A Guide to Simplified Sewer Systems

in Kenya
November 2022
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Executive Summary
This technical guide presents an overview independently evaluated, with positive findings
of the key steps involved in planning and relating to sustainability, affordability and
implementing Simplified Sewer Systems customer satisfaction with the model,
documented in a parallel WSUP publication.1
(SSS) as a sanitation option for Evaluation findings support WSUP’s view that
low-income urban communities. the prevalence of trunk sewer networks in
informal settlements in Nairobi, and other
What are Simplified Sewer Kenyan cities, provides genuine potential for
Systems? scale-up of SSS in the Kenyan context.
Simplified sewer systems (SSS) provide a
low-cost, flexible alternative to conventional How is the Guide structured?
sewers, and are suitable for densely populated The Guide aims to provide an overview of key
low-income urban settlements. Relative to considerations in implementing SSS at scale,
conventional sewers, SSS cost less, and can be from policy and urban planning to operations,
laid in very close proximity to the property of the maintenance and long-term sustainability. The
users, enabling higher household connection Guide is structured as follows:
rates to be achieved. SSS are used widely in
Brazil and other Latin American countries, and – Section 1 introduces urban sanitation in
have also been trialled in Tanzania and Namibia, Kenya
underpinned by the rationale that SSS can – Section 2 outlines the rationale for
enable major cost savings without affecting the introducing SSS in Kenya
performance of the system. Figure 1 on the next
page presents an illustration of SSS in the – Section 3 aims to place SSS within the
context of city-level sewered services provision. wider context of Citywide Inclusive
Sanitation, as one of a menu of services
required to serve everyone in the city
Who is this Guide aimed for?
The Guide has been developed as a resource – Section 4 outlines the key steps involved in
for WASH sector professionals involved in design and construction of SSS
sanitation service planning and sanitation – Section 5 outlines how SSS can be
services provision. The Guide will be useful for integrated with wider urban development
managers within water and sanitation utilities, programmes
local governments and community-based
organisations, and for decision-makers within – Section 6 outlines the policy, legal and
regulators and relevant ministries. The Guide regulatory frameworks required to underpin
aims specifically to support scale-up of SSS in scale-up of SSS
Kenya, and is aimed primarily at Kenyan – Section 7 presents the key stakeholders
stakeholders; however, much of the guidance involved and the coordination mechanisms
included will be relevant to other contexts. required to support SSS in the Kenyan
context
Why Simplified Sewer Systems in – Section 8 presents financing options to
Kenya? support provision and scale-up of SSS
The Guide draws extensively on the experience – Section 9 is focused on management
of WSUP and our partners in Kenya — including structures and operations and maintenance
Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company of SSS
(NCWSC), Nairobi Metropolitan Services (NMS),
– Section 10 introduces potential business
and Akiba Mashinani Trust (AMT) — in piloting
models available to support SSS
SSS in the low-income settlement of Mukuru,
Nairobi, as part of a wider slum development – Annex 1 provides further information on the
programme (see Annex 1). The pilot has been pilot of SSS in Mukuru, Nairobi

1 WSUP (2022) Are Simplified Sewer Systems a viable option for informal settlements in Kenya? Results of a pilot project in Mukuru,
Nairobi.

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Figure 1: Illustration of Simplified Sewer System in the context of city-level sewered services provision.

Low-
CommIncome 4
5
1 unities

2
6

Final disposal of treated effluent

Conventional Sewer Line

Simplified Sewer Network

Wastewater
Treatment Plant

1. In wealthier parts of the city, including business 4. Here, a simplified sewer network has been laid. Small,
districts and planned residential neighbourhoods, a flexible pipes are used that can go around corners and
network of deep sewers remove waste from each are better at reaching toilets in the jumbled housing.
building and dwelling. These buildings have piped They are laid at a shallow depth so not too much
water too. digging is required, and inspection chambers are
installed at intervals to allow for regular maintenance.
2. Both water and sewage pipes tend to be laid in line
with roadways so they are easier to maintain. Smaller 5. The toilets are not directly connected to the water
sewers discharge into large trunk sewers which take network. Users need to flush their waste through the
the waste to the wastewater treatment plant. system with a bucket of water. In areas where SSS are
to be used, it is a requirement that households be
3. The informal settlements where people with lower supplied with at least 60 litres per person per day,
incomes live are often not planned. Homes tend to be which could potentially be supplied through communal
crowded and occupied by many people. There are few plot-level yard taps or prepaid water dispensers.
formal road networks, piped water is not common, and
sewers very rare. Most people use pit latrines which 6. The simplified sewers take the waste into a nearby
need emptying, and human waste is often washed into secondary sewer, and from there to the trunk network
open drains and from there into the rivers. which transports it to the wastewater treatment plant.

