Topic 1: Basic Steps in the Research1) Process

Research, as a tool for progress, satisfies mankind’s curiosity to lots of questions.

The following steps outline a simple and effective strategy for writing a research
paper. Depending on your familiarity with the topic and the challenges you
encounter along the way, you may need to rearrange these steps.

☐ Step 1: Identify and develop your topic

Selecting a topic or identifying a research problem can be the most challenging
part of a research assignment. The topic or the research problem guides you in
formulating the hypothesis and interpretation of your findings so that you can
formulate the right conclusion. A good topic or a good research problem is
important because it is the basis of all subsequent research activities you are
going to undertake.
Since this is the very first step in writing a paper, it is vital that it be done
properly. Here are some tips for selecting a topic:
1. Select a topic within the parameters set by the assignment. Many times your
instructor will give you clear guidelines as to what you can and cannot write
about. Failure to work within these guidelines may result in your proposed
paper being deemed unacceptable by your instructor.
2. Select a topic of personal interest to you and learn more about it. The research
for and writing of a paper will be more enjoyable if you are writing about
something that you find interesting.
3. Select a topic for which you can find a manageable amount of information. Do a
preliminary search of information sources to determine whether existing sources
will meet your needs. If you find too much information, you may need to
narrow your topic; if you find too little, you may need to broaden your topic.
4. Be original. Your instructor reads hundreds of research papers every year, and
many of them are on the same topics (topics in the news at the time,
controversial issues, subjects for which there is ample and easily accessed
information). Stand out from your classmates by selecting an interesting and
off-the-beaten-path topic.
5. Still can't come up with a topic to write about? See your instructor for advice.

Step 1-1 Define the Task

Before selecting a topic or starting your research, make sure you understand your
assignment. Consider:
 Have you been assigned a topic or can you pick your own?

1) The term ‘research’ refers to the repetition of the search (examination). Repetitive
research in various directions to prove the central question of the thesis is generally
called ‘research’.

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 How many pages/words do you need to write? How long is your presentation?
 Do you need to include specific types of sources (e.g. scholarly journal, book,
etc.)?
 When is the assignment due? How much time do you have to research?
 Is currency of information important?
 When in doubt, consult with your instructor.

☐ Step 2 Formulation of Hypothesis

Once you have identified your topic or your research problem, the next step is to
formulate your own hypothesis. A hypothesis is a theoretical statement in solving a
logical relationship between variables. Do not be afraid if your hypothesis proves
to be incorrect after the experimentation because it is only considered as an
educated guess. Always remember that when you formulate a hypothesis, it should
be based on the research problem being solved.
To formulate a your hypothesis, it may help to state it as a question. For example,
if you are interested in finding out about the epidemic of obesity in the American
population, you might pose the question "What are the causes of obesity in
America ?" By posing your subject as a question you can more easily identify the
main concepts or keywords to be used in your research.

Topic, Research Problem, Research Hypothesis

Topic or your
 Obesity in the American population
research problem

Research Question  What are the causes of obesity in America?

 Does increase in the eating-out lead to an increase in

Research Hypothesis
obesity?

Step 3 : Do a background research for information

Before beginning your research in earnest, do a background research to determine
whether there is enough information out there for your needs and to set the context
of your research. Look up your keywords in the appropriate titles in the library's
Reference collection (such as encyclopedias and dictionaries) and in other sources
such as our catalog of books, periodical databases, and Internet search engines.
Additional background information may be found in your lecture notes, textbooks,
and reserve readings. You may find it necessary to adjust the focus of your topic
in light of the resources available to you.

Background research:

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 Provides a good overview of the topic if you are unfamiliar with it.
 Helps identify important facts: terminology, dates, events, history, organizations,
etc.
 Can help refine your topic.
 Leads to bibliographies which provide additional sources of information.

Step 3-1 Identifying Keywords

Before finding background information on your topic, you need to identify some
keywords.
The keywords you use can have a profound impact on the results of your
research. Using the “right” words will speed up the research process, while the
“wrong” words can bring to it to a halt.
Before you can begin searching for information, you need to identify keywords
related to your topic. Key terminology can be easily be found by scanning:
 Your research questions
 Articles found from background researchmagnifying glass
 Bibliographies found at the end of books and articles

Step 3-2 Tracking Keywords

Make a list or use the chart below to track keywords related to your topic.clip
board.

Keyword Brainstorming Chart

Initial Similar Broader Narrower Related
Topic Terms Terms Terms Terms
Mammalia (class), Macropus (genus),
Kangaroos, Australia,
Marsupialia (order), Giganteus (species),
Example Kangaroo roos, Grassland,
Macropodidae Eastern Gray
joeys Wallabies
(family) Kangaroo
Fill in your
topic &
keywords

Step 3-3 Refine a topic

Is Your Topic Too Broad?
If you are finding too much information, your research topic may be too broad.
Consider narrowing it to a more specific time, location, groups, event or aspect.
 Broad Topic: Global warming
 Narrower Topic: How will climate change impact sea levels and the coastal
United States?

Is Your Topic Too Narrow?

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If you are finding too little information, your topic may be too NARROW,
specialized, or current. Use these strategies to broaden your topic.
Generalize your topic. If your topic is the economic effects of fracking on
Generalize
Troy, PA, broaden your topic to all Pennsylvania communities or US.
If your topic is very current, there may not be books or journal articles
Currency
available yet. Choose an alternative topic that is not so recent.
Related Explore related issues.
Expand/ Expand or remove: location, time period, aspect, event, population,
Remove person/group.
 Example of a Narrow Topic: Does cartoon viewing cause aggression in children
under age five?
 Broader: What are the negative effects of TV on children and adolescents?

☐ Step 4: Locate materials

With the direction of your research now clear to you, you can begin locating
material on your topic. There are a number of places you can look for
information:
 Use the library's electronic periodical databases to find magazine and
newspaper articles. Choose the databases and formats best suited to your
particular topic; ask at the librarian at the Reference Desk if you need help
figuring out which database best meets your needs. Many of the articles in the
databases are available in full-text format.
 Use search engines (Google, Yahoo, etc.) and subject directories to locate
materials on the Internet. Check the Internet Resources section of the NHCC
Library web site for helpful subject links.

