Met. O.

887

METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE

THE
MARINE OBSERVER'S
HANDBOOK
10TH EDITION

LONDON
HMSO
531.501.1 <02)
© Crown copyright 1977
Applications for reproduction should be made to HMSO
First published 1977
Sixth impression 1992

ISBN 0 11 400297 5
 CONTENTS

Page
Foreword ........... vi

PART I INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

CHAPTER 1 Atmospheric Pressure ....... 1

„ 2 The Measurement of Temperature and Humidity . . 21
„ 3 General Meteorological Instruments .... 35

PART H NON-INSTRUMENTAL OBSERVATIONS

CHAPTER 4 Wind, Weather and Visibility ..... 37

'State of Sea' Photographs .... facing 40
„ 5 Clouds and cloud height by estimation .... 46
Cloud Photographs ..... facing 56
„ 6 Ocean Waves ........ 54
„ 7 Observations of Ocean Currents and Ice ... 62
Ice Photographs. ..... facing 72

PART m PHENOMENA

CHAPTER 8 The Observation of Phenomena ..... 75

„ 9 Astronomical Phenomena ...... 78
„ 10 Phenomena of the High Atmosphere .... 84
„ 11 Phenomena of the Lower Atmosphere .... 96
12 Marine Phenomena . . . . . . .115

PART IV SUMMARY OF METEOROLOGICAL WORK

AT SEA

CHAPTER 13 Organization of Voluntary Meteorological Work at Sea . 119

„ 14 The International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea,
1960 ......... 124
iii
 CONTENTS— continued
TABLES
1-11 Barometer correction tables. The table and page numbers are as follows:

INCHES MILLIBARS
Date of NPL certificate
On or On or On or On or
before after before after
31.12.54 1.1.55 31.12.54 1.1.55
Temperature correction, Kew-pattern 126 7
barometer (p. 128) (p. 129) (p. 131) (P. 132)
Correction to standard gravity 348 9
(p. 130) (p. 130) (p. 133) (P. 133)
Correction to mean sea level 5 10
(P. 131) (p. 134)
Approx. corrections for temperature 11
and height (p. 134)

Page
12 Correction to be applied to the observed pressure for diurnal
variation .......... 135
13 Average values of the barometric change in an hour, due to
diurnal variation ....... . 135
14 Equivalents in millibars of inches of mercury at 0°C and standard
gravity 9-80665 m/s2 ........ 136
15 Dew-point, °C (for use with marine screen) . 138
16 Dew-point, °C (for use with aspirated psychrometer) . 140
17 Dew-point, °F (for use with marine screen) . 142
18 Dew-point, °F (for use with aspirated psychrometer) . . 144
19 Relative humidity (per cent) (for use with marine screen) . 146
20 Conversion of temperatures from Fahrenheit scale to Celsius and
Kelvin scales ......... 148
21 Conversion of nautical miles to kilometres 149
22 Conversion of feet to metres ...... . 149
23 To obtain approximately the true force and direction of the wind
from its apparent force and direction, on the deck of a moving
vessel ........ facing 150