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Table of contents
Executive Summary 2
1. Introduction: sanitation in Kenya 5
2. Rationale for introducing simplified sewer systems 6
3. Simplified sewer systems within Citywide Inclusive Sanitation 7
4. Framework for design and construction of simplified sewer systems 8
5. Integration of simplified sewer systems with wider urban development 11
6. Policy, legal and regulatory basis for simplified sewer systems 12
7. Stakeholder coordination for simplified sewer systems 13
8. Financing framework for simplified sewer systems 14
9. Sustainable management structure for simplified sewer systems 15
10. Business typologies for simplified sewer systems 16
Annex 1: The Mukuru Mosque Road Pilot SSS Project 17

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1. Introduction: sanitation in Kenya

With an urbanisation rate of 4.5% per annum

(double the global average), Kenya is one of
the most rapidly urbanising countries in the
world. Growth is skewed towards the country’s
informal urban settlements, where low-income
earners are concentrated in crowded,
semi-permanent structures. Access to improved
sanitation facilities remains low at 31% in urban
areas, with access to safely managed sanitation
estimated at 26%. Sewer coverage is estimated
at 16% with 84% of the Kenyans depending on
onsite sanitation.2 Over half of the population
are at heightened risk of diseases and death
due to poor access to safe water, sanitation and
hygiene, which is responsible for over 75% of
Kenya’s total disease burden.

To meet the SDG 6.2 and Kenya Vision 2030

Image: Project signage for Githima sewer line, Nakuru County. Credit: Brian Otieno
sanitation targets, about $3.4 billion would
be required to fund urban sanitation.3 While 18% of urban dwellers use unimproved
According to the National Water Master Plan facilities, 3% still practice open defecation.
2030, to increase the conventional sewerage Onsite sanitation is the norm for most urban
coverage to at least 80 per cent by 2030, 96% of residents, as less than 20% have access to
the required resources of US$ 5.2 billion will be sewerage services. Transportation and
needed for new urban sewerage infrastructure treatment services are very poor across all
development, with the remaining 4% required for kinds of facilities. Nationally, only 5% of sewage
rehabilitation of existing dilapidated systems. is effectively treated due to failures of the
Furthermore, the construction of new sewer sewerage system and inadequate wastewater
systems can be expected to generate additional treatment processes. Access to sewerage
operation and maintenance costs, bringing the services has been declining over time from a
total financing needs to about US$5.4 billion.4 To figure of 19% coverage recorded in 2010 to 16%
realise these investment targets, the National sewerage coverage in 2022.5 This decline is
Water Master Plan 2030 estimates an annual attributed to the rapid increase in population,
investment of US$ 1 billion (KES 100 billion) is with slower sewerage services development.
required. This funding shortfall excludes onsite To achieve safely managed sanitation services
sanitation services that serve the greater urban as per Sustainable Development Goal 6.2,
population, while budget allocation to sanitation sanitation practitioners and service providers
has remained negligible both at county and are adopting Citywide Inclusive Sanitation
national levels. (CWIS), which seeks to ensure that everyone
benefits from adequate sanitation service
The WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program delivery outcomes, while embracing the
(JMP) estimates that only 31% of urban principles of safety, equity, and sustainability.
residents in Kenya have access to improved
facilities. About 48% use shared facilities,
including public toilets as well as facilities
shared by defined groups of households.
2 Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) (2022) Impact issue No 14.
3 Draft Water Sector Investment Program prepared in 2011.
4 Republic of Kenya (2013), National Water Master Plan 2030.
5 WASREB (2022)

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2. Rationale for introducing simplified

sewer systems
In recent decades in Kenya, focus on trunk
sewer infrastructure has resulted in expensive
investments in sewer networks and wastewater
treatment plants, which have often remained
under-utilised, as the last-mile sewer networks
and connections and the necessary household
installations are never actually realised.

Currently in Kenya, the use of HDPE double

walled corrugated (DWC) sewer pipes is gaining
popularity. Historical use of PVC pipes, concrete
pipes, culverts and manholes has been costly in
terms of installation and maintenance. HDPE
sewer pipes and inspection chambers are over
50% more cost-effective compared to concrete
sewer pipes. Composite material assets are also
preferable as they are durable and easy to fix
and replace.
Image: Open sewer in Githima, Nakuru County. Credit: Brian Otieno

