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Received: 3 November 2020    Revised: 29 January 2021    Accepted: 16 February 2021

DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.15398

INVITED REVIEW

Flour made from fruit by-­products: Characteristics, processing

conditions, and applications

Ana Paula Q. Larrosa1 | Deborah M. Otero2

1
Departamento de Engenharia de Alimentos,
Centro de Tecnologia, Universidade Estadual Abstract
de Maringá, Maringá, Brazil The disposal of fruit and vegetable by-­products has drawn the attention of several
2
Departamento de Ciência de Alimentos,
sectors worldwide, not only due to the concern over environmental impacts but
Escola de Nutrição, Universidade Federal da
Bahia, Salvador, Brazil also due to high ratios of nutrients and bioactive compounds that are found in these
nonedible parts. These by-­products still have great technological potential, because
Correspondence
Ana Paula Q. Larrosa, Departamento they can be processed and transformed in cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, food, and
de Engenharia de Alimentos, Centro de
other products and biomaterial with high added value. The most common form of
Tecnologia, Campus Maringá, Universidade
Estadual de Maringá, Maringá 87020-­900, incorporating them into food is flour. Drying operations enable waste to keep higher
Brazil.
concentration of nutrients, less susceptibility to be attacked by microorganisms (due
Email: [email protected]
to low humidity), lower storage volumes, and longer shelf-­life. The process of trans-
forming residue into flours can be carried out by different equipment whose goal is
to remove moisture. Afterwards, dry products pass through mills to reduce particle
size. Then, standardization of granule size is recommended. In the conversion steps,
processing conditions are particularly important because they should not cause any
loss of nutrients, bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activity to the final product.
In view of the need to control production steps, this review aimed at compiling infor-
mation on the theme found in the literature and at highlighting existing gaps to show
the scientific community the importance of studying the factors that affect the qual-
ity of dehydrated final products.
Practical applications
The disposal of fruit by-­products attracts the attention of several segments, not only
due to the concern with environmental impacts worldwide but also due to the high
levels of nutrients and bioactive compounds that are still present in these inedible
parts that are not properly used. This review provides nutritional and technological
information on fruit residues and their potential for application in food. The most
common way of inserting these products in food matrices is through flour, but this
process is not just about removing moisture from the product, several factors need
to be studied and controlled aiming at the minimum of nutritional and technologi-
cal losses, reduction of antinutritional factors that may be present in the residues,
reduced development of microorganisms, and enzymatic activity, and for these rea-
sons, this review was constructed, to bring the main scientific findings in the litera-
ture that reports studies on these subjects to the scientific community.

J Food Process Preserv. 2021;00:e15398. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpp |

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1 |  I NTRO D U C TI O N on the theme found in the literature and at highlighting existing gaps
to show the scientific community the importance of studying the
Brazil is a reference country to fruit productivity and diversity, since factors that affect the quality of dehydrated final products.
it is considered the world's third largest producer. Its northern and
northeastern regions produce many native and exotic tropical fruit,
whereas the southern and southeastern ones stand out in the pro- 2 | DATA S O U RC E S A N D S E A RC H
duction of temperate and subtropical fruit. Half of the production S TR ATEG Y
has been processed to produce juice, nectar, frozen pulp, jelly, and
dehydrated and canned fruit (Siddiq et al., 2012). As a result, large A comprehensive review was conducted by systematically searching
amounts of waste (peel, bagasse, and seeds) are generated and nor- for all studies that developed an a priori OBS and were published
mally inappropriately discarded, thus, causing health and environ- by Science Direct, Scielo (Scientific Electronic Library Online) and
mental problems. Springer before July 2020. Subject headings related to OBSs (fruit
The use of fruit by-­products has been valued by several research- by-­products, fruit residue, and agro-­industrial products) and other
ers due to the discovery of their nutritional, bioactive, and antioxidant key terms (fruit by-­product drying, fruit by-­product flour, and by-­
characteristics; therefore, several applications can be given to them product bakery products) were considered.
(Coman et al. 2019; Da Silva, et al., 2020; Majerska et al., 2019). Fruit Exclusion criteria were papers that did not meet previously men-
by-­products, such as peels, seeds, and bagasse, usually contain more tioned inclusion criteria. A hundred twenty-­nine references that in-
bioactive compounds (flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and cluded data of interest were used for writing this review.
polyphenolic compounds) than edible portions, are sources of mac-
romolecules, such as proteins, lipids, and fibers (Aguedo et al., 2012;
Blanco Canalis et al., 2019; Chielle et al., 2016; Ejiofor et al., 2018; 3 | B R A Z I LI A N FRU IT BY- ­P RO D U C T S
de Oliveira Pineli et al., 2015), and have antioxidant and antimicrobial
properties (Can-­C auich et al., 2017; Guil-­Gerrero et al., 2016; Santos Fruit commercialization plays an important economic role in
& Aquino Santana, 2019; Singh et al., 2020). Brazil; 53% of its fruit production is sold in the fresh fruit market,
In order to reduce impacts caused to the environment by residue whereas around 47% is processed (Silva & Abud, 2017). The fruit
deposition and to make the most of their nutritional and bioactive industrialization sector represents basically juices, nectars, jams,
composition, research has aimed at new applications for these by-­ dry fruit, and frozen pulps. As a consequence of the growth of
products. In general, they are used as powder to fortify bakery prod- industries and increase in fruit production, large amounts of peels,
ucts, such as cakes (Chandras Das et al., 2019; Khalifa et al., 2016), seeds, and bagasse are generated (Figure 1) (Da Silva, et al., 2020).
bread (Chareonthaikij et al., 2016; Foste et al., 2020), snacks (Bender Because these materials have excellent nutritional, bioactive, and
et  al.,  2016), and biscuits with partial replacement of wheat flour antioxidant composition (Coman et  al.,  2019; Pérez-­C habela &
(Morais et al., 2017). Hernández-­A lcántara, 2018), they can be used efficiently and add
Depending on the temperature used in the drying stage of by-­ value to other products, rather than being discarded or used as
product processing, compounds may be degraded and inactivated. fertilizer. However, according to Domínguez et al. (2014), some by-­
Besides, phenolic compounds may undergo changes and decrease products can neither be used as fertilizers nor as animal feed due
their nutritional activity. Therefore, it is important to evaluate resi- to the concentration of polyphenols, which give a bitter taste and
due composition to choose the process that preserves compounds may be toxic at high ratios.
of interest with no damage to health. Several drying techniques can Consumers have become increasingly interested in maintaining
be used to increase useful life of the biological material and avoid a healthy diet and lifestyle, a fact that increases the demand and
both nutrient degradation and microbiological contamination (Leão consumption of natural food with nutritional properties (O’Shea
et al. 2017; Soquetta et al., 2016). In addition, dry by-­products need et  al.,  2012). In this regard, use and processing of by-­products
to be ground and have their grain size standardized either to be in- have received more attention due to their bioactive compounds
corporated into food formulations or to make extraction of com- and potential application as functional ingredients (Ayala-­Zavala
pounds of interest easier. et al., 2011). Thus, implementation of processing techniques for the
Incorporation of flours made from fruit by-­products into food can use of these biomaterial helps to address nutritional issues world-
lead to positive or negative structural changes in bakery products wide, develop the economic environment, and preserve a healthy
by comparison with the formulation made from wheat flour. Thus, lifestyle (Routray & Orsat, 2017).
it is necessary to evaluate sensory, nutritional, and technological In general, by-­products compose around 25%–­4 0% of the total
properties of products developed with flours made from fruit waste amount of processed fruit (Bhushan et  al.,  2008). According to
(Blanco Canalis et al., 2019; Crizel et al., 2013; Föste et al., 2020) to Coman et al. (2019), the inedible part constitutes different ratios de-
make adjustments. In view of the potential shown by flours made pending on the source and type of processing: banana (35%), pine-
from fruit by-­products and little information on care that must be apple (46%), grapefruit (30%), citrus (25%–­35%), apple (12%), and
taken in their production, this review aimed at compiling information watermelon (48%). However, values vary greatly in relation to the
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F I G U R E 1   Main products generated in