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☐ Step 5: Evaluate your sources
Evaluate the authority and quality of the information you have located. You shall
provide credible, truthful, and reliable information and you have every right to
expect that the sources you use are providing the same. This step is especially
important when using Internet resources. "Since it's on the Internet, it must be
true!" Seriously? That's not necessarily the case.

C.A.R.S. Website Evaluation Checklist

Criteria Questions to Ask
When was the source written and published?
Has the information been updated recently?
Currency
Is currency pertinent to your research?
Does the source cover your research topic comprehensively or only
cover one aspect?
To what extent does the source answer your research question?
Relevance Is the source considered popular or scholarly?
Is the terminology and language used easy to understand?
Does the source meet the requirements of your research assignment?
Who is the author (person, company, or organization)?
Does the source provide any information that leads you to believe the
author is credible or an expert on the topic?
Authority Can you describe the author's background (experience, education,
knowledge)?
Does the author provide citations? Do you think they are reputable?
Can facts or statistics be verified through another source?
Based on your knowledge, does the information seem accurate? Does
Accuracy it match the information found in other sources?
Are there spelling or grammatical errors?
What is the purpose or motive for the source (educational,
commercial, entertainment, promotional, etc.)?
Who is the intended audience?
Purpose Is the author pretending to be objective, but really trying to
persuade, promote or sell something?
Does the source seem biased?

Source Types
When evaluating information, it is useful to identify if it's a Primary, Secondary,
or Tertiary source. By doing so, you will be able recognize if the author is
reporting on his/her own first hand experiences, or relying on the views of others.

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 Source Type Examples
Primary  First-person account of an event; First
A first-person account by someone who publication of a scientific study;
 experienced or witnessed an event. The Speech or lecture; Original artwork;
 original document has not been Handwritten manuscript; Letters
 previously published or interpreted by between two people; A diary; Historical
 anyone else. documents, e.g. Bill of Rights
Secondary 
One step removed from the primary Newspaper reporting on a scientific
 original source. The author is study
 reexamining, interpreting and forming Review of a music CD or art show
 conclusions based on the information Biography
 conveyed in the primary source.
Tertiary 
Further removed from a primary source. Bibliography
 It leads the researcher to a secondary Index to articles
 source, rather than to the primary Library catalog
 source.

☐ Step 6: Make notes

Consult the resources you have chosen and note the information that will be
useful in your paper. Be sure to document all the sources you consult, even if
you there is a chance you may not use that particular source. The author, title,
publisher, URL, and other information will be needed later when creating a
bibliography.

Steps 6-1 Forms of Notetaking

Use one of these notetaking forms to capture information:
 Summarize: Capture the main ideas of the source succinctly by restating them
in your own words.
 Paraphrase: Restate the author's ideas in your own words.
 Quote: Copy the quotation exactly as it appears in the original source. Put
quotation marks around the text and note the name of the person you are
quoting.

Steps 6-2 When should I paraphrase, and when should I summarize?

To paraphrase means to restate someone else’s ideas in your own language at
roughly the same level of detail. To summarize means to reduce the most essential
points of someone else’s work into a shorter form. Along with quotation,
paraphrase and summary provide the main tools for integrating your sources into
your papers. When choosing which to use, consider first your discipline and the

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type of writing in which you are engaged. For example, literature reviews in
science reports rely almost exclusively on summary. Argumentative essays, by
contrast, rely on all three tools.
Paraphrase and summary are indispensable in argumentative papers because they
allow you to include other people’s ideas without cluttering up your paragraphs
with quotations. These techniques help you take greater control of your essay.
Consider using either tool when an idea from one of your sources is important to
your essay but the wording is not. Space limitations may guide you in your
choice. But above all, think about how much of the detail from your source is
relevant to your argument. If your reader needs to know only the bare bones,
then summarize.
Though paraphrase and summary are often preferable to quotation, do not rely
too heavily on them, either. Your ideas are what matter most. Allow yourself the
space to develop those ideas.

How do I summarize?
Summary moves much further than paraphrase from point-by-point translation.
When you summarize a passage, you need first to absorb the meaning and then to
capture in your own words the most important elements from the original passage.
A summary is necessarily shorter than a paraphrase.

How do I paraphrase?
Whenever you paraphrase, remember these two points: (1) You must provide a
reference. (2) The paraphrase must be in your own words. You must do more
than merely substitute phrases here and there. You must also create your own
sentence structures.
Finding new words for ideas that are already well expressed can be hard, but
changing words should not be your chief aim anyway. Focus, rather, on filtering
the ideas through your own understanding. The following strategy will make the
job of paraphrasing a lot easier: (1) When you are at the note-taking stage, and
you come across a passage that may be useful for your essay, do not copy the
passage verbatim unless you think you will want to quote it. (2) If you think you
will want to paraphrase the passage, make a note only of the author’s basic point
(or points). You don’t even need to use full sentences. (3) In your note, you
should already be translating the language of the original into your own words.
What matters is that you capture the original idea. (4) Make sure to jot down the
source as well as the page number so that you can make a proper reference later
on.
When it comes time to write the paper, rely on your notes rather than on the
author’s work. You will find it much easier to avoid borrowing from the original
passage because you will not have seen it recently. Follow this simple sequence:

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(1) Convert the ideas from your notes into full sentences. (2) Provide a reference.
(3) Go back to the original to ensure that (a) your paraphrase is accurate and (b)
you have truly said things in your own words.

Steps 6-3 Tips for Taking Notes by Hand

 Use index cards to keep notes and track sources used in your paper.
 Create Work Cited cards for each source.
- Include the citation (i.e., author, title, publisher, date, page numbers, etc.) in the
format you're using. It will be easier to organize the sources alphabetically when
creating the Works Cited page.
- Number the source cards.
 On each note card:
- Use only one side to record a single idea, fact or quote from one source. It will
be easier to rearrange them later when it comes time to organize your paper.
- Include a heading or key words at the top of the card.
- Include the Work Cited source card number.
- Include the page number where you found the information.
 Taking notes:
- Use abbreviations, acronyms, or incomplete sentences to record information to
speed up the note-taking process.
- Write down only the information that answers your research questions.
- Use symbols, diagrams, charts or drawings to simplify and visualize ideas.

