Forms, Movements and Classical Allusions 2021

Fatima Jinnah Women University

Forms, Movements and Classical Allusions

Final Project
Select any literary work which has classical allusions and
analyze how the author/poet/writer has used the
allusion/s and how does the allusion/s affect the
interpretation of the work.

Instructor:
Ms. Zohra Fatima

Submitted By:
TayyabaHafeez
(2019-B.Eng-048)

Date of Submission:
March 21, 2021
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INTRODUCTION

The word ‘myth’ has been defined and understood differently by different people.

Though common men usually seem to have a tendency to misunderstand myth as ‘fairytale’,

these are two entirely different things for literary figures. Susanne K. Langer has explained

the difference in clear terms extensively. He has stated that myth is a tool people use in

pursuit of their desire to understand the world and its nature. On the contrary, fairytale

originates from wishful thinking and serves the purpose of alleviating people’s social and

cultural dilemmas. As a result, myths are passed down by societies as true stories unlike

fairytales which are only meant to entertain. Hence, the importance of myth surpasses largely

that of fairytales. The continuing development and allusions to myths indicate their

importance to humans, who depend on myths to understand themselves, their own nature, the

nature of the world they live in and the realities of human life. Therefore, myth becomes

associated with religious, historical and mystic elements. (qtd. in Bidney 1950)

The significance of Greek mythology for English literary figures is evident from its

repetitive representation throughout the history of English literature. Since the Greek gods

and goddesses were always associated with certain elements of nature or with certain human

qualities, their tales would provide allegorical ideas to writers or poets of any era. As a result,

the figurative use of these myths to represent human nature or the natural phenomena thrives

even in today’s literature. The readers can also relate to characters or situations from these

myths because of the Greeks’ association of almost every myth to some reality of human life

or the world. As a result, readers who share common knowledge of these myths with the

authors are able to interpret the meaning of their works more deeply and very close to the

author’s original intentions. Using such metaphors from ancient cultural stories, writers are
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also able to modify the tales to relate them even more to the modern context and create new

modern meanings from them. (Nivre et al. 2015)

This research article will focus on the importance of Greek mythology to modern

literary figures by analyzing how their works still contain allusions to such myths even today.

In addition, the reasons for and the purpose of use of these allusions in contemporary times

will also be analyzed. For this purpose, I have selected the poem “Actaeon” by A.E.

Stallings, published in a poetry collection, Poems(2003). The poem takes a small scene from

a Greek myth and relates it to present day situations to convey the poet’s thoughts and

messages. The poet has used the myth of Actaeon and the goddess of hunt, Artemis, to

reflect upon human nature. She has made comparisons between the characters or situations

from the myth and the shortcomings of modern humans as well as the sad realities of modern

life. The focus is on one particular scene from the myth, Actaeon’s dying moment. A.E.

Stallings continuously reminds the modern reader of his faults in an indirect way by making

cruel remarks on Actaeon. As he is dying, she is continuously reminding him about the

phases of his life that give him great pain and regret in his final moment. In the process, she

has made the reasons for continuous classical allusions in literature of every era quite clear.

CLASSICAL ALLUSION IN THE POEM

The selected poem recounts the Greek myth of Actaeon and Artemis. Actaeon was a

Greek hero, having the god Apollo as one of his great grandparents. He was also a hunter.

According to the myth, Artemis, the goddess of hunting, was taking a bath being helped by

some nymphs when Actaeon stumbled across her sight by chance. Awed by her beauty, he

continued to watch her instead of going back. Unfortunately for Actaeon, Artemis spotted the

hunter spying on her naked. This enraged the goddess. As a result, she punished him by

turning him into a stag. Looking at his own reflection in the water, Actaeon was terrified and
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sad. He started making animal cries which were a signal for his dogs. They began their

habitual hunt for the crying stag.

His dogs, trained to perfection, were experienced enough never to miss their target.

They came rushing to their master’s voice in hopes of crushing yet another stag awaiting

them at the place where Actaeon shouted from. However, they did not know that the stag they

were going after was actually their master himself this time. Actaeon instantly foresaw the

eminent danger coming after him in the form of his own dear dogs and tried to escape.