APPENDIX
The International System of Units (SI) ..... . 151
INDEX .......... . 153
IV
 ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
1 A simple mercury barometer ....... 1
2 The Kew-pattern marine barometer ..... 2
3 The correction slide . . . . . ."]
4 Stowage of the Kew-pattern marine barometer . |
5 The marine open-scale barograph . . . .1
6 The Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2 .
7 Thermometer, and air and sea thermometer protectors
8 The portable marine screen . . . . .1
9 The distant-reading equipment Mk 5 . . . [_ Between
10 The canvas sea-temperature bucket . . . f pages 8 and 9
11 The rubber sea-temperature bucket MET 1800 .
12 The rubber sea-temperature bucket Mk 3B
13 The British radiosonde .....
14 Cup generator anemometer Mk 4 .
15 Cup generator anemometers in situ
16 The Moll-Gorczynski solarimeter (pyranometer) .J
17 Reading a millibar barometer, using a vernier scale . . . 10
18 Reading the barometer: errors due to parallax . . . 11
19 Schematic drawing of Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2 . 14
20 Code numbers used to indicate the characteristic of barometric
tendency .......... 19
21 Mean diurnal variation of pressure . . . . . 19
22 Muslin and wick for wet-bulb thermometers .... 25
23 Wind, parallelogram of velocities . . . . . .41
24 Characteristics of a simple wave ...... 54
25 Representation of a trochoidal wave form .... 56
26 Refraction of a wave approaching the shore at an angle . . 58
27 Wave form of the sea surface ...... 58
28 Estimation of wave height at sea . . . . . 60
29 Auroral forms ......... 90
30 Mirages .......... 96
31 Halo phenomena ........ 102
32 Solar halo complex . . . . . . . .105
33 Lunar halo complex ........ 106
34 Forms of halo cross . . . . . . . .107
'STATE OF SEA' PHOTOGRAPHS . . Between pages 40 and 41
CLOUD PHOTOGRAPHS .... Between pages 56 and 57
ICE PHOTOGRAPHS ..... Between pages 72 and 73
 FOREWORD
The Marine Observer's Handbook is written for three purposes:
(1) To assist officers aboard British vessels, who voluntarily make observa­
tions at sea on behalf of Meteorological Services, to carry out this work
in an efficient and uniform manner.
(2) To encourage all mariners to take an interest in meteorology and to
assist them in their study of this important and interesting subject.
(3) To provide a book of reference for candidates for Department of Trade
Mate's and Second Mate's examinations.
It will be noted that this book deals with meteorological instruments and
the practical aspect of making observations. The companion volume, entitled
Meteorology for Mariners, embraces the theory and the application of meteor­
ology to the seaman's profession.
The seaman is so dependent on the weather that an interest in meteorology
on his part is essential for the safe and economic operation of his ship. It is
undoubtedly true that in this modern age of large, fast, power-driven ships,
just as in the days of sailing ships, no ship's officer can consider himself a
complete mariner unless he is 'weather wise'. Meteorological observing tends
to quicken the eye of the observer, making him more alert and more ready for
emergencies. The practised observer is not only on the look-out for changes in
weather and cloud and for interesting phenomena, but by his general alertness
he will ensure that there are no 'Irish pennants', loose tarpaulins etc., when he
is on deck.
Essentials to efficiency in meteorological observations are accuracy and
attention to detail. The results are beneficial not only to Meteorological
Services, and thence to mankind, but to the ship herself. By accurate reading and
intelligent interpretation of humidity observations, for example, the master can
decide whether ventilation of cargo is wise or not, or by a combination of sea
and air temperature and humidity, the likelihood of fog can be forecast aboard
the ship. Timely notice of a shift of the wind or variation of its force or the sky
becoming overcast or gradual deterioration of visibility may, on occasions,
save a ship from getting into difficulties. The largest and most powerful ship
can be delayed or damaged by rough seas or slowed down in fog. Valuable
cargoes can be quickly ruined if due regard is not paid to unfavourable weather.
Anything that is worth doing is worth doing well and this is particularly so
with regard to meteorological observations. A lone ship's observation from
'somewhere in the ocean' may hold the key to an otherwise obscure meteoro­
logical situation, but it is better to have no observation than an inaccurate or
erroneous one. An inaccurate observation may mislead the forecaster and,
directly or indirectly as a result of that inaccuracy, an incorrect forecast can
cause a small ship or aircraft to set out when a slight change of plan might lead
to a smoother and safer passage.
Accuracy is just as important for climatological purposes. In the analysis
of meteorological records for the compilation of atlases and for scientific
investigation generally, a few inaccurate observations may so bias the results as
to tend to falsify the picture. In deciding whether to reject an apparently
erroneous observation, the investigator can only use his judgement and experi­
ence.
vi
 Observers at sea would perhaps be surprised at the many uses to which their
observations are put, both commercially and scientifically. To mention only a
few: frequencies of winds of gale force are required whenever the load line
areas are reviewed; air temperatures and humidities have been useful in the
testing of life jackets; meteorological data are needed by the respective research
organizations in connection with the design of ships and with the efficiency of
radar.
Thus, by taking an intelligent interest in meteorological observations, the
seaman contributes to the cause of science and benefits the world in general,
and his fellow seamen in particular, by increasing our knowledge of meteorology
and climatology.
Note to the tenth edition. This edition is principally an up-dated version of
the ninth edition. The metric system has been introduced throughout although
nautical miles and knots have been retained to conform to navigational require­
ments. References to cloud heights are still made in feet in accordance with the
World Meteorological Organization regulations and the United Kingdom
Meteorological Office practice. Chapter 2 has been extended to include distant-
reading equipment and electrical resistance thermometers. The part of Chapter 7
headed Ocean Current Observations has been entirely rewritten to remove
anomalies, and the Ice section has been amended to use the latest World Meteor­
ological Organization nomenclature. Chapters 10, 11 and 12 on Phenomena
have been revised and extended to include the latest information. We are in­
debted to the Director of the Appleton Laboratory at Slough and Dr. P. Herring
of the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences at Wormley for advice and additional
text.