Example Notecard Example of a Work Cited Card

☐ Step 7: Write your paper

Begin by organizing the information you have collected. The next step is the rough
draft, wherein you get your ideas on paper in an unfinished fashion. This step will
help you organize your ideas and determine the form your final paper will take.
After this, you will revise the draft as many times as you think necessary to
create a final product to turn in to your instructor.

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Step 7-1 Outline the Paper
 Why Outline?
- Outlines provide a means of organizing your information in an hierarchical or
logical order.
- For research papers, a formal outline can help you keep track of large amounts
of information.

Step 7-2 How to Create an Outline

 To create an outline:
- Place your thesis statement at the beginning.
- List the major points that support your thesis. Label them in Roman numerals (I,
II, III, etc.).
- List supporting ideas or arguments for each major point. Label them in capital
letters (A, B, C, etc.).
- If applicable, continue to sub-divide each supporting idea until your outline is
fully developed. Label them 1, 2, 3, etc., and then a, b, c, etc.

☐ Step 8 Incorporating source materials

Step 8-1 Quote, Paraphrase or Summarize?
In research papers, you should quote from a source when you:
- want the reputation of the author to lend authority and credibility to your point.
- find memorable or historically significant language.
- don't want the author's meaning to be lost or changed if you paraphrased or
summarized.
- find the author's language so clear and concise you wouldn't be able to
effectively make the same point in your own words.
You should summarize or paraphrase when you:
- can express in fewer words the main points of a source.
- want the ideas presented in the source, but not the specific language used to
express it.

Step 8-2 Steps to Quoting

A quote is the reproduction of the words of the original author. To quote, follow
the steps below:
1. Select the quote you'd like to use in your paper.
2. Record it exactly as it appears in the original source.
- Use ellipses (...) to mark spots where you have left out words from the original
text.
3. Place quotation marks around the complete text.

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4. Note the source and page number of the quotation in a launch statement or in
parentheses.
EXAMPLE : According to Lennie, "[...] I got you to look after me, and you got me
to look after you, and that's why" (Steinbeck 14).

Step 8-3 Steps to Summarizing

A summary is a brief statement of the main points of a source. To summarize,
follow the steps below:
1. Select a passage of text, article, chapter or entire book that supports your
research.
2. Read the selection until you feel you have a good understanding of its main
points.
3. Write a sentence or two in your own words that captures the main points.
4. Revise your summary so it reads clearly.
5. Note the source (and page number, if applicable) of the summary in a launch
statement or in parentheses.

Step 8-4 Steps to Paraphrasing

A paraphrase is the rewording of something written or spoken by someone else.
To paraphrase, follow these steps:
1. Read the original text until you grasp its meaning; then set it aside.
2. Using your memory, write down the main points or concepts.
3. Change the structure of the text by varying the opening, changing the order of
sentences, lengthening or shortening sentences, etc.
4. Replace keywords within the sentences with synonyms or phrases with similar
meanings.
5. Note the source and page number of the paraphrase in a launch statement or
in parentheses.

EXAMPLE
 Original Text: If the existence of a signing ape was unsettling for linguists, it
was also startling news for animal behaviorists (Davis 26).
 Unacceptable Borrowing of Phrases: Davis observed that the existence of a
signing ape unsettled linguists and startled animal behaviorists (26).
 Unacceptable Borrowing of Structure: Davis observed that if the presence of a
sign-language-using chimp was disturbing for scientists studying language, it
was also surprising to scientists studying animal behavior (26).
 Acceptable Paraphrase: Davis observed both linguists and animal behaviorists
were taken by surprise upon learning of an ape’s ability to use sign language
(26).

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☐ Step 9: Cite your sources properly
Give credit where credit is due; cite your sources.
Citing or documenting the sources used in your research serves two purposes: it
gives proper credit to the authors of the materials used, and it allows those who
are reading your work to duplicate your research and locate the sources that you
have listed as references. The MLA and the APA Styles are two popular citation
formats.

Failure to cite your sources properly is plagiarism. Plagiarism is avoidable!

☐ Step 10 Proofread
The final step in the process is to proofread the paper you have created. Read
through the text and check for any errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
Make sure the sources you used are cited properly. Make sure the message that
you want to get across to the reader has been thoroughly stated.

Additional research tips:

 Work from the general to the specific - find background information first, then
use more specific sources.
 Don't forget print sources - many times print materials are more easily
accessed and every bit as helpful as online resources.

Borrowed from :
1. Basic Steps in the Research Process by North Hennepin Community College
https://www.nhcc.edu/academics/library/doing-library-research/basic-steps-research-process

2. How to Do Research by Elmira College

https://libguides.elmira.edu/research

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Topic 2: Organization and Structure in Scientific Writings2)
There is no single organizational pattern that works well for all writing across all
disciplines; rather, organization depends on what you’re writing, who you’re writing
it for, and where your writing will be read. In order to communicate your ideas,
you’ll need to use a logical and consistent organizational structure in all of your
writing. We can think about organization at the global level (your entire paper or
project) as well as at the local level (a chapter, section, or paragraph). For an
American academic situation, this means that at all times, the goal of revising for
organization and structure is to consciously design your writing projects to make
them easy for readers to understand. In this context, you as the writer are always
responsible for the reader's ability to understand your work; in other words,
American academic writing is writer-responsible. A good goal is to make your
writing accessible and comprehensible to someone who just reads sections of your
writing rather than the entire piece. This handout provides strategies for revising
your writing to help meet this goal.
Note that this resource focuses on writing for an American academic setting,
specifically for graduate students. American academic writing is of course not the
only standard for academic writing, and researchers around the globe will have
different expectations for organization and structure. The OWL has some more
resources about writing for American and international audiences here.

1. Whole-Essay Structure: IMRAD

- Introduction
- Methods
- Results
- Discussion.

While organization varies across and within disciplines, usually based on the genre,
publication venue, and other rhetorical considerations of the writing, a great deal
of academic writing can be described by the acronym IMRAD (or IMRaD):
Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.
This structure is common across most of the sciences and is often used in the
humanities for empirical research. This structure doesn't serve every purpose (for
instance, it may be difficult to follow IMRAD in a proposal for a future study or in
more exploratory writing in the humanities), and it is often tweaked or changed to
fit a particular situation. Still, its wide use as a base for a great deal of scholarly
writing makes it worthwhile to break down here.