Simplified sewer systems (SSS) adopt Table 1: Summary of key benefits of Simplified Sewers.
conservative design standards and design
features that are better adapted to the local Suited to densely populated but well-structured settlements
situation. This could be use of locally available
and affordable floor tiles or material for the toilet Inspection chambers are provided every 30 Metres to support network
maintenance
upgrades, plastic basins for the pour flush and
simple wash taps for hygiene. Because Easily adapted to low-income area (LIA) sanitation governance systems e.g.
simplified sewers are laid on, or in very close CBOs
proximity to, the property of the users, higher
connection rates can be achieved, fewer and Easily adapted to LIA technologies e.g. pour-flush latrines
shorter pipes can be used, and less excavation
Provide incentives for CBOs and communities who may be engaged as
is required as the pipes will not be subject to
caretaker managers
heavy traffic loads.6 Additionally, SSS utilise
local labour in both construction and Enable improvisation and the use of locally available materials, unlike
maintenance making them affordable to conventional sewers
low-income populations. Enhance utility and government visibility through comprehensive participatory
approaches
Suitable areas for SSS are mostly found in
urban and peri-urban settlements with Reduced connection costs relative to conventional sewers
population density exceeding 150 persons per
hectare. Simplified sewerage should be Facilitate local innovation and skills transfer, providing easy integration of FSM
constructed in areas where there is a minimum options
availability of 60 litres per person per day.
Where this is unavailable water supply mitigation
measures should be incorporated.

6 Mara, D, et al (2001) PC Based Simplified Sewer Design. London: University of Leeds.

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3. Simplified sewer systems within

Citywide Inclusive Sanitation
Simplified sewer systems can be considered as Enhanced customer experience: Despite
part of the menu of services required to achieve challenges associated with sanitation in
citywide inclusive sanitation. Within this context, low-income areas, utility planners, designers
the following considerations should be planned and managers should ensure that a proactive
for to ensure the systems are viable and customer experience is maintained to avoid
sustainable: customer frustration, which in turn can damage
the overall sustainability of the system.
Equity and access: Simplified sewer systems
are 50–80% less expensive than conventional Community participation: Owing to the
gravity sewerage. The lower cost of investment consultative nature of SSS, communities need
means lower connection fees and tariffs that to be aware of their involvement across all
poor households can afford. phases of project development. Community
sensitisation is required to enhance ownership,
Functional sanitation service chain: and to create a platform through which
Simplified sewers should be designed taking communities can identify and access service
into account the complementary provision of providers. A space must be provided for the
other services. The system should not be community to voice historical, cultural, and
regarded as a standalone solution, but as an religious considerations, paving the way for
option that enhances the capability of other inclusive and consultative project
non-sewer alternatives to serve everyone. The implementation.
SSS should consider the safe delivery of faecal
waste from various sources to the trunk sewers, Resources and capacity: Service providers
treatment and reuse facilities. should be equipped with human resources,
skills, and materials to facilitate last-mile
Urban planning and renewal: The SSS should connectivity within the shortest turnaround time
be designed to conform to urban planning possible. A skilled workforce is critical, because
requirements, and to promote livable and pipe networks are laid close to the surface and
sanitary environments. Systems must be risk being punctured if standards are not
designed with the long-term development and observed. To address this, the regulator and
sustainability of the city and its residents in service providers should set minimum
mind. standards, guidelines and develop sewer
connection manuals outlining procedures for
Partnerships and stakeholder engagement: installation and maintenance of SSS.
Designing, implementing, and sustaining SSS is
a highly collaborative process. Wide-ranging Marketing and demand creation: To maximize
partners are required to play a critical role in all utilisation of the SSS, effective strategies must
stages of the project cycle. Institutions adopting be put in place to ensure uptake of connections
this system must make adjustments to bring all in the intervention area. Marketing and demand
stakeholders on board, particularly the users; creation is not one-size fits-all: service providers
and avoid the top-down approaches which should conduct an analysis of their customer
characterize the planning and implementation of segments to inform strategy in this area.
conventional sewer systems.

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4. Framework for design and

construction of simplified sewer systems
In this section we present an overview of the key
steps involved in designing and constructing
simplified sewer systems.

1. Socio-economic aspects
Successful planning, implementation, operation
and maintenance and sustainability of the SSS
is highly dependent on stakeholder
engagement, sensitisation, and participation.
This entails continuous engagement between
service providers, private sector players, policy,
and regulatory bodies, as well as end-users.

2. Community needs assessment on WASH

Planning and designing of SSS should build on
the community’s perception of what their needs
are for water, sanitation and hygiene. A
Image: Upgrading pit latrines to pour-flush toilets connected to the simplified sewer system,
community needs assessment seeks to gather Mukuru, Nairobi.
accurate information representative of the needs
of a community. The process brings out the be updated to include any developments that
thoughts, opinions and attitudes the have taken place since they were produced.
communities have towards the proposed SSS Where plans are non-existent or insufficiently
intervention. It will form a basis through which detailed, additional surveys will be required to
service providers can tailor messaging during provide information on the overall layout of the
the sensitisation phase. area.

