N.

PATRICE

“A” LEVEL GEOGRAPHY

TERMS AND
DEFINATIONS 9156
Physical Geography (Hydrology, Geomorphology, Arid and
Semi-arid Environment) and Human Geography
(Population, Migration, Settlement and Urbanisation)
NCUBE PATRICE

2017

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“A” LEVEL GEOGRAPHY TERMS AND DEFINATIONS

Revision Guide for GCE Advanced Level

Written and compiled by

Ncube PatrIce

Edited and illustrated by

S. Gon’ola ( Tamiranashe Senior School Deputy Head)

Mr Myambo ( “A” Level Geography Paper 1 Zimsec Marker at St Eric High

School)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

With thanks to Hillary Chikosha and Tatenda Zenda for helpful comments on
reading the initial manuscript; S. Gon’ola and Mr Myambo for editing and
illustrating; Takudzwa Kanyansa for typing.

The author acknowledges gratefully some ideas for his book from Michael
Carr, David Waugh, E Mutodi text books.

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Contents

Physical Geography Chapter

Hydrology………………………………………………………………………………1

Pg4

River process………………………………………………………………………….2

Pg10

Geomorphology……………………………………………………………………..3

Pg16

Arid and Semi-arid areas…………………………………………………………4

Pg19

Human Geography

Population……………………………………………………………………………..5

Pg24

Migration……………………………………………………………………………….6

Pg30

Settlement……………………………………………………………………………..7

Pg32

Urbanisation………………………………………………………………………….8

Pg36

Environmental Management………………………………………………….9

Pg38

Index

Pg40-46

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“A” Level Geography

Physical Geography
Chapter 1

Hydrology
Hydrological cycle

 Is the constant flows and exchanges of moisture between the atmosphere, land and water
bodies

Drainage basin
 Is an area that is drained by a river and its tributaries
 A drainage basin has a main stream or channel, which may have its tributaries or minor
streams
 The boundary of a drainage basin is defined by a watershed which Is an area of highland
beyond which precipitation is drained by adjacent basins

Evaporation

 is the process by which a liquid or a solid is changed into a gas (Ward 1967 )
 Heat energy required to evaporate water from the soil, dams, lakes, seas and oceans is
known as latent heat of vaporisation

Transpiration
 Is the process by which water vapour escapes from the living plants, principally leaves
through openings called stomata, and enters the atmosphere
 The process is mainly affected by vegetation type and density, time and the length of the
growing season (Waugh 1996) + wind speed

Evapotranspiration
 This describes water loss through a combination of evaporation and transpiration
 It is the combined evaporation from the soil surfaces and transpiration from plants which
can collectively be defined as the transportation of water from the earth back to the
atmosphere (Thornthwaiten1948)

Potential evapotranspiration
 Is the maximum rate of water vapour that can be added to the atmosphere under certain
given meteorological conditions
 It combines water loss from vegetated surface as well as directly from the water body or soil
 It is theoretical concept

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Actual Evapotranspiration
 Is an exact loss through evapotranspiration measured despite changes in soil moisture or
field capacity
 Or it is the actual amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere i.e. humidity

Field capacity
 Is when there is enough moisture in the soil for use by plants
 Plants utilise soil moisture through the process of osmosis, transpiration and translocation

Interception
 Refers to the capture of raindrops by tree leaves during precipitation
 Varies depending on nature of vegetation and duration of storm water. Reaches the surface
due to throughfall and stemflow
 There is primary and secondary interception

Secondary interception
 Is when raindrops intercepted in a plant canopy drip and further intercepted by grasses and
herbs forming the undergrowth

Stemflow
 It describes the flowing of water on plant trunks or stems when continuous interception
exceed leaf ….

Throughfall
 Is the rain water that falls in between leaves
 Is the process by which wet leaves shed excess water to form water drops that drip s through
the canopy onto the ground

Infiltration
 Is when rain water sinks into the upper layer of soil through soil pores spaces under the
influence of gravity

Infiltration capacity
 Is the maximum rate at which rain water can be absorbed by a soil in a unit of time (mm/ hr)

Infiltration rate
 Refers to the speed of water absorption by the soil in millilitres per second

Soil antecedent moisture

 This is the amount of water already available in the soil before rainfall

Runoff
 Is the water that leaves the drainage basin by surface routes either as overland flow or
channel flow

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Overland flow
 Is the movement of water down the surface slope in the form of sheet wash, rills, rivulets
and gullies
 Sheet wash form on the upper sections of slopes and cover a wide area like a blanket

Through flow
 Is the lateral transfer of water downslope after infiltration towards channels due to decrease
in soil permeability
 Or the lateral subsurface downslope movement of water in saturated soils
 It is also due to gravity

Saturation overland flow

 It describes surface flows which form on saturated soil surfaces usually on lower and gentle
slope sections
 Or overland flow formed by failure of rain water to infiltrate saturated soils due to
prolonged rainfall

Channel flow
 Is the water concentrated into rivers and streams
 Or is the water that flow along well defined channels e.g. rivers and streams

River discharge
 is the volume of water passing through a given point in a river per unit area expressed in
cumecs i.e. cubic metres per second

River hydrograph
 Is a graph on which variations in river discharge are plotted against time

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Approach segment
 Represents the discharge of a river before the storm. River response at this stage is very
minimum because water is temporarily delayed in the drainage basin

Rising limb
 Representing the rising river level due to increase in discharge
 It is mostly steeper than the recession limb

Bankfull discharge
 Is the discharge measured when a river is at bankfull stage

Bankfull stage
 Is a condition in which a river channel fills completely so that any further increase will
results in flooding

Peak discharge
 Is the highest level of water recorded in a river after or during a storm

Recession limb/ falling limb

 This shows the rate at which the river discharge decrease after the peak discharge of peak
flow

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Lag time
 The interval between the peak rainfall and the peak of the channel discharge

Base flow
 Is the horizontal movement of underground water towards rivers
 Is the portion of river volume contributed by ground water inflow
 Or it is the final transfer that takes water from the ground water store to the stream
horizontally