 Introduction: What is the purpose of the study? What were the research

2) owl.purdue.edu/owl/graduate_writing/graduate_writing_topics

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 questions? What necessary background information should the reader
understand to help contextualize the study? (Some disciplines include their
literature review section as part of the introduction; some give the literature
review its own heading on the same level as the other sections, i.e., ILMRAD.)
Some writers use the CARS(Creating a Research Space) model to help craft
their introductions more effectively.
 Methods: What methods did the researchers use? How was the study
conducted? If the study included participants, who were they, and how were
they selected?
 Results: This section lists the data. What did the researchers find as a result of
their experiments (or, if the research is not experimental, what did the
researchers learn from the study)? How were the research questions answered?
 Discussion: This section places the data within the larger conversation of the
field. What might the results mean? Do these results agree or disagree with
other literature cited? What should researchers do in the future?

Depending on your discipline, this may be exactly the structure you should use in
your writing; or, it may be a base that you can see under the surface of published
pieces in your field, which then diverge from the IMRAD structure to meet the
expectations of other scholars in the field. However, you should always check to
see what's expected of you in a given situation; this might mean talking to the
professor for your class, looking at a journal's submission guidelines, reading your
field's style manual, examining published examples, or asking a trusted mentor.
Every field is a little different.

2. Outlining & Reverse Outlining

One of the most effective ways to get your ideas organized is to write an outline.
A traditional outline comes as the pre-writing or drafting stage of the writing
process. As you make your outline, think about all of the concepts, topics, and
ideas you will need to include in order to accomplish your goal for the piece of
writing. This may also include important citations and key terms. Write down each
of these, and then consider what information readers will need to know in order
for each point to make sense. Try to arrange your ideas in a way that logically
progresses, building from one key idea or point to the next.

(1) Questions for Writing Outlines

1. What are the main points I am trying to make in this piece of writing?
2. What background information will my readers need to understand each point?
What will novice readers vs. experienced readers need to know?
3. In what order do I want to present my ideas? Most important to least important,
or least important to most important? Chronologically? Most complex to least

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 complex? According to categories? Another order?

Reverse outlining comes at the drafting or revision stage of the writing process.
After you have a complete draft of your project (or a section of your project),
work alone or with a partner to read your project with the goal of understanding
the main points you have made and the relationship of these points to one
another. The OWL has another resource about reverse outlining here.

(2) Questions for Writing Reverse Outlines

1. What topics are covered in this piece of writing?
2. In what order are the ideas presented? Is this order logical for both novice and
experienced readers?
3. Is adequate background information provided for each point, making it easy to
understand how one idea leads to the next?
4. What other points might the author include to further develop the writing
project?

3. Organizing at the sentence and paragraph level

(1) Signposting
Signposting is the practice of using language specifically designed to help orient
readers of your text. We call it signposting because this practice is like leaving
road signs for a driver — it tells your reader where to go and what to expect up
ahead. Signposting includes the use of transitional words and phrasing, and they
may be explicit or more subtle. For example, an explicit signpost might say:
This section will cover Topic A­­ and Topic B­­­­­.
A more subtle signpost might look like this:
It's important to consider the impact of Topic A­­ and Topic B­­­­­.

The style of signpost you use will depend on the genre of your paper, the
discipline in which you are writing, and your or your readers’ personal
preferences. Regardless of the style of signpost you select, it’s important to include
signposts regularly. They occur most frequently at the beginnings and endings of
sections of your paper. It is often helpful to include signposts at mid-points in
your project in order to remind readers of where you are in your argument.

(2) Questions for Identifying and Evaluating Signposts

How and where does the author include a phrase, sentence, or short group of
sentences that explains the purpose and contents of the paper?
How does each section of the paper provide a brief summary of what was covered
earlier in the paper?
How does each section of the paper explain what will be covered in that section?

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How does the author use transitional words and phrases to guide readers through
ideas (e.g. however, in addition, similarly, nevertheless, another, while, because,
first, second, next, then etc.)?

WORKS CONSULTED
Clark, I. (2006). Writing the successful thesis and dissertation: Entering the
conversation. Prentice Hall Press.
Davis, M., Davis, K. J., & Dunagan, M. (2012). Scientific papers and presentations.
Academic press.

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Topic 3: Organization & the CARS(Creating a Research Space) Model3)
Although each discipline has its own conventions for what articles, research
reports, dissertations, and other types of scholarly writing should look like,
academic writing shares some general characteristics across each field. One area
of similarity is the introduction section. This handout provides strategies for
revising introductions.

CARS (Creating a Research Space)

The Creating a Research Space [C.A.R.S.] Model was developed by John Swales
based upon his analysis of journal articles representing a variety of
discipline-based writing practices. His model attempts to explain and describe the
organizational pattern of writing the introduction to scholarly research studies.
Following the C.A.R.S. Model can be useful approach because it can help you to:
1) begin the writing process [getting started is often the most difficult task]; 2)
understand the way in which an introduction sets the stage for the rest of your
paper; and, 3) assess how the introduction fits within the larger scope of your
study.
The model assumes that writers follow a general organizational pattern in response
to two types of challenges [“competitions”] relating to establishing a presence
within a particular domain of research: 1) the competition to create a rhetorical
space and, 2) the competition to attract readers into that space. The model
proposes three actions [Swales calls them “moves”], accompanied by specific steps,
that reflect the development of an effective introduction for a research paper.
These “moves” and steps can be used as a template for writing the introduction to
your own social sciences research papers.