3. Location mapping 5. Social surveys

The first task in the planning process is to Social surveys should be used to provide
collect all available information on the area to be information on household sizes and incomes,
sewered. Existing topographical maps and any existing sanitation and water supply facilities,
maps showing the routes of existing drains and attitudes to sanitation and user preferences.
sewers should be collected, as these are Questionnaire surveys are useful for providing
needed to define the area to be sewered and quantitative information. Semi-structured
determine the overall SSS layout. Data on interviews and focused group discussions
existing onsite sanitation facilities should also be (FGDs) are more likely to provide information on
collected to guide future integration. Field attitudes and preferences. The options for
reconnaissance during the planning and operations can be explored in community
designing phase will shed light into the general meetings, but should be backed-up by smaller
layout and terrain of the project site. Designers meetings with groups, as minority viewpoints
should seek to maintain and preserve existing may not emerge in open community meetings.
infrastructure and structures of the target
location. 6 Technical design planning
During this stage, technical options for the best
4. Physical surveys SSS option are considered, including possibility
Physical surveys are required to determine of access to a trunk sewer, and water availability
sewer routes and levels. If existing plans exist, it (preferably 60 litres per person per day, but in
may be possible to use them, at least for cases where this is not met, mitigation
preliminary design. However, checks on their measures should be taken including provision of
accuracy should always be made, and they must settling tanks or introduction of multiple rodding

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eyes in the sewer systems). Additionally, the 8 Development of a draft sewerage plan
design should ensure a minimum flow of 1.5 A draft sewer plan is then developed, to cover a
litres per second. Factors to consider include local system, or the sewerage needs of a wider
population density (at least 150,000 people per area. Sewers should be routed as close as
hectare), the arrangements for effluent disposal possible to natural drainage routes and aligned
and the preferences of the local population. to existing land development and ownership
While evaluating onsite sanitation options, the patterns. In general, collector sewers should be
plot size, infiltration capacity of the soil and the routed in public rights of way.
potential for groundwater pollution should also
be considered.7 9 Final sewer routes
Once good survey information has been
7 Detailed technical design obtained, detailed design of the system can
The design of simplified sewers applies the commence. Minor changes to the routes of
same principles of hydraulics. However, there collector sewers may be required because of
are a few differences with the principles applied improved survey information. More substantive
in conventional sewer design. The main changes may be necessary in condominium
difference is the reliance on tractive force as systems as a result of the findings of both the
opposed to self-cleaning velocity. The physical and social surveys. The preferred
advantage of this approach is that it allows for options for condominium sewers should be
lower minimum sewer diameters and also decided in consultation with the community,
emphasizes on initial wastewater inflow rates bearing in mind the management arrangements
and final wastewater conveyance flow rates in to be adopted.
sizing of sewer pipelines.
Figure 2: The Design Process for Simplified Sewers.

Demography and
Topographical Surveys
(route/alignment
selection)

Wastewater
Operations and
generation
Maintenance
estimation
Design and SOPs

Detailed design Preliminary

and production design and
of construction review by
drawings and stakeholders
bid documents

7 GHK Research and Training (2000) Strategic Planning for Municipal Sanitation. First Edition.

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10 Construction materials and approach

Unlike conventional sewers, SSS embrace
innovative construction methods that are
suitable for adaptation without adverse effects
on performance. These innovative methods
include laying sewers in shallow depth, the use
of HDPE inspection chambers as much as
possible, and optimising number of people
served per conduit length of SSS by aligning
sewers networks to block unit boundaries.

11 Utility and community operations and

maintenance
While simplified sewers are considered an
affordable solution for informal settlements, they
also present a challenge in terms of operation
and maintenance. Sewer services are usually
billed as a charge levied on the water
Image: HDPE Inspection chamber installation for SSS.
customer’s periodic bill obtained from set tariffs
and volume measures at a consumer meter. In
many informal settlements, individual Table 2: Typical design and construction standards applied in SSS systems.
Source: Mara, 2001.
connections are rare, and the management of
consumer meters is greatly hampered by DESCRIPTION STANDARD
commercial water losses related to meter
malpractices. This has led many water utilities to
Depth of sewers >400 mm
be reluctant to offer individual connection
services for water and by extension sewer
systems in these areas. Minimum flow per sewer line conduit ≥ 1.5 l/s

Because SSS uses smaller diameter pipes than Diameter size ≥100 mm
conventional sewers, the likelihood of blockages
may be higher. It is prudent to provide adequate Normally PVC and
Material
rodding eyes and grease traps for SSS systems Concrete
where frequent blockages are likely. Additionally, Minimum Tractive force (ῖ) in sewer pipe
flush tanks may be introduced to flush any (Boundary Shear stress). NB. The value is 1 > ῖ < 2 Pascal
troublesome sewer pipe at least once per day. purely for separate simplified sewer systems
This is recommended for sewers that may not
achieve self-cleaning capability. Minimum sewer gradient 1;200

Sustained community sensitisation is necessary, Design Peak Factor 1.8

especially in relation to:
0.85 (This may vary
Return Factor
– solid waste disposal in designated locations; depending on site)

– maintenance of household grease or storm Limit Ratios of depth of flow to Diameter of

water gully traps; pipe d/D. (The limits prevent deposition as
0.2<d/D<0.8
well as adequate ventilation in the sewer pipes
– reporting of blockages and leaks respectively)
It is helpful if there is a well-organised
Residents’ Association which can act as the
primary point of contact between the sewerage
authority and the community.