fruit processing

type of product to be processed, fruit variety, cultivar, size, and stage processed and to study how they can be reduced to nontoxigenic
of ripeness. concentrations for human consumption.
Regarding their major nutritional compounds, studies have re-
ported that fruit by-­products are rich in total fiber content whose
insoluble fraction is higher than the soluble one. Fruit peel by-­ 4 | D RY I N G A S A PR E S E RVATI O N
products have a high content of dietary fiber, whereas seed or kernel TEC H N I Q U E FO R FRU IT BY- ­P RO D U C T S
ones exhibit high contents of lipid, protein, and starch. These differ-
ences are explained by the fact that peel is a protection that usually The analysis of the nutritional composition of fruit by-­products and
has a more rigid structure. On the other hand, seeds may have high the search for a way to ensure better preservation, because they
lipid and starch content because they are plant substrates that are have high moisture content (60%–­8 0% wet basis), aim at incorporat-
responsible for the development of the fruit. ing them into the human diet as functional compounds. Thus, the
Besides potential nutrients found in fruit by-­products, there drying operation is a well-­known alternative to obtain dry products
are also other compounds that have drawn attention as the result with long shelf-­life. It enables product diversification, storage for
of their bioavailability when they are consumed. Phytate, tannins, long periods without refrigeration, significant reduction in loss in
oxalate, saponins, and nitrates, which are antinutrients found in fruit harvest periods, and decrease in treatment costs of resulting waste
and vegetables, interfere in the absorption of nutrients, such as min- (Da Silva, et al., 2020).
erals, inhibit digestive enzymes, precipitate proteins, and may cause Functional flours may be obtained by drying processes carried
irritation of intestinal lining if high content is consumed regularly out by appropriate equipment and previously known and optimized
(Silva, et al., 2020). There is little information about detailed analy- operational conditions. Despite being an old and common food
ses of antinutrients in fruit by-­products in the literature. However, preservation technique, dehydration and its mechanisms, besides
some studies have determined and quantified certain compounds, its effects on food, are not well-­known. Evaporation of water from
which have been found at different concentrations in varieties under food at high temperatures, for example, involves complex chemical,
analysis. Melon seeds of two varieties exhibited 18.6–­19.2  mg/g physical, and biological modifications, which may occur simultane-
of phytate, 1.4–­2.1  mg/g of oxalate, 3.5–­6.8  mg/g of saponin, ously and make it difficult to predict its effect on food (Da Silva,
and low content of tannins (0.007  mg/g) (Ibukun & Anyasi,  2013), et  al.,  2020). However, not all companies that invest in this line of
whereas watermelon seeds of three varieties (Sugar baby, Crimson functional flour processing acknowledge the importance of evaluat-
sweet, and Kaolack) showed, on average, 0.27 g 100 g−1 of phytate, ing its effect on physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
0.46 g 100 g−1 of oxalate, and 5.06–­6.45 g 100 g−1 of tannin (Addo the final product (Figure 2).
et al., 2018). Both studies found that the fermentation process—­that The selection of a particular method of by-­product drying de-
was applied after melon seeds had been boiled—­led to good results, pends upon its energy cost, change in nutritional profile, sensory
that is, it reduced antinutrients that had been detected. In the study characteristics, composition of bioactive compounds, and intended
developed by Addo et al. (2018), both the wet thermal process with purpose (Bhushan et  al.,  2008). For instance, if flour made from a
subsequent drying and the dry thermal process (oven) were effec- certain by-­product is expected to have high contents of vitamins
tive in reducing antinutritional factors. According to Ayala-­Zavala and antioxidant compounds, the study of different temperatures can
et  al.  (2011) and Ibukun and Anyasi (2013), in addition to a heat help to define the operational condition that may mitigate their loss,
treatment and fermentation of by-­products and other plant-­based because they are thermosensitive.
food, either acidic or alkaline hydrolysis, can be used to inactivate Table 1 shows drying processes applied to different by-­products
or reduce concentrations of antinutrients to ratios that are accept- under analysis and their most relevant studies.
able and safe for consumption. Therefore, it is extremely necessary Table  1 shows that several fruit by-­products are usually dried
to detect and estimate antinutrients found in by-­products to be in an oven or tray dryer, a convective drying process, followed by
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F I G U R E 2   Different compounds of interest found in by-­products

freeze drying, vacuum drying, and sun drying. The selection of the 4.1 | Pretreatment of by-­products
best equipment depends on the structure (rigid, pasty, fragile, and
sensitive), initial moisture content, and economic conditions. In the To understand the effect of drying processes on fruit by-­products
literature, the freeze-­drying operation is a good alternative when and choose the best operational conditions, firstly, the pretreat-
bioactive antioxidant compounds and sensory attributes are very ment used before the drying process must be evaluated. Table 1
important to be considered. However, high costs due to long drying shows that some studies mention pretreatments used on some fruit
periods hinder the process of producing functional flour for some seeds and peels. Chandras Das et  al.  (2019) used boiling water on
small producers and employers. In addition, antinutrients found in mango kernel for 15 min. Nagel et al. (2014) pretreated mango peel
these nonconventional foods may not be reduced by the drying in hot-­water blanching for 1–­5 min, followed by cold-­water chilling
process, even if lyophilization had lower loss of thermolabile com- at 4°C–­8°C and ended drying on a fluidized-­bed dryer at different
pounds as the result of low air temperature. temperatures. Coelho et  al.  (2017) macerated passion fruit peel in
Vacuum drying is also an expensive operation, by compari- water for 12 hr. Rebello et al. (2014) bleached banana peels at 95°C
son with conventional drying techniques, due to high production for 5 min to inactivate endogenous enzymes before subjecting them
costs, high energy consumption, and long drying periods at low to drying. Kaderides et al. (2020) kept orange pomace in water at
temperatures. Sun drying depends on climate conditions and also 90°C for 20 min before drying.
needs long periods to reach adequate moisture content to preser- Pretreatments of by-­products can be used before the drying
vation; thus, tray drying may still be better. At an industrial ratio, process, be it maceration or a thermal treatment, in order to inac-
the process to obtain adequate flour made from by-­p roducts may tivate enzymes or induce reduction in antinutrients. Because these
be expanded to scale by using tunnel dryers or fluidized beds. dry products can be used as bakery functional ingredients or food
Mobile beds, such as spouted bed, fluidized bed, and rotary dry- supplements in the human diet, inactivation of the inconvenient
ers, may still be good alternatives to dry by-­p roducts due to the compound may be necessary.
high drying rate and use of less time at adequate final moisture A few studies have identified and quantified antinutrients in fruit
content. According to Menon et al. (2020), hybrid drying systems peel and seed. This analysis is very important because by-­products
have been studied and may be promising to dry food and fruit by-­ are usually used in the human diet. Therefore, flour made from fruit
products due to their multiple modes of heat transfer that enable by-­products can be safely used as an alternative functional ingredi-
the use of more than one drying technology to increase drying rate ent in bakery food or supplement in juices and yogurts, for exam-
at high energy efficiency. ple, but they must not be found at harmful and/or toxic amounts
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TA B L E 1   Fruit by-­products dried by different techniques and operational conditions

Fruit by-­product Variety/Cultivar Drying method and condition Reference

Mango peel Tommy Atkins Freeze drying (−20°C, condenser temperate −55°C Sogi et al. (2013)
0.03 torr chamber vacuum)
Hot air drying (60°C constant air circulation)
Vacuum drying (60°C 500 mmHg)
Infrared drying (40-­W IR bulbs)
5 mm
Mangifera indica L. Convective oven 60°C 24 hr Ramírez-­Maganda et al. (2015)
a
  Tray dryer at 50°C for 18 hr using a cross flow Ajila et al. (2008)
M. indica L. Fluidized-­bed at 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C Nagel et al. (2014)
Mango seed Tommy Atkins Freeze drying (−20°C, 55°C 0.03 torr chamber vacuum) Sogi et al. (2013)
Hot air drying (60°C constant air circulation)
Vacuum drying (60°C 500 mmHg)
Infrared drying (40-­W IR bulbs)
5 mm
a
  Oven air drying at 60°C for 6 hr Yatnatti et al. (2014)
Mango kernel Baishakhi Cabinet dryer 60°C–­65°C for 15–­16 hr Chandras Das et al. (2019)
M. indica L. Oven air drying at 50°C for 4 hr Yatnatti et al. (2014)
Melon rind Cucumis melo L. Oven drying at 80°C for 24 hr Raji et al. (2017)
C. melo Oven drying at 60°C for 48 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr
(C. melo L.), maazoun cultivar Oven drying at 40°C for 24 hr Mallek-­Ayadi et al. (2017)
(C. melo L.) Sun drying—­0.5-­cm slices Ertas and Aslan (2020)
Melon seed Cataloupe (C. melo L. var. reticulatus) Oven ventilated drying at 80°C for 24 hr Da Cunha et al. (2020)
(C. melo L.) Sun drying Ertas and Aslan (2020)
(Citrullus vulgaris) Oven drying at 50°C for 24 hr Akusu and Kiin-­Kabari (2015)
(Momordica charantia) Tray dryer at 40°C Horax et al. (2011)
Papaya seed Carica papaya L. Oven drying at 45°C Devi and Khanam (2019)
Havai and Calimosa Tray drying at 45°C for 4 days Santos et al. (2014)
C. papaya L. Spouted-­bed drying 40°C–­100°C with 9.24, 9.75, Chielle et al. (2016)
10.50, and 11.76 m/s of flow air, for 0.5, 1.21, 2.25,
3.29, and 4.0 hr
C. papaya L. Convective air-­drying at 40°C–­100°C, air velocity Chielle et al. (2016)
(1–­3 m/s)
Papaya peel Havai and Calimosa Tray drying at 45°C for 4 days Santos et al. (2014)
C. papaya Oven drying at 60°C for 48 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr
C. papaya L. Formosa Oven drying at 70°C for 6 hr Sabino et al. (2015)
C. papaya L. Tray dryer at 60°C for 24 hr Bokaria and Ray (2016)
Watermelon rind Citrullus lanatus Oven drying at 60°C for 48 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr
C. lanatus var. lanatus Cabinet dryer at 55, 60, and 65°C, 0.6 m/s velocity of Hoque and Iqbal (2015)
air and 8 mm
C. lanatus Hot air oven at 60°C Naknaen et al. (2016)
C. lanatus Ventilated dryer at 50°C for 24 hr Ho and Dahri (2016)
Watermelon seed C. lanatus Sun drying at 34°C for 3 days Akusu and Kiin-­Kabari (2015)
Preboiled for 5 min
C. vulgaris Sun drying at 30°C for 7 days El-­Adawy and Taha (2001)
Sugar baby and Mateera Hot air drying at 40°C Wani et al. (2015)
a
  Oven drying at 45°C for 1 hr Ifesan and Embosele (2017)

(Continues)
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TA B L E 1   (Continued)

