BASICS OF ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS

David Crandall

Flow Solutions Sales Manager

Cameron Measurement Systems

1000 McClaren Woods Drive

Coraopolis, PA 15108

Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to explain the measurement of natural gas for custody transfer applications through the
use of ultrasonic meters. Specifically, this paper explains the operation of ultrasonic meters, issues surrounding their
performance in natural gas, calibration procedures, and proper installation considerations. Additionally, the
electronics making the measurements generate calculated values relating to the operation of the meter and as a result
a database is available to provide analysis of the meter’s ongoing performance. Meter health parameters can be
evaluated to verify the meter’s operation and these principles are explained.

Background

The ultrasonic meter measures and calculates volumetric flow by summing weighted fluid velocities across the meter
diameter. Piezo electric transducers are mounted on opposite sides of the meter to form one or more measuring paths
and these measuring paths provide the average fluid velocity. The volumetric flow calculation is the fluid velocity of
each path times the cross sectional area. The conversion of individual path velocities into volumetric flow is
performed through the use of Gaussian integration techniques.

Both liquids and gases are measured using ultrasonic flow meters. The reasons most frequently cited for
implementing ultrasonic flow meters are:

Low Pressure Loss – Ultrasonic meters have no moving parts and the pressure losses are typically equal to
the length of equivalent pipe.

High flow rates - An ultrasonic meter handles exceptionally high flow rates with a single meter. There are
installations of ultrasonic meters with meter diameters of 30 inches.

Wide Turndown – Ultrasonic meters easily provide 10:1 turndowns while performing with linearities of +/-
0.1% or better.

Small installation footprint – A typical installation involves a single ultrasonic meter compared to multiple
meters in individual runs and the associated piping and valves.

Minimal maintenance requirements – Electronic based measurement eliminates moving parts which are
subject to wear with usage. There is no known correlation between the amount of fluid measured by the
meter and a change in the meter factor.

Fundamentals of Operation

All sound travels as a wave with a corresponding frequency through a medium, such as liquid or gas, to transport the
vibrations over a distance. The human ear can detect sounds within a frequency range of 20Hz to 20kHz. The term
“Ultrasound” is used in reference to acoustic energy traveling in waves with a frequency higher than the normal
human audible range, hence ultrasound refers to frequencies above 20kHz. In the ultrasonic flow meter, ultrasound is
generated by transducers that operate at specific frequencies. These transducers are typically constructed from a
piezoelectric ceramic based material that vibrates when a voltage pulse is applied. The reverse is also true, meaning
an electrical output will be generated with the material changes shape. (Brown, 2013) Transducers are designed to
operate at a specific frequency and this directly relates to matching a specific frequency range of transducer to the
fluid properties to be measured.

Figure 1

As stated earlier, an acoustic wave requires a transmission medium, and some materials more readily transmit the
energy compared to other materials. This ability to transmit energy directly relates to the speed the wave may travel,
or stated differently, the velocity of sound. There are two material properties, elasticity and density that impact the
velocity of sound. In the case of hydrocarbon streams, this typically relates to fluid flow where the fluids are liquids,
such as crude oil, refined products, streams of NGL or LPG (C2 to C6+), or natural gas. The molecules of liquid are
closely packed against each other where the molecules of natural gas are separated. The sound wave travels by
passing energy from molecule to molecule and since molecules in liquids are in constant contact instead of separated
as in a gas, the speed of sound is faster in liquids than in gases.

This property relates directly to the frequency of transducers used in ultrasonic meters designed to measure a fluid
stream of gas or liquids. The frequency of ultrasonic transducers used to measure natural gas are around the 50kHz to
500kHz range and the speed of sound in natural gas at 14.7 Psia and 60 F is in the range of 1,366 Ft/Sec to 1,412
Ft/Sec. (Smith & Clancy, 2011) At the same time, the frequency of transducers used to measure hydrocarbon liquid
streams can range anywhere from 500 kHz to 2.0 MHz with a velocity of sound over 4,000 Ft/sec.

In the ultrasonic flow meter, pairs of transducers are mounted opposite each other and at a specified angle relative to
the pipe centerline, Ɵ. They are also separated by a distance, L.