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5. Integration of simplified sewer systems

with wider urban development
To be effective, simplified sewer systems must decomposition of organic waste and other
be designed in a way that supports integration suspended solids. The quiescent wastewater is
with wider urban development and basic discharged to a nearby soak pit/percolation field
services. Below we present an overview of key while sludge settles in the sludge handling
points for consideration within this integrated facility. As sludge accumulates the sludge
approach. handling facility will need to be desludged.
Sludge could be carted off to sludge drying
Solid waste management: One of the major beds in a nearby wastewater treatment plant to
challenges in SSS management in informal be converted to raw material for charcoal
settlements is poor solid waste management. briquettes/ organic fertilisers.
Solid waste often finds its way in manholes
causing blockages in sewer pipes. Part of the Integration with conventional sewers: SSS
solution involves provision of solid waste can be connected to conventional sewers as
management bins that are collected regularly in they perform similar functions and are based on
areas with SSS - this has worked in various similar hydraulic principles. The SSS primarily
parts of Kenya, where the County government use inspection chambers, but may be connected
collects garbage or subcontracts solid waste via typical manholes at connection terminals, as
management services to CBOs. This needs to is the case with conventional sewer systems.
be complemented by strong stakeholder
engagement and awareness campaigns through Integration with future slum upgrading and
community mobilisation and sensitisation. infrastructure improvements in informal
settlements: The SSS should be designed to
Upgrading of pit latrines to pour-flush: enable flexibility and integration with potential or
Upgrading of existing pit latrines to pour-flush planned developments. This should involve
standards is necessary in order to make review of existing cadastral maps, official slum
connections to the SSS network. Pour-flush upgrading proposals, spatial plans and
latrines ease use, maintenance, and demographic trends. Where disruptions to
construction of the SSS. They will normally existing SSS are unavoidable, alternative
require about 1.5 litres of water for every stop-gap measures should first be considered
flushing event. It is preferable that the pour flush before decommissioning through a joint task
be fitted with a water trap to control odour and team with the utility and community.
flies. The SSS target area should also have
consistent water supply. Housing and water supply: Every simplified
sewer-connected pour-flush toilet will require at
Public toilets integration: Public toilets can be least 1.5 litres of water per flushing event to
integrated with the network via normal sewer avoid operational challenges. Ensuring utility
connection processes, or where a septic tank water piped to individual households in informal
was in use previously, the outlet leading to a settlements can be challenging, with some
soak point or percolation/gravel bed can be utilities preferring to have last-mile connectivity
connected to a SSS, leading to the wider sewer in areas with better land use and planning as
system connected to a wastewater treatment well as ease of access and formalized metering
plant. and billing systems. However, in areas where
SSS are to be used, it is a requirement that
Sludge handling integration: If space and households be supplied with at least 60 litres
costs do not permit the construction of a per person per day, which could potentially be
wastewater treatment plant, an alternative supplied through communal plot-level yard taps
solution is a sludge handling facility. Waste from or prepaid water dispensers.
a network of SSS is collected and deposited at
the sludge handling facility, which then facilitates

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6. Policy, legal and regulatory basis for

simplified sewer systems
The policy, legal and regulatory framework for
the sanitation sector in Kenya is governed and
regulated under the Water Act 2016. Other
policy and legal frameworks complement the
Water Act, including the Urban Areas & Cities
Act, Land Act, National Environment
Management and Coordination Act, and Public
Health Act. All of these frameworks draw their
mandates from the Constitution of Kenya, 2010.
For sanitation, of which sewerage is one part,
the driving policy emanates from article 43 (1) b
of the Constitution (under Economic and Social
rights), which stipulates “Every person has the
right to accessible and adequate housing and to
reasonable standards of sanitation”. In this
connection, the planning, design, operation, and
maintenance standards of the SSS must
address the needs of beneficiaries.
Image: Upgrading pit latrines to pour-flush toilets connected to the simplified sewer system,
Mukuru, Nairobi.
SSS provision is further underpinned by the
Kenya Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene The SSS standards must meet the requirements
Policy (KESHP) 2016-2030, the National for:
Sanitation Management Policy 2030, and the
National Water & Sanitation Services Strategy i. Safe sanitation
2019-2030. These frameworks provide for the ii. Practicality in operational and maintenance
promotion of appropriate technology options iii. Sustainability requirements for wider
which are cost-effective, affordable, socially adoption and scale-up
acceptable and adaptable to the needs of iv. Alignment to national guidelines on
vulnerable population groups. Such technology equipment and supplies to be procured for
choices shall include a variety of alternatives use by service providers at various levels
including sewered and onsite, centralised and v. Adherence to environmental protection
decentralised systems. standards
vi. Be within legal frameworks of respective
For SSS to be embedded, standards shall governments
require technical and stakeholder input and
acceptance. National and county-level For the above to happen, there is a need to
government and utilities, in collaboration with initiate and sustain discourse through forums,
the Engineers Board of Kenya and Kenya publications and information dissemination with
Bureau of Standards, shall adopt the standard key stakeholders who could review the legally
specifications for the SSS as a sanitation acceptable codes and include SSS in the
technology option. sanitation services building codes. This would,
in turn, trigger adoption and financing for SSS
systems to be scaled-up.