Fruit by-­product Variety/Cultivar Drying method and condition Reference

Passion fruit peel Passiflora edulis Oven drying at 60°C for 48 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr
P. edulis Sims edulis (passion fruit), Freeze drying Domínguez-­Rodríguez
P. ligularis Juss (granadilla) and et al. (2019)
Passiflora tripartite var. mollissima
(banana passion fruit), P. edulis Sims
flavicarpa (yellow passion fruit)
Passiflora Air circulation oven drying at 50°C Coelho et al. (2017)
Passion fruit residue P. edulis f. flavicarpa Freeze-­drying − 55°C in 6, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 72, and Silva et al. (2016)
120 hr
Passion fruit seed Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa Sun drying for 6 hr Silva et al. (2015)
Pineapple peel Perola (Ananas comosus L. Merrill) Air circulation drying at 65°C for 17 hr Damasceno et al. (2016)
A. comosus Oven drying at 60°C for 48 hr Morais et al. (2017
Freeze drying for 24 hr
Perola (A. comosus L.) Oven drying at 70°C for 8 hr Sabino et al. (2015)
Pineapple residue A. comosus Merr Oven drying at 50°C air circulation for 48 hr Campos et al. (2020)
Apple pomace Golden delicious Vacuum oven at 75°C and 0.1 MPa Alongi et al. (2019)
Fuji Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Coelho and Wosiacki (2010)
a
  Forced air drying at 40°C Jung et al. (2015)
Impingement drying at 110°C
Freeze-­drying at − 55°C with absolute pressure of
17.33 Pa
Grape pomace Isabel and Bordô Forced-­air circulation oven at 85°C for 6 hr Oliveira et al. (2013)
Vitis vinifera L. Variety Benitaka Air circulation oven at 60°C for 16 hr Sousa et al. (2014)
Pinot Noir and Merlot Forced air-­oven at 40°C for 48h Tseng and Zhao (2012)
Vacuum oven at 40°C (27-­Pa vacuum) for 48 hr
Air drying at 25°C (room temperature) for 72 hr
Freeze drying at −55°C and vacuum of 17.33 Pa for 60 hr
Hamburg Muscat Heat pump drying at 45°C in air velocity (1.5, 2.0, and Taseri et al. (2018)
2.5 m/s)
Grape skin Marselan (Vitis vinifera) Forced air oven at 55°C for 24 hr Bender et al. (2016)
Kalecik Karasi cultivar Sun drying to water activity 0.5 Altınok et al. (2020)
Grape seed Pinot Noir and Merlot Forced air-­oven at 40°C for 48 hr Tseng and Zhao (2012)
Vacuum oven at 40°C (27-­Pa vacuum) for 48 hr
Air drying at 25°C (room temperature) for 72 hr
Freeze drying at −55°C and vacuum of 17.33 Pa for 60 hr
Guava residue (Psidium guajava L. cv. Pedro Sato Oven drying at 55°C for 10 hr Lima et al. (2019)
(P. guajava L) Egyptian Oven drying at 40°C–­50°C for 12 hr Khalifa et al. (2016)
Guava peel P. guajava L. var. Paluma Oven drying at 55°C for 72 hr Bertagnolli et al. (2014)
Guava peel and seed P. guajava L. Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Sancho et al. (2015)
Avocado peel Hass Oven drying at 85°C for 24 hr Fig ueroa et al. (2018a)
Persea americana Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Rotta et al. (2016)
P. americana Mill. Convective air-­drying at 45°C, 60°C, and 75°C; 0.8, Saavedra et al. (2017)
1.2, and 1.8 m/s of air flow velocities; load densities
1, 2, and 3 kg/m2
5 × 3 cm with 2-­cm thickness
P. americana Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr

(Continues)
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TA B L E 1   (Continued)