D
L

Figure 2
 A

Figure 3

In actual operation, an electrical pulse is sent to transducer A, resulting in a sound wave that travels to transducer B
and in turn, this generates an electrical analog output. The reverse is also true, and an electrical pulse is sent to
transducer B, resulting in a sound wave that travels to transducer A that generates an electrical analog output. The
equations below determine the length of time taken for the sound to travel between points A and B.
L L
tab  tba 
c f  v cos  c f  v cos 
Figure 4

Where:

L = the distance between the transducers

Vf = Velocity of the fluid

Cf = Speed of Sound in the fluid

Ɵ = Angle of the transducers relative to the centerline of the axis

It takes sound less time to travel the distance, L, between the two transducers when the sound wave is traveling with
the flow of the fluid than it does against the flow of the fluid. The difference in time sound takes to travel upstream
and downstream directly relates to the bulk velocity of the fluid. This is indicated in the equations below:

Solving the two equations above for the Vf:

 1   1  c f  v cos    c f  v cos  
     
 tba   tab  L

tab  tba 2 v cos  L t

 v 
tab tba L 2 cos  t ab tba

After calculating the velocity of the fluid between the two transducers, flowrate is calculated by multiplying the fluid
velocity by the cross sectional area of the meter:

(Brown, 2013)
L t
qv  A 
2 cos  t ab tba
Note that the flowrate of the fluid is calculated independently of the speed of sound of the fluid flowing through the
meter, which means this calculation works for all fluid types regardless of the speed sound travels through the fluid.
This independence from the Velocity of Sound (VOS) enables the meter to measure all types of hydrocarbon streams,
gases, crude oils, refined products, along with NGL’s and LPG’s.

Using variations of the above equations, it is also possible to solve for the (VOS) of a particular fluid. The VOS is useful
in ultrasonic meters for analysis of operational data. This will be discussed in more detail later in the paper. In meters
measuring natural gas, this calculation for the Velocity of Sound compares the meter calculated value of sound against
the AGA 10 calculated value based upon the actual gas composition provided by a gas chromatograph. Differences in
the VOS between the meter and the Chromatograph usually imply the gas chromatograph requires maintenance.

Starting with the equations above in Figure 4,

1 1 c f v cos    c f v cos  
 
t ba t ab L

t ab  t ba 2c f

t ab t ba L
Lt ab  t ba 
cf 
2 t ab t ba
Figure 5

One assumption that the equations above have used requires that the entire fluid stream moves at the same velocity
across the pipe, which is likely not the case. The modern ultrasonic flowmeter recognizes this issue and provides
multiple measurement paths.

Transducer Arrangements

The measurement paths in an ultrasonic meter used for custody transfer are mounted in spool pieces that utilize
multiple measurement paths. Spool pieces with external transducers, or transducers mounted externally on piping
are typically referred to as clamp on meters.

The advantage of externally mounted transducer arrangements is that they require no cutting of the pipe for
installation and can quickly provide a measurement for low cost. The drawback to these types of arrangements is that
the sound must travel from the transducer into the exterior of the pipe and then into the gas from the interior wall of
the pipe. At the opposite side the reverse occurs.

Keeping in mind that the distance the sound must travel is L, Snell’s Law of Refraction indicates there will be a change
in the angle of the sound wave path when it impacts the outer wall of the pipe and again when it encounters the same
arrangement on the opposite side of the pipe. The angles will change based upon a change in temperature and also
will change with different densities of fluids being transported. The angle change directly changes the length the
sound must travel between the transducers and with a longer distance of travel, the time required will change slightly
as well. The result is that there is an added component of uncertainty that comes with externally mounted transducers
because of Snell’s law. These meters do operate in a number of installations and the uncertainty is expected to be
around 3% to 5% in some liquid applications. Some installations may provide an installed uncertainty around 1%, but
this will only occur when great care is taken regarding the installation and the calibration process. These types of
meters are typically not used for custody transfer applications.

The more common transducer arrangement utilized in ultrasonic meters with linearity in the range of 0.1% mounts
two transducers aimed directly at each other to avoid errors from refraction. This fixes the distance, L, between the
transducers and also fixes the angle of the sound path relative to the meter centerline. During manufacturing, the
distance L is carefully measured and entered into the transmitter’s database as a constant value. While it is impossible
to measure this distance perfectly, the difference between the actual and measured path length are compensated for
during the meter calibration process.

