10–4 Wb/m2. Calculate its magnetic
(5) If δ is the angle of dip, B H and B V are the
moment. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am] (3 marks)
horizontal and vertical components of earth’s
(9) The magnetic induction due to a bar magnet magnetic field (B) respectively, then
at a point on the equator at a distance of 30 cm
from the magnet is 1.481 × 10–6 Wb/m2. Find the (i) BH = B cos δ
magnetic moment. (3 marks) BV = B sin δ
(10) Calculate the magnetic moment of a short
magnet which produces a magnetic induction of (ii)
10 × 10–4 T, at a point along its axis at a distance
of 20 cm from its centre. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am (iii)
(3 marks)
(11) A short magnetic dipole has magnetic moment (6) (i) Magnetic induction due to a bar magnet
0.5 Am2. Calculate the magnetic induction at a at a point on its axis,
distance of 20 cm from the centre of the magnetic
dipole on (i) the axis and (ii) the equatorial line.
[µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am] (3 marks)
(ii) For a short magnetic dipole (l << r),
(12) Show that the magnitude of magnetic induction
at a point on the axis of a short bar magnet is
twice the magnitude of magnetic induction at
a point on the equator at the same distance. (7) (i) Magnetic induction due to a bar magnet
(2 marks) at a point along its equator,

Answers

(1) 80 Am (2) 0.05 Am 2 (3) 1.6 Am 2 (4) 10 Am 2

(5) 4 × 10 T (6) 30 , 4 × 10 T (7) 4.55 × 10 T
–5 0 –5 –5
(ii) For a short magnetic dipole (l << r),
(8) 0.256 Am (9) 0.4 Am (10) 40 Am (11) 12.5 × 10 T,
2 2 2 -6

6.25 × 10-6T
328 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Multiple Choice Questions (8) The torque acting on a magnet of magnetic

moment ‘M’ placed in a uniform magnetic
(1) A bar magnet has geometric length 4.8 × 10-2 m. field B is
The magnetic moment of bar magnet of pole (a) perpendicular to , parallel to
strength 20 Am is (b) parallel to , perpendicular to
(a) 0.8 Am2 (b) 0.6 Am2 (c) perpendicular to both and
(c) 0.4 Am2 (d) 1 Am2 (d) parallel to both and
(2) The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is equal (9) Which of the following is NOT true about
to the moment of couple when magnet is kept magnetic dipole moment?
(a) Parallel to uniform magnetic field of unit (a) It is the product of pole strength and
induction magnetic length.
(b) perpendicular to uniform magnetic field of (b) SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is Joule/
unit induction tesla.
(c) parallel to uniform magnetic field of any (c) It is a vector quantity directed from ‘– m’
induction to ‘+ m’.
(d) perpendicular to uniform magnetic field of (d) It depends on the area of cross section of
any induction magnet.

(3) The ratio of torque acting on a magnet of (10) The magnetic induction at a point distant 15 cm
magnetic moment ‘M’ placed in uniform on the axis of a short bar magnet of moment
magnetic field when angle between and 0.5 Am2 is
are 90° and 0° respectively is (a) 3 × 10-5 wb/m2 (b) 3 × 10-8 wb/m2
(a) 1 (b) 0 (c) ∞ (d) ½ (c) 3 × 10-11 wb/m2 (d) 4 × 10-5 wb/m2

(4) The lines of force of earth’s magnetic field will (11) Magnetic lines of force are
be perpendicular to earth’s surface (a) continuous (b) discontinuous
(a) at all positions (c) always straight line (d) zig-zag lines
(b) near the poles (12) The vector sum of magnetic moments of all
(c) near the equator electrons inside the atom is the
(d) at the centre of the earth (a) magnetic moment of proton
(b) magnetic moment of neutron
(5) Earth’s magnetic field always has a horizontal
component except at (c) magnetic moment of atom
(a) equator (b) magnetic pole (d) average magnetic moment of electron
(c) latitude of 60° (d) an inclination of 60° (13) Suppose we wish to have a current carrying coil
equivalent to a magnet with moment 10 Am2.
(6) The torque acting on a magnetic dipole of
When the coil has 75 turns and carries a current
moment 5 Am2 when placed in an external
of 120 mA, the area of the coil is
uniform magnetic induction 1.5 × 10-4 wb/m2
at right angle to magnetic induction is (a) 0.12 cm2 (b) 1.12 m2
(a) 7.5 × 10-4 N m (b) 75 × 10-4 N m (c) 1.2 m2 (d) 11.2 m2
(c) 1.25 × 10-5 N m (d) 1.5 × 10-4 N m (14) The direction of magnetic moment of a current
carrying circular coil is
(7) The magnetic induction due to short magnetic
dipole of moment 0.1 Am2 at equatorial point (a) along the circumference, in clockwise
direction
1 cm away from centre of dipole is [µ0 = 4π ×
10-7 Wb/Am] (b) along the axis, perpendicular to the plane
(a) 0.1 T (b) 0.01 T (c) along the circumference, in anti-clockwise
direction
(c) 0.001 T (d) 0.0001 T
Magnetism 329

(d) along the equator in straight line (b) geomagnetism magnetism

(15) At a given place let angle of dip be 30° then (c) both a and b
the vertical component of earth’s magnetic (d) aquatic magnetism
induction is (22) The magnetic moment of a current carrying loop
whose circumference with radius ‘r’ is equal to
(a) (b) B
the perimeter of square with length ‘l’ is
(c) 0 (d)
(a) 2πr2l (b)
(16) The magnetic induction due to a bar magnet of
length 6 × 102 m and pole strength 5 × 10-3 Am (c) (d)
at a point 0.1 m away from the centre and along
(23) The net magnetic moment of an atom becomes
the equator is
zero, if atomic magnetic moments are oriented in
(a) 3 × 10-9 N/Am, directed from N-pole to
(a) random directions
S-pole
(b) specific direction
(b) 3 × 10-8 N/Am, directed from N-pole to
(c) parallel to each other
S-pole
(d) perpendicular to each other
(c) 3 × 10-8 T, directed from S-pole to N-pole
(d) 3 × 10-9 T, directed from S-pole to N-pole (24) The magnetic length of a dipole is

(17) If at a given place the earth’s magnetic induction (a)

B is 5 × 10-4 tesla and the horizontal component
BH is 3 gauss the vertical component Bv is (b)
(a) 4 × 10-4 gauss (b) 5 gauss
(c) 2 × geometric length
(c) 4 × 10-4 T (d) 3.5 × 10-4 T
(18) The magnetic induction at a point on axis or (d)
equator is proportional to nth power of distance
from centre where n is (25) A torque of 25 N-m acts on a current carrying
(a) 3 (b) –3 coil of area 5m2 and magnetic moment 2 Am2 in a
magnetic field of induction 2 Wb/m2. The angle
(c) –2 (d) 2
between normal to coil and magnetic induction
(19) A magnetizing field of intensity 1600 A/m is 30°. Then value of current is (n = 1)
produces a magnetic flux of 2.5 × 10-5 wb in (a) 0.4 A (b) 0.5 A
a bar of iron of cross section 0.2 cm2. Then
(c) 400 mA (d) 5 A
permeability of the bar is
(a) 7.5 × 10-4 T A-1 m (b) 7.5 × 10-4 T A m-1 (26) The direction of earth’s magnetic field at any
place is specified in terms of
(c) 7.5 × 10-3 T A-1 m (d) 7.5 × 10-2 T A m-1
(a) magnetic field declination
(20) The direction of earth’s magnetic field is
(b) magnetic field inclination
horizontal and vertical respectively at
(c) angle of dip (d) all of these
(a) magnetic equator, geographical poles
(27) The strength of earth’s magnetic field on the
(b) magnetic equator, magnetic poles
earth is of the order of
(c) geographical equator, magnetic poles
(a) 10-4 Wb (b) 10-4 tesla
(d) geographical equator, geographical poles (c) 10-4 Am (d) 102 gauss
(21) The study of earth’s magnetic field is called as (28) Strength of electromagnet can be increased by
(a) terrestrial (a) decreasing current in the coil
330 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(b) decreasing number of turns such that angle between the lines of forces and
(c) using core of high permeability surface is
(d) using core of low permeability (a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 120°
(29) The magnetic fields at a distance ‘d’ from a (37) The angle of dip is zero at
short bar magnet in longitudinal and transverse (a) magnetic equator (b) geographic equator
positions, are in the ratio (c) magnetic poles (d) geographic poles
(a) 1 : 1 (b) 1 : 2
(38) A thin rod of length L is magnetized and has
(c) 2 : 1 (d) 3 : 1
magnetic moment M. The rod is then bent in a
(30) The magnetic field at a point A on the axis of a semicircular arc. The magnetic moment in this
small bar magnet is equal to the field at a point case is
B on the equator of same magnet. The ratio of
distance of A and B from centre of magnet is (a) (b)
(a) 2-3 (b) 2-1/3
(c) 2-2/3 (d) 21/3 (c) (d)