River Regime
 Is the term used to describe the annual variations in discharge (David Waugh)

Flashy hydrograph
 Has steep rising and falling limb and a very high but not sustained peak discharge

Subdued hydrograph
 Has a gentle rising and falling limb- low peak discharge

Groundwater storage
 Is water stored in the underground zone of saturation

Percolation
 Is the further downward sinking of infiltrated water through cracks, fissures or joints under
the force of gravity towards the zone of saturation
 The process results in the formation of a groundwater reserve or store

Primary permeability
 It describes the seepage of water through rock pore spaces e.g. in rocks like sandstones,
limestone and chalk

Secondary permeability
 Is the percolation enhanced by the presence of fissures, rock joints, cracks and fault lines
e.g. in carboniferous and Jurassic limestone

Baseflow
 1t is the final transfer that takes water from the ground water store to the stream
horizontally

Aquifer
 Is the rock that can allow water movement and can store large amounts of water e.g.
sandstones

Aquiclude
 A rock which cannot hold water (impermeable rock)

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Watertable
 Is the uppermost part of the permanent zone of saturation
 It fluctuates with time i.e. seasons

Perched watertable
 Is a pseudo watertable separated from the main watertable by unsaturated rock
 Also is an independent and isolated area of groundwater above the main watertable and
separated from it by unsaturated rocks

Water balance / water budget

 Is the balance or equilibrium between the inputs and outputs of the hydrological cycle
(P=Q+E+S)
 It can be positive or negative. When positive is expressed in this formula, P > Q +E
 Negative, P<Q+E

Where P is precipitation

Q is runoff

E is evapotranspiration

S is storage

Just note:

Water recharge

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Chapter 2

Fluvial processes
Fluvial Geomorphology
 Is the study of the various processes and landforms associated with rivers

Intermittent streams
 Streams which flows seasonally or have discontinuous flow

Perennial streams
 Streams which flows all year around
 The stream can be exogenous or come from underground water/ recharge from base flow

River velocity
 Is the channel water speed measured in metres per second using floats and stopwatch

Hydraulic radius
 Is defined as the force required to move particles on a stream bed determined by the
fraction of cross sectional area divided by wetted perimeter ( Rubey 1938)
 It refers to the ratio between a river’s cross sectional area and the length of channel surface
in contact with water

Wetted perimeter
 is the length of channel surface in contact with water from one bank through bed to the
other

Hjulstrom curve
 Is the graph used to determine whether a river will erode, transport or deposite.
 It shows the relationship between particle size and water velocity a river can carry or
deposite

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The mean (critical velocity curve)

 Gives the approximate velocity needed to pick up and transport particles of various sizes
from clay to boulders. The materials carried by the river(capacity) is responsible for most of
the subsequent erosion

The mean fall (setting velocity curve)

 Shows the velocity at which particles of a given size become too heavy to be transported and
will fall out of suspension and be deposited

River capacity
 Is the total load transported by a river

River competence
 Is the maximum size of particles that can be transported by a river

Laminar flow
 The speed and the direction of flow at any given point are steady or smooth horizontal
movement of water
 Is an ideal channel flow in which velocity cannot be affected by channel irregularities which
cause eddy motion
 This type of flow is hypothetical and can rarely be identified within most streams

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Turbulent flow
 A series of erratic eddies both vertical and horizontal

 This is the most common one flow

Helicoidal flow
 A kind of corkscrew motion on the current of a river which usually occurs in meanders

River source
 Are places where rivers originates e.g. springs, lake, marshes

Confluences

 Are places where tributaries meet the main river (where two channels meet)

River mouths
 Is where rivers ends e.g. oceans
 Or where rivers empty their water (oceans, other bigger rivers, seas, marshes, lakes etc.)

River channels
 Is the distances from bank to another through the river bed

Erosional processes
Erosion
 Is the wearing down of the channel

Headward erosion
 is the process whereby a river cuts back upstream above its original source increasing its
length
 This type of erosion can be induced by gullying and faulting. If the recession continues, the
stream may actually notch the ridge which forms the original watershed and so promote
river capture

Vertical erosion
 Is the deepening of the channel by gradual down cutting particularly by abrasion in the
upper coarse

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 V-shaped valleys and gorges mainly occur as a result of this process

Lateral erosion
 Is when rivers widens their channels through the undercutting and collapse of banks
 It can be active during flooding

1. Attrition
 Is whereby the bed load collide with each other and the impact may break the rock into
smaller pieces which makes them rounded in appearance

2. Corrasion/ Abrasion
 is when the river picks up material and rubs it along its bed and banks, wearing them away
 whereby the river uses its bed load to wear down the river bed and banks
 It describes a process whereby a river load consisting of irregular shaped boulders digs the
river bed and rubs against the river banks deepening and widening the channels

3. Hydraulic action
 Describes the sheer force exerted by flowing water on its banks especially against
meandering points loosening and removing rock particles
 Water hits against the banks, entering into cracks, fissures and beddi ng planes and this
undermine it i.e. cavitation

4. Solution/ Corrosion
 Is described as a process where river water dissolves soluble minerals constituting rocks on
the bed and the banks of a stream especially limestone and chalk with CaCo 3 or iron stones
with iron oxide

Transportational processes
1. Suspension
 Is the transportation of light silt and clay particles above the river bed

2. Solution
 Is the movement of sediments or materials dissolved in water
 Transportation of dissolved minerals by river water seen by colouring of water e.g. milky in
limestone

3. Saltation
 Is the bouncing movement of heavier sandy particles which the river can lift from the bed
but cannot keep in suspension

4. Traction
 Describes the rolling of large boulders and cobbles on the river bed

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Deposition
 Is the falling out of suspended load transported to the river bed

River long profile

 Shows characteristics of a river channel from the source to the mouth

Graded river profile

 Refers to a river whose flow is such that, at any given point there is an equilibrium between
materials eroded and material deposited
 A graded profile is concave in shape i.e. forming a smoothly concave profile