There are two methods of mounting transducers to measure fluid velocity. The first directly mounts the transducer
into the fluid stream which is referred to as a “wetted” transducer. The second involves two components, a housing
permanently mounted in the meter body and a transducer assembly designed to slide into the housing. The housing
forms the pressure barrier and permits removal of the transducer under pressure without a special tool or blowing
down of the piping section. The transducer assembly is inserted into the housing and the transducer face is then
pressed against the transducer window in order to form a tight acoustic bond that efficiently transfers the sound wave
from the transducer into the fluid stream. When the transducers are mounted directly into a housing the exact
distance and angle are fixed in the meter. The transducer is also protected from exposure to the gas because it is
isolated from the process stream, leading to the possibility of a longer service life.

When housings contain the transducer, they form the pressure barrier and contain the process fluids. This ability to
contain the full working pressure of the meter enables the user replace a transducer without bleeding off the gas or
draining the process fluid from the associated piping. Transducers have been developed to withstand a wide range of
temperatures, from 500F for power plant feedwater applications to -260F for LNG metering applications.

Figure 6 Transducer Assembly and Housing

Transducers mounted in spool pieces can have a variety of mounting arrangements as shown in Figure 7 below. The
industry refers to a meter using this type of arrangement as a chordal ultrasonic meter.

A B C D E

Figure 7 Possible transducer arrangements for Spool piece meters

The use of externally mounted transducers limits the possible mounting arrangements to measuring paths that must
pass through the center of the pipe.
 A B C D E

Figure 8 Externally mounted transducers measuring arrangements

Additional Transducer considerations relating to the process fluid

Sound travels more efficiently in liquids than gas because the molecules are in constant contact each other to pass
along the energy of the wave from molecule to adjacent molecule. Transducer frequencies used to measure liquid
streams are on the order of 1 million Hertz. In higher viscosity liquids, such as Canadian crudes with viscosities that
approach 1100 cSt, the fluid absorbs, (attenuates) the sound. The following conclusions can be reached regarding
measuring fluids at higher viscosities:

High viscosity fluids can be measured

The limit of viscosity increases with increasing flow velocity
Selecting the correct transducer frequency can extend operation to higher viscosities
(Dr. Gregor Brown, Terry Cousins, Donald Augenstein, Herbert Estrada, 2009)
Gas ultrasonic meters typically utilize lower frequency transducers of 200K Hertz because the molecules of gas are
not in continual contact with each other and the ability to transmit sound is diminished significantly at higher
frequencies compared to the lower frequency sound wave.

Meter Electronics

The electronics used to measure and calculate flow rates, consists of a transducer signal generation and timing circuit,
circuits responsible for calculating flow rates, Input and Output signal processing to provide either a pulse output
and/or analog inputs/outputs, and a communication section designed to pass or receive data from external devices or
SCADA systems.

The transducer pairs alternate in being the transmitter and receiver as they measure the time it takes for sound to
travel downstream with the flow and upstream against the flow. The transmitting transducer is driven by a short
electrical pulse that causes it to vibrate while the receiving transducer “hears” the transmitted signal. This waveform
has a frequency determined by the transducer design and electronics. This is illustrated in the figure below:

Drive Signal

Transmitter Signal Receiver Signal

The received signal amplitude can change based upon properties of the fluid, for example, higher gas pressure
increases the acoustic impedance of the gas and means a stronger signal is received. Lower gas pressures mean the
received signal is weaker in amplitude. Keep in mind that the time it takes a soundwave to travel length, L, the
distance between the transducers, will increase or decrease based upon the velocity of sound in the fluid and the
diameter of the meter.
The receiving transducer also receives a reflected signal that could be interpreted incorrectly as the timing end point.
In order to avoid error, the receiving transducer timing must occur within a specific time window after the
transmitter has sent the pulse. This is referred to as range gating.

The receiving transducer has an amplification circuit to boost the received signal and this is referred to as the Gain.
The meter’s electronics fire the transmitting transducer at a constant voltage and the received signal is amplified
anywhere from 100 to 1000 times in order to provide the analog to digital convertor with a strong enough signal to
generate a voltage output that can be analyzed and timed. The gain is adjusted automatically to match conditions.

tab

tba

t
Figure 9 Sound wave detection using the Leading Edge Pulse

Timing of the Sound Wave

As shown in Figure 9 above, the time it takes the sound to travel with the flow is represented by t ab. Note that the end
point of the timing is the zero crossing after the voltage signal has exceeded the Zero Crossing Detection level,
represented by the green line. The Zero Crossing Detection level is designed to insure the measured signal is correctly
selected as the timing signal. There is random and coherent noise in the system that could cause false triggering and
this is the means to insure the correct soundwave is measured. Next, the time represented by tba is measured and
represents the time the sound takes to travel distance L upstream against the flow. The difference in the time t ba – tab
is used to calculate the velocity of the fluid across the specific measuring section.

