Chemistry Calculations

Type of Calculation Revised?

1. Finding the mass of atoms, compounds and molecules

2. Finding the mass of products from a reaction

3. Finding the percentage of an element in a compound

4. Finding the empirical formula from a reaction

5. Finding the molecular formula of a compound

6. Finding the volume of a gas

7. Finding the mass or volume from electrolysis

8. Finding the concentration of a solution (titration calculations)

9. Calculating percentage yield

10. Calculating the water of crystallization

11. Calculations involving excess reactants

Useful Information to Learn

 Chemistry Equations to Learn

Moles
 Equation Symbols Units

n = number of moles
g = mass
n = g/Ar
Ar = atomic mass (from n = moles
or
the periodic table) g = mass in grams (g)
n = g/Mr
Mr = molecular mass (ass Mr = no unit
up all the Ar ‘s from the
periodic table)

n = number of moles n = moles

n=cxv
c = concentration c = mol/ dm3 or mol dm-3
v = volume of solution v = dm3

v = volume of gas
v = dm3
3 3 n = number of moles
v = n x 24dm (24000 cm ) n = moles
24dm3 = the volume of 1
mole of any gas

Electrolysis

Equation Symbols Units

1 Faraday = 1 mole of electrons

96500 Coulombs = 1 Faraday

Q = Number of Coulombs
1 Faraday (96500 Coulombs)

Q = charge Q = Coulombs
Q=Ixt I = current I = amps
t = time t = secs

Other Useful Equations

 Equation Symbols Units

Actual yield = usually

% yield = actual yield measured in grams (g)
theoretical yield Theoretical yield = usually
measured in grams (g)

These values are usually

measured in mass (g) or
% change = final value – initial
volume (dm3).
value
Note this change could be
initial value
negative if there has been a
decrease i.e. a decrease in
mass

Finding the percentage of an

element in a compound: These values are usually
Mass of element measured in mass
Total mass of compound

Note you may have to divide

(% of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2) by the total abundance if the
100 abundance is not given as a
percentage.

d = density density = g/dm3

d = m/v m = mass mass = g
v = volume volume = dm3

1. Finding the mass of atoms, compounds and molecules

Relative atomic mass
Different atoms have different masses. Atoms have such a small mass it is more convenient to know
their masses compared to each other. Carbon is taken as the standard atom and has a relative
atomic mass (Ar) of 12.
The relative atomic mass: The mass of an atom compared to 1/12 th the mass of a carbon 12 atom.
The table below shows some Ar values (you do not need to remember them as they will on the
periodic table in the exam)

.5

Ar values of elements

Element Ar
H 1
C 12
O 16
Mg 24
Cl 35.5

These values tell you that magnesium atoms are twice as heavy as carbon atoms, and 24 times
heavier than hydrogen atoms, while hydrogen atoms are 12 times lighter than carbon atoms. They
also allow you to work out that three oxygen atoms weigh the same as two magnesium atoms.
Calculating relative atomic mass
Example 1
Chlorine's Ar of 35.5 is an average of the masses of the different isotopes of chlorine. This is
calculated by working out the relative abundance of each isotope. For example, in any sample of
Chlorine 25% will be 37Cl and 75% 35Cl. The relative atomic mass is therefore calculated using the
equation:
(% of isotope 1 × mass of isotope 1) + (% of isotope 2 × mass of isotope 2) ÷ 100
So in the case of chlorine:
(75 × 35) + (25 × 37)
∕100
= 2625 + 925∕100
= 35.3

A compound is 2 or more atoms chemically combined.

To find the mass of one mole of a compound, just add up all the Mr of the elements of the
compound, taking account of the formula.

The number you get is called the Relative Formula Mass. It is the mass of one mole of the compound
in grams. The Relative Formula Mass can be written as Mr or Mr.

For example, the mass of one mole of carbon dioxide (CO 2) is (1 x Ar of carbon) + (2 x Ar of oxygen) =
(1 x 12) + (2 x 16) = 44 g.

So, one mole of carbon dioxide has a mass of 44 g. The Relative Formula Mass of carbon dioxide is
44. This may also be called the Relative Molecular Mass (Mr), since carbon dioxide is a molecule.

The mass of one mole of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) is (1 x Ar of calcium) + (1 x Ar of carbon) + (3 x Ar

of oxygen) = (1 x 40) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) = 100 g.

So, one mole of calcium carbonate has a mass of 100 g. The Relative Formula Mass of calcium
carbonate is 100. If you are not sure why CaCO 3 means 1 calcium + 1 carbon + 3 oxygens, see
balancing equations.

A molecule is the smallest part of a covalent compound or element that can exist on its own.

An element is a substance that contains only one type of atom e.g. He, H 2, Cl2

Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens exist as diatomic molecules (molecules containing two
atoms). One mole of hydrogen (H2) molecules has a mass of 2 x the relative atomic mass (Ar) of
hydrogen.

This is because each molecule of hydrogen contains two atoms and the "relative atomic mass" is the
relative mass of one atom. So, one mole of hydrogen molecules has a mass of 2 g (2 x 1). This is
called the relative molecular mass (Mr).

One mole of nitrogen (N2) molecules (Ar = 14) has a mass of 2 x 14 grams = 28 g. Mr = 28.

One mole of oxygen (O2) molecules (Ar = 16) has a mass of 2 x 16 grams = 32 g. Mr = 32.

One mole of chlorine (Cl2) molecules (Ar = 35.5) has a mass of 2 x 35.5 grams = 71 g. Mr = 71.

One mole of bromine (Br2) molecules (Ar = 80) has a mass of 2 x 80 grams = 160 g. Mr = 160.

Exam Question Practice

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2.

Answers
1.

2.

2. Finding the mass of products from a reaction

For a chemical reaction, elements or compounds on the left side of the equation are called
reactants, those on the right are called products.

A + B  C + D

reactants  products

The mole is the unit for amount of substance. The molar mass is the relative formula mass of a
substance in grams (measured in g/mol). Mass is conserved in chemical reactions, allowing the mass
of a reactant or product to be calculated if the masses of the other substances in the reaction are
known.

The equation that links moles, mass and relative atomic/formula/molecular mass is:

moles = mass ÷ Mr

Example 1.

What mass of magnesium oxide will be formed when 10 g of magnesium is burned in air?

Method

1) Find how many moles of magnesium are present in 10 g of magnesium.

The Ar of magnesium is 24.

moles = mass ÷ Mr

moles = 10 ÷ 24

= 0·417 moles of magnesium.

2) Write the equation for the reaction between magnesium and oxygen (burning in air means
reacting with oxygen).

magnesium + oxygen  magnesium oxide.