Baselevel
 This is the lowest level at which erosion by running water can take place
 It is controlled by the sea level, or lake or long river where a small river empty its water

River rejuvenation
 Is a result of a fall in the base either by sea level falling or if there is an uplift of the land
 Increased or renewal of vertical erosion by river due to uplift of land, sea level fall or
increased precepitation

Drainage pattern
 Is the way in which the main river and its tributaries are arranged or aligned in a drainage
basin e.g. parallel, trellis, dendritic etc.Depends on geological structure

Consequent streams ( main stream )

 Are those whose course is determined by the original slope of the land

Obsequent
 Flows opposite of the consequent streams especially in rectangular patterns
 Is one whose course flows in the opposite direction of the main/ consequent stream
 It is common in areas which have experienced some river capture and in those with folded
structures

Subsequent streams
 Streams which develop after the consequent
 Are controlled by structure e.g. a river following a joint or fault line

Resequent streams
 Flows in the same direction as the main stream but are of a lower order

Groups/ classes of drainage pattern

Accordant
 These are patterns which are related to the underlying structure or which are controlled by
relief

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 Depends on geological structures e.g. dendritic, trellis etc.

Discordant
 Patterns with no relation to geographical structure or which go up against relief or
geographical structure

Drainage morphometry
 Refers to the quantitative analysis of the drainage basin

Bifurcation ratio
 Is the ratio between the number of streams of one order and the number of streams in the
next highest order

Stream ordering
 Is when comparing drainage basin size

Stream frequency
 Is the number of stream segments of orders per unit area

Drainage density
 Is the average length of streams per unit area
 It is calculated by a formula
 Total length of all streams in basin

Total area of the whole basin = km/km 2

Just note:

Bed load

Straight channel

Meandering channel

Braided channel

Waterfalls

Rapids

Meander

Gorges

River Capture

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Chapter 3

Geomorphology
 Is the scientific study and interpretation of the original and development of the landforms of
the earth

Weathering
 Is the gradual disintegration and decay of rock in a stationary position ( in situ ) on or just
below the earth surface resulting in the creation of a layer of debris or waste that may later
be removed by transportational agencies

Physical weathering
1. Frost weathering
 Is the breakdown of rocks due to water entering rock crevices or joints in areas where
temperatures fall below 00 C. The disintegration of rocks is caused by the fact that water
expands by 10% of its original volume as it changes from liquid form to ice usually from 4 0C.
This results in block disintegration as freeze-thaw cycle continues

2. Pressure Release/Dilatation
 The removal of the overlying debris which cause the underlying rock to release great
pressure and fracture as they recoil upwards resulting in sheet joints especially in igneous
rocks

3. Thermal expansion/insolation weathering

 Is induced by the heating of rock surfaces during the day and cooling at night thus resulting
in the exfoliation of rocks surfaces. These rocks are subjected to thus heating and cooling are
made up of different minerals
 Peeling off of rock surfaces due to heating and cooling of the rock outer layers
 Effective in areas of large diurnal temperature ranges e.g. hot deserts

4. Salt Crystallization
 Is the term applied to the falling off of small rocks particles as a result of stresses caused by
salt crystal growth within a rock e.g. in coastal areas where there is a constant supply of
saline water in porous rocks
 This process results in granular disintegration

Block disintegration
 Is the breakdown of rock by both chemical and mechanical weathering into large blocks
 The process depends on the existence of joints and bedding planes which can be penetrated
by weathering agents such as water and humic acids

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Granular disintegration
 Is the breakdown of rock by weathering processes into constituent minerals or groups of
minerals

Chemical weathering
1. Oxidation
 Refers to the addition of oxygen elements to ionise mineral components forming mineral
oxides
 Most common action is that between iron and water resulting in rusting

2. Carbonation
 Is a chemical weathering whereby there is a reaction between rocks like limestone rocks and
weak carbonic acid which came from( e.g. chalk Dolomite ) industrial carbon dioxide
emission, which reacts with raindrops
 Active in limestone where CO 2 react with calcium carbonate to form calcium bi-carbonate
which is soluble in water

3. Chelation/ Humification/ Cheluvination

 Organic matter quickly decompose in the presence of high temperatures and rainfall
(forming humic acid) which will enter and decompose the rock
 A type of chemical weathering in which humic acid break down minerals and then allow
them to be leached from regolith or absorbed by plants

4. Solution
 Dissolving of rock minerals in water and removal in solution

5. Hydration
 Is when some minerals contained in rocks absorb moisture at different rates and expand,
this differential expansion introduces stresses within the rocks and they ultimately
disintegrate
 This process is due to wetting and drying e.g. mostly active in seasonally humid areas

6. Hydrolysis
 Is a form of chemical weathering involving reactions between water and minerals in igne ous
rocks and sedimentary rocks e.g. water and feldspar react to produce potassium hydroxide
and alumina silicic acid. The end result in residual clay

Mass movement
 Is the downslope movement of regolith under the influence of gravity

Exhumation/ Etchplanation
 Describes deep weathering followed by exposing of basal surface of weathering by stripping
of regolith

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Pediplanation
 Uplift of land, back-wearing of slopes resulting in development of plain

Inselbergs
 Are steep sided isolated hills standing high above surrounding plain
 Rocky hills

Karst
 Is a comprehensive term applied to limestone or dolmite areas that possess a high
topography peculiar to and dependent upon underground solution and the diversion of
surface waters to underground routes

Interfluves
 Is a land between two rivers

Laterite
 Is a hardened layer of iron stone formation in soils of tropical regions

Duricrust
 Is the hard crust on the ground surface formed by accumulation and cementation of salts

Deep weathering
 Describes the formation of a deeply weathered layer of saprolite or regolith by sub-aerial
chemical weathering processes

Saprolite
 Is the fairly weathered rock debris produced by chemical weathering processes which lie in
its original place

Regolith
 Is the material produced by weathering extending down from the ground surface to bedrock
 Is the term used to describe a deep layer of fine and partially weathered rock debris
accumulated over many years of sub-arerial chemical weathering and not necessarily lying in
its original position { Mutodi pg. 129} + physical