(31) When a bar magnet is placed in a uniform (39) An arrangement of a long insulated wire wound
magnetic field, it experiences in a closely packed helix represents
(a) only force (a) solenoid (b) electric dipole
(b) only torque (c) magnetic needle (d) galvanometer
(c) both force and torque
(40) In order to have a strong electromagnet it must
(d) no force, no torque
have
(32) The number of electrons flowing in a current (a) high value of saturation magnetisation
carrying circular coil per second having area (b) low retentivity
2 m2 and magnetic moment 8 Am2 is
(c) low hysteresis loss
(a) 5 × 1018 (b) 2.5 × 1018
(d) all of these
(c) 25 × 1018 (d) 6.25 × 1018
(33) A current carrying coil represents Answers
(a) an electric dipole (1) 0.8 Am2 (2) perpendicular to uniform magnetic field
(b) a magnetic dipole of unit induction (3) ∞ (4) near the poles (5) equator
(c) a bar magnet (6) 7.5 × 10-4 N m (7) 0.01 T (8) perpendicular to both
(d) a horse shoe magnet and (9) It depends on the area of cross section of magnet
(10) 3 × 10-5 Wb/m2 (11) continuous (12) magnetic moment
(34) The magnitude of magnetic induction at a point of atom (13) 1.12 m2 (14) along the axis, perpendicular
in a magnetic field of area 25 cm2 and magnetic
flux 5 × 10-4 Wb is to the plane (15) (16) 3 × 10-8 N/Am, directed from
(a) 0.02 T (b) 0.2 Wb/m2 N-pole to S-pole (17) 4 × 10-4 T (18) –3 (19) 7.5 × 10-4 T A-1 m
(c) 200 gauss (d) 0.02 N/A m (20) magnetic equator, magnetic poles (21) both a and b
(35) The pole strength of a magnet is (22) (23)randomdirections(24)
(a) vector quantity with SI unit A – m
(25) 5 A (26) all of these (27) 10-4 tesla (28) using core
(b) scalar quantity with SI unit A/m
of high permeability(29) 2 : 1 (30) 21/3 (31) only torque
(c) vector quantity with SI unit A/m
(32) 25 × 1018 (33) a magnetic dipole (34) 0.2 Wb/m2
(d) scalar quantity with SI unit A - m (35) scalar quantity with SI unit A - m (36) 90°
(36) Magnetic flux is defined as number of magnetic (37) magnetic equator (38) (39) solenoid
lines of forces passing through a given area, (40) all of these
vvv
Magnetism 331

ASSIGNMENT - 13
Time : 1 hour Marks : 20

Q.1. Attempt any Five questions. (10)

(1) Define and explain magnetic declination of earth’s magnetic field.

(2) Define and explain magnetic induction.

(3) A flat circular coil of 20 turns and radius 10 cm carries current of 10 A. Find the magnetic dipole
moment of the coil.

(4) Find the magnetic induction at an axial point 30 cm away from a short magnetic dipole of moment
15 Am2. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am]

(5) Explain the equivalence between a magnetic dipole and current carrying coil.

(6) Find the magnetic moment of a small circular coil of 100 turns each of area 50 cm2 when a current of
0.1 A is flowing through the coil.

Q.2. Attempt any Two questions. (6)

(1) Derive an equation for torque acting on short magnetic dipole kept in a uniform magnetic field.

(2) (a) Show that the magnitude of magnetic induction at a point on the axis of a short bar magnet
is twice the magnitude of magnetic induction at a point on the equator at the same distance.
(b) The magnetic induction at an axial point is equal to the magnetic induction at an equatorial
point. Calculate the ratio of their distances from the centre of the dipole.

(3) Calculate the magnetic moment of a short magnet which produces a magnetic induction of
10 x 10-4 T, at a point along its axis at a distance of 20 cm from its centre. [µ0 = 4π × 10-7 Wb/Am]

Q.3. Attempt any One question : (4)

(1) Derive an expression for magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a bar magnet. Also deduce
an expression for magnetic induction due to short dipole.

(2) (a) Define and explain magnetic dipole moment.

(b) A bar magnet of geometric length 18 cm has pole strength 100 Am. Find the magnetic dipole
moment of the bar magnet.

vvv
14 Electromagnetic Waves

Points to Remember:
• Wave motion is defined as the motion of an oscillatory disturbance travelling through a medium
without change of form usually for the transfer of energy.
• The electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum as well as through solids, liquids and
gases.
• In 1820, A.D. Oersted discovered that a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field
around it.
• In 1888, H.R. Hertz succeeded in producing and detecting the existence of electromagnetic
waves.
• In 1895, an Indian Physicist, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, produced electromagnetic waves
ranging in wavelengths from 5 mm to 25 mm.
• In 1896, an Italian Physicist, G. Marconi, became the first to establish wireless communication
when he transmitted and received signals across English Channel, a distance of about 48 km.
• The velocity of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is given by

• In 1895, German Physicist Wilhelm Conrad Rontgen discovered x-rays and it is called as
Rontgen rays.
• Rontgen rays are high energy electromagnetic waves having very short wavelengths ranging
nearly from 10-11 m to 10-8 m.
• In 1801, ultraviolet rays were discovered by Ritter.
• Ultraviolet rays are electromagnetic waves of short wavelengths ranging nearly from 10-8 m
to 4 × 10-7 m.
• The sun is the most important natural source of ultraviolet rays.
• Visible light is the most familiar form of electromagnetic waves.
• Electromagnetic waves are having wavelengths ranging from 4 × 10-7 m to 8 × 10-7 m and it is
called as visible light.
• The wavelengths of red colour are larger, while those of violet colour are smaller, i.e. λr > λv
• The wavelength ranges of different colours are different.
• In 1800, Dr. David Horsell discovered Infrared rays. They are having wavelengths ranging
nearly from 10-6 m to 10-4 m.
• As the electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of wave propagation, the electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature.
• The orderly distribution of electromagnetic waves according to their wavelengths in the form
of distinct groups having different properties is called the electromagnetic spectrum.

(332)
Electromagnetic Waves 333

• SI unit of frequency of electromagnetic waves is expressed as ‘hertz’ (Hz).

i.e. 1 KHz = 1000 Hz, 1 MHz = 106 Hz, 1 GHz = 109 Hz
• The wavelength of electromagnetic waves is expressed in metre.
• 1 µm = 10-6 m, 1 Å = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm, 1 nm = 10-9 m.
• Gamma rays were discovered by Willard.
• The Gamma rays have wavelengths ranging nearly from 10-12 m to 10-10m.
• The microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having frequencies in the range 5 × 109 Hz to
1 × 1012 Hz.
• Radio waves are electromagnetic waves having very long wavelengths ranging from few
centimetres to few hundred kilometres.
• A very important part of the lower atmosphere very close to the earth’s surface is called the
troposphere.
• The layer above the troposphere is called the stratosphere.
• The part of the stratosphere extending from 15 km to 50 km above the earth’s surface contains
ozone along with the other gases. This part is called the ozone layer.
• The layer above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere.
• The ionosphere is useful in the propagation of sky waves.
• There are three modes at propagation of the radio waves.