Other factors influencing the Measurement

In addition to measuring the length of time it takes a sound wave to cross there are system delays as well. These
delays originate in the cables, transducers, and electronics. Meters are typically calibrated during manufacturing to
eliminate the effects of these system delays upon the measurement of time.
Overall Meter Uncertainty
The installed uncertainty of the meter is determined with several factors:
 Calibration Laboratory Uncertainty
 Linearization errors during calibration
 Changes in the piping between the calibration lab and field
 Transmit time measurement accuracy in application conditions
 Installation effects
o Velocity Profile
o Swirl

The number of transducers and their placement within the meter can affect the meter’s linearity and uncertainty of
calculating the total flow volume. Single transducer pair meters or clamp on transducers whose measurement path(s)
pass through the diameter of the meter, will not produce a custody transfer grade measurement. This is because the
fluid near the pipe wall travels at a slower velocity than the fluid in the center of the pipe due to boundary layer
effects. A single measurement cannot take these differences into account and results in measurement error.
However, meters using multiple measurement paths can more readily calculate the hydraulic flow profile and
typically incorporate higher mathematics to solve for the flow rate based upon a better understanding of the
individual path velocities.

Gaussian Integration
When additional measurement paths are utilized to calculate fluid velocities, Gaussian Integration is implemented to
solve for the overall flowing volume. This calculation accurately calculates flow rates based upon a limited number of
inputs. There is no need to make an assumption about the shape of the flow profile when using these equations. The
original Westinghouse patents filed in the late 1960’s indicate the use of four measurement paths positioned at
specific distances from the centerline of the meter in order to solve for the overall flow volume.

x2 x3
x1 x4

v1 v2 v3 v4
x1 = -x4
x2 = -x3

w1 w2 w3 w4

w1 = w4
w2 = w3
 A
Figure 10 Westinghouse design ultrasonic flow meter
qv
 The Gaussian method integrates the flow profile both horizontally along the paths and vertically by approximation
using optimal path location and weighting factors.

W1I
P1

W2I
P2

W3I
P3

W4I
P4
Figure 11 Velocity Profile

Reynolds Number

Fluid flows through piping in one of three regimes, laminar, turbulent, or transitional. Laminar flow is defined as each
molecule slipping past the other as it proceeds directly down the pipe axis. This regime has slower velocity near the
pipe wall with increasing velocity towards the center of the pipe. Maximum velocity is directly at the center of the
pipe. Turbulent flow, however, contains eddys and the individual molecules do not move directly down the center axis
of the pipe, but rather move in irregular patterns. Transitional flow is neither laminar nor turbulent, but rather a
combination of the two and this exists whenever there is a transition between the laminar to turbulent or turbulent to
laminar regime. Regardless of the overall flow rate, velocity of the fluid at the pipe wall is always zero.

The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number defining what state of flow the fluid is currently experiencing. The
calculation for the Reynolds numbers in fluids is:

𝑅𝑒 = 𝜌𝑉𝐷/𝜇
Where: Re = Reynolds Number
ρ = Density
V = Velocity
μ = Viscosity
When the Reynolds number is lower than 2,000 the flow is laminar, transitional flow is considered to be between
2,000 and 8,000-10,000, and turbulent flow is above 10,000 Reynolds number. Ultrasonic flow meters behave very
predictably at Reynolds numbers below 2,000 in laminar flow and above 10,000 when turbulent flow is present
because the Gaussian equations fit the fluid profile. In general, most straight through bore ultrasonic meters have an
increase in the uncertainty of their performance when the Reynolds number is between 2,000 and 8,000. However, in
the transition region, there is a specialized meter designed to measure linearly through this region.

The Reynolds number is impacted by the viscosity of the fluid. High viscosity crude oils, like Canadian crudes as one
example, are typically listed with a viscosity around 350cSt, but this increases with dropping temperature and can be
as high as 1100cSt if the oil has been in storage at -40C or if the pipeline has a cold start. In this case, the Reynolds
number will likely be below 10,000 which creates additional measurement uncertainty in a full bore ultrasonic meter.
If the fluid is refined products or NGL/LPG streams, then the Reynolds number will likely always be above 10,000 and
the meter will have turbulent flow and a well-developed flow profile. In the case of measuring gas flow, the Reynolds
numbers are always well above 10,000 and the flow is always defined as turbulent.
The flow profile of the fluid generally relates directly to the Reynolds number and this in turn is an indication of the
fluid velocity in the center of the pipe compared to the fluid velocity at the pipe ID. With higher Reynolds number the
fluid velocity near the pipe wall increases to more closely match the fluid velocity at the pipe center. This is illustrated
in the Figure 11 above.