Basal surface of weathering

 Refers to the rising and falling bedrock surface overlain by deeply weathered rock debris on
which perhaps the absence of rock joints or adequate aeration prohibits further sub -aerial
chemical weathering

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Chapter 4

Arid and Semi-arid Environments

Desert
 These are areas characterised by deficiencies of water and vegetation as well as having poor
soils
 Are areas where annual precipitation is greatly exceeded by water loss through
evapotranspiration

Aridity
 Means dryness and these varies from one desert to another

There are three classes of deserts

1. Semi-arid areas
 These are areas which receive 250-500 mm per year ( rainfall )
 There is sparse vegetation

2. Arid areas
 Receives 25-250 mm per year
 There are no plants except along rivers and oasis

3. Extremely arid areas

 Receives less than 25 mm per year
 There is no vegetation

Types of desert landscapes

1. Rocky/ Hamada deserts
 these are areas of bare rock surfaces or polished
 In these areas wind blows up all away fine materials living bare rock surfaces e.g.
Hamadal Homra in Libya

2. Stoney/ Reg deserts

 As the name implies it is a stone covered plain which is bare, flat consisting of a layer of tight
packed gravel over laying sand
 It is formed by wind erosion which removes the fine surface materials living behind coarse
pebbles which became cemented by mineral solutions brought up by capillary action

3. The Erg/ Sandy deserts

 These are areas of dune fields which are characterised by andulating dune landscape

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 These are areas of sand/ sand seas, formed by deposition e.g. Calanscio sand sea (Libya)
Great sand sea ( Egypt )

4. Bad lands
 These are bare dry uplands areas which are dissected by deep gullies
 Produced by occasional heavy rainfall which is insufficient to support adequate protective
vegetation cover
 These are areas of low agricultural potential hence the name bad lands e.g. South Dakota (
USA )

5. Mountain deserts
 These are highly dissected plateau and wadi landscapes e.g. Grand. Canyon Landscape (
USA) and Ahaggas mountains in Sahara

Desert Geomorphology
Weathering in deserts
 Most weathering processes in desert are dominantly physical

1. Salt crystallisation
 Is active in deserts because of active capillary action which brings salts to the surface and
also because of high evaporation rates

2. Thermal shattering
 This due to large temperature range

3. Ice wedging /frost shattering

 Ice wedging operates in joints whilst frost shattering in porous rocks
 Operates in desert uplands where there is frequent relief rainfall and, mist which provides
the water of the process
 Temperature in deserts frequently fall below 00C

4. Dirty wedging
 It is the same with ice wedging
 It is active because of high wind transportation and deposition of soils and also high day
time temperatures allows joints to expand and open up

Wind Action
Wind domains
 are areas in which wind action is active/ dorminant

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Aeolian erosion
1. Abrasion
 The sand blasting effect of sand and rock fragments been transported by the wind on rock
outcrops
 It takes place on rock outcrops and it is effective near ground surface - undercutting rock
outcrops to create rock pedestals
 This is the sand blasting of desert surfaces by the transportation of sand and silt through
siltation

2. Attrition
 This is down seizing of rock particles being transported by the wind due to constant knocking
against each other

3. Deflation
 This comprises the lifting and transportation of loose materials which are fine and light. The
process is selective as it concentrate on finer materials, leaving heavy materials such as
pebbles strewn over the ground, creating what is generally called a desert pavement.
 A continuous process may results in deflation hollows

Wind transport
Saltation
 Is the transportation of rock and sand particles in a series of intermittent hopes and leaps in
the direction of the wind

Surface creeping/ drifting or traction

 The rolling and sliding of large rock fragments along the desert surface

Desert Landforms
Yardangs
 Are narrow, streamline ridges that are usually three to four times larger than they are wide
 Softer rocks is eroded faster than harder rocks, so ridges of hard rocks are created

Zeugen
 Are long block-shaped ridges of rocks
 There are formed in areas where a layer of hard rock sits above a layer of softer rock
 If cracks formed in the hard rocks due to weathering processes such as frost shattering, the
wind can erode through the cracks and into softer rock beneath by abrasion
 Again the softer rock is eroded more than the harder rock, and ridges ( zeugen ) are formed

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Rivers in arid regions

1. Exogenous rivers
 These are rivers with sources outside of the desert which passes through the desert e.g. Nile,
Colorado

2. Endoreic
 These are rivers which flows into inland lakes
 They do not enter water into seas e.g. Jordan to the Dead sea

3. Ephemeral rivers
 These are streams which flows only after a rainstorm and can generate high discharge
because of poor infiltration on the crusted desert soils

Fluvial landforms
Wadis
 These are deep steep sided, flat flowed dry river channels

Desert piedmont zone

 Is a zone separating desert mountains, plateaus and residual uplands from the broad plains
of erosion and deposition

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Features of desert piedmont zone

1. Mountain Front
 Is a high and steep slope ( 25-900) which raises suddenly from the gentler slope
 Slopes below this slope is retreating without loss of angle
 it is a boulder controlled slope
 weathered materials is washed rapidly to the slope base

2. Knickpoint
 This is a very sharp break in profile which separates the steep mountain front from the rock
pediment
 Abrupt break in profile between the mountain front and rock pediment

3. Rock pediment
 It is concave with slope angles ranging from 70 on the upper part and only about half a
degree on its lower margin
 It is a rock platform covered by a thin veneer layer of sediments

4. Peripediment
 Is a broad zone of fine alluvial fans deposites laid down by sheet floods
 These deposites can be very thick in areas of centripetal drainage

5. Bajada
 These are series of alluvial fans which had merged on the knickpoint

6. Playa / intermittent lake

 These are shallow ephemeral intermittent saline lakes found after a rain storm at the lowest
point of the pediment

Desertification
 Simply means the encroachment of desert-like conditions into formerly productive land

Just note:

Sustainable utilization

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Chapter 5

Human Geography

Population
Population
 Is the total number of people living in an area, country or region