MASTER KEY QUESTION SET - 14 in the surrounding region which gives rise to an
electric field.
14.1 Electromagnetic waves and their characteristics (v) If the accelerated charge is oscillating, both the
Q.1. Define and explain electromagnetic waves. electric and magnetic fields vary with time and
(2 marks) they travel outwards from the charge in the form
of electromagnetic waves.
Ans. The transverse waves generated by two mutually
perpendicular changing electric and magnetic Q.2. Explain Hertz’s experiment for production of
fields and which do not require medium for electromagnetic waves. (2 marks)
propagation are called electromagnetic waves. Ans.
(i) The electric and magnetic fields are mutually (i) The experimental setup used by Hertz to
perpendicular to each other. produce and detect electromagnetic wave is as
(ii) The direction of propagation of electromagnetic shown in Fig. 14.1.
waves is perpendicular to both electric and (ii) The transmitter consists of two spheres S1 and
magnetic fields, hence the electromagnetic S2 located near the ends of two straight rods A
waves are transverse in nature. and B separated by a spark gap S.
(iii) The electromagnetic waves are produced by (iii) With the two rods connected to an induction
accelerated electric charges. coil I, sparks jump across the gap S, giving rise
(iv) An accelerated charge produces a magnetic field to oscillatory currents in A and B.
334 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(iv) The spheres S 1 and S 2 act as the plates of New Foundland and Cornwall, across the
a capacitor and the rods A and B provide Atlantic ocean. He was awarded the Nobel prize
inductance. Hence, the transmitter acts as an in Physics in 1909, for his work in developing
oscillator circuit. wireless telegraphy, telephony and broadcasting.
(v) The receiver consists of a single loop of wire
Q.3. Explain the propagation of electromagnetic
with a tiny spark gap at R. This circuit is also an
waves. (3 marks)
oscillating circuit with the spark gap acting as a
Ans.
capacitor and the loop providing the inductance.
(i) According to Huygen’s wave theory each
point source sends out waves in all directions
propagated by the motion of the particles of the
hypothetical medium.
(ii) The continuous locus of all the particles, which
Fig. 14.1 Hertz’s Experimental Setup
are vibrating in the same phase is called the
wavefront.
(vi) Tuning the transmitter frequency to that of the
(iii) To explain propagation of wavefront, Huygen
receiver is done by sliding the spheres S1 and S2
considered two basic postulates and these
along the rods A and B.
constitute Huygen’s principle. These are as
(vii) When the two circuits are tuned, a spark appears
follows :
across R, whenever a spark passes across S.
(a) Each point on the wave front acts as a centre
(viii) With this apparatus, Hertz was able to produce
of new disturbance called secondary wavelets,
electromagnetic waves having wavelengths of
about 6 m. which travel in all directions with velocity of
light.
(ix) He also demonstrated that these waves
undergo reflection, refraction, interference etc. (b) The common envelop of all wavelets, in the
similar to the light waves i.e. light waves are forward direction, gives the position of new
electromagnetic waves. wavefront at any subsequent time.
(x) Using a large prism of paraffin, Hertz (iv) The velocity of electromagnetic waves is the
demonstrated that the waves could be refracted, ratio of amplitudes of electric and magnetic
deviated and with a lens made of pitch, he fields. The velocity of electromagnetic waves in
focussed the waves as a glass lens focussing any medium can be given as
visible light.

Note: (Extra information for understanding not to
be included in the answer) where, µ0 is permeability and e0 is permittivity
(1) In 1895, an Indian physicist, Sir Jagdish Chandra of free space or vacuum.
Bose, produced electromagnetic waves, ranging (v) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in any
in wavelengths from 5 cm to 25 mm. His work, medium can be given as
however, remained confined to laboratory only.

(2) In 1896, an Italian physicist, G. Marconi, became
the first to establish wireless communication where, µ is permeability and e is permittivity of
when he transmitted and received signals across the medium.
English channel, a distance of about 48 km. (vi) The velocity of electromagnetic waves calculated
(3) Later, in 1901, Marconi succeeded in by above equations is equal to the velocity of
establishing wireless communication between light.
Electromagnetic Waves 335

(vii) If electric field (Ey) is along the y-axis and varies (viii) Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of
sinusoidally with × at any given time and superposition.
magnetic field (Bz) is along z-axis and varying
(ix) Electromagnetic waves are not affected due to
sinusoidally with x, we can write Ey and Bz as :
external electric and magnetic fields.
Ey = E0 sin (kx – wt)
(x) The energy carried by electromagnetic waves
Bz = B0 sin (kx – wt)
is distributed equally in electric and magnetic
where, k is related to wavelength l as, fields.
(xi) The intensity of electromagnetic waves is
Here, k is the magnitude of wave vector (or the energy crossing per second per unit area
propagation vector) and its direction describes perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
the direction of propagation of wave.
(xii) The optical effect of electromagnetic wave is due
(viii) If we represent electric field ( ) along y-axis to its electric field vector. Hence the electric field
and magnetic field ( ) along z-axis, then the vector is called light vector.
direction of propagation ( × ) will be along
(xiii) Electromagnetic waves possess momentum since
x- axis.
they carry energy, and as a result, they exert
*Q.4. State the characteristics of electromagnetic pressure on surfaces at which they are incident.
waves. (2 marks)
Ans. 14.2 Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves
(i) Accelerated or oscillating charge is the source
*Q.5. Explain the transverse nature of electromagnetic
of generation of electromagnetic waves.
waves. (2 marks)
(ii) When electromagnetic waves propagate through
Ans.
space, then time varying electric and magnetic
fields are mutually perpendicular to each other
and also perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of wave. Hence electromagnetic
waves are transverse in nature.
(iii) Electromagnetic waves do not require material
medium for its propagation.
(iv) Electromagnetic waves propagate through free
space with the velocity of light but through other
medium. Its velocity depends on electric and
Fig. 14.2: Electromagnetic wave propagating along x-axis.
magnetic properties of that medium.
(v) At any instant, the ratio of magnitudes of electric
and magnetic fields gives the velocity of waves
and it is equal to the velocity of light.
(vi) In electromagnetic waves, the time varying
electric and magnetic fields are the sources of
each other, i.e. they maintain each other.
(vii) Both the electric and magnetic fields attain their Fig. 14.3: E.M. Wave
maximum and minimum values at the same It is known that the electromagnetic waves are
time and at the same point in space, i.e. they produced by accelerated electric charges. An
oscillate in same phase with same frequency. accelerated charge produces a magnetic field in
336 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

the surrounding region which gives rise to an

14.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
electric field. The electric and magnetic fields
*Q.7. What is electromagnetic spectrum? (2 marks)
are mutually perpendicular to each other. If the
Ans. The orderly distribution i.e. sequential
accelerated charge is oscillating, both the electric
arrangement of electromagnetic waves according
and magnetic fields vary with time and they
to their wavelengths or frequencies in the form
travel outwards from the charge in the form of
of distinct groups having different properties is
electromagnetic waves.
called the electromagnetic spectrum.
If is along the Y-axis, is along the Z-axis,
the direction of propagation is along the X-axis The complete electromagnetic spectrum in the
as shown in Fig. 14.2. (The fields are shown as order of increasing wavelength (decreasing
functions of × co-ordinate at given time t.) frequency) extends from gamma rays to radio
A single electromagnetic wave propagating waves. The major regions of the spectrum are:
perpendicular to both electric and magnetic (i) Gamma rays (ii) X-rays (iii) Ultraviolet
fields in magnified form is as shown in Fig. 14.3 rays (iv) Visible light (v) Infrared rays
The magnetic field and electric field both vary (vi) Microwaves (vii) Radio waves.
sinusoidally with x. We can write Ey and Bz as
follows.
Ey = E0 sin (kx – wt)
Bz = B0 sin (kx – wt)
where, E 0 is the amplitude of the electric
intensity , B0 is the amplitude of the magnetic
induction . is propagation constant
and l is the wavelength of oscillations, ω = 2 pn
is the angular frequency of oscillations. Both
the electric and magnetic fields attain their
maximum (and minimum) values at the same
time and at the same point in space, i.e. they
oscillate in same phase with same frequency.
From figure, it can be seen that propagation of
electromagnetic field is in the direction of × .
As the electric and magnetic fields are mutually
perpendicular to each other and to the direction
of wave propagation, the electromagnetic waves
are transverse in nature.