Fruit by-­product Variety/Cultivar Drying method and condition Reference

Avocado seed P. americana Mill cv. Hass Oven drying at 60°C Barbosa-­Martín et al. (2016)
P. americana Mill. Convective air-­drying at 45°C, 60°C, and 75°C; 0.8, Saavedra et al. (2017)
1.2, and 1.8 m/s of air flow velocities; load densities
1, 2, and 3 kg/m2
Slices of 5-­mm thickness
P. americana Oven drying at 50°C until constant weight Ejiofor et al. (2018)
P. americana Oven drying at 85°C for 24 hr Fig ueroa et al. (2018b)
Peach peel Prunus persica L. Tray dryer at 60°C for 24 hr Rodríguez-­González
et al. (2018)
a
Peach pomace   Infrared drying at 60°C, 70°C, and 80°C with air flow Zhou et al. (2019)
at 2.5 m/s, 1 cm of thickness
P. pérsica Oven drying at 50°C for 17–­18 hr Singh and Kulshrestha, (2016)
Peach kernel P.  pérsica—­Chiripá and Agata varieties 2 mm diameter particle Pelentir et al. (2011
Air forced oven drying at 45°C, 55°C, and 65°C
Banana peel Musa sapietum L Oven drying at 55°C for 24–­36 hr Olaoye et al. (2019)
Musa sp. Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Morais et al. (2017)
Freeze drying for 24 hr
Musa AA, Cavendish type Tray drying at 55°C until constant weight Rebello et al. (2014)
Pieces of 5 cm2
Kachkal (Musa ABB) Convective tray drying at 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, and 70°C Khawas et al. (2014
with 4-­mm thickness
Kiwifruit bagasse Bruno and Monty Oven drying at 35°C for 72 hr Soquetta et al. (2016)
and peel Actinidia Freeze-­drying with 0.45-­mm size Wang et al. (2018)
Orange peel Citrus sinensis Tray dryer at 60°C for 4 hr Crizel et al. (2013)
C. cinensis (Linn Osbeck) Freeze-­drying for 17 hr Benjamin et al. (2007)
Orange pomace Citrus aurantium v. Canoneta Hot air drier pilot-­scale at 30°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, Garau et al. (2007)
70°C, 80°C, and 90°C with 2 m/s of air flow rate
C. sinensis Oven drying at 60°C Kaderides et al. (2020)
a
  Oven at 50 ± 5°C for 24 hr Fernández-­López et al. (2009)
C. sinensis Tray dryer at 60°C for 4 hr Crizel et al. (2013)
Orange seed C. sinensis Tray dryer at 60°C for 4 hr Crizel et al. (2013)
Lemon bagasse Eureka Oven air drying at 50°C–­75°C M'hiri et al. (2018)
Infrared drying (50°C–­75°C)
Microwave drying (90, 160, and 350 W)
Combined air-­microwave (90 W/50°C and 90 W/75°C
Acerola bagasse Malpighia emarginata Convective oven at 50°C, 75°C, and 100°C Da Silva, et al. (2020)a 
M. punicifolia L. Cabinet dryer with forced air circulation at 55°C, 70°C, Abud and Narain (2018)
and 85°C until constant weight
(M. emarginata D.C.) Rotary dryer was performed at 70.6°C, 80°C, 115°C, Silva et al. (2019)
150°C, and 159.3°C; air velocity of 1.3, 1.50, 2.25,
3.0, and 3.3 m/s
(M. emarginata D.C.) Freeze-­drying (no details are given) Marques et al. (2013
Acerola seed (M. emarginata D.C.) Oven drying at 45°C for 24 hr Marques et al. (2013
Acerola peel and (M. glabra L.) Oven drying at 60°C for 24 hr Sancho et al. (2015
seed
Pomegranate peel Wonderful variety Oven drying at 40°C for 48 hr Kaderides et al. (2020)
a
Indicates that information is not given.
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for consumption. In addition to the determination of antinutrients, (2020), in the drying process, heat and mass transfer phenomena
it is important to know the legislation and limits so as to assist the that occur both externally and internally to the food matrix are usu-
optimization of the process that produces functional flours, with ally influenced by these parameters. Some studies of dry fruit by-­
the use of pretreatments and suitable drying conditions. Addo products or by-­products were used by this review to carry out a
et al. (2018) found that different processing techniques affected the study of operational conditions and/or comparison among different
ratios of antinutrients (oxalate, phytate, and tannins) of watermelon equipment. As a result, the following studies of by-­products were
seeds. Boiling-­oven drying (100°C for 10 min and drying at 50°C for found: acerola (Abud & Narain, 2018; Silva et al., 2019), lemon ba-
12 hr) decreased around 92%–­96% oxalate, 58%–­76% phytate, and gasse (M'hiri et  al.,  2018), orange pomace (Garau et al., 2007), ba-
15%–­35% tannins, whereas 49%–­6 4% oxalate, 73%–­82% phytate, nana peel (Khawas et al., 2014; Morais et al., 2017), peach pomace
and 23%–­38% tannins decreased in roasting process (160°C for residue (Pelentir et  al.,  2011; Zhou et  al.,  2019), avocado residue
30 min). Different behaviors of antinutrient ratios were likely due (Saavedra et  al.,  2017), grape residue (Taseri et  al.,  2018; Tseng &
to the chemical structure, thermal sensibility at high temperatures, Zhao, 2012), apple pomace (Jung et al., 2015), passion fruit residue
time exposure to wet or dry thermal processing, and water solubility. (Silva et al., 2017), watermelon rind (Hoque & Iqbal, 2015), papaya
According to the authors, the wet thermal process may leach out seed (Chielle et al., 2016, and mango residue (Nagel et al., 2014; Sogi
antinutrients from the seeds, which are water soluble compounds, a et al., 2013).
fact that may explain the high reduction in oxalate ratios. Comparison between fresh samples and dry ones regarding
According to Egbuonu (2015), the phytate content in the seed changes in chemical composition of fruit by-­products was made.
is usually higher than the one found in the peel. Oxalate, phytate, Abud and Narain (2018) observed that drying temperatures above
and tannin values of avocado seed powder were analyzed by Ejiofor 55°C reduced the amount of total reducing sugars (TRS) in acerola
et al. (2018), and low ratios, below the lethal doses of these phyto- residue. According to these authors, decrease in TRS corroborates
chemicals, were found. Marques et al. (2013) evaluated antinutrients nonenzymatic degradation and confirms browning as the result of
in flours made from acerola waste, and no potentially toxic com- residue heating and increase in acidity, which usually occurs due
pounds were observed in relation to oxalic acid, trypsin inhibitors, to degradation products of monosaccharides. Concerning the fiber
phytate, nitrate, and saponins. Oxalic acid and nitrates were evalu- content, it did not show much variation, although the higher the tem-
ated in lychee residue (peel and seed) flour by Queiroz et al. (2015), perature, the more pectin increased.
and only nitrate was detected at higher values in peel than in seed; Major loss of cell wall sugars in two types of orange by-­products
no significant difference is shown between fresh samples. These re- was detected by Garau et al. (2007) when drying procedures were
sults mean that nitrate was not affected by drying at 45°C in a drying carried out at high temperature (90°C). However, drying at low
oven. Another observation related to this study is that residue had temperature (30°C), which requires longer periods of sample expo-
higher nitrate values than pulp samples. It shows the importance of sure to the heat, also promoted important loss of pectic polymers.
evaluating their antinutritional capacity and the effect of the drying According to these authors, pectic substances are a predominant
process before and after drying. type of polysaccharide identified in cell walls of orange by-­products.
Choosing the method to be used as a pretreatment depends on Thus, the loss observed in cell wall sugars may result from low
the type of by-­product, concentrations of organic compounds and amounts of recovered uronic acids and of other sugars, such as arab-
the type of product to be developed from the raw material. If antinu- inose and galactose units. Samples of orange peel dried at 50°C,
trients or concentrations are found at safe ratios for health, pretreat- 60°C, and 70°C did not exhibit significant differences in the cell wall
ments may be excluded. However, if concentrations are high, it is composition and were similar to fresh samples.
essential to study a good way to inactivate and/or decrease them by These studies show that air drying temperature may affect nu-
more convenient processes. In flour processing, in which residue is tritional composition of fruit by-­products. High intensity depends
dehydrated, heating in hot water can be more effective and practical on the type of by-­product and its sensitive nutrients, such as pec-
than chemical or even fermentative methods. tin and monosaccharides. Pectic substances are more susceptible to
enzyme or heat induced chemical degradation than other polysac-
charide components of the cell wall (Levi et al., 1988). Therefore, in
4.2 | Effect of drying operational conditions on order to obtain high concentrations of pectin and other nutrients of
chemical composition of fruit by-­products interest from peel, bagasse or other types of fruit residue, attention
should be given to the study of operational conditions that provide
After the analysis of pretreatments applied to by-­products, selec- the lowest degradation possible, for later use or application to food.
tion of the equipment and optimal operational conditions of the The general chemical characterization of dried and milled by-­
dryer must be carried out in order to obtain flour or powder by-­ products to produce a functional ingredient, such as flour in bakery
products. Air temperature, air velocity, material load density, and products, has shown that they are rich sources of carbohydrates,
material thickness are important parameters; their effects on chemi- dietary fiber, and ash. Variations in these compounds depend on
cal composition, bioactive compounds, and physical and functional the final moisture content resulting from the drying process. Hoque
properties of by-­products have to be studied. According to Sabarez and Iqbal (2015) analyzed the chemical composition of watermelon
LARROSA and OTERO |
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rind flour and found 10.72% moisture, 11.21% protein, 73.18% car- grape pomace are sensitive to heat and can be easily oxidized when
bohydrates, 12.61% ash, and 2.38% fat. Ajila et al., 2008) analyzed subjected to high temperature, whereas freeze-­drying at low tem-
mango peel flour and showed high carbohydrate content; 51.2% perature and vacuum conditions helped retain bioactive compounds,
corresponded to total dietary fiber (19% soluble fraction and 32.1% mainly polyphenolics. Sogi et al. (2013) reported that freeze-­drying
insoluble fraction). Low protein (3.6 g 100 g−1 of dry sample) and fat applied to mango peel and seed showed to be a good technique to
−1
(2.2  g  100g of dry sample) contents were also reported. Santos preserve carotenoids and phenolic compounds due to the short pe-
et al. (2014) evaluated papaya peel and seed flour—­dried at 45°C in riod at low temperature conditions, as expected.
an oven—­made from two cultivars and found different values. Peel Although freeze-­drying had excellent results in terms of bio-
had higher moisture content (13.3%) than seed (5.3%). Ash and total active compounds, other drying techniques also showed good re-
fiber contents were 70% and 276%, respectively, that is, they were sults. Every bioactive compound may exhibit different behavior,
higher than the ones of seed flour. depending on the temperature and the type of by-­p roduct. Sogi
Studies found by this review reported that protein and lipid et al. (2013) observed different behavior of bioactive compounds
contents of fruit peel are usually low, around 3%–­6% and 2%, re- in mango by-­p roducts in a study that aimed at comparing drying
spectively. However, higher contents were found in fruit seed: techniques and freeze-­drying. Results showed that high values of
15.6% proteins and 10.2% fat in avocado seed powder (Ejiofor ascorbic acid were found in cabinet drying applied to mango peel
et  al.,  2018); 8% protein and 10.2% fat in mango kernel flour and vacuum drying applied to mango kernel at the same tempera-
(Chandras Das et al., 2019); 28.6% protein and 29.7% fat in papaya ture (60°C). In relation to antioxidant properties of mango residue,
seed flour (Santos et al., 2014); and 17.6% protein and 30.4% lipid this study reported decrease in the antioxidant capacity when
in melon seed flour (Da Cunha et al., 2020). Thus, it may be con- high temperatures were used in drying techniques. Drying meth-
cluded that seed is a rich source of protein and fat; their contents ods that use heat have significant effect on carotenoid degrada-
differ in flours, depending on the moisture content of the flour of tion because it is thermally labile, unstable at low water activity,
the cultivar under analysis. and susceptible to enzymatic degradation. The study shows that
Another especially important parameter of dry products is the cabinet dryer at 60°C may be used in order to retain bioactive
moisture content. The drying process should reach a low mois- compounds when freeze-­drying is not used.
ture content that is capable of preserving them for long periods of Drying conditions carried out by M'hiri et  al.  (2018) led to de-
time. Bertagnolli et al. (2014) obtained a moisture content in guava crease in total phenolic and flavonoid compounds of a lemon by-­
peel flour of 7.9 g 100 g–­1, and Ajila et al. (2008) reported 10.5% product, by comparison with the fresh one. Convective drying at
(g  100  g−1) moisture content in mango peel flour, in compliance 75°C and combined air-­microwave drying (90  W/75°C) showed
with the legislation (i.e., maximum of 15  g  100  g–­1 [m/m] mois- minor loss of total phenolic compounds (TPC) (39%–­41%) and total
ture in flour) issued by the Brazilian National Health Surveillance flavonoids (30%–­35%). Results show that drying at high tempera-
Agency (Brasil,  2005). It is worth highlighting that final moisture ture and short periods of time was the best option to dry the lemon
contents of fruit by-­p roducts—­after being subjected to a dry- by-­products; convective drying took 57 min, whereas combined air-­
ing process—­d epend on operational conditions of air drying and microwave drying took 61 min. The authors also reported that dry-
characteristics of the material. Thus, in addition to evaluating the ing at low temperature (50°C), in the cases of convective, infrared
effect of drying conditions on the nutritional composition of dry and combined microwave-­air drying, and at low microwave power
products, low moisture contents must be achieved so that they (90  W) led to decrease in phenolic compounds, from about 53%
can better preserved. (infrared drying) to 66% (convective drying) because of long expo-
sure to drying, which can destroy some of target compounds of the
by-­product. These results also showed that a drying process at high
4.3 | Effect of drying operational conditions on temperature and a short period of time allows preservation of radi-
bioactive compounds of fruit by-­products cal scavenging activity, whereas drying at low temperatures and long
periods of time led to decrease in radical scavenging activity as the
Concerning bioactive compounds, studies found by this review re- result of the degradation of antioxidant compounds, such as phenols
ported that drying operational conditions may affect them positively and vitamin C.
or negatively. Freeze-­drying applied by Silva et al. (2017) to passion Sogi et al. (2013) observed that mango peel and mango seed need
fruit residue showed increase in total phenolic and flavonoid con- different periods of time in their drying processes. Freeze-­drying
tents after dehydration, by comparison with fresh residue, whereas took 11 and 17 hr to dry peel and seed, respectively; vacuum-­drying
the citric acid content decreased, a fact that shows its degradation needed 7 and 13  hr to dry peel and seed, respectively; cabinet-­
in the process. Tseng and Zhao (2012) observed that freeze-­drying drying needed 4 and 8  hr to dry peel and seed, respectively; and
retained higher values of bioactive compounds and antioxidant infrared-­drying took 2 and 3.5 hr to dry peel and seed, respectively.
activity in all samples of wine grape pomace and skin than other Therefore, peel drying may not need the same condition needed to
drying techniques (oven drying, room temperature, and vacuum dry seed. This difference should be explained by the chemical com-
drying). According to these authors, bioactive compounds in wine position and structure of wall cells. Saavedra et  al.  (2017) studied
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a convective drying process using different temperatures, air-­flow, Taseri et  al.  (2018) investigated physicochemical and bioactive
and load density and also reported different periods of time needed properties of dry samples of grape pomace with the use of a pump
to dry avocado by-­products. Drying times for avocado peel (250–­ dryer at 45°C at different air velocities (1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 m/s). The
350 min) were found to be shorter than those needed for avocado lower air velocity led to long drying times, such as 1,040  min, fol-
seed (500–­700  min) until the product reached constant weight. lowed by 840 and 720  min in other conditions until the moisture
Avocado peel adapted the drying conditions fast. Seeds were dried content reached 0.1 g water g−1 dry matter (dry basis). Results
in 5-­mm slices, on average, whereas avocado peel was dried in showed that air velocity of 2 m/s reached the highest values of total
sheets of 5 × 3 cm with 2 mm in thickness, on average. Therefore, phenolic content and tannins in grape pomace. The highest air ve-
time differences observed by both studies may be associated with locity (2.5  m/s) showed low values of bioactive compounds, such
migration of water molecules in the drying process. According to as phenolic compounds, tannins, catechin, and epicatechin, which
Cummings and Schroeder (1947), thick-­skinned avocado has large were statistically significant (p < .05). Total anthocyanin content is
numbers of lignified cells that are partially responsible for the brit- the least affected property by drying applications. In this study, ap-
tle texture while seeds contain several layers of cells with irregular plication of 2 m/s to the pomace grape drying process with the heat
shape and heavy lignified walls that reinforce the structure. Thus, pump method at 45°C was found to get better results than other
water migration in the drying process of avocados is more restricted applications in terms of bioactive properties of samples.
to seed than to peel. Sogi et al. (2013) dried mango peel and seed Silva et  al.  (2019) investigated the roto-­aerated dryer to dry
at the same thickness (5 mm) and found that size was not responsi- acerola residue and showed lower degradation of ascorbic and cit-
ble for the difference in time observed in the drying experiments. In ric acids at high temperature (150°C) and air velocity (3  m/s), due
this case, the composition of nutrients may have affected the period to low residence time and few drying stages. At 150°C and 3 m/s,
needed for mango seeds to dry, due to their high lipid content. three stages were needed to reduce the moisture content to 6.7%
Garau et  al.  (2007) observed that longer drying periods at (dry basis) in 17.4 min, whereas 115°C with 2.25 m/s and 80°C with
lower drying air temperatures were required by orange, whereas 1.5 m/s needed four and five stages to reach 8.8 and 19.2 min, re-
higher temperatures needed shorter drying times. For example, spectively. Thus, the longest exposure time led to the lowest con-
at 30°C, about 8.3  hr were needed to reach moisture content of tent of bioactive compounds. However, mild conditions (80°C and
0.12 g water g−1 (dry matter) in both peel and pulp orange samples, 1.5 m/s) showed higher retention of phenolic compounds than high
whereas the same water content was reached in 1.75 and 2.5 hr by temperatures (115°C and 150°C), whereas longer exposure time to
peel and pulp samples, respectively, with air-­drying temperature of hot air was better for acerola residue. Flavonoid content was lower
70°C. Peel samples exhibited significant higher values (p  < .01) of after drying than the one of the fresh residues. However, this com-
antioxidant activity than pulp samples within the whole range of pound showed more stability than the others because increase in
temperatures under study. The highest antioxidant capacity of peel the number of stages and residence time was not significant.
and pulp was found at 60°C. Drying at high temperatures (80°C and Apple pomace was dried by forced air at 40°C, impingement dry-
90°C) or at temperatures that implied longer drying times (30°C and ing (ID) at 110°C and freeze drying at −55°C, in agreement with a
40°C) promoted decrease in antioxidant capacity. Results showed study carried out by Jung et al. (2015). ID uses high velocity streams
that the most appropriate drying temperature to preserve antioxi- of hot air across the heating element and is a novel alternative to
dant capacity of both by-­products was around 60°C, suggesting that flash dryers for high-­moisture particulate material. ID had a much
antioxidant compounds of peel samples are more resistant to heat faster drying rate than the one of forced-­air drying. TPC of samples
degradation. subjected to ID were significantly higher than the ones of samples
Results of Hass avocado peel and seed showed higher pheno- subjected to forced-­air drying and freeze drying. They were 58%
lic content and antioxidant capacity than all non-­Hass avocado higher than that of fresh pomace, 110% higher than the one of sam-
cultivars; their high antioxidant ratios may be explained by their con- ples subjected to forced-­air drying, and 83% higher than the one of
centrations of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. This study was freeze-­dried samples. Antioxidant activity in apple pomace samples
reported by Saavedra et al. (2017) who stated that air flow and tem- subjected to ID and freeze-­drying did not differ significantly from
perature represented the greatest effects on TPC and antioxidant the one found in fresh pomace. Thus, ID helped retain the high
capacity of seeds and peels. Load density gave no significant contri- amount of TPC and AA, by comparison with methods of forced-­air
bution to antioxidant activity in the drying process. Process optimi- and freeze-­drying.
2
zation showed 72.71°C, 0.8 m/s of air flow and 1.77 kg/m of load Every type of by-­product derived from fruit has a specific dry-
density in the case of peel, whereas for seeds, they were 65.52°C, ing condition that provides better yields of the dry product and less
1.39 m/s, and 2.89 kg/m2. Retention values of phenolic content and degradation of antioxidant compounds. For some by-­products, high
antioxidant activity were 87.3% and 60.73%, respectively, in peel, temperature is the best condition, whereas for other by-­products,
by comparison with fresh raw matter. In seed, retention values were long periods of time at low air temperature may retain more bioactive
64.85% and 89.92%, respectively. Avocado peel was also found to compounds. According to Saavedra et  al.  (2017), moisture content
have higher phenolic compounds than its seeds; however, antioxi- can accelerate degradation of phenolic compounds when it is still
dant activity was lower. high enough to enable reactions whose water-­soluble compounds
LARROSA and OTERO |
      11 of 22