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7. Stakeholder coordination for simplified

sewer systems
The provision of SSS must be strategically
coordinated and adequately address the
concerns of professional bodies, local and
national authorities (statutory bodies mandated
with sewerage/sanitation services provision),
NGOs, utility managers, area community
leaders and the public. Among the key
stakeholders in the SSS development processes
are:

i.  Policy institutions – ministries, regulators,

county governments
ii.  Mandated service authorities – utilities
and other institutions with mandate to
provide services
iii.  Financial Institutions – development
financing institutions, commercial banks,
micro-lenders, waterworks development
Image: Stakeholder workshop for the simplified sewer system project, Nairobi.
agencies
iv.  County governments departments represented, informed and consulted throughout
– water, public health, housing, and planning the process.
departments
v.  Small & Medium Enterprises (SMEs) Current national standards in Kenya mostly
– masons, plumbers, FSM/SWM enterprises, cover conventional sewer systems and leave out
hardware stockists innovative SSS methods. To initiate a paradigm
vi. Households – tenants in single and multiple shift from business as usual to SSS, there must
dwelling units be nationally designed standards complete with
vii. Landlords – present or absentee a design manual for simplified sewerage that
viii. Landowners – legal owners and temporary aligns to other standards like building codes. In
land occupants drafting the manual, a multi-sectoral technical
ix. Local administration – village elders, committee from the relevant institutions should
women and youth leaders, ward be formed to deliver a well-aligned and
administrators, assistant chiefs, chiefs comprehensive document.
x. Development organisations – NGO/
community-based organisations, women and
youth self-help groups

The levels of commitment, capacity and the

relationships between these institutions will
have a significant bearing on the planning
process. Coordination between different
stakeholder institutions, each of whom has a
related mandate and jurisdiction, is crucial.
There is therefore a need for strong political will
to drive a coherent strategy to bring all major
actors to the table and set the functions and
specific objectives of the improved services.
Civic society, user communities, NGOs, and
other relevant actors, must also be adequately

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8. Financing framework for simplified

sewer systems
National and County governments commitments Financing from Public Benefit
for sewerage require large investments. A Organisations: County governments can
financing gap of USD $3.4 Billion has been actively leverage funds from public benefit or
identified as one of the greatest barriers to not-for-profit organisations including
achieving the 2030 target for Kenya of 80% international and local NGOs to advance
sewerage coverage. The construction of the household connections and promote last-mile
new sewer systems will also generate additional connections through lateral extensions.
operation and maintenance costs, bringing the
total financing needs to about US$5.2 billion.8 Households and property owners’ financing:
This investment does not include onsite Households and landlords in peri-urban and
sanitation and household connections which, if informal settlements could bear the cost of
added, take the financing gap higher. providing, improving, and maintaining sanitation
facilities including the costs of operation and
Below we set out potential financing streams maintenance of the chosen technology. The
which can support SSS provision: costing of the SSS capital and maintenance
requirements can be provided in
Connection fees: While the network for SSS easy-to-understand manuals which assist
may be available, procuring materials for the householders in making informed investments.
connection - plus charges payable to the utility To support households and access the financial
for the connection - could be prohibitive for most resources required for sanitation development
property owners. An affordable connection fee and improvement, microfinance institutions and
with payment spread over a long period on a other credit schemes should be promoted for
monthly basis should be explored. uptake. Property developers in un-sewered
urban areas in the informal settlements could be
Tariffs or levies: The SSS funding can be encouraged to create awareness through
bridged through development levies or sanitation marketing.
surcharges that can be institutionalised for
improving access to safe sanitation in Private sector financing: The private sector
non-sewered areas and low-income can be encouraged and incentivised to actively
communities. Cross-subsidies could levy higher participate in the planning, design and contract
charges for conventional sewerage so that supervision; carrying out large and small-scale
providers can charge less in poor areas served construction works and installation of
by simplified sewerage. Initial connection fees equipment; product development and production
are likely to cause payment problems in poor of appropriate sanitation and hygiene materials
areas, and these should be subsumed into the and equipment; provision of finance to support
monthly charges. capital development and delivery of sanitation
and hygiene services; carrying out sanitation
Social connection fund: SSS can be financed marketing and campaigns and demand creation;
sustainably through a utility social connection and equipment leasing and maintenance/
fund or revolving fund. Any bilateral, multilateral, workshop services.
and private foundations that raise resources
could complement government funding for
social connections and such resources can be
coordinated and aligned within the County
integrated and sector planning/budgeting
framework.