Reynolds Numbers and Ultrasonic Flow Meters

Ultrasonic flow meters calculate the fluid flow volume through the use of Gaussian equations applied to fluid velocity
measurement. Because the velocity measurements are taken at both the outer wall and at interior locations, the
measurements are, in effect, measuring the fluid velocity of the boundary layer and the interior of the pipe. Because of
the velocity differences between the outer wall compared to the inner portion of the pipe, we can calculate the
velocity ratio of the outer paths to the inner paths. This is referred to as the flatness ratio in liquid meters or the
profile factor in gas ultrasonic meters. The relative velocity if these two measurements actually defines the flow
profile of the fluid. Ultrasonic meter performance correlates with the Reynolds number, and this forms the basis of the
calibration of an ultrasonic meter in the case of liquid flow. What is not immediately obvious is that Reynolds numbers
can be equal by using two different viscosity fluids at different flow rates if the piping, diameter of the meter, and the
temperature of the fluid are maintained at constant values. This means the velocity of the fluid at the outer wall
relative to the velocity at the center of the pipe can be identical. This permits ultrasonic flow meters to be calibrated at
particular Reynolds numbers, even though the viscosity of the fluid used in the calibration procedure does not match
the fluid viscosity in the field.

Natural gas flow has Reynolds numbers in the millions, so there is no likely possibility of transitional or laminar flow
and the calibration is based upon correlating actual flowing volumes of sonic nozzles in the calibration at specific
velocities and comparing the volume the meter calculates at those velocities to the volume of the sonic nozzle. While
the Reynolds number influences the calculations, at higher Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is very thin,
meaning the fluid velocity near the pipe wall increases rapidly to equal the velocity of the fluid at the pipe center
where there is a maximum distance from the pipe wall. There is a correspondingly smaller amount of change in the
meter factor for a given increase in gas velocity compared to the meter’s volume calculation at lower Reynolds
numbers with a similar change in velocity in an ultrasonic meter. In other words, the meter’s pre-calibrated
performance curve changes more at lower Reynolds numbers compared to the performance curves at high Reynolds
numbers.

Non-Axial Flow
Upstream piping impacts fluid flow characteristics, such as swirl and asymmetry. The sources of changes are elbows
upstream of the meter, changes in the piping diameter (larger or smaller), valves, exits from manifolds, etc. These
changes typically result in fluid flow that includes additional flow velocity that is not parallel to the pipeline axis. This
is called Swirl, and it is typically encountered whenever the flow passes through elbows. A single elbow can result in a
double swirl pattern. Double elbows result in bulk rotational swirl. The length of time the swirl persists depends upon
the Reynolds number of the fluid, meaning the more viscous fluid with lower Reynolds number resists the swirl more
and will dissipate quicker than a light fluid, such as natural gas, that will continue the swirl for many diameters
downstream. There is a myth that 20 diameters of upstream piping will dissipate swirl, but this is simply a myth, swirl
can persist for 100’s of diameters in the case of natural gas. One LNG installation in Alaska contained swirl 37
Diameters downstream of the last elbow.

Additionally, the center of the swirl may not be in the center of the pipe, but may be off-center.
Figure 12 Swirl in Flow

Asymmetry

Asymmetry is defined as a difference in the fluid velocity between the top half of the pipe and the bottom half of the
pipe.

Figure 13 Asymmetric Flow

Additional Ultrasonic meter path arrangements

There are several different designs of ultrasonic meters, most of which employ differing arrangements of the
transducers. These designs are primarily derivatives of the original Westinghouse design of the 1970’s. The original
Westinghouse design was a four path ultrasonic meter as shown below and in Figures 10 and 11. The eight path meter
design is popular today for liquid applications and is gaining popularity in gas applications because this meter design
is immune to the effects of swirl and asymmetry and will measure fluid flow that includes swirl and asymmetry
without the use of a flow conditioner.