2Mg(s) + O2(g)  2MgO(s)

Look at the big numbers in front of the elements or compounds.

The big numbers tell you that 2 magnesiums will give 2 magnesium oxides. This means that 2 moles
of Mg give 2 moles of MgO, or one mole of Mg gives one mole of MgO.

The big numbers in the equation tell you that the ratio of Mg to MgO is one to one (1:1).

Since the proportion of Mg to MgO is 1 to 1, then 0·417 moles of magnesium will give 0·417 moles of
magnesium oxide.

3) Find the mass of 0·417 moles of magnesium oxide.

The Mr of magnesium oxide is 40.

mass = moles x Mr

mass = 0·417 x 40

= 16·67 g of magnesium oxide.

This is the answer! 10 g of magnesium burnt in air will give 16·67 g of magnesium oxide (phew!).

PRACTICE QUESTION

What mass of sodium oxide will be formed by burning 20 g of sodium in air?

Exam Question Practice

1.

2.
A student uses this apparatus to find the mass of magnesium oxide that forms when a strip
of magnesium ribbon is burned in air.

This is the student's method.

 weigh an empty crucible and lid

 place a coiled strip of freshly cleaned magnesium ribbon in the crucible
 weigh the crucible, lid and ribbon
 heat the crucible strongly for several minutes, lifting the lid and quickly replacing it
several times
 leave the crucible, lid and contents to cool and then reweigh
(a)  (i)  Describe the appearance of the freshly cleaned magnesium ribbon and the
appearance of the magnesium oxide that forms.
(2)
magnesium ribbon
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
magnesium oxide
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(ii)  Explain why the student lifts the lid and quickly replaces it several times during the
experiment.
 (2)
lifts lid
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
replaces lid
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(b)  Calculate the mass of oxygen required to completely react with 0.6 g of magnesium to
form magnesium oxide.
The equation for the reaction is
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
(2)

mass of oxygen = ........................................................... g

(c)  The mass of magnesium oxide that forms is less than expected.
This could be because some of the magnesium reacts with nitrogen to form magnesium
nitride, Mg3N2
Write a chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium and nitrogen to form
magnesium nitride.
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
 
(Total for question = 7 marks)
 

3. This is a recipe for making Irish soda bread.

   add 170g of wholemeal flour, 170g of plain flour, 10g of salt and 10.5g of
bicarbonate of soda (sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3) to a bowl and stir
   pour in 290cm3 of buttermilk and stir quickly to form a soft dough
   form the dough into a round ball and slightly flatten it
   cut a cross in the top and bake for 30 minutes in an oven at 200°C
When sodium hydrogencarbonate is heated, it forms carbon dioxide gas.

(a)  Calculate the mass, in grams, of carbon dioxide that would be produced by completely
decomposing 10.5g of sodium hydrogencarbonate.
[Mr of NaHCO3 = 84]
(2)

mass of carbon dioxide = ........................................................... g

(b)  Use your answer from part (a)  to calculate the volume, in cm3, at room temperature and
pressure, of carbon dioxide that would be produced by completely decomposing 10.5g of
sodium hydrogencarbonate.
Assume one mole of carbon dioxide has a volume of 24000cm3 at room temperature and
pressure.
(2)

volume of carbon dioxide = ........................................................... cm 3

 
(Total for question = 4 marks)
 

4. The manufacturer makes a batch of ethanoic acid from methanol and carbon monoxide
using this reaction.
 He starts with 64kg of methanol.
Calculate the maximum mass of ethanoic acid he could obtain.
(3)

5. This question is about calcium compounds.

(a)  The diagram gives information about the reactions of some calcium compounds used to
make mortar.
Mortar contains calcium hydroxide and is used to join bricks together when building walls.

These reactions occur when the calcium hydroxide in mortar is obtained from calcium
carbonate.

 calcium carbonate is strongly heated to form calcium oxide

 water is added to calcium oxide to form calcium hydroxide
The calcium hydroxide in mortar reacts with carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to form
calcium carbonate.
(i)  The equation for one of these reactions is
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Calculate the mass of water needed to react exactly with 28 kg of calcium oxide.
(3)

mass of water ...........................................................

6. Lead can be extracted from lead(II) sulfide, PbS, in two stages.

Stage 1:     Lead(II) sulfide is heated in air. It reacts with oxygen to produce lead(II)
oxide and sulfur dioxide.
 Stage 2:     The lead(II) oxide is then heated in a blast furnace with coke.
(a) Write a chemical equation for the reaction in Stage 1.
(2)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(b) The equation for the reaction that occurs when lead(II) oxide is heated with coke in a
blast furnace is:
2PbO + C → 2Pb + CO2
(i) State, with a reason, whether PbO is oxidised or reduced in this reaction.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(ii) Calculate the minimum mass, in tonnes, of coke needed to react with 44.6 tonnes of
lead(II) oxide.
[1 tonne = 106 g]
(3)

Mass of coke needed = .................................................... tonnes

Answers
1.
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3.
4.
5.
6.
3. Finding the percentage of an element in a compound
Example 1.

What is the percentage of Carbon in Propene?

Formula of propene is C3H6. Ar of C = 12, Ar of H = 1.

Method.

The Mr of propene is (3 x 12) + (6 x 1),

= 36 + 6

= 42.

36 of the 42 is due to carbon, so the percentage of carbon in the compound is

(36 ÷ 42) x 100

= 85·7%.

Answer. Carbon makes up 85·7% of propene.

Practice Questions
1. Calculate the mass percent of silver in AgCl.

2. Calculate the mass percent of chlorine in CuCl 2.

3. Calculate the mass percent of oxygen in C4H10O.

4. What is the mass percent of potassium in K 3Fe(CN)6?

5. What is the mass percent of barium in BaSO 3?

6. What is the mass percent of hydrogen in C 10H14N2?

7. A compound is analysed and found to contain 35.66% carbon, 16.24% hydrogen and 45.10%
nitrogen. What is the empirical formula of the compound?

8. A compound is analyzed and found to have a mass of 289.9 grams/mole and contain 49.67%
carbon, 48.92% chlorine and 1.39% hydrogen. What is the molecular formula of the
compound?
 9. The vanillin molecule is the primary molecule present in vanilla extract. The molecular mass
of vanillin is 152.08 grams per mole and contains 63.18% carbon, 5.26% hydrogen, and
31.56% oxygen. What is the molecular formula of vanillin?

10. A sample of fuel is found to contain 87.4% nitrogen and 12.6% hydrogen. If the molecular
mass of the fuel is 32.05 grams/mole, what is the molecular formula of the fuel?