However, despite his fast speed and utmost effort to run away and hide, his efficiently trained

dogs caught up to him and tore him to pieces as they would any other prey. Hence, his own

second to none pack of hunting dogs, fed since birth and trained to excellence by his own

hands became the key players for bringing upon him his grand punishment from the divine.

(Gregory 1958)

The above quoted version of the Greek myth is the most widely accepted. However,

there do exist some other versions of the story with some minor differences in the details. For

instance, one version states that the reason Artemis punished Actaeon was because of his

claim of being more skilled than the goddess. According to this version, Actaeon boasted of

his abilities, declaring his hunting to be more efficient and skillful than that of Artemis.

Consequently, he was punished by the goddess out of her anger and pride. Other versions

with some discrepancies are available. (Roman and Roman 2010) However, the first one

mentioned above is the one used for this analysis as well as the widely accepted one.

ANALYSIS

A.E. Stallings has focused on the dying Actaeon. She seems to be addressing him

while he is experiencing her wrath in the form of the worst punishment possible for a hunter.

A hunter who raised his dogs since their birth, fed them with his own hands and spent years
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training them to help him in his life’s purpose is now suffering at the hands of the very dogs

that have always been like family to him. The poet is using this one moment, the hunter’s

dying moment, to teach a lesson to the reader in the guise of tormenting Actaeon.

 Use of Second Person

Her subtle use of the second person throughout the poem makes her didactic aim even

more obvious. It is as if the reader is Actaeon and the persona of the poet is addressing them.

As an example, the first two lines of the poem are quoted here. The same pattern is followed

throughout the poem.

The hounds, you know them all by name.

You fostered them from purblind whelps

(Stallings 66)

By putting the reader in Actaeon’s shoes in this way, the relevance of this myth in

today’s age becomes clearer. The reader can feel what Actaeon must have felt at the time of

his death. Hence, being able to relate to this character from an ancient myth, we can see how

human nature remains the same irrespective of the times we live in. A mythical character

from ancient Greece reminding us of the reality of our life highlights a certain aspect of the

Greek society. They were people who understood human nature deeply. Therefore, the writer

found this myth as a tool to achieve her didactic aim in the poem.

 The Role of Fate in Human Life and Pain from Our Closest Relationships

The persona repeatedly reminds Actaeon about the close relationship he shares with

his dogs. As he is being ripped between their teeth, the persona tells him how he knows each

one of them by name, how he can differentiate between them by their voices, and how he
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used to feed and train them with his own hands. He is also reminded of the time when his

dogs were born and that he has been with them ever since they fed on their mother’s milk. In

addition, the poet mentions how extremely rare Actaeon’s dogs are by saying that he would

earn a great fortune if he were to sell them. This could be an indication that money is not as

important for the hunter. What he values the most in life is his relationship with his animals.

High-strung Anthee, the brindled bitch,

The blue-tick coated Philomel,

And freckled Chloe, who would fetch

A pretty price if you would sell

(Stallings 66)

Ironically, his most valued asset is bringing him to his doom. This is allegorical of our

reality as well. Oftentimes in life, we keep nurturing things that are not beneficial to us.

Unaware of the fact that they can cause great harm to us in future, we keep valuing them

more than other useful things in life. Ultimately, we keep playing into fate’s hands our entire

life. Also, sometimes it is our closest relationships that bring about the most dreadful

suffering for us. The people we consider most important in our life end up hurting us in the

cruelest ways possible. Our most trusted companions sometimes turn out to be snakes in the

grass. The pain felt in such a situation is similar to Actaeon’s. He was devastated

psychologically because he loved his dogs that were tearing him apart. Modern humans also

feel the same way when betrayed by people they love dearly.