Path Configurations

4 Path 5 Path 8 Path

Figure 14 Various Ultrasonic Transducer arrangements

Ultrasonic meter path arrangement vs. Measurement in Swirl

The figure below provides four different swirl patterns in order to compare the impact on measurement to a variety of
commercially available ultrasonic flow meters. As can be seen from the chart, if the bulk swirl is singular and rotation
centered around the axis, most of the meters can provide an acceptable level of measurement. However, in the event
the swirl is not centered, then the 8 path ultrasonic meter will properly compensate and measure within its linearity
or uncertainty. This is not to say that only 8 path meters are acceptable for custody transfer measurement.
Commercially available flow conditioners are available to remove swirl and asymmetry from the flow stream. This
makes ultrasonic meters with fewer than 8 paths acceptable for use in custody transfer service.
Figure 15 Summary of ultrasonic meter sensitivity to swirl

Installation Considerations

AGA 9, the Performance Standard dealing with ultrasonic flow meters in gas custody transfer applications, currently
implies flow conditioners should be used with ultrasonic meters whose calculations are impacted by swirl and
asymmetry in custody transfer applications. Since it is a Performance based standard only it does not require
installations follow particular designs. The last revision of AGA 9 was completed in 2007 and at that time, an 8 path
gas ultrasonic flow meter immune to the effects of swirl and asymmetry capable of achieving AGA 9 performance
criteria was not widely commercially available. Today this meter is commercially available to the industry.

As this paper is being written in April of 2017, AGA 9 is in process of revision and voting is occurring. This revision
may include three installation drawings of ultrasonic flow meters in custody transfer applications. Each of these
drawings will illustrate acceptable installations for ultrasonic meters used in custody transfer applications if they
meet the performance requirements of AGA 9. One will include a meter ten diameters downstream of a flow
conditioner, one will illustrate a meter installed without a flow conditioner, and another will include a flow
conditioner and meter with less than ten diameters separating the flow conditioner from the meter.

Outside north America, ISO standards often apply to gas ultrasonic meters employed in custody transfer service. The
ISO standards require meters be submitted to third party testing to meet or exceed measurement performance
outlined in ISO Standard 17089. The standard calls for a variety of tests using different upstream piping
configurations in order to measure the impact the fluid hydraulics have on the meter’s performance. These include a
single elbow, two elbows out of plane, step changes between meter ID and inlet piping, step changes in upstream
piping, and two elbows out of plane with a half-moon plate installed between the two elbows. The meter is subjected
to these tests at ISO certified calibration facilities and witnessed by third party personnel. Based upon passing the
testing defined in ISO 17089-1: 2010 Accuracy Class 1, a meter can be granted an OIML R-137-1&2:2012 Accuracy
Class 0.5 certificate which is a requirement for meters installed in many parts of the world. Canada carries a similar
certification requirement via Measurement Canada Approval testing. All meters destined for custody transfer of
natural gas in Canada must be submitted to these tests, which are similar to the ISO tests, in order to receive approval
for installation into custody transfer applications. There is no similar requirement for testing and third party
approvals of metering equipment in the United States and end users are free to install any equipment they deem
acceptable. In these situations, AGA 9 is typically referred to as the performance standard.

There is no such standard for liquid meters in API requiring or suggesting the use of flow conditioners in custody
transfer applications. This may be in part because custody transfer of liquids involves the use of provers, which
require the meter to establish a meter factor uncertainty (repeatability). This is not the case in the natural gas
business because the prover in natural gas is not typically commercially available.

The ultrasonic meter must be installed with a sufficient length of straight upstream piping. The length of piping
required depends upon whether or not the meter’s performance degrades below the acceptable uncertainty of the
installation when not using a flow conditioner. Typically, if the meter employs fewer than 8 paths, then the installation
will require a flow conditioner to maintain custody transfer grade performance.

Figure 16 below is a typical installation of a meter using 4 measurement paths. The upstream piping required in this
case is 5D or 10D diameters upstream of the flow conditioner, then the flow conditioner, and an additional 10 D
between the flow conditioner and the meter. There is a new design of flow conditioner permitting the distance
between the flow conditioner and the ultrasonic meter can reduce from 10D to 7D.

Figure 16 Typical Installation of an ultrasonic meter using a flow conditioner

If the ultrasonic meter uses 8 measurement paths the installation and the upstream piping is free of control or
pressure regulating valves, the meter will only require 5 diameters of upstream piping ahead of the meter. This is
illustrated in Figure 17 below.