MARINE DIVISION,
METEOROLOGICAL OFFICE.
July 1976.

VII
 Part I Instrumental Observations
CHAPTER 1

Atmospheric Pressure
The instruments most commonly used for measuring the pressure of the
atmosphere are the mercury and aneroid barometers. Until recently, the con­
sistent accuracy required for scientific purposes and for official meteorological
work could be achieved only by use of the mercury barometer because of certain
inherent errors in the aneroid instrument. The marine-type mercury barometer
has been in regular use aboard British observing ships since 1854 and has been
so successful that its design has been virtually unchanged through the years.
Precision aneroids have now been adopted as the standard Meteorological
Office atmospheric pressure reading instrument for issue to voluntary observing
ships as they proved to be of similar accuracy yet more compact in size and
easier to read than the marine mercury barometer which was subject to
'pumping'. The change-over to this instrument is not yet complete and a number
of selected ships may still carry mercury barometers; these will eventually be
replaced. Both instruments are described below.
The mercury barometer. The principle of the mercury barometer was dis­
covered by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643.
A simple mercury barometer (see Figure 1) is made by completely filling with
mercury a glass tube closed at one end and approximately 1 metre in length. The
open end is then immersed in a cistern also containing mercury, and the tube is
held upright. The mercury column falls, leaving a vacuum at the top of the tube.

-vacuum
— gloss tube

mercury

approx 75 cm atmospheric pressure

" approx IOOO mb

mercury
\ — cistern
FIGURE 1. A simple mercury barometer
1
 "IT

TOP CAP
SCREWED CORE
LEATHER WASHER
GLASS COVER
BARREI
VERNIER
MARINE TUBE
VERNIER CARRIER
RACK
MERCURY
BOTTOM CAP
PINION GEAR OPERATING KNOB
FIXING PLATE
- BUSH
J5. SPINDLE
GIMBAL RING
SCREW
OUTER RING
_ LOOSE RING
2O TEMPERATURE PLATE
2 CORRECTION SLIDE
CISTERN CAP
NUT
24 CISTERN
25] GLAND
LEATHER WASHER
ARM
BRACKET

FIGURE 2. The Kew-pattern marine barometer

 until the weight of the mercury column above the level of the mercury in the cistern
just balances the atmospheric pressure which is exerted on the free surface of the
mercury in the cistern.
The mercury barometer only gradually passed from this original simple form
to that of a practical and portable instrument and was not used by seamen until
a century had elapsed.
The Kew-pattern marine barometer. This consists of a glass tube and cistern
enclosed in a metal protecting case (see Figure 2). In the upper part of the cistern
are one or more small holes which admit the air, and a leather washer, permeable
to air, which prevents the mercury from escaping, and also keeps out dust.
The bore of the glass tube is considerably constricted for the greater part of its
length, and, for part of this constriction, is reduced to a fine capillary. The
object of these constrictions is to reduce the amount of 'pumping', i.e. oscilla­
tions of the top of the mercury column, caused by the movements of the ship
and by gusts of wind. At the top of the mercury column the bore of the tube
is greater; this minimizes the effect of 'capillarity'* on the height of the centre
of the mercury column, but leaves the upper surface of the column sufficiently
convex to facilitate accurate reading. An air-trap in the tube prevents air from
rising into the space above the mercury column, which should be an almost
perfect vacuum. On the metal protecting case is a scale, with a vernier for
reading the height of the mercury.
For the purpose of ascertaining the temperature of the barometer itself, a
thermometer is attached. On barometers graduated in millibars, the thermo­
meter is graduated in degrees Absolute on older instruments, but in degrees
Celsius on those made after 1 January 1955; on inch barometers, it is usually
graduated in degrees Fahrenheit.
Graduation of barometer scales. From the invention of the barometer until
comparatively recent years the reading was invariably expressed as the height
of the mercury column necessary to balance the atmospheric pressure at that
instant. In the British Isles, atmospheric pressure was therefore expressed in
inches and decimals of an inch, while countries using the metre as a unit of
length gave the pressure in millimetres and decimals of a millimetre. The
graduations are marked on a metal scale at the side of the instrument. Barometer
scales graduated in inches are readable by vernier to a thousandth of an inch
(0-001).
When we express the pressure in terms of inches or millimetres of mercury,
we mean that the pressure is equal to the weight per unit area of a column of
mercury of that height. If water were used as the liquid the barometer would
have to be approximately 10 metres long; mercury, which is used in practice on
account of its high density, only needs a tube of a little less than 1 metre.
The original procedure in measuring barometric pressure, which is still often
used, was to measure the height of the mercury column and to give that height,
in inches or millimetres, duly corrected, as a measure of the atmospheric pressure.