Population growth rate

 Is the speed at which a population grows per year and expressed as a %

Population density
 Is the number of people per unit area

Number of people

Area = people/ km 2

Population distribution
 simply refers to how people are spread out across the world, country and region
 This is closely aligned to population density

Population change
 Is brought about by changes in fertility rate, birth rate, migration, death rates and maternal
mortalities

Demography
 Is the study of population and its changes and patterns over time

Fertility rate
 Is the number of births per year per 1000 women at child bearing age group
 This refers to women who are between 15-44 years age group

Birth rate
 This is a number of live births per thousand of the total population
 Expressed as Number of live births( in a given year) * 1000

Total population in a country 1

Death rate
 Is the number of deaths per thousand of population during a given year

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 Can be expressed as Number of death # 1000

Total population 1

Fertility
 A broad term that covers all aspects of reproductive performance of a population
 It is that actual reproductive performance of women in the child bearing age
 Measured by crude birth rate, general fertility rate and age specific birth rate

Mortality
 It refers to death rates pertaining to a population
 Frequency of deaths
 It is measured by crude death rates, life expectancy and age specific death rates and sex
specific death rates
 Infant + adult maternal mortality, and natal mortality, neo natal

Neo-natal mortality
 Is the statistical rate of infant death during the first 28 days after live birth
 It is the death of anew born

Pre-natal mortality
 The number of natal deaths plus the number of deaths of infants younger than 7 days of age
per 1000 live births

Infant mortality
 The number of deaths of children younger than one year of age per 1000 live births per year

Male mortality rate

 Is the number of male who die per 1000 in a population per year

Maternal mortality
 The number of women who die during or after delivering child per 1000 of the total
population
 It can be calculated according to socio-economic groups

Overall population growth

 Is the total increase in the number of individuals in a population

Morbidity
 Is the frequency of disease in a population
 The prevalence of disease in a particular percentage of the population

Natural increase
 It is the positive change in the number of people if birth rate is higher than death rate

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 Total number of births minus total number of deaths in a particular year

Population structure
 Is the composition of population by age and sex
 It is best shown by means of age pyramid
 It also include the life expectancy of the population and the median age

The age structure

 Shows the number of people in the total population found in in each age group

The sex structure

 Shows the proportion of male-female numbers in the total population

Doubling time
 Is a time it takes a population of a country to double its size
 It is obtained by using the formula 70 / percentage of growth rate

The median age

 This is the age which divides the population in two, with half population below the age and
half above the age

Life expectancy
 Is the average number of years which a person in a particular group is expected to live
 There is high life expectancy in MEDCs and low life expectancy in LEDCs
 It is approximately 40 years in LEDCs and 65 MEDCs

Fecundity
 This is the biological capacity of women to bear children in a population
 Or it is the reproductive potential of women to bear children in a population

Dependency load
 This is the number of people who are economically inactive who are supported by the
economically active population
 This category of population is in the age group between 0-15 years and those above 65 years

Dependency ratio
 This is the proportion of non-working population for every 100 workers
 It is the number of people who rely on the working population when expressed as a ration to
the working population
 For developed countries the ratio is between 50-70 while in developing countries are over
100 for every 100 workers
 In LEDCs there is high dependency ratio of children and less old age while in MEDCs there is
high dependency ratio of old aged population than young population.
 It is calculated as follows

P( 0 – 14 years) + P( 65+ years) # 100

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P( 15 – 64 years ) 1

Where P is population

Elderly population/ Ageing population

 Is a characteristic of countries in stage 3 and 4
 It is a population with an increasing proportion of elders above 65 years old

Sex ratio
 This is the relationship of male and female proportion in the total population
 It is the number of males per 1000 females in a population
 The world’s average sex ratio is about 105 males per 100 females
 It is calculated as: Male # 100

Females

NB: Male births always exceed female births but at old age females out number males

Population pyramid
 Is a graph which describes the age and sex distribution of a country’s population

Progressive Population pyramid

 Is an age-sex structure that is wide at the base but narrow/ tapered at the top/ apex
 They indicate a youthful population and rapidly growing population, typical of LEDCs
 It has a high potential to grow

Regressive population pyramid

 Is an age-sex structure which is bulging at the middle but fairly narrow at the base, indicating
an ageing population
 It is a typical of MEDCs and very low potential to grow

Population explosion
 This is a rapid expansion of population in an area or a sudden increase of population caused
by a sudden increase in birth rate
 This is associated with geometric increase in population

Population growth
 Refers to any natural change in population resulting from the natural increase
 This natural increase may occur when there is excess of births over deaths
 It can also result from a high net migration

Zero population growth

 This is a situation whereby the death rate exceed the birth rate i.e. population decline
 Those who die will not be replaced by those who are born
 This is associated with stage 5 of the demographical model

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Replacement level/ rate

 Is a situation where there is sufficient number of children born to balance the number of
people who die
 When women bear at least 2.1 children

Census
 Is the numeration of population in a country

Dejure
 This is the counting of people who live in a given place regardless of their physical presence
 This has a problem that it leads to over enumeration

Defacto
 This is the counting of people who are physically present at a specified place

Vital Registration/ Rate

 Is the collection of population information on important events
 These vital events include births, deaths, divorce, marriages, adoption and also information
in fertility
 This information is important because it is used for the social and economic organisation of
the country like education, voting, state support and inheritance

Population Registers
 These are raw demographic data banks
 They are used for administrative and statistical purposes
 They are used for identification of people, control of election raw for military service also

Carrying capacity
 Is the maximum number of population either of people, plants, and animals which an
environment can sustain

Sustainable development
 Is the development that meet the needs of present generation without compromising the
needs of the future generation

Overpopulation
 Is a state whereby there are too many people relative to resources and technology available
to maintain an adequate standards of living
 Is an ill-balance between the population of a country and the available resources such that
the former cannot be adequately supported by the latter

Underpopulation
Refers to the population that is too small to fully utilize the resources which are available