Figure 17 Eight path ultrasonic meter installation without a flow conditioner

The schedule (internal diameter) of the upstream piping should be the same as the schedule of the meter in order to
match the ID’s and avoid diameter step changes into the meter. AGA 9 specifies a pressure tap to be provided in the
meter of the body. Temperature measurement should be carried out downstream of the meter. In the case of natural
gas meters, there are special considerations for installations designed primarily to avoid noise from control valves
from interfering with the transducers frequency. Those installations require 10D, flow conditioner, 10D, meter, and
downstream piping of 5D. Downstream piping in either installation is not as critical, but it should be aligned carefully
and be of the same schedule as the meter.

In order to maintain the best transfer of the calibration to the field, it is best to keep the meter bolted to the piping
after the calibration.

Plate conditioners are preferable to tube bundles because the tube bundles are hard to manufacture consistently and
can have variability in performance, in some cases they can introduce swirl. They also freeze flow distortions into
place and make these distortions last longer than would occur without the bundle. Plate conditioners can be
reproduced with accuracy and attempt to replicate a symmetrical fully developed flow profile. (Cameron, 2012)

Ultrasonic meter Data Evaluation

Unlike mechanical meters, the ultrasonic meter incorporates an immense database of information that can be used to
evaluate the health of the electronics, provide hydraulic analysis of the flow, and highlight possible meter
maintenance requirements. These values may be retrieved using software and reviewed to determine if the meter
requires maintenance and verify that the fluid hydraulics are within parameters required by the metering assembly to
maintain its installed uncertainty or linearity.

In general, the electronic based measurement is highly reliable. The meter generates large amounts of data that is
evaluated to verify parameters known to determine the status of the measurement. This list typically includes:

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)

Gain

Velocity of Sound (VOS)

Rejects (Percent Good)

Normalized Path Velocity comparison

In addition to this very basic list, there are hydraulic analysis parameters that may be compared to verify the meter is
operating within its original calibration range. If the meter is operating outside of these limits, this is a sign that
upstream hydraulics may have changed within the installation. This may also point to the need of maintenance to
insure the meter’s measurement is calculated within the calibrated range of the meter.

The basic hydraulic parameters are:

Flatness ratio (Liquids Measurement) or Profile Factor (Natural Gas measurement)

Asymmetry

Plane Balance (Cross Flow)

Standard Deviation (Turbulence in Gas Measurement)

Electronic Term Explanation

Signal to Noise ratio (SNR) – The transducer generates a sound wave in the meter body when it is sent. Some of this
noise also results from the electronics generating electrical noise in the circuit. The Signal to Noise ratio simply points
to the amount of sound signal compared to the noise level in the circuit. A change in the SNR over time can point to
possible issues with the health of the transducer.

Gain – The receiving transducer generates a weaker analog electrical signal that must be converted to a digital signal
that is processed by the meter’s electronics. An amplification circuit is utilized to boost the receiving transducer signal
to a voltage level the Analog to Digital converter can measure. Changes in gain can indicate the onset of transducer
failure or the need to clean the face of the transducer(s). Gain is reported in decibels and an amplitude change of 6dB
is equivalent of doubling or halving.

Velocity of Sound

One of the calculated values is the velocity of sound calculation. The objective here is to verify that each path has close
VOS agreement with the other meter paths. The calculated velocity of sound is used in gas ultrasonic meters to
compare against the AGA10 calculation, which compares the actual measured gas mixture velocity of sound against a
theoretically calculated value. Since the ultrasonic meter is accurately calculating the velocity of sound of the gas
mixture, this is compared against the gas chromatograph composition. In gas ultrasonic meters, this is primarily used
as an indication the chromatograph requires service and not the ultrasonic meter.
The VOS changes with product composition, product density, and temperature, but the values should be consistent
between the paths. Variation in VOS can point to material buildup in the pockets of the meter.

Rejects (Percent Good)

The transmission and receipt of the sound wave is critical for the proper operation of the meter. The term Rejects or
Percent Good indicates the percentage of times the transmitted sound wave was correctly measured as a result of the
receiving transducer detecting transmitted sound waves. Rejects is simply the number of times out of 100
transmissions that the signal measurement failed. Percent Good is the number of times out of 100 that the signal
measurement passed. Failure typically indicates debris has built up on the face of the transducer or that ports are
plugged. The meter can tolerate a few percent of missed signals and still provide an adequate measurement.