•Capillarity is the tendency of liquids in narrow tubes to rise above or fall below the
hydrostatic level. This tendency depends on the relative attraction of the molecules of the
liquid for one another and for the molecules of the material of the tube. The narrower the
tube, the greater the tendency to rise or fall, so that the effect is particularly well marked in
hair-like or capillary tubes, hence the name 'capillarity'. If the liquid wets the solid material,
it will rise in the tube, but if not, it will be depressed. In the case of water in a glass tube,
therefore, the water column is raised, particularly at the edge, while the reverse is the case
with mercury in a glass tube, for mercury does not wet glass.
It was later thought preferable that pressures should be expressed in units of
pressure, not in units of height.
Pressure is force per unit area and the measurement of a force is the accelera­
tion it would give to a body of unit mass which is free to move. In the Inter­
national System of Units (SI)*, now adopted by most countries, the unit of
force is the newton (symbol N), the force which, if applied to a mass of 1 kilo­
gram will produce an acceleration of 1 metre per second. The unit of pressure
is the pascal (symbol Pa) which is a force of 1 newton per square metre. However,
the use of the millibar as a unit of pressure is so universal in the field of meteor­
ology that it is unlikely to be superseded in the near future. A millibar is equal
to 100 pascals.
1 mb = 1 millibar = 100 pascals = 1 hPa.
Barometers graduated in millibars have a longer line at each tenth millibar.
By means of the vernier the pressure can be read to one-tenth of a millibar (see
Figure 17). One thousand millibars equal one bar. This is equivalent to a pressure
of 29-53 inches, or 750-1 millimetres of mercury at the standard value of gravity
of 9-80665 m/s2, and is thus very nearly equal to the average pressure of the
atmosphere at sea level. An increase of one millibar (0-0295 inch) in atmospheric
pressure therefore indicates an increase of about a thousandth of the previous
pressure.

CORRECTIONS TO MERCURY BAROMETERS

For a given pressure, the height of the mercury column of a barometer depends
upon the density (and therefore on the temperature) of the mercury and on
the value of the acceleration due to gravity which is dependent on the latitude
and height of the place of observation. Moreover, the indication on a barometer
scale set up to measure the height of the column will depend upon the temper­
ature of the scale itself. In order to make barometer readings comparable all
over the world it is therefore necessary to specify 'standard conditions'—
temperature of mercury and of scale, and acceleration due to gravity—and to
compute tables whereby corrections may be made for any departure from these
conditions. In addition the readings have to be reduced to a standard altitude,
which for altitudes of not more than a few hundred metres is mean sea level, and
reduction tables have also been computed for this purpose.
The 'standard conditions' referred to above were changed with effect from
1 January 1955, by a decision of the World Meteorological Organization at
Geneva in 1953. The standard value of gravity was changed from 9-8062 m/s2
(which is very nearly equal to the gravity at mean sea level in latitude 45°)
to 9-80665 m/s2 (which is a conventional standard). For barometers reading
in inches the standard temperature was changed from 32°F for the mercury and
62°F for the scale to 0°C for the whole instrument. For Meteorological Office
barometers reading in millibars it was changed from 285°Af (12°C) to 0°C, for
the whole instrument.
Because of these changes and because it will be many years before all the
older barometers are converted or replaced it is now necessary to have two

*Further information on the SI system will be found in the Appendix to the Tables, at
the end of this book (page 151).
tSee page 22.
sets of correction tables available for mercury barometers, whether they be
graduated in inches or millibars, one for instruments adjusted to the old standard
conditions and one of those adjusted to read correctly at gravity 9-80665 m/s2
and temperature 0°C.
All mercury barometers have also to be corrected for capillarityf, which
tends to depress the mercury in the tube; variation in the quantity of mercury
in the cistern according to the height of the mercury column; defective vacuum,
etc., but these are all made very small by suitable allowances in the process of
construction and any residual errors and errors due to imperfections in con­
struction or adjustment are included in the 'index errors' of the instrument.
These index errors are determined at the National Physical Laboratory for all
Meteorological Office mercury barometers and are given on a certificate supplied
by that institution.
It is desirable that a mercury barometer should be checked every three
months. All Port Meteorological Officers have a standard barometer which is
available for such comparisons and Meteorological Office tested barometers
are available for comparison in many dock offices etc., in the U.K. (see Admiralty
List of Radio Signals, Vol. 3 or commercial nautical almanacs). The ship's
barometer should be corrected for temperature, altitude and latitude (i.e.
gravity) before a comparison is made.