may catalyze the decomposition process. Phenolic compounds are WHC is the property that explains physical interaction of water
retained by the matrix cell and may maintain or establish new kinds absorption and chemical interaction of water adsorption capacity.
of interactions—­along the drying process—­with other organic mole- Water binding mechanisms have been associated with polar effects,
cules, because polysaccharides are easily found in fruit by-­products; weak hydrogen bonding, strong hydrogen bonding, ionic interactions
they are likely to be more accessible by changes in cell walls because and hydrophobic (surface) effects (Chaplin, 2003). Main components
they enhance their stability and potentially increase their bioavail- responsible for water interaction are the soluble dietary fiber (SDF)
ability (Hollman & Katan,  1999). Jung et  al.  (2015) mentioned that fraction and the protein content which have affinity. The soluble
many phenolic compounds exist in complex linkages with other fraction of fiber may be associated with pectin, gums, mucilage and
components, typically through ester, ether or acetal bonds, and high some hemicellulose (Barbosa-­Martín et al., 2016). Monosaccharides,
temperature treatments can potentially release these bound pheno- polysaccharides, and their derivatives have many available hy-
lics, making them more available for extraction. drophilic groups to link water molecules through hydrogen bonds
To establish the best drying condition, dry and fresh samples must (Ferreira et  al.,  2015). OHC is usually associated with insoluble di-
be compared, and nutritional bioactive compound responses that are etary fiber (IDF) fractions that have affinity with oil components or
relevant for functional flour production must be determined. Peel, ba- hydrophobic protein fraction (Barbosa-­Martín et al., 2016; Martins
gasse, and seed have different chemical compositions and cell struc- et al., 2017).
ture, a fact that influences water molecule migration in the drying Swelling capacity, which is the volume occupied by fiber in ex-
process. Much equipment has been used to preserve fruit by-­products. cess water, is also an important functional property. During swell-
Studies of drying optimization are needed to define the best opera- ing, particles process the volume of product and tend to increase,
tional condition to obtain dehydrated final products with high quality. a fact that may be difficult to observe visually (Föste et al., 2020).
Several studies mentioned by this review were also carried out High values of swelling capacity are usually associated with the fiber
with other nonconventional dryers. Advances in drying technologies composition but low values have been reported by studies of flour
have been explored in the development of innovative and energy-­ made from fruit by-­products. In addition, identification of insoluble
efficient drying techniques that prevent products from degrading. and soluble fractions is necessary to evaluate and better understand
Interesting results have been reported to replace conventional their interaction with this type of flour. Generally, in fruit, WHC and
dryers with minimal impact on the environment (Sabarez,  2020). swelling water capacity are higher in peels than in pomace, which
Conventional food dryers are energy-­intensive, high-­time consum- depend on soluble dietary fiber. High protein and fat concentrations
ing, and may affect the product quality due to exposure to high tem- can impair hydration capacity (Martins et al., 2017).
peratures or long drying times (Sabarez,  2016). Thus, many drying Table 2 showed results of several studies of fiber content compo-
techniques may be employed, but costs of equipment, maintenance, sition and functional properties (water and oil absorption capacity).
and energy consumption are important parameters to be considered By-­products were found to have a good source of total dietary fiber;
by employers who wish to invest in industrial production of quality they have more insoluble fiber than soluble one. These compounds
dry by-­products and ingredients that are particularly heat-­sensitive. have been associated with functional properties of flour made from
by-­products. According to Pérez-­Chabela and Hernández-­Alcántara
(2018), soluble dietary fiber may constitute 15%–­50% of total fiber,
5 | FU N C TI O N A L PRO PE RTI E S O F FLO U R depending on the analytic method and the chemical composition
M A D E FRO M BY- ­P RO D U C T S A PPLI E D TO of fruit. Soluble fibers are mainly responsible for high capacity of
BA K E RY PRO D U C T S water retention. Hemicellulose, constituted by arabinose and xy-
lose, and pectin have high water-­holding capacity and are found on
Flour and powder made from by-­products are excellent functional plant cell walls (Holloway et al., 1980; Pérez-­Chabela & Hernández-­
ingredients to be used in bakery products. Thus, knowledge of Alcántara,  2018). Studies found by this review showed that fruit
functional properties is very important to identify some eventual by-­products have higher WAC than oil absorption capacity, usually
problems that may occur throughout mixing, processing, baking, when soluble fiber is at high concentrations. However, Barbosa-­
and storage. In addition, characterization of flour made from by-­ Martín et al. (2016) observed that fiber residue extracted from avo-
products is interesting to analyze the best amount to be used to par- cado seed, as shown in Table 2, exhibited higher OAC than WHC due
tially substitute cereal flour in bakery products. to its higher insoluble dietary fiber content (cellulose, hemicellulose,
Analyses of technological and functional properties, such as and lignin) that has affinity with oil components. Oil absorption in
water holding capacity (WHC), water absorption capacity (WAC), oil acerola seed flour was also higher than water absorption, whereas
holding capacity (OHC), oil absorption capacity (OAC) and swelling acerola bagasse flour had opposite behavior, according to Marques
capacity (SC), are important in flours made from by-­products. These et al. (2013).
properties are intrinsic physicochemical characteristics that mea- Different composition of fibers and other nutrients (protein and
sure interaction capacity between water and oil molecules, linked fat) in fruit peel, bagasse, and seed should also be mentioned. Their
with soluble and insoluble fractions of fibers and proteins (Barbosa-­ different proportions and interactions with polar and nonpolar mol-
Martín et al., 2016; Martins et al., 2017). ecules influence functional and technological properties. Varieties
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12 of 22       LARROSA and OTERO

TA B L E 2   Information about fiber content and physical water and oil properties in some studies

Drying method and Water

Dry by-­product condition Fiber content properties OAC Reference

Acerola seed Air-­ventilated oven at 75.66 ± 1.58% IDF 300% WAC 373.33% Marques
45°C 4.76 ± 0.98% SDF et al. (2013)

Acerola bagasse Lyophilization 28.58 ± 1.24% IDF 591.56% WAC 320% Marques

8.74 ± 0.53% SDF et al. (2013)

Apple pomace Freeze-­drying 30.2% TDF 12.25 g/g 0.84 g/g O’Shea et al. (2015)