Intext question textbook pg. no. 178

*Q.6. Is it possible to polarize the electromagnetic
waves?
(1 mark)
Ans. Yes, polarization is the property for transverse
waves. If the electromagnetic field vectors are Fig. 14.4: Electromagnetic spectrum
confined to one place containing the direction
of propagation, the electromagnetic waves are *Q.8. Explain different parts of electromagnetic
said to be plane polarized or linearly polarized. spectrum. (2 marks)
Electromagnetic Waves 337

Ans. Following table shows electromagnetic spectrum (iv) Visible light :

with frequency range and wavelength range: (a) This is a narrow band of electromagnetic waves
Name Frequency (Hz) Wavelength (m) which the human eye is able to detect.
(b) The frequencies of these waves range from
Gamma (γ) rays 5 × 10 - 3 × 10
20 18
6 × 10-13 - 1 × 10-10
4 × 1014 Hz to 8 × 1014 Hz or their wavelengths
X-Rays 3 × 1018 - 1 × 1016 1 × 10-10 - 3 × 10-8
range from 3750 Å to 7500 Å.
Ultraviolet rays 1 × 1016 - 8 × 1014 3 × 10-8 - 4 × 10-7
(c) They are produced when excited atoms return
Visible light 8 × 1014 - 4 × 1014 4 × 10-7 - 8 × 10-7 to their normal state.
Infrared rays 4 × 1014 - 1 × 1012 8 × 10-7 - 3 × 10-4 (d) A special branch of physics called optics is
Microwaves 1 × 1012 - 5 × 109 3 × 10-4 - 6 × 10-2 devoted to study of visible light.
5 × 1011 - 8 × 1010 6 × 10-4 - 1 × 105
(e) Each colour is due to a small range of wavelengths
Radio waves
in the visible spectrum. These ranges are given
(i) γ - rays:
in the following table.
(a) Gamma rays were discovered by Paul Willard.
Colour Wavelength (Å)
(b) These radiations lie in the upper frequency range.
Violet 3750 to 4250
(c) These radiations are produced in nuclear
Indigo 4250 to 4500
reactions and also in radioactive radiations.
Blue 4500 to 4900
(d) These radiations are also produced in electron-
Green 4900 to 5750
positron annihilation process.
Yellow 5750 to 6000
(e) These rays are useful to study the structure of
Orange 6000 to 6200
nucleus and to cure cancer and tumour.
Red 6200 to 7500
(f) Gamma rays are detected with Geiger counter.
(ii) X-rays: (v) Infrared rays:
(a) In 1895, German physicist Wilhelm Conrad (a) Infrared rays were discovered by Sir Frederick
Rontgen discovered X-rays while studying William Herschel in 1800 AD.
cathode rays. Hence, X-rays are also called (b) All hot bodies are sources of infrared rays.
Rontgen rays. About 60 % of the solar radiations are infrared
(b) X-rays are familiar due to their medical in nature.
applications. (c) These radiations are useful in physical therapy
(c) X-rays are produced when high speed electrons in medical field.
are suddenly stopped by an obstacle. (d) These radiations are also used in green house
to maintain average temperature through green
(d) X-rays are produced by using Coolidge X-ray
house effect.
tube in a laboratory.
(e) The thermocouple, thermopile, bolometer are
(e) X-rays are useful to detect the fracture in bones.
used to detect infrared rays.
(f) X-rays are also used to stop the growth of cancer
and tumour because they kill living tissues. (vi) Microwaves:
(g) They are also useful to detect flaws in metals. (a) These waves are produced by alternating
(iii) Ultraviolet rays: currents in special vacuum tubes called
(a) Ultraviolet rays were discovered by Johan Ritter klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes.
in 1801 AD. (b) They are useful in RADAR, T.V., microwave
(b) They can be produced by the arcs of mercury oven etc.
and iron. They can also be obtained by passing (vii) Radio waves:
discharge through hydrogen and xenon. (a) These waves are produced by electronic circuits
(c) Sun is the main source of ultraviolet radiations. like oscillator.
(d) These radiations are harmful for human body. (b) These waves are useful for radio communication
(e) The ozone layer of atmosphere absorbs most of and T.V. communication.
these radiations. (c) They are also used in mobile phones.
338 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

*Q.9. State a few properties and uses of the following (6) They can kill living plant and animal tissues,
waves : (3 marks) hence long exposure to X-rays is harmful.
(i) γ – rays (ii) X-rays (iii) Ultraviolet rays
(b) Uses:
(iv) Infrared rays (v) Microwaves (vi) Radio
(1) X-rays are used to study the structure of crystals.
waves
(2) They are used to distinguish real diamonds,
Ans.
gems from artificial ones.
(i) γ – rays
(3) In surgery, X-ray photographs are useful to
(a) Properties:
detect bone fracture or the presence of foreign
(1) These rays are highly penetrating and they can objects like bullets or hidden metal in a human
penetrate through thick iron and lead blocks. body.
(2) They possess a moderate ionising power. (4) X-rays are used to cure skin diseases and to
(3) They affect photographic plates. destroy tumours in the body of a patient.
(4) They kill living cells on which they are incident. (5) They are used to detect flaws or cracks in metals.
(5) They can produce fluorescence in substances like (6) They are used for detection of explosives, opium
willemite, zinc sulphide, barium platinocyanide, etc.
etc.
(iii) Ultraviolet rays:
(6) They knock out electrons from the surface on
(a) Properties:
which they are incident.
(1) They affect photographic plates.
(b) Uses: (2) They produce fluorescence in certain materials.
(1) They are used as insect disinfectants for wheat (3) They cause photoelectric effect. When they are
and flour. incident on metal surfaces, electrons are emitted
(2) The γ rays are used for the preservation of food. by these surfaces.
(3) The γ rays are used in radiotherapy for the (4) Ultraviolet rays cannot pass through glass but
treatment of cancer and tumour. they can pass through quartz, fluorite, rock salt,
(4) They are used in nuclear reactions. etc.
(5) They possess the property of synthesizing
(ii) X-rays: vitamin D, when the skin is exposed to sunlight.
(a) Properties:
(b) Uses:
(1) They affect photographic plates.
(1) Ultraviolet rays destroy bacteria and hence they
(2) They are not deflected by electric or magnetic
are used for sterilizing surgical instruments.
field.
(2) Being invisible, ultraviolet rays are used in
(3) They produce fluorescence in many substances
burglar alarms.
like zinc sulphide, barium platinocyanide, etc.
(3) They are used in high resolving power
(4) They have a high penetrating power and they
microscopes.
can penetrate through paper, thin sheets of
metal, wood, skin, flesh, etc. However, they (4) Ultraviolet rays are used in the study of
cannot penetrate through denser objects like molecular structure.
bones, heavy metals, etc. (5) They are used to distinguish real and artificial
(5) When X-rays are incident on metal surfaces, gems.
electrons are emitted from these surfaces. This (6) They are used in the analysis of chemical
is called photo-electric effect. compounds.
Electromagnetic Waves 339