 Human Nature—Judging Others by Appearances

Another interpretation of the poet’s constant and repetitive stress on the closeness of

Actaeon’s relationship with his dogs to express his pain at being ripped by them could also be

taken as an allegorical representation of how human beings always judge others based on

their appearances. The dogs were very faithful to their master. However, only because of a

change in their master’s appearance, they were treating him in the most ruthless manner. This

is allegorical of how the behavior of human beings toward other fellow humans is mostly

based on appearances. People judge others by the superfluous instead of their true inner

selves.

 Parent-Child Relationships of Today

Similarly, a more closely resembling analogy for this event can be the present day

bond between parents and children. This can be inferred from the following lines of the

poem:

You fostered them from purblind whelps

At their dam's teats, and you have come

To know the music of their yelps:

(Stallings 66)

Also, the following lines from the last stanza seem to be reflective of parental love and care:

Whose needling milk-teeth used to bite

The master's hand that leashed and fed them?

(Stallings 66)
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Parents give everything to raise their children to the best of their abilities. However,

many children today do not repay their parents the way they deserve it. Their rude behavior

toward parents on a daily basis, their refusal to take responsibility for aging parents and

leaving them alone in old age homes; all of this inflicts huge amount of pain on the parents.

However, they do not say anything and continue to love their children till the end just like

Actaeon’s love for his dogs. Reading this poem, one is bound to feel sympathetic toward

Actaeon. Consequently, if modern readers take this allegorical interpretation about parent-

child relationships into account, they are sure to feel guilty of their actions and be

sympathetic to their parents as well.

 Humans, Anger and Regret

The poet has also compared the hunting skills of the dogs to the words said by

humans in anger that they regret later on. Another relevance of an element of myth to our

times perfectly portrayed through comparison of the two situations by use of simile, shown as

follows:

All fleet of foot, and swift to scent,

Inexorable once on the track,

Like angry words you might have meant,

But do not mean, and can't take back.

(Stallings 66)

As the dogs were trained to never miss their target so that the hunter would always return

home having accomplished something, they were unstoppable once they heard their master’s

call. They would follow his voice and scent to stop only after ripping their prey into pieces.
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The poet compares them to words that humans speak when in anger. At that particular

moment, we speak without thinking. Once calmed down, conscious thinking makes us regret

our words but it becomes futile then.

Spoken words cannot be taken back. Hence, humans are only left with regret just like

the hunter’s dogs that instinctively followed their master’s voice and the stag’s scent. Like an

angry human throwing a huge bunch of words at a rapid pace, the dogs ripped their master

without thinking. It was only later after having killed their master that his absence caused

panic among the dogs in much the same way as our own said words of anger cause

psychological panic and regret later. This is a representation of the fact that habits do not

involve thinking. They are carried out subconsciously. Therefore, we need to be aware of our

actions and their consequences at all times. Otherwise, we may end up hurting those dearest

to us and even ourselves in the long run because of recurring feelings of continuous regret

and dissatisfaction with life.

 Human Nature-- Understanding the Pain of Others

The poet reminds Actaeon about how he used to celebrate whenever his dogs

ruthlessly killed a stag. On the contrary, he feels sympathetic for the stags now.

There was a time when you would brag

How they would bay and rend apart

The hopeless belling from a stag.

You falter now for the foundered hart.

(Stallings 66)
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In his final moment, he is experiencing the pain all those stags suffered because of

him. This is quite relevant to human nature especially in our era. People live only to fulfill

their dreams and attain their own objectives. They use all means possible to create life better

for themselves without thinking about the consequences they might bring for others.

Countless people suffer in front of our eyes every day in the modern era. However, most of

us show little to no concern for them. Some do show a little sympathy but that’s it. We

become engaged in our busy lives after a short while and never again think about those who

are suffering. It is only after people go through the same thing as someone else that they

realize how much the other suffered and resultantly become sympathetic toward them. When

one’s own business faces huge loss, he understands how the poor make ends meet. When

one’s own family member dies, he realizes what hell the other people went through. It is a

reality that we can never truly understand the pain of anyone unless we experience the same

situation.