He identified the following moves as common among most articles:

Move 1: Establishing a territory

This is generally accomplished in two ways: by demonstrating that a general area
of research is important, critical, interesting, problematic, relevant, or otherwise
worthy of investigation and by introducing and reviewing key sources of prior
research in that area to show where gaps exist or where prior research has been
inadequate in addressing the research problem.
Step 1 Claiming importance and/or
Step 2 Making topic generalizations and/or
Step 3 Reviewing items of previous research

3) owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/organization_CARS_Model.html

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Step writing action
Step 1 Claiming describing the research problem and providing evidence to support
importance why the topic is important to study
Step 2 Making topic providing statements about the current state of knowledge,
generalizations consensus, practice or description of phenomena
synthesize prior research that further supports the need to study
Step 3 Reviewing
the research problem; this is not a literature review but more a
items of previous
reflection of key studies that have touched upon but perhaps not
research
fully addressed the topic

Move 2: Establishing a niche [the problem]

This action refers to making a clear and cogent argument that your particular
piece of research is important and possesses value. This can be done by indicating
a specific gap in previous research, by challenging a broadly accepted assumption,
by raising a question, a hypothesis, or need, or by extending previous knowledge
in some way.
Step 1a Counter-claiming or
Step 1b Indicating a gap or
Step 1c Question-raising or
Step 1d Continuing a tradition

Step writing action

introduce an opposing viewpoint or perspective or identify a gap in
Step 1a
prior research that you believe has weakened or undermined the
Counter-claiming
prevailing argument
Step 1b Indicating develop the research problem around a gap or understudied area
a gap of the literature
similar to gap identification, this involves presenting key questions
about the consequences of gaps in prior research that will be
Step 1c addressed by your study. For example, one could state, “Despite
Question-raising prior observations of voter behavior in local elections in urban
Detroit, it remains unclear why do some single mothers choose to
avoid....”
extend prior research to expand upon or clarify a research
problem. This is often signaled with logical connecting terminology,
such as, “hence,” “therefore,” “consequently,” “thus” or language
Step 1d Continuing
that indicates a need. For example, one could state, “Consequently,
a tradition
these factors need to examined in more detail....” or “Evidence
suggests an interesting correlation, therefore, it is desirable to
survey different respondents....”

Move 3: Occupying the niche

The final "move" is to announce the means by which your study will contribute
new knowledge or new understanding in contrast to prior research on the topic.
This is also where you describe the remaining organizational structure of the

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paper.

Step 1a Outlining purposes or Step 1b Announcing present research

Step 2 Announcing principle findings
Step 3 Indicating article structure

Step writing action

Step 1a answering the “So What?” question. Explain in clear language the
Outlining purposes objectives of your study

Step 1b describe the purpose of your study in terms of what the research is
Announcing going to do or accomplish. In the social sciences, the “So What?”
present research question still needs to addressed
Step 2 present a brief, general summary of key findings written, such as,
Announcing “The findings indicate a need for...,” or “The research suggests four
principle findings approaches to....”
Step 3 Indicating
state how the remainder of your paper is organized
article structure

Writers can use these moves as a guide for revising their own writing, or for
helping others.

QUESTIONS FOR REVISION

Does the introduction to the piece of writing you are working with…
1) Establish the importance of the paper’s topic within the discipline?
2) Mention commonly accepted ideas about the topic?
3) Discuss previous research related to the topic?
4) Challenge existing beliefs about the topic?
5) Demonstrate a gap in current research on this topic?
6) Ask questions about current knowledge in the field?
7) Name an area of research that needs to be extended?
8) Explain the purpose of the paper?
9) Name the focus of the research?
10) List the primary findings of the research?
11) Outline the sections of the paper?

Topic Outline
A topic outline is a fast and easy way to analyze whether an introduction is
effectively organized. According to Pyrczak and Bruce, a topic outline can help
show the flow of an introduction to ensure it moves from a general introduction of
the problem or gap to a specific discussion of the current research (33). The topic
outline can be combined with the CARS model to improve your introduction or to
offer advice to a peer.

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TOPIC OUTLINE EXERCISE
1) With your own paper, or a peer’s, read through the introduction section.
2) As you read, write down the main points in the introduction in outline form,
using short phrases or sentences to describe what you see happening. The
outline need not be complex.
3) After creating your outline, read through it to see if each of the moves in the
CARS model is covered. Pay particular attention to whether the paper’s author:
a) Mentions how the paper fits into previous research,
b) Lists the paper’s main findings, and
c) Outlines the structure of the paper.
Works Cited
Pyrczak, Fred and Randall R. Bruce. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic
Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Los Angeles: Pyrczak
Publishing, 2000. Print.

Swales, John. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. 1990.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. Print.

Establishing a research niche [move 2]

Examples of how this can be achieved include the following statements, with A
representing the findings of prior research, B representing your research problem,
and X representing one or more variables that have been investigated.

 Prior research has focused on A, rather than on B...

 Prior research into A can be useful but to counterbalance X, it is important to
consider B...
 These studies have emphasized A, as opposed to B...
 While prior studies have examined A, it may be preferable to contemplate the
impact of B...
 After consideration of A, it is important to also recognize B...
 The study of A has been exhaustive, but changing circumstances related to X
support the need for examining [or revisiting] B...
 Although considerable research has been devoted to A, less attention has been
paid to B...
 Earlier research offers insight into the need for A, though consideration of B is
also helpful...

Swales showed that establishing a research niche [move 2] is often signaled by

specific terminology that expresses a contrasting viewpoint, a critical evaluation of
gaps in the literature, or a perceived weakness in prior research. The purpose of
using these words is to draw a clear distinction between perceived deficiencies in

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previous studies and the research you are presenting that is intended to help
resolve these deficiencies. Below is a table of common words used by authors.
Contrast Quantity Verbs Adjectives
challenge, deter,
difficult, dubious, elusive,
albeit, although disregard, exclude,
inadequate, incomplete,
but, howbeit, fail, hinder, ignore,
inconclusive, ineffective,
however, few, handful lack, limit,
inefficient, questionable,
nevertheless, less, little, no misinterpret,
scarce, uncertain,
notwithstanding, none, not neglect
unclear, unconvincing,
unfortunately, obviate, omit,
unproductive, unreliable,
whereas, yet overlook, prevent,
unsatisfactory
question, restrict

NOTE: You may prefer not to adopt a negative stance in your writing when
placing it within the context of prior research. In such cases, an alternative
approach is to utilize a neutral, contrastive statement that expresses a new
perspective without giving the appearance of trying to diminish the validity of
other people's research.

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Topic 4: MECE principle
MECE: How to Think, Write & Persuade Like a McKinsey Consultant
June 29, 2020 by Ryan Law in Writing4)
Mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive (MECE) is one of the core
problem-solving frameworks in management consulting. It can also be a powerful
method for better writing.
Consulting firms like Bain, McKinsey, and BCG use case interviews as a core part
of their selection process for new consultants. In a case interview, candidates are
asked to solve an intentionally broad challenge, like how to equitably distribute
funds to an Ebola-stricken country or how to assess the viability of opening a new
coffee shop.
The MECE framework—invented by legendary McKinsey consultant Barbara Minto—
allows candidates to tackle these open-ended challenges in a logical and thorough
way. It guarantees a baseline of clarity when faced with even the most unexpected
challenges. It ensures no obvious gaps in their logic and no glaring oversights.
When applied to content marketing, MECE can supercharge your writing. It allows
you to create persuasive, comprehensive content on virtually any topic. It gets
your thinking off the page and ensures that your articles deliver on their
promises.