(iv) Infrared rays: (4) They are used in RADAR systems for the
(a) Properties : location of distant objects like ships, aeroplanes
etc.
(1) Infrared rays obey the laws of reflection and
refraction. (5) They are used in the study of atomic and
molecular structure.
(2) When infrared rays are incident on any object,
the temperature of the object increases. (vi) Radiowaves:
(3) They affect photographic plates. (a) Properties:
(4) They can produce interference and can be (1) They obey laws of reflection and refraction.
polarized. (2) Radio waves get diffracted from obstacles
(5) These rays are strongly absorbed by glass. coming in their path as radio waves have quite
large wavelength.
(6) They can penetrate through thick columns of
fog and mist. (b) Uses:

(b) Uses: (1) Radio waves are used for wireless communication
purposes.
(1) Infrared rays are used in long distance
photography. Photographs can be taken in (2) They are used for radio broadcasting and
complete darkness by using the infrared film. transmission of T.V. signals.
(3) Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit
(2) They are used in diagnosis of superficial
voice communication in the ultra high frequency
tumours and varicose veins.
(UHF) band.
(3) They are used to cure infantile paralysis and to
treat sprains, dislocations and fractures. 14.4 Propagation of Electromagnetic
(4) They are used in solar water heaters and solar Waves in the Atmosphere
cookers. Q.10. Write a short note on earth’s atmosphere.
(5) Infrared rays are used in medicine. (3 marks)
(6) Special infrared photographs of the body, called Ans. The gaseous envelope surrounding the earth is
thermograms, can show up diseased parts as called atmosphere.
they radiate less heat than the healthy parts. Earth’s atmosphere is spread upto 400 km above
(7) They are used to keep green house warm. its surface. Earth’s atmosphere is divided into
(8) They are used in remote controls of T.V., V.C.R., different layers which are shown in Fig. 14.5.
etc. These layers have no sharp boundary.

(v) Microwaves:
(a) Properties:
(1) They obey the laws of reflection and refraction.
(2) They heat an object on which they are incident.

(b) Uses:
(1) Microwaves are used for the transmission of
T.V. signals. Fig. 14.5: Different layers of the atmosphere.
(2) They are used for long distance telephone (i) Troposphere :
communication. (a) This layer of atmosphere is nearly up to a height
(3) Microwave ovens are used for cooking. of 12 km from earth’s surface.
340 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(b) The density of this layer varies from 1 kg/m3 (e) At the end of this region, electron density
at earth’s surface to 0.1 kg/m3 at the top of this suddenly falls to zero.
layer. (f) Again at a height 250 km, there is a highly
(c) The temperature of this layer decreases with concentrated electron layer which is known as
height from 290 K to 220 K. appleton layer.
(g) Thus, ionosphere consists of three main layers
(d) This layer contains all the water vapours of
known as thermosphere, Kennelly Heaviside
atmosphere.
layer and appleton layer.
(e) It is the source of air that we breathe. Dust,
(h) The ionosphere reflects back radiowaves
smoke, pollen grains, salt, organic materials are
transmitted from the earth and so it is important
present in it.
in radio communication.
(ii) Stratosphere: *Q.11. What is ozone layer? What an important
(a) This layer of atmosphere lies between 12 km to purpose does it serve? (3 marks)
50 km from earth’s surface. Ans.
(i) The part of the stratosphere extending from 15
(b) The important part of stratosphere is ozone
km to 50 km above the earth’s surface contains
layer. The ozone layer lies between 15 km to 50
ozone along with the other gases. This part is
km.
called the ozone layer.
(c) The density of this layer changes from 0.1 kg/
(ii) The ozone layer absorbs large amount of
m3 to 10–3 kg/m3 and temperature varies from
ultraviolet radiations from sun and protects the
220 K to 280 K.
life on earth from its dangerous effects.
(iii) Mesosphere: *Q.12. Write notes on: (2 marks each)
(a) This layer of atmosphere lies between 50 km to (i) Ground wave propagation
80 km above the earth’s surface. (ii) Sky wave propagation
(b) The density of this layer varies from 10–3 kg/m3 (iii) Space wave propagation
to 10–5 kg/m3 and temperature varies from 290 Ans.
K to 180 K. (i) Ground wave propagation:
(a) Propagation of radiowave directly from one
(iv) Ionosphere: point to another point, very close to the surface
(a) When the molecules of air absorb solar energy, of earth along its curvature is called ground
they emit electrons, so that neutral molecules of wave propagation.
air get converted into positively and negatively
charged particles called the ions. The region
of the atmosphere extending from 80 km to Ionosphere
400 km above the earth’s surface contains the
ionosphere.
(b) This is the outermost layer of atmosphere and Sky waves
receives maximum energy from the sun.
T Space waves
(c) The temperature of this layer between 80 km
es

to 110 km varies from 180 K to 700 K. This high

av

R
w

temperature region is called as thermosphere.

d

Earth
un
ro

(d) Beyond thermosphere, there is a high density

G

layer of electrons which is known as Kennelly

Fig. 14.6: Three main modes of propagation of
Heaviside layer.
electromanetic waves
Electromagnetic Waves 341

(b) Ground waves can travel around the curvature (2) S k i p d i s t a n c e : I t i s t h e s h o r t e s t

of earth. distance from a transmitter, measured
(c) These waves can bend around the corners of an along the surface of the earth, at
object on the earth’s surface. which a sky wave of fixed frequency
(f > fc) will be returned to the earth.
(d) The radiowaves induce currents in the ground
and lose their energy by absorption. Therefore, (f) Sky wave propagation is useful for medium and
the intensity of ground waves decreases with high frequency radio waves for a long distance.
distance and they cannot propagate over a long
(iii) Space wave propagation:
distance.
(a) When the radiowaves from transmitting antenna
(e) If high frequency radio waves are used for
reaches the receiving antenna directly, or after
ground wave propagation, then its absorption
reflection from ground or troposphere, the wave
increases and signal becomes weak. Due to this
propagation is called space wave propagation.
reason, the ground wave propagation is suitable
for low frequency and medium frequency, i.e. (b) Space waves are radio waves of very high
upto 2 MHz only. Hence, it is also called as frequency from 30 MHz to 300 MHz and more.
medium wave propagation which is shown in (c) The very high frequency radio waves can
Fig. 14.6. penetrate through ionosphere and hence
they are not reflected. Therefore sky wave
(f) Ground wave propagation is generally used for
propagation is not useful for these waves.
local broadcasting.
(d) Space wave propagation is also called as
(g) The maximum range of ground wave propagation
tropospheric propagation.
depends on
(e) Space wave propagation is useful for T.V. and
(1) Frequency of radio waves used
RADAR communication.
(2) Power of transmitter
(f) Space wave communication has some limitations
(ii) Sky wave propagation: due to line of sight and due to curvature of
(a) When the radio waves from the transmitting earth. Line of sight is the distance between
antenna reaches the receiving antenna after transmitting and receiving antenna at which
reflection from the ionosphere is called sky wave they can directly see each other. Line of sight is
propagation. also called as range of communication.
(b) Sky waves are the radio waves of frequency (g) Thus the range of communication can
3 MHz to 30 MHz. be increased by increasing the heights of
(c) These waves propagate through sky from transmitting and receiving antenna so that the
transmitter to receiver antenna, hence they are effect of curvature of earth can be minimised.
known as sky waves.
Q.13. What is a communication satellite? (2 marks)
(d) The sky wave propagation is also known as
Ans.
ionospheric propagation as shown in Fig. 14.6.
(e) In the study of sky wave propagation, two terms (i) The basic principle of satellite communication
are very important : is that the satellite receives the electromagnetic
waves, amplifies it and returns to the earth.
(1) Critical frequency (fc): It is the maximum
value of the frequency of radiowave, (ii) A communication satellite, also known as a
reflected back to earth from the ionosphere, geostationary satellite, is an artificial satellite
when the waves are directed normally to orbiting round the earth in the same direction as
the ionosphere. the direction of earth’s spin and having the same
342 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

period as the period of rotation of the earth, i.e. Solved Problems

one day or 86,400 s.
(iii) It lies in the equatorial plane. Therefore, when (1) Using the formula
viewed from the earth, it appears to remain
stationary at a point above the equator. find c (2 marks)
(iv) The T.V. signals are sent from the transmitting
antenna to the satellite. The satellite receives Solution:
them, amplifies them, and then transmits them
back to earth.
(v) In this way, a much greater area of the earth’s
surface can be covered by the signals.
(vi) We can say that a communication satellite is
equivalent to a T.V. tower 35,940 km high.
(vii) The same principle is used in overseas
communication employing microwaves.
(viii) If R is the radius of earth and h is the height
of geostationary satellite, then velocity of the
geostationary satellite will be given as,

where, T is the period of geostationary satellite. \ c = 3 × 108 m/s

(2) Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium with

a speed of 2 × 108 m/s. The relative permeability
of the medium is 1. Find the relative permittivity.
(Speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum =
3 × 108 m/s) (3 makrks)