Answers
1. 75.26%
2. 52.74%
3. 21.6%
4. 35.62%
5. 63.17%
6. 8.70%
7. CH5N
8. C12H4Cl4
9. C9H9O3
10. N2H4
4. Finding the empirical formula from a reaction
The empirical formula is the simplest proportion of elements in a compound.

The empirical formula is always the same as the actual formula for ionic compounds. For molecular
compounds, the empirical formula is often (but not always) the same as the molecular formula.

A molecular formula is the actual proportion of elements in a molecular compound.

CO2, NH3, C2H4, and C3H6 are examples of molecular formulae.

For an ionic compound, a reaction might show that the proportion of calcium to oxygen is 8 to 8.

The empirical formula reduces the proportion to the lowest whole numbers (divide by 8).

So, the empirical formula is CaO, not Ca 8O8.

Similarly, a reaction might show that the proportion of sodium to carbon to oxygen is 6 to 3 to 9
(divide by 3). The empirical formula is Na 2CO3, not Na6C3O9.

For a molecular compound, a reaction might show that the proportion of carbon to hydrogen is 3 to
6 (divide by 3). The empirical formula is CH 2, not C3H6. CH2 does not exist as a molecule.

The molecular formula could be any multiple of CH 2, CnH2n where n is a whole number.

The molecule is an alkene, but to know which particular alkene it is, you must also know the relative
molecular mass (Mr).

Example 1.

20 g of calcium was found to react with 35·5 g of chlorine. What is the empirical formula of
calcium chloride?

Method

Calcium Chlorine
Amount (mass or %) 20g 35.5g
Moles (n = g/Mr) 20 ÷ 40 = 0·5 moles. 35.5 ÷ 35.5 = 1 mole.

Divide by the smallest 0.5 ÷ 0.5 = 1 1 ÷ 0.5 = 2

Ratio 1 2

Empirical formula = CaCl2.

Since calcium chloride is an ionic compound, the actual formula is the same as the empirical formula.
Example 2.

33·6 g of iron was found to react with 14·4 g of oxygen. What is the empirical formula of iron
oxide?

Method

Iron Oxygen
Amount (mass or %) 33.6g 14.4g
Moles (n = g/Mr) 33·6 ÷ 56 = 0·6 moles. 14·4 ÷ 16 = 0·9 moles.

Divide by the smallest 0.6 ÷ 0.6 = 1 0.9 ÷ 0.6 = 1.5

Because this is 1.5 you must
times each number by 2
Ratio 2 3

Empirical formula: Fe2O3

Since iron oxide is an ionic compound, the actual formula is the same as the empirical formula.

Exam Question Practice

1.
2.
Titanium is a metal that can be extracted from its ore in a three-stage process.

(a)  A titanium ore contains the composition by mass

Show by calculation that the empirical formula of this ore is FeTiO 3

(3)

(b)  The equation for the conversion of titanium dioxide into titanium chloride is

Explain which element has been oxidised in this reaction.

(2)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Answers
1.
2.
5. Finding the molecular formula of a compound
Example 1.

A compound was found to contain 3·0 g of carbon and 0·5 g of hydrogen. The relative molecular
mass of the compound is 42. What is the molecular formula of the compound?

Method.

Carbon Hydrogen
Amount (mass or %) 3.0 g 0.5g
Moles (n = g/Mr) 3.0 ÷ 12 = 0.25 moles. 0.5 ÷ 1 = 0·5 moles.

Divide by the smallest 0.25 ÷ 0.25 = 1 0.5 ÷ 0.25 = 2

Ratio 1 2

Empirical formula = CH2

To find the molecular formula you must now divide the relative molecular mass of the compound by
the relative molecular mass of the empirical formula.

Mr of the compound = 42.

Mr of the empirical formula = Mr of CH2 = 12 + (2 x 1) = 14.

42 ÷ 14 = 3.

There are 3 CH2 units in the compound.

The molecular formula of the compound is C 3H6. The compound is propene.

Example 2.

A compound was found to contain 48 g of carbon and 12 g of hydrogen. The relative molecular
mass of the compound is 30. What is the molecular formula of the compound?

Method

Carbon Hydrogen
Amount (mass or %) 48g 12g
Moles (n = g/Mr) 48 ÷ 12 = 4 moles. 12 ÷ 1 = 12 moles.

Divide by the smallest 4÷4=1 12 ÷ 4 = 3

Ratio 1 3

Empirical formula = CH3.

To find the molecular formula you must now divide the relative molecular mass of the compound by
the relative molecular mass of the empirical formula.

Mr of the compound = 30.

Mr of the empirical formula = Mr of CH3 = 12 + (3 x 1) = 15.

30 ÷ 15 = 2.

There are 2 CH3 units in the compound.

The molecular formula of the compound is C 2H6. The compound is ethane.

Exam Question Practice
1.
A sample of a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) contains 0.24 g of carbon, 0.38 g of fluorine and
1.42 g of chlorine.
(a)  (i)  Show, by calculation, that the empirical formula of the CFC is CFCl2
(3)

(ii)  The relative formula mass of the CFC is 204.

Deduce the molecular formula of the CFC.
(2)

molecular formula = ...........................................................

(b)  The displayed formula of another CFC is

Draw a dot and cross diagram of this CFC.

Show only the outer electrons.
(2)
2.
Answers
1.
2.
6. Finding the volume of a gas
Avogadro's Law says that the same volume of gas contains the same number of particles. It does not
matter what gas you have, they all contain the same number of particles provided that they are at
the same temperature and pressure.

This leads on to an even more useful fact. At room temperature (25 °C) and one atmosphere
pressure (101kPa) one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24,000 cm3. 24,000 cm 3 is the same
volume as 24 litres.

The equation which converts moles into volume is

volume = moles x 24,000 cm3

Example 1.

What volume of carbon dioxide is produced by burning 6 g of carbon in air?

Method

1) Find how many moles of carbon are present in 6 g of carbon.

Ar of C = 12.

moles = mass ÷ Ar

moles = 6 ÷ 12 = 0·5 moles of carbon.

2) Write the equation for the reaction.

carbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide.

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

Use the big numbers to find the ratio of reactant to product.

1C gives 1CO2, the ratio is 1 to 1, so 0·5 moles of carbon will make 0·5 moles of carbon dioxide.
3) Convert moles into volume.

volume = moles x 24,000 cm3

volume = 0·5 x 24,000 cm3 = 12,000 cm3 of carbon dioxide.

So, burning 6 g of carbon in air will produce 12,000 cm3 of carbon dioxide.

Example 2.

What volume of carbon dioxide is produced by burning 90 g of ethane in air?

Method

1) Find how many moles of ethane are present in 90 g of ethane.