The Basics of MECE

According to MECE, within any set of data, information should be
 mutually exclusive (ME), or grouped into sets that don’t overlap with one
another; and
 collectively exhaustive (CE), or organized so that there are no obvious omissions
or “gaps” in the information.
Your data should cover the entire space it set out to define, and none of the
constituent elements should overlap. If that’s true, the data set is MECE.

4) www.animalz.co/blog/mece-mutually-exclusive-collectively-exhaustive/

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Pretty simple: If you write a recipe for a peanut butter and jelly sandwich that
leaves out the jelly, your recipe isn’t collectively exhaustive. Similarly, if you write
an article promising “4 Strategies for Better Mobile App Retention” that offers only
three strategies, your article isn’t collectively exhaustive.

Also simple: If step 2 of your recipe is “slather peanut butter and jelly on both
pieces of bread,” and step 3 is “now add the jelly,” your recipe isn’t mutually
exclusive. If two of the strategies in your article are both about using tooltips for
better onboarding, your article isn’t mutually exclusive.

How to Make Your Writing MECE

Management consultants use the MECE framework by creating visual decision
maps, called “issue trees,” that break down a problem into its constituent parts.
For “opening a coffee shop,” one issue tree might branch out into cost (rent,
equipment, staff, coffee beans) and revenue (pricing, likely footfall in a given
location, number of sales).

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In writing, we can apply the same process to article outlines. Most article ideas
come from a problem we want to solve or an opinion we want to voice. The first
step is to break down the topic into its component parts, and ask, “What
information is necessary to answer the article’s core question?”

Get Your Thinking off the Page

In applying this process, many article outlines inadvertently reveal the writer’s own
thought process about the topic. Let’s take the example topic How to Build a
Content Marketing Pipeline. Here’s a pretty common article structure we could use
for our outline:

How to Build a Better Content Marketing Pipeline

Section 1 Why it’s important to have a content marketing pipeline
Section 2 What makes a great content marketing pipeline
Section 3 How to build a better content marketing pipeline

You can see how the writer’s own research and reasoning have dictated the
structure of the piece: they opened up Google and asked, “Well, why would I need
a content pipeline in the first place?” and then wrote about that. At first glance,
this structure seems reasonable, but it completely fails at being MECE.

It’s not collectively exhaustive because it doesn’t capture the full range of data
necessary to help you build a content marketing pipeline—two out of three sections
don’t even touch on the topic. It’s not mutually exclusive because the third section
—“How to build a better content marketing pipeline”—is the same as the title of
the post.

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If we wrote this article, we’d end up with 2,000 words of copy that largely skirted
around the topic at hand: how to build a content marketing pipeline. The
context-setting sections would be too long, and the meaty “how to” portion would
be too short.

Apply a Logical Structure

There are an infinite number of ways to organize an article, and a key part of
being MECE is identifying a useful structure for the topic you want to cover. Most
content marketing is designed to help the reader do something, like improve their
keyword research or reduce customer churn. How to Build a Content Marketing
Pipeline is no exception.

Instead of structuring the article around your own internal monologue, a better
approach is to outline it with a process structure in mind. We’re teaching the
reader to do something, so the article should share the constituent steps of a
process. It should have a start, a middle, and an end. Each point should follow on
from the conclusion of the previous.

Viewed through this lens, it becomes easier to create a MECE structure for How to
Build a Content Marketing Pipeline. A prerequisite to writing lots of content is
planning lots of content. Next, we can focus on the minutiae of writing those
ideas. Lastly, we’d want to know how our content performed, in order to feed back
into planning the next round of content:

How to Build a Better Content Marketing Pipeline

Section 1 How to plan three-months of content
Section 2 How to consistently produce articles
Section 3 How to evaluate and analyze your publication

In this example, we cover everything that happens before you start writing
content, everything that happens during its actual creation, and everything
required to learn from what you publish.

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There’s no overlap between sections; each addresses a different stage of the
process, and they add up to something that feels like a comprehensive take on the
subject.

Scope Out the Length of Each Section

Many articles fail to be MECE because they end up too long and bloated, or too
short to do the topic justice.

The process of breaking down a topic into its component parts could be repeated
infinitely, and the pursuit of collective exhaustiveness could easily lead to articles
tens of thousands of words long. But the longer an article becomes, the easier it
is to end up rehashing the same information (hence, not mutually exclusive).

Even more common are articles that attempt to tackle huge, meaty topics without
affording them the word count required to be collectively exhaustive. Great MECE
content is only as long as it needs to be:

Why the Best Content Happens Fast doesn’t need to be long. It’s a single thought,

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and the article can be collectively exhaustive within the scope of 600 words.
BLUF: The Military Standard That Can Make Your Writing More Powerful is more
complex. We need to define the concept, highlight its application within writing,
and use examples to demonstrate the principle in action. To write a MECE article,
we needed 1,700 words.
Napkin math at the outline stage can be useful for scoping the required length of
the article. How to Build a Better Content Marketing Pipeline contains three
sections. Each is roughly as important as the others, so we want to allocate an
even word count to each.

With a guesstimate of 500 words per section, and a short introduction and
conclusion, we’re likely to need 1,500-2,000- words to make the topic MECE:

How to Build a Better Content Marketing Pipeline

Introduction ~100 words
Section 1 How to plan three-months of content ~500 words
Section 2 How to consistently produce articles ~500 words
Section 3 How to evaluate and analyze your publication ~500 words
Conclusion ~100 words

Estimating length like this helps ensure that a finished article delivers on the
MECE structure we intend for it. We can identify the core topics, estimate the
relative importance of each, and ensure that we allocate enough time and energy
to making each section distinct and comprehensive.

Consistently Persuasive Writing with MECE

Most writing on the web mirrors the thought process of its writer. While that isn’t
a universally bad way to write, there’s normally a better framework for structuring
any article or argument.