Solution: Speed of electromagnetic waves in medium

v = 2 × 108 m/s

and µr = 1

The speed of electromagnetic waves in a

Fig. 14.7 Satellite Communication
medium is given by,
Intext question textbook pg no. 184
*Q.14. Is it possible for one communication Satellite ... (1)
to propagate waves all over the world? Explain.
(1 mark)
where, µ and ε are absolute permeability and
Ans. No, one communication satellite orbit at a
absolute permittivity of the medium.
height of 35850 km from the surface of earth
can send waves which can roughly cover 1/3 µ = µ0µr and e = e0er
of global region. Therefore, three such satellites
∴ equation (1) becomes,
are required to cover the entire globe.
Electromagnetic Waves 343

Multiple Choice Questions

(1) Which of the following is NOT a part of
electromagnetic spectrum?
(a) visible light (b) infrared rays
(c) ultraviolet rays (d) cosmic rays
(2) Operators working on X-ray equipment have a
chance of getting skin disease due to
(a) gas generated by X-rays
(b) chemicals used in X-ray machine
(c) skin tissues are dying
(d) darkness in room
(3) The electromagnetic spectrum contains different
electromagnetic waves that
∴ εr = 2.25
(a) differ from one another in frequency not in
Additional Problems for Practice wavelength, have same source.
(1) Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium with (b) differ from one another in frequency, and
a speed of 1 × 10–8 ms–1 . The relative permeability wavelength, have same source.
of the medium is 1. Find the relative permittivity. (c) have same frequency and wavelength but
(3 marks) different source.
(2) A geostationary satellite has a speed of 3.1 km/s. (d) differ from one another in frequency and
Find its distance from the surface of the earth. wavelength.
[Radius of earth at the equator = 6,400 km] (4) In T.V. and V.C.R. remote control uses
(2 marks) (a) ultra violet rays (b) visible light
Answers (c) infrared rays (d) microwaves
(1) 9 (2) 36,200km (5) The natural source of Ultraviolet rays is
Important Formulae (a) moon (b) sun
(1) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in any (c) ozone layer (d) Uranus
medium can be given as (6) Radio waves and visible light in vacuum have
(a) same velocity and different wavelength
(b) same velocity and same wavelength
where, µ0 is permeability and e0 is permittivity (c) different velocity and same wavelength
of free space or vacuum.
(d) different velocity and different wavelength
(2) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in any
(7) For television transmission, the frequency
medium can be given as employed is normally in the range
(a) 30-300 GHz (b) 30-300 MHz
where, µ is permeability and e is permittivity of (c) 30-300 kHz (d) 30-300 Hz
the medium. (8) The shortest distance from a transmitter
(3) If R is the radius of earth and h is the height measured along the surface of the earth at which
of geostationary satellite, then velocity of the the sky wave of fixed frequency returns to the
ground is called as
geostationary satellite will be given as,
(a) skip distance (b) horizontal distance
(c) vertical distance (d) range
where, T is the period of geostationary satellite.
344 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(9) The ground wave eventually disappears, as one (16) Electromagnetic waves were first produced in
moves away from the transmitter, because of the laboratory by
(a) interference from the sky waves (a) Marconi (b) J. C. Bose
(b) loss of line of sight condition (c) Maxwell (d) Hertz
(c) maximum single hop distance limitation (17) The ………..% of the solar radiations are infrared
(d) induced currents in the ground in nature.
(10) Dimensions of , are (a) 25 (b) 30 (c) 60 (d) 80
(a) [L-1M0T1] (b) [L2M0T2] (18) Ultraviolet rays can NOT pass through
(c) [L2M0T-2] (d) [L1M0T-1] (a) quartz (b) fluorite
(11) High frequency waves can be transmitted over (c) glass (d) rock salt
(a) short distance on the earth (19) The air in the stratosphere contains
(b) a certain range which is small (a) dust and little moisture
(c) large distance (b) smoke
(d) water bodies such as seas and oceans only (c) high moisture and dust
(12) Cellular phones use radio waves to transmit (d) pollen grains and organic materials
voice communication in the (20) Which of the following statement is NOT
(a) ultra high frequency (UHF) band CORRECT?
(b) medium high frequency (MHF) band (a) Infrared rays are invisible but can cast
(c) low frequency (LF) band shadows like visible light.
(d) very high frequency (VHF) band (b) Photographic plates are sensitive to
(13) Ultraviolet rays are used in burglar alarm ultraviolet rays.
because (c) Photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays.
(a) they are visible by naked eye (d) Infrared photons have more energy than
(b) they produce electricity photons of visible light.
(c) they do not produce electric current (21) The radio waves reflected from ………… are
(d) they are invisible called space wave.
(14) Wavelength and frequency range of visible (a) troposphere (b) ionosphere
light are (c) stratosphere (d) ozone layer
(a) wavelength 4 × 10–7m to 8 × 10–7m and (22) The special infrared photograph of the body to
frequency 4 × 1014Hz to 8 × 1014Hz see diseased parts is called
(b) wavelength 2 × 10–7m to 4 × 10–7m and (a) Thermogram (b) Videograph
frequency 2 × 1014Hz to 4 × 1014Hz (c) Cardiograph (d) Sonograph
(c) wavelength 10–7m to 3 × 10–7m and frequency (23) In the diagnosis of superficial tumours and
9 × 1010Hz to 9 × 1014Hz varicose veins which of the following rays are
(d) wavelength 7 × 10–7m to 9.5 × 10–7m and used?
frequency 4 × 1014Hz to 7 × 1014Hz (a) Infrared rays (b) Ultraviolet rays
(15) X-rays are produced by using cathode rays (fast (c) Gamma rays (d) Radio waves
moving electrons) when (24) The sound waves after being converted into
(a) they are cooled electrical waves are not transmitted because
(b) they are accelerated (a) they travel with the speed of the sound
(c) they are suddenly stopped by an obstacle (b) the frequency is not constant
(d) they are slowed down by applying electric (c) they are heavily absorbed by the atmosphere
field (d) they have different frequencies
Electromagnetic Waves 345