Ar of C = 12, Ar of H = 1.

Mr of ethane (C2H6) = (2 x 12) + (6 x 1) = 30.

moles = mass ÷ Ar

moles = 90 ÷ 30 = 3·0 moles of ethane.

2) Write the equation for the reaction.

ethane + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water.

2C2H6(g) + 7O2(g)  4CO2(g) + 6H2O(l)

Use the big numbers to find the ratio of reactant to product. 2C 2H6 makes 4CO2, the ratio is 2 to 4, or
1 to 2, so 3·0 moles of ethane will make 6·0 moles of carbon dioxide.

3) Convert moles into volume.

volume = moles x 24,000 cm3

volume = 6·0 x 24,000 cm3 = 144,000 cm3 of carbon dioxide.

So, burning 90 g of ethane in air will produce 144,000 cm3 of carbon dioxide.
Example 3.

Hydrogen is produced in the laboratory by adding zinc to dilute sulfuric acid. What volume of
hydrogen is produced by reacting 6·5 g of zinc with dilute sulfuric acid?

Method

1) Find how many moles of zinc are present in 6·5 g of zinc.

Ar of Zn = 65.

moles = mass ÷ Ar

moles = 6·5 ÷ 65 = 0·1 moles of zinc.

2) Write the equation for the reaction.

zinc + sulfuric acid  zinc sulfate + hydrogen.

Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Use the big numbers to find the ratio of reactant to product. 1Zn makes 1H 2, the ratio is 1 to 1, so 0·1
moles of zinc will make 0·1 moles of hydrogen.

3) Convert moles into volume.

volume = moles x 24,000 cm3

volume = 0·1 x 24,000 cm3 = 2,400 cm3 of hydrogen.

So, reacting 6·5 g of zinc with dilute sulfuric acid will produce 2,400 cm 3 of hydrogen.
Example 4.

(a) A reaction was found to produce two litres of Chlorine. What is the mass of 2 litres of
chlorine?

Method

1) Find how many moles of chlorine are present in 2 litres.

One mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24,000 cm 3 (24 litres).

1 litre = 1,000 cm3, 2 litres = 2,000 cm3.

The equation which converts volume into moles is

moles = volume (in cm3) ÷ 24,000

moles = 2,000 ÷ 24,000 = 0·083 moles of chlorine.

(b) What is the mass of 0·083 moles of chlorine?

One mole of chlorine gas contains one mole of chlorine molecules. Each chlorine molecule contains
two chlorine atoms, so use the relative molecular mass. Mr of Cl2 = 71.

mass = moles x Mr (just rearrange the equation moles = mass/ Mr)

mass = 0·083 x 71 = 5·89 g of chlorine.

So, 2 litres of chlorine has a mass of 5·89 g.

Exam Question Practice
1.
2.
Answers
1.
2.

7. Finding the mass or volume from electrolysis

Example 1.
The electrolysis of molten sodium chloride produces sodium at the cathode and chlorine at the
anode. What mass and volume of chlorine is obtained if 46 g of sodium are deposited at the
cathode?

Method

1) Find how many moles of sodium are present in 46 g of sodium.

Ar of Na = 23.

moles = mass ÷ Ar

moles = 46 ÷ 23 = 2 moles of sodium.

2) Write the half equations for the electrolysis.

(i) Na+ + e-  Na

(ii) 2Cl- - 2e-  Cl2

Balance the half equations, to give the same number of electrons on each side.

(i) 2Na+ + 2e-  2Na

(ii) 2Cl- - 2e-  Cl2

Use the equations to find the ratio of how many moles of product are discharged at each electrode.

The ratio is 2 sodium atoms for every 1 chlorine atom so 2 moles of Na at the cathode give 1 mole of
Cl2 at the anode.

3) Find the mass and volume of 1 mole of chlorine.

The mass of 1 mole of Cl2 is 71 g.

The volume of 1 mole of Cl2 is 24,000 cm3

Example 2.
The electrolysis of sodium chloride dissolved in water produces hydrogen at the cathode and
chlorine at the anode. What mass and volume of hydrogen is obtained if 142 g of chlorine are
discharged at the anode?

Method

1) Find how many moles of chlorine are discharged at the anode.

Mr of Cl2 = 71.

moles = mass ÷ Mr

moles = 142 ÷ 71 = 2 moles of chlorine.

2) Write the half equations for the electrolysis.

(i) 2H+ + 2e-  H2

(ii) 2Cl- - 2e-  Cl2

Balance the half equations, to give the same number of electrons on each side (the equations are
already balanced).

Find the ratio of how many moles of product are discharged at each electrode.

1 mole of H2 at the cathode gives 1 mole of Cl2 at the anode.

The ratio is 1 to 1 so 2 moles of Cl2 gives 2 moles of H2.

3) Find the mass and volume of 2 moles of hydrogen.

The Mr of hydrogen is 2.

mass = moles x Mr

mass = 2 x 2 = 4 grams of hydrogen.

volume = moles x 24,000 cm3

volume = 2 x 24,000 cm3 = 48,000 cm3 of hydrogen.

This occupies the same volume as 142g of Cl 2.

Example 3.
 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW:

 A unit of electrical charge is called a coulomb.

 One coulomb (symbol Q) is 6·2 x 1018 electrons.
 One mole of electrons is the same as 96,500 coulombs.
 96,500 coulombs is called a faraday.

 Electric current (symbol I) is a flow of electrical charge.

 The rate of flow of electrical charge is measured in amps (A).
 One amp is one coulomb per second. Q = I x t.

The electrolysis of molten lead bromide (PbBr2) produces lead at the cathode and bromine at the
anode. A current of 10 amps is allowed to flow through molten lead bromide for 5 hours. What
mass of lead is deposited at the cathode?

Method

1) Write the half equation for the electrolysis.

Pb2+ + 2e-  Pb

2 moles of electrons (2 faradays) are required to deposit 1 mole of lead.

2) Find how many faradays have passed through the lead bromide in 5 hours.

Q=Ixt

5 hours contains (5 x 60 x 60) seconds = 18,000 seconds.

Q = 10 x 18,000 = 180,000 coulombs.

1 faraday = 96,500 coulombs.

180,000 coulombs = 180,000 ÷ 96,500 faradays

= 1·865 faradays.

3) From the proportion in 1 above, 2 faradays are required to deposit 1 mole of lead.

1·865 faradays will deposit (1·865 ÷ 2) moles of lead,

= 0·933 moles of lead.

mass = moles x Ar
Ar of lead = 207

mass = 0·933 x 207 = 193 g of lead.

Example 4.