8 Republic of Kenya (2013).

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9. Sustainable management structure for

simplified sewer systems
A simple management structure for simplified
sewer systems in a given service area is shown
in Figure 3 below. This could be modified
depending on geographical characteristics and
institutional capacity within a locality.

In practice, household sanitation facilities,

sewers and wastewater disposal facilities
together form a hierarchical wastewater disposal
system. SSS will normally include several
streets or lanes that can be sewered to one
connection with a higher-order collector sewer.
For the optimal performance of the SSS system,
the SSS should be managed by the same utility
that manages the higher-order facilities.

Users/households and local artisans should

Image: Zaituni Kanenje, Manager for the Low-Income Customer Services department at
take full responsibility for providing and NAWASSCO, Nakuru County, Kenya. Credit: Brian Otieno.
managing all internal SSS facilities. The utility/
service provider should similarly take full Management options for operation and
responsibility for managing external facilities, maintenance are very important in ensuring
including collector and trunk sewers and system sustainability. It is critical to evaluate
wastewater treatment facilities. The exact details what management arrangements are possible in
of the division of responsibilities should be the local context. Community management
well-documented to eliminate the risks of should not be considered an option for simplified
emergence of existing cartels posing as sewerage systems connected to a municipal
community services providers. system operated by mandated utilities.
Figure 3: Management structure for SSS at the service area level.

Utility Management

SSS Pilot Area Manager

Field operators

On-call duty staff

Community trained artisan

Consumers

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10. Business typologies for simplified

sewer systems
The utility may choose to operate a system of Table 3: Potential business models for SSS provision.
cross-subsidies whereby it levies higher charges
  CONTRACT APPLICATION INCENTIVES
for conventional sewerage so that it can charge
less in poor areas served by simplified Water meter reading May trigger competition
sewerage. As noted in Section 8, initial and billing (including among CBOs, each
connection fees are likely to cause payment 1 Service wastewater) and collection with short and specific
problems in poor areas, and these should be as well as O&M in the contracts, leading to
target area service improvements
subsumed into the monthly charges through a
utility social connection policy. Combined water May be implemented
and sewerage charges should not be greater based on performance-
than 7% of household income. Several business based contracts e.g.
models could be adopted by utilities for SSS as Delegated revenues collected
O&M of SSS in informal
2 Management from SSS connections,
summarised in Table 3. Models
settlements
improved sanitation,
frequency of complaints,
Up-scaling and long-term sustainability of SSS and response time to
can be ensured by: customer complaints

A private enterprise may

– Strong partnership between the communities lease the SSS network
served by SSS and the utility from the water utility for a
Extended operational medium-term period and
– Good design and quality construction 3 Lease
contract collect revenue, as well
as maintain the system,
– Good maintenance
including infrastructure
– An adequate, but affordable, tariff structure ownership for this period

– Ensuring lessons are applied for future Same as lease but in this
self-improvement, in areas including case the private entity This is long-term
community engagement efficiency, wayleave may inject capital into the engagement and the
4 Concession development of SSS in an risk is diversified to the
acquisition, billing and collection, tariff
informal settlement and concessioner by the water
structures, technical training needs, service have a long-term contract utility
levels, etc with the local water utility

The lack of key skills and the capacity gaps in Finally, utility business planning for SSS should
the Kenyan sanitation sector remains a ensure robust data collection of current
challenge which may undermine the provision of practices, including socio-cultural, economic
SSS services. To mitigate this, a utility skills and environmental aspects.
development strategy on SSS should be
developed, considering the capacity gaps and
the need to accelerate and expand formal and
structured training programs related to planning,
implementing, operating, and maintaining SSS.
NGOs, development partners, governments and
other key players should invest in capacity
building of the roles outlined in the stakeholder
engagement forum. This could involve (for
example) on-the-job training, seminars and
workshops, scholarships, building financing
capacity, information dissemination, and
advocacy.

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Annex 1: The Mukuru Mosque Road pilot