Low standard of living

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Optimum population
 Is a theoretic state in which the number of people, when working with all the available
resources will produce the highest GDP per capita i.e. the highest standard of living
 Resources= Population resulting high quality of life

GDP (Gross Domestic Product)

 This is the total output of goods and services produced in a country when valued at market
place

Population ceiling
 Refers to the point where a population will equal to the carrying capacity
 It is also saturation level where population will be equal to carrying capacity

Multi-racial societies
 It is a plural society, whereby the population includes at least one ethnic minority
 Is a society or community which is composed of people of different races and culture
 Heterogeneous in nature, made up of people of different races

Ethnicity
 Is vertical division in a society where a group which is part of a larger population possesses a
distinct culture of its own
 Determined by origins, language, colour, culture and belief occupy a common environment

Racial Segregation
 Due to historical, social, political factors resulting in isolation and disadvantaging of a
minority
 Discrimination based on colour of skin
 Unequal access to opportunities like education, health, employment, civic responsibilities

Just note;

Population-resource ratio

Youthful population

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Chapter 6

Migration
Migration
 Is the movement of people from one place to another which involves a permanent change
in residence for a period of at least one year
 It can be internal or external

Circulation
 Is a short term temporal, repetitive movement of people on a daily basis for work or school
 It also involves seasonal movement of labour or nomads

Commuting
 refers to daily movements to and from places of work
 Is when a person lives in one community and works in another

Mobility
 Is the ability to move/ migrate or frequency of movements
 Refers to all forms of population movements in terms of patterns, processes and causes
 It involves a movement from a home basis while migration involves permanent change of
residents

Involuntary migration/ forced migration

 This is when people are willing to move from one place to another
 This movement is without choice e.g. refugees

Voluntary migration
 The migrant is migrating by choice

Internal migration
 These are population movements within the same country and involves relatively short
distances
 Is mainly characterised by rural to urban migration in LEDCs and In MEDCs, it is mainly from
urban to smaller towns or to urban margins in a process called suburbanisation

International/ external migration

 Movements of people which involves crossing of a country’s political boundaries
 This movement affects total population of a country
 It is mostly associated with the young and most advanced people who have better economic
aspiration
 It is also associated with refugees and slaves
 It involves greater distances

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Migration balance
 Is the difference between the number of emigrants and immigrants

Net migration loss

 Is therefore a process where more people are lost as emigrants when compared to
immigrants e.g. those who go to South Africa from Zimbabwe

Net migration gain

 Is a process whereby more immigrants come in the country than those who are lost as
emigrants

Place utility
 Usefulness or the importance of a place
 It refers to accessibility of place or location
 If the place is good or advantageous, the place is said to possess positive utility and people
are likely to remain in that place and also the opposite is true

Return migration
 Is the movement of migrants to the places of their origins (put example)

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Chapter 7

Settlement Studies
Settlement
 Is a place where people dwells on a more or less permanent basis and is marked by various
forms of shelters

Settlement situation
 Describes the location of a settlement relative to its surroundings e.g. rivers, roads, railway
and uplands

Settlement site
 Describes the characteristics of the actual point at which a settlement is located and was of
major importance in the initial establishment and growth of a village or town

Settlement hierarchy
 is a way in which settlements are
ranked into an order based upon their
population or functions ( Christaller).

Central place
 Is a settlement that provides goods
and services to the area around it
 Central places vary in size from a
small village to conurbation
 This clearly depends on the number
and variety of goods and services it provides
for the people who reside there and the area
around (Michael Carr pg. 123)

Sphere of influence
 Can be referred to as the urban field or hinterland
 It is the area that is under economic social and political influence of a central place
 Its size vary according to the order of goods and services provided by central place

Range
 Is the maximum distance that people are prepared to travel for a particular good or service
 It is governed by the value of the good

Threshold
 Is the minimum number of people required to support a particular service
 Is the minimum number of people needed to support a good or service outlet established at
a central place ( Michael Carr pg. 123)

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 The higher the order of goods and services the larger the threshold population

Central functions
 These are activities that provide goods and services from central places to local people and
also to the people from the wider surroundings of the central places

Periphery
 This form the bulk of communal areas
 These are outskirts
 They are also remote

Settlement pattern/ morphology

 Shape arrangement of dwellings
 Is the relative site of each building in a settlement
 It is also a pattern or shape of villages and small towns e.g. isolated, dispersed, nucleated
patterns

Nearest neighbour analysis

 A statistical test to describe the pattern of a settlement whether it is a dispersed pattern or a
nucleated

Rank size rule

 Is a model which states that the population size of a given city tends to be equal to the
population of the largest city divided by the rank of the given city e.g. USA cities
 Formula Pr =P/r
 Where Pr – population of city ranked r

P- population of the largest city

r- rank of the city r

Reilly gravity model

 Attempts to predict the degree of interaction between two places ie predicting movements
between two places

Binary distribution
 This is where a couple of cities of similar size dominate the upper end of the hierarchy ie
where there are two very large cities of almost equal size within a country dominating
economically, socially, politically etc.
 For example, Madrid and Barcelona in Spain

Toronto and Montreal in Canada

Harare and Bulawayo in Zimbabwe

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Urban Primacy / Primate city

 Are the largest city or town in a country is well over twice the si ze of another so much that
the primate city dominates the urban system in terms of its population size and its political
administrative and economic importance

Squatter settlement
 These are shanty towns or pathetic shelters built with whatever material is available or the
shift dwellings
 Settlements on undesignated locations
 They are normally found or located on the periphery of cities or land that is not
economically used e.g. derelict land in the city e.g. Epworth

Hopely farm ( Harare )

Conurbation
 This is an area of urban development. Normally it results from the merging of originally
separated towns e.g. Tokyo and North East American sea board

Slum settlements
 Refers to older houses deteriorating or decaying because they are under serviced and
dilapidated
 They are at valuable land adjacent to the CBD
 Slums are acute in third world countries and they are mobile in USA referred to as ghettos

Gentrification
 Is a process which occurs in a certain inner city areas where old, substandard housing is
bought and modernised and occupied by middle class or wealthy families (Michael Carr)
 Old dilapidated houses in the city are bought and renovated by the rich and professional and
value high
 Done for purposes of prestige e.g. Manchester

New town
 A completely free standing urban centre planned on the periphery of a city in response to
the redistribution of population and services. It is self-contained society and economically
well balanced

Satellite towns
 Is a planned small urban settlement located near a large city for purpose of accommodating
people who work in the large city

Just note:

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Functional zone

Rural-urban interaction

City centre

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Chapter 8

Urbanisation
 Is the process whereby an increasing proportion of the country’s population lives towns and
cities
 It is a process whereby more people in country now live in urban areas
 It is also a process whereby the rural setup is changing taking up urban characteristics

Fringe belt/ Urban fringe.