The electrolysis of molten aluminium oxide - Al2O3 produces aluminium at the cathode and oxygen
at the anode. A current of 10 amps is allowed to flow through molten aluminium oxide for 5 hours.
What mass of aluminium is deposited at the cathode?

Method

1) Write the half equation for the electrolysis.

Al3+ + 3e-  Al

3 moles of electrons (3 faradays) are required to deposit 1 mole of aluminium.

2) Find how many faradays have passed through the aluminium oxide in 5 hours.

Q=Ixt

5 hours contains (5 x 60 x 60) seconds = 18,000 seconds.

Q = 10 x 18,000 = 180,000 coulombs.

1 faraday = 96,500 coulombs.

180,000 coulombs = 180,000 ÷ 96,500 faradays = 1·865 faradays.

3) From the proportion in 1 above, 3 faradays are required to deposit 1 mole of aluminium.

1·865 faradays will deposit (1·865 ÷ 3) moles of aluminium

= 0·622 moles of aluminium.

mass = moles x Ar

Ar of aluminium = 27

mass = 0·622 x 27 = 16·79 g of aluminium.

Compare this figure with 193 g of lead, 11·5 times the mass from the same quantity of electricity
(see the previous page). The high charge on the aluminium ion (Al 3+) requiring 3 faradays per mole
makes aluminium expensive to extract. In addition, aluminium has a light nucleus (Ar = 27).

One mole of aluminium has a mass of only 27 g.

One mole of lead has a mass of 207 g.

Exam Question Practice

1. This apparatus can be used to investigate electrolysis.

(a)  Name the particles that move through the connecting wires to form an electric current.
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
(b)  The electrodes are made of platinum, which is an inert metal.
State what is meant by the term inert.
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(c)  Explain why the electrolytic cell containing PbBr2 needs to be heated before electrolysis
can occur.
(2)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(d)  When NaCl(aq) is electrolysed, two gases form at the positive electrode and one gas
forms at the negative electrode.
The formulae of the species in NaCl(aq) are Na+, Cl–, H+, OH– and H2O.
(i)  Name the gases formed at each electrode.
 (2)
positive electrode
............................................................ and ............................................................
negative electrode
.............................................................................................................................................
(ii)  Give ionic half-equations to show the formation of each gas.
(3)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
(e)  The ionic half-equation for one of the reactions in the cell containing copper(II) sulfate
solution is
Cu2+ + 2e– → Cu
During the electrolysis, a charge of 0.040 faradays passes through this cell.
Calculate the mass of copper metal formed.
(2)

mass of copper = ........................................................... g

 
(Total for question = 11 marks)
 

2. The diagram shows how sodium chloride solution can be electrolysed and the products
of electrolysis collected.

(a) (i) Draw an arrow on the diagram to show the direction of electron flow at point X.
(1)
(ii) The diagram shows one of the gases being collected in test tube Q.
Identify this gas.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(iii) When the concentration of the sodium chloride solution is low, the gas collected in test
tube P is mostly
oxygen. The formation of this gas can be represented by an ionic half-equation.
Balance the equation.
(1)
..........................OH− → ..........................H2O + ..........................O2 + ..........................e−
(b) When the concentration of sodium chloride solution is high, the gas that collects in test
tube P is mostly chlorine.
The equation for its formation is:
2Cl− → Cl2 + 2e−
In one experiment, the volume of chlorine gas collected was 18 cm3.
(i) Calculate the amount, in moles, of chlorine gas in 18 cm3.
(The volume of 1 mol of a gas at room temperature and pressure is 24 000 cm3)
(2)

Amount = ......................................................................... mol

(ii) Calculate the quantity of electricity, in coulombs, needed to produce this volume of
 chlorine gas.
(1 faraday = 96 500 coulombs)
(2)

Quantity = ............................................................................. C
(c) Chlorine reacts with potassium bromide solution. The equation for this reaction is:
Cl2(g) + 2Br−(aq) → 2Cl−(aq) + Br2(aq)
This reaction can be described as both a displacement reaction and a redox reaction.
(i) Identify the element that is displaced in this reaction.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(ii) State the meaning of the term redox.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(d) Chlorine is used in the manufacture of phosphorus pentachloride, PCl5
The equation for the reaction is:
PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) PCl5(g)     ΔH = −124 kJ/mol
(i) What does the symbol indicate about this reaction?
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(ii) Predict and explain the effect of increasing the pressure on the equilibrium position
of this reaction.
(2)
Prediction ..................................................................................................................................
..................................................
Explanation ...............................................................................................................................
..................................................
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(Total for Question = 12 marks)
3.
(a) The table shows some results of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions using inert
electrodes. The solutions were
electrolysed under the same conditions.
Use the information given to complete the table.
(3)

(b) Water can be decomposed by electrolysis using this apparatus.

(i) Suggest a suitable element for the inert electrodes.

(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
 (ii) Suggest why a small amount of dilute acid is added to the water before it is
electrolysed.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(c) (i) The overall equation for the decomposition of water is
2H2O(l) → 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Use this equation to explain why the volume of hydrogen collected should be twice that
of the volume of oxygen.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(ii) The volume of oxygen collected is always slightly less than expected, even though there
are no leaks in the
apparatus.
Suggest a reason for this.
(1)
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
      ............................................................................................................................................
..
(d) The equation represents the formation of hydrogen gas at the negative electrode.
2H2O(l) + 2e¯ → 2OH¯(aq) + H2(g)
During electrolysis, 482 500 coulombs were passed through the solution.
Calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrogen gas formed.
[One faraday = 96 500 coulombs]
(2)

Amount of hydrogen gas formed = .......................................... mol

(Total for Question = 9 marks)
Answers
1.

 
2.
3.

8. Finding the concentration of a solution

What is Concentration?

The concentration of a solution is a measure of the number of particles of the solute in the solvent.

A concentrated solution will have a large number of particles of the solute in the solvent.

A dilute solution will have a small number of particles of the solute in the solvent.

Concentrations can be expressed as the number of moles in a particular volume or the number of
grams in a particular volume.

Moles per dm3 or mol/dm3 or mol dm-3 or moles per cubic decimetre all mean the same thing.

A cubic decimeter (dm3) is the same as a litre.

Grams per dm3 or grams/dm3 or grams dm-3 all mean the same thing.

The number of moles of solute in solution is given by the formula

moles = concentration x volume

C = concentration in mol/dm3 (moles per dm3).

V = volume in dm3

Example 1.

In a titration, 50 cm3 of 2 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide was exactly neutralised by 30 cm3 of

hydrochloric acid. What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid?

Method

1) Write the equation for the reaction.

sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid  sodium chloride + water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Use the big numbers to find the ratio of NaOH to HCl.