MECE is a valuable tool for creating thorough, persuasive structures in a

consistent way. It ensures that each topic is covered in sufficient depth
(collectively exhaustive) without needless repetition or bloat (mutually exclusive),
and it guarantees that your writing delivers on its promise.

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Topic 5: How to Write an Entertaining YouTube Video Script
Lydia Sweatt in Tips & Tricks October 25 2022
https://vidiq.com/blog/post/write-youtube-video-script/

Want to write video scripts for YouTube? Here's how to format the document and
create better stories for your audience.

You know the importance of having a video script if you're a YouTuber. It helps
you organize your thoughts and tell an engaging story. It also allows you to speak
clearly, avoiding common mistakes we all make when speaking. Messing up a
word. Saying "um" too many times. Forgetting what you wanted to say altogether.

You can fix this by writing a good video script for YouTube. This guide will show
you how to make it engaging, natural, and definitely not cheesy.

But First, What's a YouTube Video Script?

A script is a document that describes what will happen in your video. It includes
details about the characters, plot, action, and setting.
From a text perspective, your script is also an outline of what you want to say.
It's specific enough to read while filming but loose enough to allow for ad-libbing
and vocal experimentation.

How to Start Writing a YouTube Script

When writing a script, it's essential to focus on your audience. You're using the
document to craft a video they'll enjoy, so the script should speak directly to your
viewers.
You need three details to complete this task: who your audience is, the main idea
of your video, and the "voice" you want to use.

1. Start with a Video Title or Main Idea

The first step is simple but worth mentioning: You need a video title or idea
before sitting down to write. This helps you stay on topic, grab viewers' attention,
and provide the information they crave.
Imagine writing a video script about credit cards. Using a title like "How to
Squeeze More Value Out of Your Credit Card" is a lot more engaging than "How to
Use Your Credit Card Wisely." And as you focus on that winning concept —
"squeezing" value instead of "using" a credit card — it's easier to write in that
engaging perspective.
You should also add the right keywords to your title. It will help you write an
even better script that increases YouTube views, but more on that later.

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2. Identify Your Target Audience
It also helps to know who your viewers are before writing a script. This detail is
usually related to your YouTube niche. Are you making videos for teen gamers?
College students who study abroad? Single dads who seek parenting advice?
With those details in mind, ask yourself what information viewers want or need
from the video you're planning. Then try to deliver that value.
This process is called speaking to your target audience. And the best way to do
that is by researching their daily challenges, joys, and desires. Then you can craft
a video that solves a problem or intensifies their joys.
Most of this research happens on YouTube, so click here to learn the basics of
keyword research. You'll learn how often people search for your video's topic, the
words they use when searching, and related topics you can use to build out the
video.

3. Know Your Channel's 'Voice'

Every YouTube creator has a "voice." Maybe you're the "jester" who cracks jokes
and makes people laugh. Or perhaps you're the "adventurer" who takes people on
a journey with action-packed scenes.
Whatever your voice is, use it when writing scripts for YouTube videos. It'll help
you stand out and attract the right kind of viewers — people who like your
personality and hit subscribe.

Create a YouTube Script Outline

Now that you know your video's topic, voice, and target audience, you can start
outlining a script.

Luckily you don't have to build this from scratch. You can use a well-known
YouTube video script format, then personalize it for your content.

Alina Iatiuc, creative producer at vidIQ, writes scripts for the vidIQ channel. Here's
the YouTube script template she uses, plus a few tips to make it your own:
 Section 1: Video hook/intro
 Section 2: Main content and research
 Section 3: CTA (call to action)
 Section 4: YouTube end-screen elements

Section 1: Video Hook/Intro

The "hook" is the first sentence or two that catches the viewers' attention in a
video. It should be one of three things: entertaining, emotional, or informative. If
you can do all three, that's even better.

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Another thing you want to do is present the main problem you're solving.
For example, we have a YouTube script titled "Trick Anyone into Watching Your
Videos." The video hook introduces the problem (no one is watching your videos),
promises a solution, entertains viewers, and taps into their emotions:
"Warning! This video will help you learn to hack peoples' minds and trick anyone
into watching your videos using science and proven facts."
The hook is brief, engaging, and makes the viewer curious enough to keep
watching. Press play below to see what we mean!
But there's more than one way to do this. In fact, here are eight ideas to hook
viewers in the first eight seconds.

Section 2: Main Content and Research

This is where you'll write the bulk of your content. For example, you might have
5-10 main points for your video. One by one, you'll give each point a subheader
and write the words you want to say for that section.
Don't forget to add information that might be useful, including research and
statistics, to support your claims.
“One of the most common mistakes people make when writing a script is not
doing enough research and fact-checking," Alina says. "Sharing misleading
information will not help build trust with your audience. Moreover, it can destroy
a good reputation you've already built.”

Section 3: Your CTA (Call to Action)

There should be a clear call to action at the end of every video. Some creators
ask for feedback in the form of likes, subscriptions, comments, and shares. Some
even encourage people to sign up for their email newsletter. You should write
your call to action in a way that drives viewers to your chosen destination.

Section 4: YouTube End Screen Elements

A YouTube end screen is an interactive outro that appears in the last 5-20
seconds of a video. You can place clickable elements on an end screen, such as
links to a website, a subscribe button, or extra videos for viewers to watch.
End screens and CTAs go hand-in-hand. You'll use the CTA to bring viewers'
attention to the end screen, and you'll use the end screen itself to send viewers
where you want them to go.
For example, here's a CTA and end screen paired together: “"If you want to get
people to watch more of your content — essentially free videos — then watch this
video over here (points to end-screen element showing clickable video)." And by
doing that, you're giving me free views!”

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Topic 5-2: 8 Ways to Make Your Script More Engaging
There's planning a video script, and then there's doing the actual writing. Here's
how to make sure what you write becomes an entertaining video.