(25) In a plane of electromagnetic wave the electric (a) ionizing effect (b) photoelectric effect
field oscillates sinusoidally at a frequency of (c) polishing effect (d) Raman’s effect
2 × 10 10 Hz and amplitude 48 Vm -1 . The
(33) Ultraviolet rays can be produced
wavelength of wave is
(a) by passing discharge through hydrogen
(a) 24 × 10-10m (b) 1.5 × 10-2m
and xenon
(c) 4.16 × 108m (d) 3 × 108m
(b) in Coolidge tube
(26) When electromagnetic waves travel through a (c) by using sodium vapour lamp
medium (d) from nuclei of radioactive material
(a) they carry the particles with them
(34) The ………. electromagnetic waves are
(b) they do not carry the particles with them
unaffected by external electric and magnetic
(c) sometimes they carry particles fields
(d) they carry only fuel particles (a) high frequency (b) low frequency
(27) Which of the following relation is correct? (c) high voltage (d) low voltage
(a) (b) (35) The wavelength range of X-rays are
(c) (d) (a) 10–11m to 108m (b) 1011m to 10–8m
(28) Michael Faraday showed that (c) 108m to 1011m (d) 10–11m to 10–8m
(a) a varying magnetic field induces an e.m.f. (36) X-rays can detect
in the coil
(a) purity of gold (b) explosives
(b) a current carrying conductor produces
(c) structure strength of material
magnetic field
(d) bacteria
(c) two long straight current carrying wires
repel each other (37) Which of the following relation is correct?
(d) a moving charge produces a magnetic field (a) kHz < MHz < GHz
in the surrounding space. (b) kHz > MHz < GHz
(c) kHz < MHz > GHz
(29) Both the electric and magnetic fields attain their
maximum and minimum values (d) kHz > MHz > GHz
(a) one after the other (38) Ultraviolet rays of sunlight when incident on
(b) with a difference of half period the skin produce
(c) at the same time (a) vitamin D (b) vitamin E
(d) after a certain calculated time (c) vitamin A (d) vitamin F

(30) Electromagnetic waves follow the principle of (39) The microwaves are produced by
(a) universal attraction (a) oscillator electric circuits containing a
(b) superposition capacitor and an inductor
(c) superposition applied for electric field only (b) excitation of atoms
(d) superposition applied for magnetic field (c) arcs of iron
only (d) arcs of carbon

(31) The electromagnetic waves are (40) Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves
(a) longitudinal in nature having frequencies in the range
(b) stationary in nature (a) 4 × 1014Hz to 8 × 1014Hz
(c) transverse in nature (b) 1 × 1012Hz to 4 × 1014Hz
(d) polarising waves (c) 5 × 109Hz to 1 × 1012Hz
(d) 1 × 1011Hz to 5 × 108Hz
(32) When X-rays are incident on metal surface they
show (41) For wireless communication purposes ……….
346 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

are used. (49) To induce an e.m.f. in the coil

(a) ultra violet rays (b) infrared rays (a) high temperature is required
(c) visible rays (d) radio waves (b) string winding is required
(42) Beyond mesosphere there is ionosphere in which (c) constant electromagnetic field only is
(a) temperature begins to decrease as height chosen
increases (d) varying electromagnetic field is required
(b) temperature begins to increase as height (50) Which of the following waves are not
increases electromagnetic waves?
(c) the temperature is minimum and uniform (a) water waves (b) U.V. rays
throughout the layer (c) X-ray (d) microwaves
(d) no ions are formed Answers
(43) Ozone layer is present in (1) cosmic rays (2) skin tissues are dying (3) differ
(a) troposphere (b) stratosphere from one another in frequency and wavelength.
(c) ionosphere (d) mesosphere (4) infrared rays (5) sun (6) same velocity and
different wavelength (7) 30-300 MHz (8) skip distance
(44) In mesosphere, as the height increases, the
(9) induced currents in the ground (10) [L1M0T–1]
temperature
(11) large distance (12) ultra high frequency (UHF)
(a) increases (b) remains constant band (13) they are invisible (14) wavelength 4 × 10–7m
(c) decreases (d) becomes zero to 8 × 10–7m and frequency 4 × 1014Hz to 8 × 1014Hz
(45) Ozone layer in the atmosphere is useful (15) they are suddenly stopped by an obstacle (16) J. C. Bose
because it (17) 60 (18) glass (19) dust and little moisture
(a) stops greenhouse effect (20) Infrared photons have more energy than photons
(b) stops ultraviolet radiation of visible light. (21) troposphere (22) Thermogram
(c) absorbs pollutant gases (23) Infrared rays (24) they are heavily absorbed by the
atmosphere (25) 1.5 × 10–2m (26) they do not carry the
(d) stops increase in temperature of atmosphere
particles with them (27) (28) a varying
(46) The lower layer of the earth’s atmosphere is magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in the coil (29) at the
called same time (30) superposition (31) transverse in nature
(a) stratosphere (b) mesosphere (32) photoelectric effect (33) by passing discharge
(c) ionosphere (d) troposphere through hydrogen and xenon (34) low frequency
(47) Frequencies in the UHF band normally (35) 10–11m to 10–8m (36) explosives (37) kHz < MHz
propagate by means of < GHz (38) vitamin D (39) oscillator electric circuits
(a) ground waves (b) space waves containing a capacitor and an inductor (40) 5 × 109Hz
(c) sky waves (d) surface waves to 1 × 1012Hz (41) radio waves (42) temperature begins
to increase as height increases (43) stratosphere
(48) The number of geostationary satellites needed (44) decreases (45) stops ultraviolet radiation
for uninterrupted global coverage is (46) troposphere (47) space waves (48) 3 (49) varying
(a) 1 (b) 2 electromagnetic field is required (50) water waves
(c) 3 (d) 4

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Electromagnetic Waves 347

ASSESSMENT - 14
Time : 30 min Marks : 20

Q.1 Attempt any FIVE questions: (10)

(1) Define and explain electromagnetic waves

(2) State the properties and uses of radio waves.

(3) A geostationary satellite has a speed of 3.1 km/s. Find its distance from the surface of the earth.
[Radius of earth at the equator = 6,400 km]

(4) State a few properties and uses of ultraviolet rays.

(5) Using the formula find c.

(6) Calculate the speed of a communication satellite if it is orbiting round the earth at a distance of
42,350 km from the centre of the earth.

Q.2 Attempt any TWO questions: (6)

(1) Electromagnetic waves travel in a medium with a speed of 1 × 108ms–1. The relative permeability
of the medium is 1. Find the relative permittivity.

(2) Explain Hertz’s experiment for production of electromagnetic waves.

(3) Write a note on ground wave propagation.

Q.3 Attempt any ONE question: (4)

(1) Explain the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

(2) State the characteristics of electromagnetic waves.

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348 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

MODEL QUESTION PAPER - I

Time : 3 Hr Marks : 70
Chapter - 1 to 7

General Instructions
(i) All questions are compulsory.
(ii) Section A contains Q.No. 1 to 4 of Multiple Choice questions carrying 1 mark each.
Q.No. 5 to 8 of Very Short Answer (VSA) type of questions carrying 1 mark each.
(iii) Section B contains Q.No. 9 to 18 of Short Answer (SA) type questions carrying 2 marks each.
Internal choice is provided to only one question.
(iv) Section C contains Q.No. 19 to 27 of Short Answer (SA) type questions carrying 3 marks each.
Internal choice is provided to only one question.
(v) Section D contains Q.No. 28 to 30 of Long Answer (LA) type questions carrying 5 marks each.
Internal choice is provided to each question.

SECTION A
(1) If , find the vector when added to which will give unit vector
along x-axis.
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(2) Select the CORRECT statement
(a) Distance is always positive and it never decreases with time.
(b) Distance is always positive and it decreases with time.
(c) Distance can be negative and it never decreases with time.
(d) Distance can be positive or negative and it may increase or decrease with time.
(3) In a hydraulic lift, F1 and F2 are the forces acting on the small piston and large piston having radii
r1 and r2 respectively, then

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(4) The temperature of the surface of the sun is about 6500º C. What is this temperature in kelvin scale?
(a) 6227 K (b) 6500 K (c) 6773 K (d) 6873 K
(5) Find the dimensions of work.
(6) Define coefficient of restitution.
(7) Explain the effect of change in humidity on speed of sound in air.
(8) State the triangle law of vector addition.
SECTION B
(9) Find the angle of projection at which the horizontal range is twice the maximum height of a projectile.
(10) State the laws of static friction.
OR
Calculate the viscous force acting on a rain drop of diameter 2 mm, falling with a uniform velocity
2 m/s through the air. The coefficient of viscosity of air is 1.8 × 10–5 Ns/m2.
Model Test Paper - I 349

(11) Define and explain specific heat.