One mole of NaOH reacts with one mole of HCl

2) Find how many moles of sodium hydroxide are present.

moles = C x V

The number of moles in 50 cm3 of 2 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide

= 2 x (50 ÷ 1000) = 0·1 moles of sodium hydroxide.

(÷ by 1000 to convert cm3 into dm3)

3) From 1 and 2, 30 cm3 of hydrochloric acid also contains 0·1 moles.

C = n ÷ V (rearrange the formula)

C = 0.1 ÷ (30 ÷ 1000) = 3·33.

(÷ by 1000 to convert cm3 into dm3)

The concentration of hydrochloric acid is 3·33 mol/dm 3.

Example 2.

In a titration, 20 cm3 of 0·5 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide is exactly neutralised by 40 cm 3 of sulfuric

acid. What is the concentration of the sulfuric acid?

Method

1) Write the equation for the reaction.

sodium hydroxide + sulfuric acid  sodium sulfate + water.

2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Use the big numbers to find the ratio of NaOH to H 2SO4.

Two moles of NaOH react with one mole of H 2SO4.

2) Find how many moles of sodium hydroxide are present.

n=CxV

The number of moles in 20 cm3 of 0·5 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide

= 0·5 x (20 ÷ 1000) = 0·01 moles of NaOH.

3) From 1, the ratio of NaOH to H2SO4 is 2 to 1.

0·01 moles of NaOH react with (0·01 ÷ 2) moles of H 2SO4

= 0·005 moles H2SO4.

So, there are 0·005 moles of H2SO4 in 40 cm3.

C=n÷V

= (0·005 x 1000) ÷ 40 = 0·125.

The concentration of sulfuric acid is 0·125 mol/dm 3.

Example 3.

Concentrations can be expressed as mol/dm3 or grams per dm3. You can convert one into the other.

120 g of ammonium nitrate were dissolved in 1 litre of water. What is the concentration of
ammonium nitrate in mol/dm3?

Method

1) Work out the concentration in grams per dm3.

1 litre = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3.

120 g per litre = 120 g per dm3.

2) Convert grams per dm3 into mol/dm3.

To convert mass into moles use

moles = mass ÷ Mr

Mr of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is

(1 x 14) + (4 x 1) + (1 x 14) + (3 x 16) = 80

moles = 120 ÷ 80 = 1·5

So, 120 g of ammonium nitrate dissolved in 1 litre of water = 1·5 mol/dm 3

Example 4.
10·6 g of sodium carbonate were dissolved in 200 cm 3 of water. What is the concentration of
sodium carbonate in mol/dm3?

Method

1) Work out the concentration in grams per dm 3.

1 litre = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3.

10·6 g of sodium carbonate in 200 cm 3

10.6g = 200cm3

?g = 1000cm3 (cross multiply to find ?)

Therefore ? = 53g

2) Convert grams per dm into mol/dm 3.

To convert mass into moles use

moles = mass ÷ Mr

Mr of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) is

(2 x 23) + (1 x 12) + (3 x 16) = 106

moles = 53 ÷ 106 = 0·5

So, 10·6 g of sodium carbonate in 200 cm 3 of water = 0·5 mol/dm3.

Example 5.
How many grams of sodium hydroxide are present in 500 cm 3 of 0·8 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide
solution.

Method

1) Convert mol/dm3 into grams per dm3.

To convert moles into mass use

mass = moles x Mr

Mr of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is

(1 x 23) + (1 x 16) + (1 x 1) = 40

mass = 0·8 x 40 = 32

0·8 mol/dm3 = 32 grams per dm3.

2) If there are 32 grams of sodium hydroxide in 1000 cm 3 you can cross multiply to find how many g
of sodium hydroxide are in 500cm3.

32g = 1000cm3

?g = 500cm3

? = 16 grams of sodium hydroxide.

Exam Question Practice

1. (a)  A student made a solution of sodium hydroxide by dissolving 10.0 g of solid sodium
hydroxide in distilled water to make 250 cm3 of solution.

(i)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of NaOH in 10.0 g of sodium hydroxide.

(3)

amount = ........................................................... mol

(ii)  Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of this solution of sodium hydroxide.

(2)

concentration = ........................................................... mol/dm3

(b)  (i)  The student uses the sodium hydroxide solution to find the concentration of a solution
of hydrochloric acid.
He uses this method

 use a pipette to put 25.0 cm3 of the sodium hydroxide solution into a conical flask
 add a few drops of methyl orange indicator to the solution
 gradually add the hydrochloric acid from a burette until the solution in the flask just
changes colour
The diagram shows his burette readings.
Complete the table, giving all values to the nearest 0.05 cm3.
(3)

(ii)  State the colour of the methyl orange at the start and at the end of the experiment.
(2)
colour at start
.............................................................................................................................................

colour at end
.............................................................................................................................................

(iii)  Why is a burette used instead of a pipette for adding the acid?
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(c)  Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide.

The equation for this reaction is
2NaOH + CO2 → Na2CO3 + H2O
A solution of sodium hydroxide of concentration 2.00 mol/dm3 is used.
(i)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of sodium hydroxide in 200 cm3 of this solution.
(2)

amount of sodium hydroxide = ........................................................... mol

(ii)  Deduce the maximum mass, in grams, of carbon dioxide that can react with this solution
of sodium hydroxide.
(2)

mass of carbon dioxide = ........................................................... g

2.
Solutions of lead(II) nitrate and sodium sulfate react together to form the insoluble salt
lead(II) sulfate.
(a)  A student wrote this plan to prepare a pure dry sample of lead(II) sulfate.
step 1      pour some lead(II) nitrate solution into a beaker
step 2      add sodium sulfate solution until the reaction is complete
step 3      filter the mixture
step 4      heat the filtrate to evaporate some of the water
step 5      cool the filtrate and remove the crystals
(i)  How will the student know when the reaction in step 2 is complete?
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(ii)  Which compound could the student use in this preparation instead of sodium sulfate?
(1)
   A    lead(II) hydroxide
   B    nitric acid
   C    sodium hydroxide
   D    sulfuric acid

(iii)  State why the student should not have included steps 4 and 5 in his plan.
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(iv)  Suggest replacement steps to obtain a pure dry sample of lead(II) sulfate.
(2)
step 4
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
step 5
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(v)  Lead(II) carbonate cannot be used instead of lead(II) nitrate in this preparation.
This is because lead(II) carbonate
(1)
   A    contains ionic bonding
   B    has a high relative formula mass
   C    is insoluble in water
   D    is toxic
(b)  The equation for the reaction in the student's plan is
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
(i)  Deduce the amount of each reactant needed to form 0.150 mol of lead(II) sulfate.
(1)
Pb(NO3)2................................................ mol
Na2SO4................................................ mol
(ii)  What volume of 0.500 mol/dm3 lead(II) nitrate solution is needed to form 0.150 mol of
lead(II) sulfate?
(2)

volume = ...........................................................