SSS project
Mukuru, one of the largest informal settlements
in Nairobi, was declared a Special Planning
Area (SPA) in 2017. This step was taken to
address high levels of poverty and poor living
conditions in the area, including lack of access
to basic infrastructure such as water and
sanitation, and lack of planning and
management. Before 2021, water, sanitation and
solid waste management services in Mukuru
were highly dominated by informal suppliers.
Water was previously sold by water vendors that
are illegally connected or provided by
door-to-door distributors using hand carts.
Sanitation was characterised by pit latrines,
pour-flush toilets and portable toilets provided
by non-profit agencies. The residents were
charged high rates to access unreliable water
and sanitation services, and there were no
Image: Slum conditions in Mukuru, Nairobi.
proper methods of solid waste disposal,
resulting in haphazard dumping. entailed the installation of ten prepaid water
dispensers (PPDs) and upgrading of toilets by
Residents in the settlements of Mukuru must landlords’ own investments, to connect to the
cope with entrenched poverty, gender inequality, SSS. Demand creation also facilitated
and frequent threats to their dignity that stem NCWSC’s sewer connections at plot-level and
from inadequate housing, water and sanitation. accelerated the upgrade of the pit latrines to
Households typically rent tiny iron shacks with pour-flush standards with technical support by
only minimal infrastructure and face a range of trained local artisans. The project cost was US$
major health concerns. Inadequate shelter has 140,000 which improved sanitation access to a
resulted in severe health risks and threats to population of approximately 4,000 people. This
well-being. According to surveys of Nairobi’s represents a per-capita cost of about US$ 35 for
slums, the under-5 mortality rate in Mukuru was last-mile sewer connection.
83 per 1000. This under-5 mortality rate
exceeds the Nairobi slum average of 80 per NCWSC’s pilot SSS design is premised on the
1000 and the city’s overall average of 52 per World Bank Simplified Sewers Design
1000 (ibid.), underscoring the particularly acute Guidelines9 and DFID/University of Leeds
health concerns in Mukuru and multiple burdens Design Manual.10 A 2021 qualitative study by
linked to poor housing and poor sanitation. WSUP on stakeholders’ perspectives on the
Mukuru pilot SSS project has offered seamless
The SSS pilot project along Mosque Road in adaptation of these guidelines and manuals.
Mukuru Kwa Reuben was implemented by Validation of the WSUP qualitative study was led
Nairobi City Water & Sewerage Company by NCWSC and NMS, and has helped to move
(NCWSC), Nairobi Metropolitan Services (NMS) forward the enhancement of design
and WSUP in 2020-2021. Its target was to reach specifications, operations and maintenance,
100 plots (1,000 households with a population of planning for a return to paid services and
about 4,000 persons) through laying of 1,800 sharing of roles amongst key stakeholders. The
metres of simplified sewer service lines with 75 validation has yielded resolutions on the
inspection chambers. The pilot project also project’s next steps, including planned review of

9 Bakalian et al (1994).
10 Mara et al (2001).

WSUP Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor

18

Nairobi City County Sanitation Policy and Draft – The NCWSC sewer policy should be updated
Bill to incorporate SSS, capacity building of the to ensure future sewer expansion/extension,
NCWSC and NMS teams on O&M, and including a mandatory financing for last-mile
development of a monitoring and evaluation tool connectivity.
to be administered jointly by the stakeholders. At
national level, WSUP is using learnings from the The SSS pilot in Mukuru has been subject of
pilot to inform the basis for influencing review of two independent evaluations commissioned by
the policies, regulations, laws, building codes WSUP, with positive findings relating to
and NCWSC’s sewer policy and manual, so as sustainability, affordability, customer satisfaction
to provide a platform for scaling project in the and scalability. For a summary of key evaluation
city. findings, see WSUP (2022) “Are Simplified
Sewer Systems a viable option for informal
The key lessons learnt from the Mukuru pilot settlements in Kenya? Results of a pilot project
scheme are: in Mukuru, Nairobi”.

– In the pilot SSS project implemented along

Mosque Road, water and sanitation access,
reliability, affordability and quality have
significantly improved in comparison with
other areas/villages in the wider Mukuru
informal settlement with no SSS intervention.
– The SSS elements including shallow
trenches and manholes, and easy
maneuverability following existing footpaths,
offer a cheap technical solution to access of
waterborne offsite sanitation services in
densely populated areas which were
previously difficult to sewer without
displacement and interrupting livelihoods.
– Most structure owners and tenants consider
the overall costing for the SSS model to be
affordable compared to alternative forms of
sanitation, and were even willing to pay
higher rent for plots with toilets upgraded to
pour-flush standards.
– The strategy of directly working through
NCWSC with the structure owners and
continued sensitisation of users on
responsible use of the SSS continues to be
key to the sustainability of the project.
– There is need for NCWSC Partners and the
Government agencies to deliberate further
on future financing arrangements for trunk
sewer expansion to include a component of
construction of sewer laterals.

WSUP Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor

 19

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GHK Research and Training (2000) Strategic Planning for Municipal Sanitation. First Edition.
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WSUP Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor

Credits and acknowledgements

The WSUP project activities in Mukuru on which this Guide is based were funded by
The One Foundation. WSUP is grateful to the residents of Mukuru and our wider partners in
the Mukuru Integrated Development Plan: Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company
(NCWSC), Nairobi Metropolitan Services (NMS) and Akiba Mashinani Trust (AMT).
Evaluations of the SSS model in Mukuru were conducted by Armitech Consulting Engineers
and Maureen Musya.

Authors of this document: Eden Mati and Emanuel Owako.

Version 1: November 2022.

Design: Amit Patel.
Series editor: Sam Drabble.