WHC
Avocado seed—­fiber Fiber residue oven 47.63 ± 0.46% TDF 4.08 g/g WHC 6.3 g/g OHC Barbosa-­Martín
residue drying 40°C 37.27 ± 0.39% IDF 3.39 g/g WAC et al. (2016)

10.17 ± 0.57% SDF
media different
methods
Lemon residue (peel, Microwave-­drying, air No estimate 4.97–­5.52 g/g 2.94–­3.3 g/g ORC M'hiri et al. (2018)
seed, and pulp) drying, and infrared WRC
drying 50°C and 75°C
Mango peel Freeze-­drying (−55°C); No estimate 4.68%–­6.04% 1.66–­3.10 g/g OAC Sogi et al. (2013)
hot air drying (60°C); WAC
vacuum drying (60°C);
infrared-­drying (40 W)
Mango kernel Freeze-­drying (−55°C); No estimate 1.83–­2.35 g/g 1.69–­2.30 g/g OAC
hot air drying (60°C); WAC
vacuum drying (60°C);
infrared-­drying (40 W)
Mango kernel Cabinet drying 1.16% crude fiber 121.83% WAC 0.94 g/g OAC Chandras Das
60°C–­65°C et al. (2019)
Melon peel Oven drying at 40°C 41.69 ± 1.03% TDF 5.36 g/g WRC 2.23 g/g ORC Mallek-­Ayadi
37.58 ± 1.12% IDF et al. (2017)

4.38 ± 0.08% SDF
Orange peel, pulp and Tray drying at 60°C 63.6%–­63.7% TDF 8.71–­9.63 g/g 3.50–­3.63 g/g OHC Crizel et al. (2013)
seed 46.2%–­48.2% IDF WRC

17.4%–­15.6% SDF
Orange pomace Freeze-­drying 40.5% TDF 8.54 g/g WHC 1.06 g/g OHC O’Shea et al. (2015)

Abbreviations: OAC, oil absorption capacity; OHC, oil holding capacity; ORC, oil retention capacity; WAC, water absorption capacity; WHC, water
holding capacity; WRC, water retention capacity.

and maturation conditions influence their amounts and, conse- index was studied by Sogi et al. (2013) in mango by-­products; peel
quently, their functional properties. O’Shea et al. (2015) stated that flour exhibited higher values (53%–­6 4%) than kernel flour (20%–­
apple pomace showed higher WAC than orange pomace due to dif- 42%), and their powders differed significantly with respect to the
ferent insoluble and soluble fractions in their samples. drying method.
Another aspect of compiled studies shown in Table 2 is the effect In addition to analyzing the effect of drying on functional char-
of drying conditions on functional properties of by-­products. Some acteristics of flour, it is important to compare it with wheat flour
studies reported that high temperature and the drying technique that is traditionally used in bakery food. This analysis is important
may affect the polysaccharide chemical structure of by-­products to evaluate the amount of flour made from by-­products that has
and, consequently, their powder may exhibit different behavior re- been applied and replaced with wheat flour to obtain products with
garding water and oil interaction (Garau et al., 2007). It was found by similar or better physical characteristics and nutritional quality. Ajila
Sogi et al. (2013) in mango residue, by Garau et al. (2007) in orange et al. (2008) determined dietary fiber contents of powder made from
peel, and by M’hiri et al. (2018) in lemon residue. Garau et al. (2007) mango peel: 51.2% total dietary fiber with 32.1% insoluble dietary
evaluated the water retention capacity (WRC) of orange peel and fiber and 19% soluble dietary fiber. The authors compared their re-
found that its value was higher than the one of pulp samples dried at sults with wheat bran and oat bran and found lower values of soluble
the same temperature, besides, increase in the air-­drying tempera- dietary fiber, that is, 6.6% and 15%, respectively. It shows that flour
ture above 50°C promoted decrease in the water property. Solubility made from by-­products has a great source of hydrophilic compounds
LARROSA and OTERO |
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needed for dough production. Chandras Das et al. (2019) evaluated content was affected by storage time, rather than by packaging or
WAC, oil absorption capacity, and swelling index in mango kernel storage conditions. Decrease in phenolic content was around 9.5% in
flour. This study showed that mango kernel flour absorbs more water 6–­7 months. The authors identified different phenolic compounds,
(121.83%) than wheat flour, but the flour made from the by-­product such as hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, and flavones, which
has lower oil absorption capacity. The swelling index of wheat flour were very stable in the storage conditions.
was higher than the one of kernel flour; it indicates high swelling Tseng and Zhao (2012) observed that bioactive compounds of
power of conventional flour. This behavior may be explained by grape pomace and skin showed different behavior in storage at 15°C.
the fact that high protein and fat offer resistance to the process of Samples of pomace flour, dried at room temperature (25°C), showed
starch gelatinization; in this case, it is the fat content of kernel flour. around 34% reduction in TPC, whereas around 57% reduction was
However, the authors did not estimate the dietary fiber content, es- observed in freeze-­dried flour samples for 16 weeks. Among all dry
pecially fractions whose swelling capacity is related with insoluble samples, freeze-­dried ones retained the highest anthocyanin con-
fiber (Sudha, 2011). tent immediately after drying but had the lowest stability during
In general, flours made from by-­products flours showed good storage at 15 ± 2°C. Total flavonol content decreased in the first
WAC with useful applications as functional ingredients to bak- 8 weeks of storage, but no reduction was observed from the 8th to
ery products due to their viscosity and stability (Barbosa-­Martín the 16th week, except in air-­dried Merlot pomace and freeze-­dried
et al., 2016). The ability of flour to absorb oil is important because oil Merlot skin samples. Freeze-­dried samples lost about 4% and 43% of
acts as a flavor retainer and improves mouthfeel (Okpala & Gibson-­ total flavonol content in Pinot grape pomace and Merlot grape skin,
Umeh, 2013). Thus, dietary fibers should be incorporated into bak- respectively, but, at the end of storage (16 weeks), flavonol increased
ery products to prolong freshness due to their capacity to retain 14% and 5% in Pinot skin and Merlot pomace, respectively.
water, reduce economic loss, and enhance digestion (Ayala-­Zavala Given the information reported by the researchers, it seems
et al., 2011). that flours made from fruit by-­products contain pigments and phy-
tochemicals that are sensitive to light and to storage temperature.
Because they are dehydrated products and highly hygroscopic due
6 | S TA B I LIT Y O F PH YS I C A L to their composition, which is rich in carbohydrates, optimization
C H A R AC TE R I S TI C S A N D B I OAC TI V E of drying and packaging operational conditions aims at minimizing
CO M P O U N DS O F FLO U R M A D E FRO M BY-­ changes in their physical and biochemical characteristics. Therefore,
PRO D U C T S D R I E D D U R I N G S TO R AG E it is important to monitor stability of compounds that bring func-
tional appeal to the product, because reduction or change in the
The composition of fruit and, consequently, resulting flours differ storage time can affect the development of products made from this
from each other, because several factors interfere in concentrations flour sensorially and technologically. An example is the adsorption
of their compounds. Some variables are the type and variety of fruit, of moisture by the type of packaging, a fact that can influence the
soil, climatic conditions, and stage of ripeness (Otero et al., 2020). formulation of bakery products and lead to changes in the quality of
As for postharvest factors, the collection method, fruit processing, the final product.
storage conditions, and conservation methods used in the flour can
be mentioned.
Stability of flour made from by-­products has been evaluated so 7 | BA K E RY PRO D U C T S Y E I LD E D BY D RY
that it can be incorporated into bakery products. Its addition and FLO U R M A D E FRO M BY- ­P RO D U C T S
partial replacement of wheat flour results in a functional product
with bioactive compounds and antioxidant effect. Besides, some 7.1 | Influence of nutritional composition and
compounds can add antimicrobial properties to the products, and bioactive compounds
consequently, they can provide longer shelf-­life. Thus, it is interest-
ing to analyze bioactivity and verify its stability in the evaluation of Powder of dry fruit by-­products has been known as a good source
shelf-­life of flour that is processed at industrial scale and selection of of nutrients for bakery products (Salehi & Aghajanzadeh,  2020).
the best packaging and storage conditions. Although products can be developed with this material in the fresh
Studies of stability showed that, regarding moisture content, form, at the industrial ratio, it is advisable to use it in the dehydrated
the best storage condition of flour made from yellow passion fruit form, such as powder or flour, with more concentrated composi-
peel is at low temperatures (from 0 and 10°C) (Andrade et al., 2018). tion of macro and micronutrients. Thus, flour made from fruit by-­
Fernández-­López et  al.  (2009), after 6-­month storage, concluded products are an alternative raw material to develop new products
that increase in moisture content decreases the quality of powder (Figure 3).
made from orange by-­products, that is, it increased 42.8% in the To obtain flour made from fruit by-­products, dehydrated material
10-­month storage under evaluation. The best storage conditions are must be processed in some equipment that reduces final particle size,
vacuum packaging and darkness. Both conditions seem to preserve because every residue has different shape and physical structure at
the color of fibers by avoiding pigment degradation. Polyphenol the end of drying. In this process, milling is used for standardizing the
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Chemical composition of biscuits fortified with mango peel flour