 Sinful Human Nature and Futility of Regret in the Dying Moment

Regret is a big part of many people’s lives. Human keep making mistakes and keep

regretting them all their life. The poet depicts Actaeon to be regretting the work of his entire

life in his dying moment, having realized the pain he inflicted on the stags. Similarly, humans

keep sinning throughout their life without realizing their wrongdoings. It is only in their final

moment that they become aware of their bad deeds and regret them. If we accept our sinful

acts early on and try to change ourselves, we can avoid our encounter with ultimate regret at

the end of our lives. The poet’s depiction of Actaeon’s sympathetic feelings toward his past

prey also entails yet another lesson. Life should not be lived only for one’s own sake. The

effects of one’s actions on other people around them should be taken into consideration at

every step.
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 Modern Human--Materialistic Approach and Worldly Desires

The poet asks Actaeon whether he knew why he was feeding his dogs and raising

them to become big, frightening and angry hunters. She is using irony to indicate that

whatever he did in life was to prepare for his death or for his ultimate punishment.

Desires you nursed of a winter night

Did you know then why you bred them

(Stallings 66)

He spent his entire life raising them. It was his passion from the beginning. He felt

great desire to raise them to become the fiercest creatures. Sadly, his own desire brought

about his doom. Her specific use of the word “passion” is very important here. It is

allegorical for today’s man who is driven by his desires and passions. People hanker after

their worldly wishes and material gains. But in the end, none of that comes to their rescue.

Instead, their worldly desires become a cause for their suffering in the afterlife. In addition,

running after material things brings nothing but loneliness, pain and solitude in the end.

Humans keep rearing their own doom their entire lives just like Actaeon. The hunter

can be relatable for modern reader as worldly and materialistic in approach because he just

wanted to kill as many a prey as possible to gain fame. Hence, we shouldn’t let our desires

control us. Self-control and logical thinking is crucial to live a good life and to avoid later

suffering. Wrong desires and too many desires both lead to later unrest in life.

 Effect of the Poet’s Indirect Irony on Modern Reader

Through the implications to different realities of human nature and life, the poet has

cleverly concealed messages throughout the poem. In the process of highlighting different
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human weaknesses, she made ironic and harsh remarks about Actaeon. These are indirectly

meant for the modern reader so that he realizes his own faults. She seems to be achieving her

didactic aim successfully because the reader is just being informed of his faults and

weaknesses. He is not being commanded to overcome them. But through the indirect irony

and pitiless remarks of the poet toward Actaeon, the reader does feel guilty when they find

themselves relatable to the hunter. Hence, such indirect ways of being didactic in approach

seem to go a long way to impact the readers as compared to directly ordering them to change

their behavior.

CONCLUSION

The different realities of modern life and human nature hidden allegorically in the

poem indicate that the author’s aim was not simply to recount the Greek myth. Instead, her

initial motive and real aim must have been to present human nature and its inevitability

regardless of space and time. Consequently, the portrayal of a particular part of the myth

from hundreds of years ago seems to be the best way to depict this unchanging reality of

humans. In addition, by making comparisons with real life situations, she has presented a

small part of the myth in a very unique and innovative way. She seems to have made great

use of her interpretive powers to tell modern humans of their shortcomings while keeping the

importance of Greek mythology alive in literature of the current century as well. Using the

Greek myth as a cover for making ironic remarks on the faults and weaknesses of modern

humans seems to fulfill the poet’s didactic aim quite cleverly. What superficially seems to be

a series of tormenting remarks on the dying hunter is actually an indirect irony on modern

human nature and modern life realities. This indirect way of addressing the faults of modern

humans has a lot more impact on the reader than merely instructing them to change their

ways.
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Works Cited

Bidney, David. “The Concept of Myth and the Problem of Psychocultural Evolution.”

American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 52, No. 1. Wiley. 1950. pp. 16-26.

Gregory, Horace. The Metamorphoses by Ovid. The Vikings Press. 1958.

Nivre, Elisabeth Waghall, et al. Allusions and Reflections: Greek and Roman Mythology in

Renaissance Europe. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2015.

Roman, Luke, and Monica Roman. Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology. Facts On

File. 2010.

Stallings, A.E. Poetry, Vol.182, No.2. Poetry Foundation. May 2003.