(12) The diameter of metal bob is measured by means of micrometer screw gauge as 2.46 cm. If the least
count of the screw gauge is 0.001 cm, calculate the percentage error in the measurement.
(13) Define unit vector and give its physical significance.
(14) The velocity of sound in a gas is 498 m/s and in air is 332 m/s. What is the ratio of the wavelengths
of sound waves in the gas to air?
(15) Explain the concept of pseudo force in non-inertial frame of reference.
SECTION C
(16) Distinguish between dot product and cross product.
(17) State Stoke’s law and derive it by dimensional analysis.
(18) The length of a metal plate was measured using a vernier callipers of least count 0.01 cm.
The measurements made were 3.11 cm, 3.13 cm, 3.14 cm and 3.15 cm. Find the mean length, the mean
absolute error and the percentage error in the measurement of length.
(19) Explain various fundamental forces in nature.
OR
A uniform wooden plank, 5 m long and mass of 40 kg, is resting horizontally on two supports 0.5 m
from each end. A boy weighing 45 kg stands on the plank, 1.5 m from one end. Find the reaction at
the supports.
(20) State the characteristics of longitudinal waves.
(21) What is position-time graph? Discuss the position-time graph of an object (i) at rest (ii) in uniform
motion (iii) in non-uniform motion.
(22) Derive the necessary expression for coefficient of linear expansion. Hence define it.
(23) Find unit vectors perpendicular to the plane of the vectors. = and = .
(24) A body travels from place A to place B with uniform velocity of 10 m/s and travels back from place
B to place A with uniform velocity of 25 m/s. Calculate the average velocity of the body for the whole
journey.
(25) A body starting from rest slides over a plane inclined at 45° to the horizontal. After certain displacement,
the body has velocity 2 m/s. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the body and the surface is
0.5, find the displacement of the body from the start.
(26) The frequency (n) of vibration of a wire under tension depends upon the tension (T), mass per unit
length (m) and vibrating length (l) of the wire. Using dimensional analysis, obtain the dependence
of frequency on these quantities.
SECTION D
(27) State and explain the work energy theorem (principle).
A bullet of mass 0.1 kg moving horizontally with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a stationary target and
is brought to rest in 0.1 s. Find the impulse and average force of impact.
OR
State and prove parallelogram law of vector addition and determine magnitude and direction of the
resultant vector.
Show that the vectors = and = are perpendicular to each other.
350 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

(28) What is Reynold’s Number?

Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe of varying cross-section. At a certain point where the
velocity is 0.12 m/s, the pressure of water is 0.010 m of mercury. What is the pressure at a point where
the velocity is 0.24 m/s?
OR
Derive the equation of the path of projectile.
A jet aeroplane travelling at the speed of 500 km/h ejects its exhaust (products of combustion) at the
speed of 1500 km/h relative to the plane. What is the relative velocity of the latter (exhaust) with
respect to an observer on the ground?
(29) Define an error and explain the types of errors.
Force experienced by charge ‘q’ moving with velocity ‘v’ in a magnetic field ‘B’ is given by
F = q v B. Find the dimensions of magnetic field.
OR
Derive the relation between velocity, frequency and wavelength of wave.
When the pressure of 1 litre of gas at 27°C is doubled, its temperature rises to 114°C. Calculate the
final volume of the gas.
vvv

MODEL QUESTION PAPER - II

Time : 3 Hr Marks : 70
Chapter - 8 to 14

SECTION A
(1) In case of secondary rainbow, ...................... colour is at the top.
(a) red (b) orange (c) violet (d) pink
(2) There are two charges +1 micro coulomb and +3 micro coulombs. The ratio of the forces acting on
them will be ...................... .
(a) 1 : 5 (b) 1 : 1 (c) 5 : 1 (d) 1 : 25
(3) The magnetic moment of a square coil having 5 turns, each side measuring 4 cm and carrying a
current of unit ampere is ...................... .
(a) 20 × 10–3 Am2 (b) 8 × 10–3 Am2 (c) 8 Am2 (d) 16 × 10–3 Am2
(4) Which of the following statement is NOT CORRECT?
(a) Infrared rays are invisible but can cast shadows like visible light.
(b) Photographic plates are sensitive to ultraviolet rays.
(c) Photographic plates are sensitive to X-rays.
(d) Infrared photons have more energy than photons of visible light.
(5) Define Principal focus.
(6) Find potential difference between terminals of the battery if 240 joule of work is required to transfer
20 coulombs of charge from one terminal to the other terminal.
(7) Define Magnetic meridian.
(8) How can the current rating of a battery be increased?
Model Test Paper - II 351

SECTION B
(9) Explain the equivalence between a magnetic dipole and current carrying coil.
(10) Explain the concept of equipotential surface.
OR
What is the magnitude of a point charge such that the electric field 50 cm away from it has magnitude
2.0 N/C?
(11) Explain critical angle with the help of diagram.
(12) State the characteristics of electromagnetic waves.
(13) Evaluate the resistance for the following colour coded resistors.
(i) Yellow - Green - Red - Silver (ii) Green - Red - Orange - Golden
(14) A straight wire carries a current of 5 A. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic induction at a
point 10 cm from the conducting wire.
(15) Two lenses of powers + 1.5 D and – 2.5 D are combined to form a lens combination. Determine the
focal length of the combination and find the nature of the combination.
SECTION C
(16) What is an Optical Fibre? Explain its construction and working. Give its uses.
(17) Derive an expression for torque acting on an electric dipole in uniform electric field.
(18) Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two parallel conductors carrying current.
(19) Determine the focal length of a bi-convex lens (μg = 1.5) of radii of curvature 30 cm and 40 cm.
What will be its focal length if the lens is immersed in water (μw = 4/3)?
OR
For a single spherical surface, derive the relation between µ, u, v and R.
(20) For certain prism, the angle of minimum deviation is equal to the refracting angle of the prism. The
refractive index of the material of the prism is 1.7. Find (i) the angle of minimum deviation (ii) the
angle of incidence when the minimum deviation takes place.
(21) Define and explain temperature coefficient of resistance.
(22) Define and explain angle of dip.
(23) What is the electric potential at the centre of a square of side 1 m if point charges 1 × 10–8 C,
–2 × 10–8 C, 3 × 10–8 C and 2 × 10–8 C are placed at the corners of the square?
(24) Write notes on: (i) Ground wave propagation (ii) Sky wave propagation
(25) A conductor of length 25 cm is placed (i) parallel (ii) perpendicular (iii) inclined at an angle 30°, to a
uniform magnetic field of induction 2 T. If 1 C of charge passes through it in 5 s, calculate the force
experienced by the conductor in each case.
(26) Find the cost of using five bulbs of 60 W each and three fans of 100 W each for 6 hours at the rate of
` 2 per unit.
SECTION D
(27) Derive the prism formula.
A thin hollow prism of refracting angle 3° filled with water gives a deviation 1° . What is the refractive
index of water?
OR
352 Master Key Physics (Std. XI)

Derive an expression for magnetic induction at a point on the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
A charged particle moves with velocity 3 × 106 m/s at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of
induction 0.005 T. Find the magnitude of the charge if the particle experiences a force of 2 × 10–2 N.
(28) Derive the expression for magnifying power of a compound microscope.
A convex lens of focal length 4.0 cm is used as simple microscope. Find its magnifying power when
(i) image is at infinity (ii) image is at D.D.V.
OR
Explain the relation between the e.m.f. of a cell and the potential difference between its terminals.
A constantan wire of length 50 cm and 0.4 m diameter is used in making a resistor. If the resistivity
of constantan is 5 × 10–7 Ω-m, calculate the value of the resistor.
(29) Derive an expression for electric potential due to a point charge.
Two protons in a nucleus of U238 are 6.0 × 10–15 metre apart. What is their mutual electric potential
energy?
OR
Derive an expression for magnetic induction at a point along the axis of a bar magnet. Also deduce
an expression for magnetic induction due to short dipole.
A bar magnet of geometric length 18 cm has pole strength 100 Am. Find the magnetic dipole moment
of the bar magnet.
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