was analyzed by Ajila et al. (2008). Its addition increased moisture
content, whose maximum value reached 6%. Biscuits showed in-
crease in total fiber content with good balance of soluble and insol-
uble dietary fiber. Results of their composition showed significant
increase from 69% to 318% in total dietary fiber content when incor-
porated with 5% and 20% mango peel flour, respectively. Ertas and
Asan (2020) analyzed melon residue (seed and peel) flour in biscuit
formulations. They observed that moisture content in cookie sam-
ples ranged between 4.2% and 5.5%. Moisture contents of cookies
depend on high water binding capacity of flours. In relation to chem-
ical composition of cookies, increase of 25% in ash content was ob-
served, by comparison with the control cookie sample. Protein and
fat contents were significantly affected by supplementation with
melon seed and rind flours. However, supplementation with melon
rind flour in cookie formulation had no significant influence on fat
content. Carbohydrate content was found to decrease significantly
when the amount of melon seed flour was supplemented at high ra-
tios, probably due to its low concentration.
Bertagnolli et al. (2014) studied the development of cookies with
different amounts of guava peel flour. Cookie formulations were
F I G U R E 3   Main uses of flour made from fruit by-­products tested with 30%, 50%, and 70% wheat flour replacement. Moisture
ratios of cookies were significantly different (p  > .05); the sample
desired flour granulometry. Particle size is an important parameter supplemented with 70% guava peel flour had the highest mois-
that may not only increase the amount of nutrients due to increase in ture content (42.1  g  100  g−1). The more guava peel flour is added
the surface area but also contribute to interaction with other ingredi- to cookies, the higher their fiber and protein contents. Fat content
ents used in the formulation of bakery products (Hahn et al., 2015). decreased in cookies when guava peel flour was added, demon-
Mironeasa et al. (2019) analyzed the influence of particle size of grape strating that the replacement potentially reduces their fat content.
skin flour on dough of wheat flour. They observed that small parti- Bora et al. (2019) evaluated the effect of wheat flour replacement
cle size around 200  µm exhibited higher viscosity when 5% grape at different ratios (0, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) of flour made from
skin flour was added to replace wheat flour. Thus, concerning flour goji berry by-­products on muffins and cookies. The incorporation
made from by-­products, evaluation of particle size and addition ratio increased protein, free phenolics, and insoluble and soluble dietary
to bakery products may influence processability, extensibility, resis- fibers in the products by comparison with the control sample.
tance to stretch, gas-­holding capacity, and viscoelasticity of doughs. Muffins produced with mango by-­products, which par-
The study also found that particle size of grape residue flour had tially replaced wheat flour, were evaluated by Ramírez-­Maganda
significant effect on water absorption, that is, medium to small size et al. (2015). Muffin formulations had 50% and 75% wheat flour re-
particles showed better results not only because of easier interaction placed with flour made from mango by-­products. Regarding chem-
with hydrophilic compounds (sugars and soluble fibers) but also due ical composition, moisture and ash contents in muffins increased
to increase in the surface area. The authors reported that both the when it was added. Flour made from mango by-­products contrib-
particle size of the flour and the amount added to the bread formula- uted to 8% protein content; increase of 50% was observed in the
tion influenced time of dough development and its stability due to the formulation, by comparison with the control sample. Fat and soluble
composition of soluble and insoluble fibers. Thus, they are interesting carbohydrate contents of muffins that had flour made from mango
parameters to be better explored in further studies of bakery prod- by-­products added to them were significantly lower than the ones
ucts that include flours made from fruit by-­products. in the control. The total indigestible fraction showed higher values
Flour made from by-­products has been used by many studies to in fortified muffins than in the control, due to cellulose, hemicellu-
fortify bakery products and contribute to decrease and use agro-­ loses, polyphenols, and carotenoids found in mango. Slight increase
industrial residue. Several studies of the effect of the addition of in the soluble indigestible fraction was found when 75% powder
flour made from by-­products—­to partially replace wheat flour—­on made from mango by-­products was added to the muffins, due to
cookies, muffins, and cupcakes were found. In this review, some in- nonstarch polysaccharides, mainly pectin.
teresting results were chosen to be discussed and better understand Another common mango by-­product is kernel flour, which was
how flour made from by-­products may be used and what effect it studied by Chandras Das et al. (2019). They studied the development
has on nutritional composition, sensory acceptance ratio, and physi- of cakes using different ratios of powder (0, 10%, 20%, 30%, and
cal and functional characteristics of final products. 40%) to replace wheat flour. In relation to the chemical composition
LARROSA and OTERO |
      15 of 22

of supplemented cakes, addition of kernel flour decreased moisture during muffin preparation. Bioactive compounds may be affected
and protein contents. Ash, crude fiber, and carbohydrate contents and loss can occur due to oxidation, isomerization/epimerization
of samples did not exhibit significant differences. Cakes showed in- during preparation and baking (Rupasinghe et  al.,  2008). Because
crease of about 9% in fat content, by comparison with the control, bakery products use many ingredients, they may also provide some
when kernel flour was incorporated, due to its high fat content. good interactions and influence polyphenol stability.
The analysis of results found by these authors in relation to the Ajila et al. (2008) observed that the addition of mango peel pow-
effect of flour made from by-­products on the chemical composition der to biscuits showed 8.3-­fold and 14.5-­fold increase in polyphenol
of the product shows that increase in the ratio of functional flour and carotenoid contents, respectively, by comparison with the con-
in bakery products leads to higher values of moisture, ash, protein, trol. Increase in the incorporation of flour made from by-­products
and total dietary fiber contents. Increase in moisture content of flour led to increase in the DPPH radical scavenging activity, in
fortified products was observed with increase in the ratio of flour agreement with results of bioactive compounds. Thus, incorpora-
made from by-­products, a fact that may be associated with high tion of mango peel flour into biscuits increases health benefits by
water absorption of dietary fiber. Thus, more water may be required increasing antioxidant properties, such as the dietary fiber content.
during dough preparation. After the addition, fat contents showed The addition of melon seed and rind flour to cookies was carried
lower values (Ajila et  al.,  2008; Bertagnolli et  al.,  2014; Ramírez-­ out by Ertas and Aslan (2020), who showed its positive effect on
Maganda et  al.,  2015). Therefore, low-­calorie bakery products can the total phenolic content, which was 66.2% higher than the control
be obtained when flour made from by-­products is added. However, when 2.5% melon seed flour and 5% melon rind flour were added.
Chandras Das et al. (2019) found higher fat concentration in flours This study also analyzed some antinutrients found in the flour.
made from by-­products, such as mango kernel. Because high fiber Degradation and/or extraction of phenolic compounds from
contents were observed in all flours made from by-­products, their pomace may occur in the cooking process. However, such differ-
application to healthy bakery products may be helpful to improve ences may also result from normal variations in fruit or even from
the digestion system. experimental discrepancies (Aguedo et al., 2012). Composition and
It is especially important to evaluate both the chemical compo- bioactive compounds are important to characterize flour made from
sition of bakery products and the effect of bioactive compounds by-­products and verify its effect on bakery products so as to de-
on products with flours made from by-­p roducts. A few studies velop new functional health products. In addition, it is important to
have reported this issue. Bertagnolli et  al.  (2014) observed that define the most appropriate proportion ratio of this ingredient to
guava peel flour had high phenolic content, which decreased be incorporated into bakery products, such as cakes, muffins and
considerably in chemical and physical processes of cookie bak- cookies. Thus, analysis of dough fortified by flour made from by-­
ing. However, results of cookies formulated with high amounts products, and its physical characterization may help this decision.
of guava peel flour showed significant increase in this compound. Besides, a sensory analysis of these products contributes to end the
Carotenoids were also evaluated; lycopene content did not show product development.
and significant difference between guava peel flour and cookie Baking conditions in relation to temperature and time processing,
formulations, whereas beta-­c arotene showed significant differ- which may influence physical properties and bioactive compounds
ence, that is, its decrease was observed. The formulation with of products, must be considered in bakery production. Comparisons
the highest ratio (70%) had the highest value retention of beta-­ among wheat flours with addition of flour made from by-­products
carotene. Differences between bioactive compounds in process- showed that standard time may be insufficient to bake the dough.
ing of bakery products may be explained by the fact that their Bertagnolli et al. (2014) reported that high ratio of guava peel flour
bioavailability reduced due to interactions with fibers, such as in cookie formulations led to higher moisture content due to the
pectin (Shi & Maguer,  2000). Khalifa et  al.  (2016) also analyzed time used in all formulations; it was not adequate when 70% (highest
bioactive compounds in flour made from guava by-­p roducts added ratio) guava peel flour replaced wheat flour. Variation in results of
to cupcakes, which showed high antioxidant activity due to phe- the sensory analysis and physical characterization of bakery prod-
nolic compounds that may improve shelf-­life stability and restrain ucts may be affected by nonstandardized baking conditions.
oil oxidation.
Ramírez-­Maganda et al. (2015) observed that with powder made
from mango by-­products added to muffin formulations resulted in 7.2 | Influence of dough properties and physical
significant increase in total soluble polyphenol and antioxidant ca- characteristics on bakery products with dry flour
pacity. Recovery indexes of polyphenol in muffins were 19.09% and made from by-­products
21.5% when 50% and 75% flour made from mango by-­product was
added to the formulations, respectively. It shows that, during muf- Dough properties and physical characteristics of bakery products
fin preparation and baking, the little portion of polyphenols initially have been studied by many researchers. Dough properties are
found in the flour was not degraded. According to Wang and Zhou closely linked with texture, appearance, and quality of final wheat
(2004), low recovery of original phenolic compounds may be associ- flour products. Thus, properties of fortified dough of flour made
ated with their interactions with wheat protein via hydrogen bonding from by-­products may be good indicators to evaluate and predict
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quality of bakery products (Ma & Han,  2019). Development time, Analysis of physical characteristics of bakery products is also
water absorption, and stability are some examples of dough proper- very important to verify whether there is any association with
ties evaluated in bakery products. dough properties. Diameter, weight, thickness, hardness, breaking
Ajila et  al.  (2008) studied the incorporation of 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, strength, and spread ratio are common analyses to be performed in
and 10% mango peel powder into biscuits and found significant dif- cookies and biscuits. Regarding cakes, muffins, and cupcakes, hard-
ference in dough properties. Addition of flour made from the by-­ ness, height, volume, and weight are very common.
product increased water absorption from 60% to 68% due to its Biscuits with mango peel flour were evaluated in relation to
high fiber content. Dough development time increased from 4.2 to physical characteristics by Ajila et  al.  (2008). Up to 10% incorpo-
5.8  min with 10% incorporation of mango peel powder, and most ration of mango peel flour did not show any significant difference
dough strength was observed in relation to the control dough (wheat in biscuit diameters. Thickness decreased after the addition while
flour) because of high fiber contents. breaking strength increased after the incorporation of mango peel
Bora et al. (2019) evaluated the effect of replacing wheat flour flour. High water content in doughs with mango peel powder may
with different ratios (0, 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) of flour made explain biscuit hardness. Ertas and Aslan (2020) observed that both
from goji berry by-­product in muffins and cookies. Flour function- flours (melon seed and rind) increased cookie diameters and de-
ality was observed because increase in flour made from goji berry creased their thickness. Spread ratios were higher using melon seed
by-­product affected the gluten strength of the soft wheat flour. The flour and melon peel flour at 2.5% and 5%, respectively. Hardness
authors stated that the highest incorporation ratios of this flour was affected significantly with flour made from melon by-­products,
(30 and 40  g  100  g−1) weakened gluten and led to lower strength which was softer than the control sample. Concerning brittleness, no
dough due to the high fiber content. In addition, starch properties significant effect was observed when supplementation was carried
of wheat flour with incorporation of flour made from goji berry by-­ out with melon seed and rind flour.
product were also affected. High values of flour made from the by-­ Jung et  al.  (2015) evaluated characteristics of bakery products
product diluted starch and the high fiber content also competed fortified with apple pomace flour. Cookies and muffins were devel-
with starch for available water. Competition for water leads to low oped with 15% and 20% pomace flour. These products were signifi-
swelling of granules and results in low peak viscosity. cantly darker than nonfortified ones, due to the high ratio of sugar
Dough development time gets higher as ratios of flour made that resulted from caramelization and the Maillard reaction during
from by-­products increase because of interaction between water baking. Textural properties were also evaluated in cookie and muffin
and hydroxyl groups of polysaccharides through hydrogen bonding. formulations; addition of 15%–­20% apple pomace flour led to softer
Reduction in dough stability with increase in flour made from by-­ cookies, by comparison with the control, due to increasing springi-
products may indicate dilution of gluten proteins in wheat flour after ness and decreasing hardness. According to the authors, apple pom-
addition of flour made from by-­products, which decreases dough ace flour had lower moisture content (5%) than wheat flour (14%),
strength (Ajila et al., 2008). The fruit by-­product and the concentra- and replacement of 15% and 20% might have impacted protein and/
tion used in the product formulation may weaken gluten network. or carbohydrate structures, resulting in softer products. Muffins for-
Bora et al. (2019) mentioned that fibers may compete with flour pro- tified with apple pomace flour showed no significant difference in
teins for water and, consequently, interfere in the formation of glu- springiness. However, hardness was affected when 15%–­20% pom-
ten network in the soft wheat flour, reducing its strength. Therefore, ace flour was used. Muffins had wetter dough than cookies due to
incorporation of flour made from fruit by-­products may change fat ingredients used in their formulation. This study does not show
the quality of volume, texture, and dimension of baked products. the chemical composition of cookies and muffins, but this behavior
Depending on the composition of functional flour, low concentra- concerning textural properties would be better understood if the
tions may be required by every bakery product. analysis had been carried out.
Dough development time and stability are two important indica- Hoque and Iqbal (2015) evaluated physical properties of water-
tors of flour strength, that is, the higher the value, the stronger the melon rind flour applied to cakes at 10%, 20%, and 30%. Ten per-
dough. Fortified dough usually requires more mixing time to guaran- cent rind flour in cake formulations led to higher cake volume than
tee the formation of a suitable gluten matrix (Sudha et al., 2007). But those to which 20% and 30% had been added, by comparison with
bakery products fortified with flour made from by-­products showed the control sample. Cakes were heavier than control ones due to
decrease in stability as ratios of this ingredient increased. Bran fi- the fact that fibers held water in the cake baked with watermelon
bers usually result in longer development time and shorter stability rind flour. Specific volumes of fortified cakes were higher than the
time of doughs. This behavior is totally dependent on proportions ones of the control, that is, addition of 10% led to higher volume
of flour used in formulations. Results found by the authors showed than other formulations. Similar results were observed by Khalifa
that dough with flour made from by-­products, which has high fiber et al. (2016) and Chandras Das et al. (2019). The former studied ap-
content, require more mixing time to guarantee the formation of plicability of guava seed and pomace powder to cupcakes. The cake
a suitable gluten matrix. Easy collapse of the gluten network may formulation with 5% to 10% flour had better results, whereas for-
occur and be responsible for flat and less elastic final products (Ma mulations with volumes above 10% had negative effects on cupcake
& Han, 2019). characteristics. Weight, volume, and specific volume increased as
LARROSA and OTERO |
      17 of 22