1. Use Short Sentences: Long sentences are difficult to read, hear, and
understand. That's why you should write shorter sentences for your video script
and keep things casual. You'll reduce the information viewers hear so they can
follow your train of thought.
At the same time, you don't want every sentence to be brief. Vary the length of
your sentences, so they flow like a natural conversation between friends.
2. Use the Present Tense: Writing in the present tense creates a sense of urgency.
You'll communicate in the here and now, grabbing viewers' attention to keep them
engaged.
3. Write in a Conversational Style: YouTube is pretty laid-back, so use simple
words and phrases anyone can understand. You don't want to sound like you're
delivering an academic speech or giving a research presentation. At the same
time, don't make your script so informal that it sounds off-putting.
4. Use More Active Voice Than Passive Voice: When you write in the active voice,
the subject of a sentence performs an action on something else – a person, idea,
or thing. A sentence written in the passive voice doesn't reveal the subject
upfront, which gets confusing.
Active voice: Joseph adopted three puppies last winter, and they're growing fast.
Passive voice: Three puppies were adopted by Joseph last winter, and they're
growing fast.
The passive sentence requires more effort to understand.
5. Keep it Simple: Remove unnecessary words, sentences, and scenes from your
script if they don't add to the story.
6. Sprinkle in Some Humor: Humor adds a cheery, light-hearted tone to your
video. Just don't go overboard by cracking offensive jokes that make people feel
uncomfortable.
7. Edit Your Script Several Times: Good writing doesn't happen overnight, so read
your script and revise it until you're satisfied.
8. Seek Feedback: It's helpful to get feedback before publishing a YouTube video.
You can ask friends and family what they think or get serious feedback from a
scriptwriter.

Always Write for Your Audience

The beauty of scriptwriting is that you don't need to be an expert. Anyone can sit
down and create a vision for their YouTube video, from the storyline to the
spoken words to the special effects sprinkled on top.
But to create outstanding scripts, you do need to be an expert in one thing:

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prioritizing your viewers and no one else. “A YouTube video script is engaging
when a content creator understands their audience and writes for the people and
not for the ego,” Alina says. “Before starting to write a script, I ask myself: "What
is the problem I want to help my audience solve? How can I solve it so that
people find the solution helpful?”

Topic 5-2 Three Secrets for Writing Click-Worthy YouTube Titles

Writing video titles for YouTube is tricky. It takes a lot of time (and thought) to
develop something so compelling that a viewer thinks, Hmm, that's interesting.
The good news is you can write better titles today — or even better, right now.
Jake Thomas, title-writing expert and owner of Creator Hooks, says you need three
elements to be successful: curiosity, fear, and desire.
"If you can learn how to master those three emotions, you can get really good on
YouTube," Jake says. And it's not just YouTube titles. We're talking about
thumbnails, intros, email subject lines, Twitter threads. This is kind of the study of
getting people's attention and then getting them to click.“
Step 1: Learn Power Phrases
Before you write titles using curiosity, fear, and desire, there's something you
should know.
Tapping into these emotions is difficult, especially with no help. It's much easier
(and faster) to kick off your writing with a list of power phrases. These are words
that spark an emotional response in anyone who reads them, including YouTube
viewers.

Jake tweeted a list of powerful phrases a few months ago, and they'll help you
speed up the brainstorming process:

Change my life
The truth about
I stopped
I regret
Do this
In [time frame]
Beginner
Without
You're doing it wrong
This is what I'd do

Jake says these phrases have a high rate of success on YouTube. They're effective
at getting viewers interested in a video, which leads to more clicks.
Now that you've seen the phrases, here's how to use them in emotional,

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click-worthy titles.

1. Curiosity
Curiosity drives clicks more than any other emotion, Jake says. But how do you
awaken this feeling in YouTube viewers?
The first step is to be vague. Withhold some information so viewers have to click
to find out what's really happening in your video. In other words, create a
mystery!
For example, there's a viral push-up challenge on The Next Workout channel. The
point of the challenge is to do push-ups to a song called "Bring Sally Up." But
cleverly, the creator didn't reveal this information in the title. Instead of writing
something like, "Push-Up Challenge to Bring Sally Up," they wrote something along
the lines of, "This Push-Up Challenge Will Change Your Life in 30 Days.“

Why does this work? It blends two power phrases from Jake's list: "Change my life"
plus the idea of doing so "in" a specific time frame. It makes you wonder, What
kind of challenge can change my life in 30 days? Simply asking the question
makes you want to watch the video.

2. Fear
As humans, we're wired to avoid pain and suffering. That's why we have an
emotional response to anything that feels threatening. We sweat, engage in
fight-or-flight behaviors, and do other impulsive things in the heat of the moment.
Clicking on a YouTube video can be impulsive too. If you see a video about
something important in your life ⁠— but there's terrible news involved ⁠— how
fast will you watch the video to learn more? Our guess: lightning fast.
Finance creators like Graham Stephan know how to evoke such fear. They'll write
nerve-wracking YouTube titles like "The Largest Housing Crash Is Coming" or "Why
I Stopped Buying Stocks." In fact, the stocks video drove so much fear that it got
over 300,000 views.
But if you look even closer, there are more reasons someone would watch that
video:

 It suggests people will lose money (a common fear).

 It uses the "I stopped" power phrase.
 It makes the viewer ask why. Why did Graham stop buying stocks?

"Is my money safe in the stock market?" "Should I stop investing like Graham did?"
These are questions anyone would ask after reading Graham's video title. But
watching the video is the only way to get answers.

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3. Desire
Lastly, write titles that capture a basic human desire. Depending on your channel's
focus, that could be money, success, companionship, tasty food, well-being, power,
or travel experiences. People have many desires, so this is where understanding
your YouTube niche and how your viewers think comes in handy.

Let's look at the companionship example, specifically dating and relationships.

These videos are popular on YouTube because many people have a desire to be
partnered. Last year, The Table with AO used this concept to write an enticing
video title: "Still Single? This Is What You're Doing Wrong.“

See anything familiar? Scroll back up to Jake's power phrases, and you'll notice
this title uses the "you're doing it wrong" formula.

After seeing a statement like that, viewers will ask themselves, "What am I doing
wrong?" That moment of self-reflection brings them one step closer to clicking on
the video. After all, there's a hidden piece of information, and they want to know
what it is.

Combine All Three Emotions for a Better Video Title

Now that you know which emotional cues to use (curiosity, fear, desire), try
combining all three in your next title. Before you know it, your message will reach
the deepest part of a viewer's mind — a place where their hopes and dreams
collide. Finding that place allows you to attract thousands of clicks and get more
views.
Want to learn more about his strategy? The video below has more title examples,
plus extra tips to help you write them.

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