 Is the zone of transition between the built up area of the city and the surrounding country
side Is the transitional zone between urban and rural areas

Suburbanisation phase
 Is defined as decentralisation of people employment and services from the inner and central
areas of cities and their relocation towards the margins of built up areas

Inner city
 Is a decaying part of a city where there are dilapidated obsolete buildings with multiple
occupation and industries are moving out
 is also known as the twilight zone. It is typically found next to the CBD and has mainly
terraced houses in a grid like pattern. ... Unemployment and other socio-economic problems
have led to periods of unrest in many inner city areas, e.g. Toxteth in Liverpool

Over urbanisation
 Is a situation whereby urbanities are too many and urbanisation is presenting a problem
 Too many people than the town can provide with jobs, houses and services
 This is due to pull and push factors e.g. war, drought slow economic growth

Urban sprawl
 Is the uncontrolled outward physical growth of cities or towns
 The outward spread of urban areas encroaching onto rural landscape
 Takes up land that was used for agriculture
 Rural land loses its original features e.g. Dema/Seke

Urban renewal
 Is a process of giving old parts of the town especially buildings a face uplift

Reurbanisation
 When after a clear period of decline the population of a city in particular the inner area
begins to increase and investment starts to increase

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Counter urbanisation
 Is a process of population decentralisation as people move from large urban areas to smaller
urban settlements and rural areas
 Is the movement of people from urban areas to rural areas and it is a characteristic of
developed countries

Cycle urbanisation
 Stages of urban change from the growth of a city to counter urbanisation through
reurbanisation

Pirate urbanisation
 Is whereby urban areas have what is called informal settlements, in LEDCs is mainly
due to rural-urban migration
 Or simply creation of squatter settlements

Urbanism
 Is the tendency of people to lead increasingly urban ways of life

Green belts
 Are areas of open and low density landuse surrounding existing settlements where further
urban extension is to be strictly controlled
 Is a section of undisturbed vegetation belt around the city in which no building activity is
allowed. The city cannot expand beyond this ring. Within the green belt, only parks and golf
courses are allowed

Urban growth
 Absolute increase in physical size and total population of urban areas

Just note:

Urban decay

Urban decline

Green field site

Brown field site

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Chapter 9

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
Pollution
 Contamination of the earth/ atmospheric system to such an extent that normal
environmental process are adversely or negatively affected

Air pollution
 Contamination of the land by gases and particulate matter
 Is when the atmosphere has long been regarded as a dumping ground for gaseous and
particular waste

Land pollution
 This describes rubbish dumps, spoils heaps and contaminate d land

Land degradation
 Reducing quality of land
 Can be dereliction or contamination of land

Dereliction
 Is when land or buildings is so damaged by industrial or other developments that it is
incapable of beneficial use without treatment or rehabilitation

Contaminated land
 This is common in most industrial regions associated with industrial gas waste, scrape yards,
military and waste disposal sites

Global warming
 Is the increase of atmospheric temperature around the earth due to greenhouse gas effects
which prevent escaping of heat to outer space
 It is associated with greenhouse gases
 Carbon dioxide, methane gas, nitrous oxide are pollutants which stimulates the global
temperatures

Just note:

Water Pollution

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Noise Pollution

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Index
A

Abrasion 13, 21 Bifurcation ratio 15

Accordant pattern 14 Binary distribution 33

Actual Evapotranspiration 5 Birth rate 24

Aeolian erosion 21 Block disintegration 16

Ageing population 27 Braided channel 15

Air pollution 38 Breakdown 16-17

Alumina silicic acid 17 Brown field site 37

Approach segment 7 C

Aquiclude 8 Calcium bi-carbonate 17

Aquifer 8 Carbonation 17

Arid and Semi-arid Environments 19 Carbonic acid 17

Arid areas 19 Carrying capacity 28

Aridity 19 CBD 34, 36

Atmospheric system 38 Census 28

Attrition 13, 21 Central functions 33

B Central place 32

Bad Lands 20 Chalk 17

Bahada/ Bajada 22-23 Channel flow 6

Bankfull discharge 7 Chelation/ Humification 17

Bankfull stage 7 Cheluvination 17

Basal surface of weathering 18 Chemical weathering 17

Baseflow 7-8 Child bearing age 24

Baselevel 14 Christaller 32

Bed load 15 Circulation 30

Bedding plane 16 City centre 35

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Commuting 30 Discordant 15

Confluences 12 Disintegration 16

Consequent streams ( main stream ) 14 Dispersed 33

Contaminated land 38 Diurnal temperature ranges 16

Conurbation 32, 34 Dolomite 17

Corrasion 13 Doubling time 26

Corrosion 13 Drainage basin 4

Counter urbanisation 37 Drainage density 15

Critical velocity curve 11 Drainage morphometry 15

Cycle urbanisation 37 Drainage pattern 14

D Duricrust 18

Death rates 24 E

Debris 18 Elderly/ Ageing population 27

Deep weathering 18 Emigrants 31

Defacto 28 Endoreic 22

Deflation 21 Environmental management 38

Dejure 28 Ephemeral rivers 22

Demography 24 Erg/ Sandy deserts 19

Dependency ratio 26 Erosion 11-12, 21

Deposition 11, 14 Erosional processes 12

Dereliction 38 Ethnicity 29

Desert 19 Evaporation 4

Desert Geomorphology 20 Evapotranspiration 4

Desert Landforms 21 Exhumation/ Etchplanation 17

Desert piedmont zone 22 Exogenous rivers 22

Desertification 23 Extremely arid areas 19

Dirty wedging 20

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F Helicoidal flow 12

Fecundity 26 Hinterland 32

Feldspar 17 Hjulstrom curve 10

Fertility 25 Humic acid 17

Fertility rate 24 Humification 17

Field capacity 5 Hydration 17

Flashy hydrograph 8 Hydraulic action 13

Fluvial Geomorphology 10 Hydraulic radius 10

Fluvial landforms 22 Hydrological cycle 4

Fluvial processes 10 Hydrolysis 17

Fringe belt/ Urban fringe 36 Ice wedging /frost shattering 20

Frost weathering 16, 20 I

Functional zone 35 Immigrants 31

G Infant mortality 25

GDP (Gross Domestic Product) 29 Infiltration 5

Gentrification 34 Infiltration capacity 5

Geomorphology 16 Infiltration rate 5

Global warming 38 Inner city 36

Gorges 15 Inselbergs 18

Graded river profile 14 Interception 5

Gradual disintegration 16 Interfluves 18

Granular disintegration 17 Intermittent streams 10

Green belts 37 Internal migration 30

Green field site 37 International/ external migration 30

Groundwater storage 8 Involuntary/ forced migration 30

H Isolated pattern 33

Headward erosion 12

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J Mountain deserts 20

K Mountain Front 23

Karst 18 Multi-racial societies 29

Knickpoint 22-23 N

L Natural increase 25

Lag time 8 Nearest neighbour analysis 33

Laminar flow 11 Neo-natal mortality 25

Land degradation 38 Net migration gain 31

Land pollution 38 Net migration loss 31

Lateral erosion 13 New town 34

Laterite 18 Noise pollution 39

Life expectancy 25-26 Nucleated pattern 33

M O

Male mortality rate 25 Obsequent stream 14

Mass movements 17 Optimum population 29

Maternal mortality 24-25 Over urbanisation 36

Mean (critical velocity curve) 11 Overall population growth 25

Mean fall (setting velocity curve) 11 Overland flow 6

Meander 15 Overpopulation 28

Meandering channel 15 Oxidation 17

Migration 24, 30 P

Migration balance 31 Particular waste 38

Mineral oxides 17 Peak discharge 7

Mineral 17 Pediplanation 18

Mobility 30 Peeling off 16

Morbidity 25 Perched watertable 9

Mortality 25 Percolation 8

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Perennial streams 10 Q

Peripediment 23 R

Periphery 33 Racial Segregation 29

Physical weathering 16 Range 32

Piedmont zone 22 Rank size rule 33

Pirate urbanisation 37 Rapids 15

Place utility 31 Recession limb/ falling limb 7

Playa / intermittent lake 23 Recharge 9

Pollution 38 Regolith 17, 18

Population 24 Regressive population pyramid 27

Population ceiling 29 Reilly gravity model 33

Population change 24 Replacement level/ rate 28

Population density 24 Resequent streams 14

Population distribution 24 Residual clay 17

Population explosion 27 Return migration 31

Population growth 27 Reurbanisation 37

Population growth rate 24 Rising limb/ recession limb 7

Population pyramid 27 River capacity 11

Population Registers 28 River capture 15

Population structure 26 River channels 12

Population-resource ratio 29 River competence 11

Potassium hydroxide 17 River discharge 6

Potential evapotranspiration 4 River hydrograph 6

Pre-natal mortality 25 River long profile 14

Pressure Release/Dilatation 16 River mouths 12

Primary permeability 8 River regime 8

Progressive Population pyramid 27 River rejuvenation 14

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River source 12 Soil antecedent moisture 5

River velocity 10 Solution 13, 17

Rivers in arid regions 22 Soluble 17

Rock crevices 16 Squatter settlement 34

Rock pediment 23 Stemflow 5

Rocky/ Hamada deserts 19 Stoney/ Reg deserts 19

Runoff 5, 9 Storage 9

Rural-urban interaction 35 Straight channel 15

S Stream frequency 15

Salt Crystallization 16, 20 Stream ordering 15

Saltation 13, 21 Subdued hydrograph 8

Saprolite 18 Subsequent streams 14

Satellite towns 34 Suburbanisation phase 36

Saturation overland flow 6 Surface creeping/ traction 21

Secondary interception 5 Suspension 13

Secondary permeability 8 Sustainable development 28

Semi-arid areas 19 Sustainable utilization 23

Setting velocity curve 11 T

Settlement 32 The age structure 26

Settlement morphology 33 The median age 26

Settlement pattern/ morphology 33 The sex structure 26

Settlement site 32 Thermal expansion weathering 16

Settlement situation 32 Thermal shattering 20

Sex ratio 27 Threshold 32

Situ 16 Through flow 6

Slum settlements 34 Throughfall 5

Sphere of influence 32 Traction 13

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Transpiration 4 Wind Action 20

Transportational processes 13 Wind domains 20

Turbulent flow 12 Wind transport 21

U X

Underpopulation 28 Y

Urban decay 37 Yardang 21

Urban decline 37 Youthful population 29

Urban field 32 Z

Urban growth37 Zero population growth 27

Urban Primacy / Primate city 34 Zeugen 21

Urban renewal 36

Urban sprawl 36

Urbanisation 36

Urbanism 37

Vertical erosion 12

Vital Registration/ Rate 28

Voluntary migration 30

Wadis 22

Water balance / water budget 9

Water Pollution 38

Water recharge 9

Waterfalls 15

Watertable 9

Weathering 16

Wetted perimeter 10

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NCUBE PATRICE

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Advanced final examination.

It is also helpful to those who are craving for definitions on the topics listed in
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“A” Level Geography it’s all about knowing terms and their definitions for you
to be able to answer a question and also been able to allocate case studies

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