Normalized Path Velocity Comparison

Normalized velocity is the ratio of an individual path velocity relative to the average of all path velocities. This will
result in numbers that are generally within a range around 1.0 with the outer paths typically displaying lower
velocities compared to the inner paths. These may be plotted in order to generate the flatness ratio (profile factor),
asymmetry, plane balance, and swirl. When a meter utilizes 8 measuring paths, changes to these values in general do
not impact the calculated flow rate values. If a meter run includes a flow conditioner, the meter was calibrated against
very specific flow patterns that must be maintained for the meter to calculate the flow rate after the meter has been
installed in the field. This means that the flow characteristics in the lab will be repeated in the field and that meters
using flow conditioners are designed to operate with the hydraulics being maintained between the calibration lab and
the field. The Normalized Velocity numbers are used to evaluate hydraulics to look for changes over time.

Parameters

Flatness Ratio (Profile Factor)

The flatness ratio is simply the ratio of the outer paths normalized velocity divided by the inner paths normalized
velocity. The calculations below are the inverse of the flatness ratio, which is referred to as the Profile Factor. The
calculations are illustrated below in Figure 18.

• Profile factor (profile flatness)

1 A
2 2+3 B B+C
3 C
1+4 A+D
4 D

Plane A BG 1

1 5
2 6 2+3+6+7
3 7
1+4+5+8
4 8

8-path

Figure 18 Profile Factor Calculations

Asymmetry

Asymmetry is the ratio of the velocities of the top paths relative to the bottom paths. This indicates differences
between the upper and bottom sections of the pipe.

• Asymmetry

1 A
2 1+2 B A+B
3 C
3+4 C+D
4 D

Plane A BG 1

1 5
2 6 1+2+5+6
3 7
3+4+7+8
4 8

8-path

Figure 19 Asymmetry Calculations for different path designs

Plane Balance or Cross Flow

Plane balance is simply the comparison of one measurement plane compared to the other plane. If the flow is aligned
with the pipe axis, then the two planes velocities should very closely match each other. Note that the single plane four
path meter does not support this calculation.

Plane Balance
1 A
2 B A+C
3
X C B+D
4 D

Plane A BG 1

1 5
2 6 1+2+3+4
3 7
5+6+7+8
4 8

8-path

Figure 20 Plane Balance or Cross Flow Based upon different path designs
Standard Deviation or Turbulence

Standard Deviation or Turbulence indicates the instantaneous path velocity relative to the average of that same path
velocity. The average velocity is calculated over a period of time and from that, the Standard Deviation is calculated. In
general, the instantaneous velocity should fall within a spread represented by the average. If there is a change in the
upstream hydraulics, such as something blocking a flow conditioner, then the path velocity may vary outside of a
normal average. An excessive variation in path velocity compared to the average is an indication that upstream piping
is causing the issue and it requires more analysis as to the root cause. The term Turbulence is used in the natural gas
industry to represent this same characteristic. In natural gas applications, the use of the term turbulence creates a
little confusion with the normal hydraulics experienced when operating above a Reynolds number of 10,000. At
Reynolds numbers greater than 10,000, the flow is considered to be turbulent and this turbulence is normal. It does
not present an issue for an ultrasonic meter to measure turbulent flow, but the use of the term Turbulence often leads
users to come to a false conclusion that normal turbulent flow is an issue.

Summary

Ultrasonic Flow Meters are used to measure hydrocarbon liquids and gases in custody transfer and leak detection
applications because of their ability to measure across a very wide range of flow with very low pressure drops. Since
these meters are electronic based measuring devices instead of mechanical, users can expect a long lifetime of low
operating costs. In addition to measuring the flow rate, the meters include an extensive database that can be mined to
compare the operation of the meter today compared to when it was originally calibrated. This powerful analysis
capability of ultrasonic meters enables users to measure fluid flow with low overall uncertainty.

Bibliography
Brown, D. G. (2013). LEFM 101. Cameron Petroleum Application Seminar, (p. 12). Coraopolis, PA.

Cameron. (2012). IB 0813 Hydraulic Installation Manual. Coraopolis, PA: Cameron Technologies, US Inc.

Dr. Gregor Brown, Terry Cousins, Donald Augenstein, Herbert Estrada. (2009). The Performance of Ultrasonic Meters
in Heavy Oil Applications. Heavy Oil Workshop Seminar, (p. 22).

Smith, J. P., & Clancy, J. (2011). Understanding AGA Report No. 10, Speed of Sound in Natural Gas and other Related
Hydrocabon Gases. American School of Gas Measurement, (p. 7). Houston.