 
(Total for question = 9 marks)
3.
A student does a titration to find the concentration of a solution of nitric acid.
This is the student's method.

    pipette 25.0 cm3 of the nitric acid into a conical flask

    add a few drops of indicator
    add aqueous potassium hydroxide from a burette until the indicator just changes
colour
    determine the volume of alkali added from the burette
The concentration of the potassium hydroxide solution is 0.0200 mol/dm3.
The volume of potassium hydroxide required to neutralise the acid is 23.50 cm3.
The equation for the reaction between nitric acid and potassium hydroxide is
HNO3 + KOH → KNO3 + H2O
(a)  (i)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of KOH used in this titration.
(2)

amount of KOH = ........................................................... mol

(ii)  Calculate the concentration, in mol/dm3, of the nitric acid.
(2)

concentration of nitric acid = ........................................................... mol/dm 3

(b)  The student makes a solution of potassium nitrate by neutralising aqueous potassium
hydroxide with dilute nitric acid.
Describe how he could use crystallisation to obtain a pure, dry sample of potassium
nitrate crystals from the solution of potassium nitrate.
(4)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
 
(Total for question = 8 marks)
4.
5.
Answers
1.
2.
3.
 

4.

5.
9. Calculating percentage yield
The actual yield is the amount of product that's actually there to be used at the end of the
manufacturing process. This is calculated after the reaction occurs.
The predicted yield (theoretical yield) is the amount that might have been expected if nothing had
got lost along the way. This can be calculated before the reaction occurs.
There are three reasons why the mass of the products (called the yield) of a chemical reaction is not
always the same as the mass of the reactants:

1. You might lose some of the products when you try to separate them from the mixture after
the reaction has finished.
2. The reaction may be reversible.
3. Some of the reactants may form different products from the ones you expect.

The percentage yield is a way of comparing the actual yield with the predicted yield. It's calculated
using a formula:

Percentage yield = actual yield x 100

predicted yield

For example, if the maximum yield for a reaction is 16·67 g and the actual yield is only 14·88 g, then
the percentage yield is

(14·88 ÷ 16·67) x 100 = 89·3%.

The chemical industry tries to find fast chemical reactions with a high percentage yield and no waste
products.

Percentage Yield Calculations

1. Potassium iodide is reacted with lead nitrate. The expected yield is 20 g, but only 18 g was made.
What is the percentage yield?
2. Suggest two reasons why percentage yields are never 100%

3. Why is a high yield important?

4. A reaction produces 48 g of copper oxide, the predicted yield was 64 g. What is the percentage
yield of this reaction?

5. What is the percent yield for a reaction if you predicted the formation of 21g of C 6H12 and
actually recovered only 3.8g?

6. A reaction between solid sulfur and oxygen produces sulfur dioxide. What is the percent yield for
a reaction if you predicted the formation of 680g of sulphur dioxide and actually recovered only
384g?

7. Iron is extracted from iron oxide in the Blast Furnace:

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2 (RFM: Fe2O3=160, Fe=56)

i) Calculate the maximum theoretical mass of iron that can be made from 100g of iron
oxide.

ii) In the reaction, only 65 g of iron was made. Calculate the % yield.
Percentage Yield Answers

1. 90%
2.
a. The reaction is reversible.
b. Some of the reactants or products has been lost for example when filtering or
pouring.
c. Some of the reactants may react in unexpected ways. These reactions are known as
‘side reactions’ which produces by-products.
3.
a. reducing waste
b. using less raw material
c. using less energy
d. Increasing profit

4. 75%
5. 18%
6. 56.4%
7. 70g
8. 92.8%
Practice Exam Questions
1. The equation for the thermal decomposition of copper(II) carbonate is

A student investigates the decomposition of copper(II) carbonate using this apparatus.

She uses this method.

   weigh the crucible, lid and copper(II) carbonate

   heat the crucible, lid and contents for 2 minutes
   allow to cool and then reweigh
   heat for a second period of 2 minutes
   allow to cool and then reweigh
   heat for a third period of 2 minutes
   allow to cool and then reweigh
The table shows the student's results.
(a)  Why does the mass decrease during heating?
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(b)  State the colours of the solids in the reaction.

(2)
CuCO3(s)........................................................................................................................

CuO(s)............................................................................................................................

(c)  (i)  In which experiment might the decomposition not be complete?

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................

(ii)  Give a reason for your choice.

(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................

(iii)  Which statement could explain why the decomposition might not be complete?
(1)
   A    The student used a higher temperature than in the other experiments.
   B    The student used less copper(II) carbonate than in the other experiments.
   C    The student heated the crucible without a lid on.
   D    The student used a spirit burner instead of a Bunsen burner.

(d)  In another experiment, the student calculates that she should obtain a mass of 3.7 g of
CuO(s) after completely decomposing a sample of CuCO3(s).
She actually obtains a mass of 3.4 g of CuO(s).
Calculate the percentage yield in her experiment.
(2)

percentage yield = ................................................. %

(Total for question = 8 marks)

Answers
1.
 
10. Calculating the water of crystallization
Some salts, when crystallised from aqueous solution, incorporate water molecules into the
structure. This is known as 'water of crystallisation', and the 'hydrated' form of the compound.

Hydrated copper sulfate Anhydrous copper sulfate

(blue crystals CuSO4.5H2O) (white powder CuSO4)

Example 1.

A known mass of the hydrated salt is gently heated in a crucible until no further water is driven off
and the weight remains constant despite further heating. The mass of the anhydrous salt left is
measured. The original mass of hydrated salt and the mass of the anhydrous salt residue can be
worked out from the various weighings.

The % water of crystallisation and the formula of the salt are calculated as follows:

Suppose 6.25g of blue hydrated copper(II) sulphate, CuSO 4.xH2O, (x unknown) was gently heated in a
crucible until the mass remaining was 4.00g. This is the white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate.