ratios of guava by-­products decreased. Chandras Das et  al.  (2019) addition of flour made from by-­products is explained by the type
observed height decrease in cakes with mango kernel powder as its of dietary fiber in flour exhibiting high water-­retaining ability, which
addition increased. Even though samples did not exhibit any signif- can contribute to enhance springiness in fortified cookies.
icant difference in weight, the highest specific volume was found Enrichment of biscuit dough with fiber may affect biscuit diam-
in the control cake, and values decreased as the amount of mango eter minimally during the baking process. Generally, it is accepted
kernel flour increased. that a good biscuit formulation produces biscuits with large diameter
Similar results of specific volume of muffins with flour made and uniform surface-­cracking pattern. Thus, fibers can adversely af-
from goji berry by-­product were reported by Bora et al. (2019), who fect the expansion property of biscuits (Ma & Han, 2019). However,
showed that it decreased progressively as this flour was added. weight is more affected in cake dough than cookie dough due to
Intermediate concentration (20%) of flour made from the by-­product the more expansive structure and the high fiber content. Khalifa
had higher decrease in muffin firmness. The highest ratio of this flour et  al.  (2016) stated that increase in flour made from by-­products
reached 31.2% of decrease in firmness. Muffin springiness increased may bind more water and lead to increase in weight. On the other
significantly when higher ratios of flour made from goji berry by-­ hand, increase in such ratios decreased the volume and specific
product were used. Cookie diameter and thickness decreased when volume due to the influence on gluten network with low strength
flour made from goji berry by-­product was incorporated. Fortified and gas retention. Fiber structures and WHC of muffins exhibited
muffins were softer than the control, which were less resistant to different behavior after the addition of flour made from by-­product
the applied force. Hardness values of cookies decreased by 56% (Bora et al., 2019). WHC of fibers can affect the amount of water lost
while brittleness decreased by 9.1%. during baking, thereby, controlling firmness of muffins and cakes in
Regarding physical characteristics of bakery products formulated general (Mildner-­Szkudlarz et al., 2016).
with flour made from by-­products, some discrepancies, which may be Higher water absorption in dough of bakery products was ob-
attributed to flour quality, chemical composition, and variety and ratio tained by comparison with the control sample, but differences
of flour made from by-­products, were observed. According to Mudgil among flours made from by-­products have been reported. According
et al. (2017), increased biscuit hardness may be found and be associ- to Khalifa et al. (2016), the formulation with guava peel had higher
ated with low ratio of available gluten to bind water due to the com- ratios than guava seed flour; it may be attributed to the fact that the
petition for water between the dietary fiber and flour components. In cake with high ratio of guava seed flour showed higher protein and fat
addition, mechanical properties, such as breaking strength of cookies, contents. Water absorbing matrixes, such as soluble fibers in flours
can be affected by both flour particle size and the ratio of flour made made from by-­products, increase WHC and lead to enhancement of
from by-­product added to the dough (Sozer et al., 2014). cake volume by comparison with the control. However, increase in
Ajila et al. (2008) observed increase in hardness of biscuits with ratios of flour made from by-­products may have a significant impact
mango peel powder due to the high-­water content incorporated on decrease in dough gas retention, whereas fat may contribute to
into doughs and its fiber content. However, softer cookies were ob- increase it (Hoque & Iqbal,  2015). Fiber addition promoted differ-
served by other studies of apple pomace flour and melon residue ences in dough mixing; this behavior modifies water absorption,
flour. These differences may be associated with ratios of flour even and intensity depends on fiber type, structure, and content. The re-
if the proportion of components shows that each flour has a particu- markable increase results from the large number of hydroxyl groups
lar behavior. Hardness of bakery products is usually affected by the found in soluble dietary fiber; their availability allows more water in-
gluten network formed as the result of the interaction between this teractions through hydrogen bonding (Ma & Han, 2019). High WHC
protein and water molecules; thus, decrease in hardness value may may account for good rheological properties in food. By-­products
be caused by decrease in the amount of gluten (Aslam et al., 2012). may be added to formulated food products as inexpensive, nonca-
The combination of good resistance and good extensibility results in loric bulking agents for partial replacement of flour, fat, or sugar, as
desirable dough properties. enhancers of water and oil retention and to modify viscosity and tex-
Flour used in bakery products may be hydrated before and ture (Aguedo et al., 2012).
during preparation and differences in dough properties may affect Concerning sensory results, generally, low concentrations
physical characteristics of cookies. But most formulations under of flour made from fruit by-­products have had the best results of
study did not hydrate the flour previously. Thus, high concentration overall appearance and acceptance (Bertagnolli et al., 2014; Hoque
of dietary fiber found in flour made from by-­products may retain the & Iqbal, 2015). Although bakery formulations have good results of
moisture content in the formulation and prevent protein aggregation bioactive compounds, such as carotenoids, phenolic compounds,
during mixing or starch gelatinization during baking from happening; anthocyanins, and ascorbic acid, high concentrations of flour made
thereby, it results in softer cookies, by comparison with the control from by-­products may provide neither tasty, crispy, soft, and beau-
(Bora et al., 2019). The authors suggested that other factors, such as tiful cakes nor mechanical and physical properties in dough. Even if
high contents of sugars, lipids, and proteins, in flour made from by-­ the content of antioxidant compounds is high because of high ratios
products, may contribute to product softness when they are com- of flour made from by-­products, physical characteristics observed
pared with the control (without any by-­product). Jung et al. (2015) by the sensory analysis contribute to decide the best proportion of
mentioned that the fact that softer products are obtained with wheat flour replacement.
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The study conducted by Ertas and Aslan (2020) showed that ad- REFERENCES
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their crispness and taste scores slightly. Decrease in taste value can to use acerola residue. III International Symposium on Medicinal
and Nutraceutical Plants and III Conference of National Institute of
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