The mass of anhydrous salt = 4.00g

mass of water (of crystallisation) driven off = 6.25-4.00 = 2.25g

The % water of crystallisation in the crystals is 2.25 x 100 / 6.25 = 36%

[Ar 's Cu=64, S=32, O=16, H=1 ]

The mass ratio of CuSO4 : H2O is 4.00 : 2.25

To convert from mass ratio to mole ratio, you divide by the molecular mass of each 'species'

CuSO4 = 64 + 32 + (4x18) = 160

H2O = 1+1+16 = 18

The mole ratio of CuSO4 : H2O is 4.00/160 : 2.25/18

which is 0.025 : 0.125 or 1 : 5, so the formula of the hydrated salt is CuSO 4.5H2O
Exam Question Practice
1.
2.
The apparatus in the diagram is used to heat a sample of hydrated copper(II) sulfate
crystals, CuSO4.5H2O
The equation for the reaction that takes place is

(a)  Draw an arrow on the diagram to show where heat is applied.

(1)
(b)  What is the purpose of the ice?
(1)
.............................................................................................................................................
(c)  Calculate the maximum mass of water that could be collected when a sample of
hydrated copper(II) sulfate of mass 2.50 g is heated.
[Mr of CuSO4.5H2O is 250]
(3)

mass of water = ........................................................... g

 
(Total for question = 5 marks)
3.
The formula for hydrated iron(II) sulfate is FeSO4.xH2O
The value of x is a whole number between 1 and 10. It can be determined by carrying out a
titration with 0.0200 mol/dm3 potassium manganate(VII) (KMnO4) solution as follows:

   dissolve a sample of FeSO4.xH2O in water to make 250 cm3 of solution

   measure out 25.0 cm3 of this solution into a conical flask
   add the KMnO4 solution using a burette until the end point is reached
   record the volume of solution added
   repeat the titration three more times
The table shows the results.

(a)  Concordant results are those within 0.20 cm3 of each other.

Place ticks ( ) in the table to show the concordant results.
(1)
(b)  Using the concordant results, calculate the average (mean) volume of KMnO4 solution
added. Give your answer to 2 decimal places.
(2)

average volume added = ................................. cm3

(c)  Which is the most suitable piece of apparatus to measure out 25.0 cm3 of FeSO4
solution?
(1)
   A    beaker
   B    gas syringe
   C    measuring cylinder
   D    pipette
(d)  These results were obtained in another titration.

(i)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of KMnO4 in 20.00 cm3 of solution.

(2)

amount of KMnO4 = ............................... mol

(ii)  In this reaction one mole of KMnO4 reacts with five moles of FeSO4
Calculate the amount, in moles, of FeSO4 in 25.0 cm3 of the FeSO4 solution.
(1)

amount of FeSO4 in 25.0 cm3 = ............................... mol

(iii)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of FeSO4 in 250 cm3 of this FeSO4 solution.
(1)

amount of FeSO4 in 250 cm3 = ............................... mol

(iv)  Using your answer from (d)(iii), calculate the mass, in grams, of FeSO4 in the 5.56 g
of FeSO4.xH2O.
[Mr of FeSO4 = 152]
(1)

mass of FeSO4 = .............................. g

(e)  In another experiment it is found that 24.2 g of FeSO4.xH2O contains 15.2 g of iron(II)
sulfate (FeSO4).
(i)  Calculate the mass of water in 24.2 g of FeSO4.xH2O
(1)
mass of water = ...................................... g

(ii)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of H2O in this mass of water.

(1)

amount of H2O = ...................................... mol

(iii)  Calculate the amount, in moles, of FeSO4 in 15.2 g of iron(II) sulfate.

[Mr of FeSO4 = 152]
(1)

amount of FeSO4 = ...................................... mol

(iv)  Using your answers to parts (ii)  and (iii), calculate the value of x in FeSO4.xH2O.
(1)

value of x = ....................................

 
(Total for question = 13 marks)
Answers
1.
2.
3.
11. Calculations involving reactants in excess
The idea of excess
In a balanced equation like the one below, it is often assumed that all of the reacting chemicals
change into products.
CaCO3 + 2HCl →CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
In that case, at the end of the reaction, no CaCO 3 or HCl will be left behind. However, if there is a
shortage of, say, CaCO3 then the reaction will stop when the CaCO 3 runs out. Some HCl will be left
over, unable to react, as there is no more CaCO 3. The HCl is said to be in excess.

Limiting reactants
A reaction stops when all the particles of one of the reactants are used up. In a reaction involving
two reactants:
 The limiting reactant is the one that is all used up at the end of the reaction
 The reactant in excess is still there at the end of the reaction (although in a smaller amount than
at the start)

For example, magnesium reacts with hydrochloric acid. When the reaction is over:
 Magnesium is the limiting reactant if it is all gone at the end
 Hydrochloric acid is the limiting reactant if some magnesium is left at the end

Example 1.
 CaCO3 + 2HCl →CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
Calculate which reactant is in excess, when 10 g of calcium carbonate reacts with 50 cm 3 of 2 mol
dm-3 hydrochloric acid.

Method
Step 1: Calculate the number of moles of each reactant present:
CaCO 3

Moles = mass ÷ Mr

= 10 ÷ 100
= 0.1
 
HCl
Moles = volume (dm3) × concentration
= 0.05 × 2
= 0.1
Step 2: From the balanced equation, work out the mole ratio for the reactants:
CaCO3 + 2HCl→CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O
There is 1 mole of CaCO3, and 2 moles of HCl.
Step 3: Using the number of moles in step 1, choose one reactant, and work out the
number of moles of the other reactant needed to react with it:
1 mole CaCO3 : 2 moles HCl
Substitute the moles of CaCO3, from step 1:
0.1 mole CaCO3 : 0.2 mole HCl
Moles of HCl required = 0.2
Moles of HCl available = 0.1
There is not enough HCl available, to react with 0.1 mole of CaCO3. This means that
some of the CaCO3 will be left over, when the HCl is used up.
Answer: CaCO3 is the reactant which is in excess.

Exam practice questions

1.
The piece of apparatus shown contains 0.010 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.

(a) (i) Give the name of this piece of apparatus.

(1)
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(ii) What volume of hydrochloric acid is in the apparatus?
(2)
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(iii) Use your answer in (a)(ii) to calculate the amount, in moles, of hydrochloric acid in
the apparatus.
(2)
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Amount = .................................................................................................. mol

(b) A student poured a solution containing 0.010 mol of hydrochloric acid into a beaker.
He then added 0.0075 mol of zinc powder and collected the hydrogen given off in a gas
syringe.
The equation for the reaction is
 Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Is the zinc or the hydrochloric acid in excess? Explain your answer.
(2)
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(c) The student repeated the experiment with 0.0075 mol of magnesium powder with the
same total surface area as the
zinc.
The equation for the reaction is
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(i) What effect would this change have on the rate at which the hydrogen is given off?
(1)
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(ii) What effect would this change have on the volume of hydrogen produced?
(1)
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(Total for Question = 9 marks)
2.
Answers
1.
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