Corrections to inch barometers

CORRECTION FOR TEMPERATURE. With increase of temperature, mercury
expands, so that its weight per unit volume decreases; a column of greater
height will therefore be required to balance a stated air pressure when the
temperature is high than when it is low. The correction required to adjust the
height to that at a standard temperature is therefore negative when the tempera­
ture is above the standard and positive when it is below. For an inch barometer
adjusted to the old conventions, the standard temperature at which the mercury
in the barometer would read correctly is 32°F. The metal scale on the instrument,
however, reads correctly at 62°F; the reason for this is that the standard inch
is legally defined as a certain height engraved on brass at a temperature of
62°F. Table 1 gives the temperature correction for such a barometer. The net
effect of the different standard temperatures for the brass scale (62°F) and the
mercury (32°F) is that the temperature at which the temperature correction in
the table becomes zero is below 32°F. At any other temperature, the temperature
correction is proportional to the height of the mercury column, that is, to the
atmospheric pressure. Table 1 therefore gives the correction for ranges both of
temperature and barometer readings. The temperature to be used with this
table is that of the thermometer attached to the barometer, which, if the expos­
ure of the barometer is correct, will give the temperature both of the mercury
and of the brass scale.
For an inch barometer adjusted to the new conventions the standard
temperature at which both mercury and scale would read correctly is 32°F.
The appropriate corrections are given in Table 2. Here also the temperature
to be used is that of the attached thermometer.
CORRECTION FOR GRAVITY. The barometer reading now has to be corrected
for the variation of gravity from the standard value. Owing to the flattening of
the earth at the poles, the distance of its surface from its centre of gravity is
tSee footnote on page 3.
least in those regions, and greatest at the equator. In addition, the vertical
component of the centrifugal force due to the earth's rotation is greatest at the
equator and decreases to zero at the poles. The force of gravity, therefore,
increases steadily from low to high latitudes. The greater the force of gravity,
the greater will be the weight of a given mass of mercury and hence the smaller
will be the height of the column required to counterbalance a given pressure of
the air. For a barometer adjusted to the old conventions, standard gravity is
9-8062 m/s2, which is very nearly the force of gravity at mean sea level in latitude
45°. The height of the mercury column is accordingly corrected to what it would
be in that latitude, the correction being negative in low latitudes and positive
in high latitudes.
At any given latitude differing from 45°, the correction to be applied is
proportional to the mass of mercury forming the mercury column of the
barometer. It is therefore proportional to the height of that column. Table 3
gives the correction at all latitudes and for two readings, 29 and 31 inches.
For a barometer adjusted to the new conventions standard gravity is 9-80665
m/s2 and Table 4 gives the appropriate corrections for each degree of latitude
and for the two pressures, 29 and 31 inches.
REDUCTION TO STANDARD LEVEL. When the barometer reading has been
corrected for temperature, it must next be corrected for height above sea level.
The pressure of the atmosphere at any level is equal to the total weight of all the
air above a plate of unit area, held horizontally at that level. If such a plate were
moved vertically upwards, the total weight above it must decrease by the weight
of the column of air through which the plate had passed, and the pressure
would fall accordingly. Thus, a barometer reading of 30 inches at sea level
would fall to about 28-9 inches at 300 metres, and to about 21 inches at 3000
metres. The barometer reading must therefore be reduced to a standard level, and
for altitudes of not more than a few hundred metres above sea level, the standard
adopted is mean sea level. As the weight of a given volume of air decreases as
the temperature rises, this correction depends not only on the height above mean
sea level, but also on the temperature of that air (see Table 5). The temperature
to be used for this table is that of the dry bulb in the screen, i.e. the temperature
of the atmosphere at the time of measurement.
Besides these corrections there is also the index correction to be applied.
EXAMPLE. In latitude 51°N, the barometer reads 30-240 inches at a height of 11 metres
above sea level. The attached thermometer reads 60°F, the dry bulb in the screen reads 58°F,
the index correction is + 0-005, and the date of the NPL certificate is 1.6.53.
Inches
Uncorrected reading ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30-240
Index correction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... + 0-005
30-245
Temperature correction for 60°F (Table 1) ... ... ... ... ... ... — 0-085
30-160
Gravity correction in latitude 51 °N (Table 3) ... ... ... ... ... + 0-016
30-176
Height correction for 11 metres at air temperature of 58°F (Table 5) ... ... + 0-039
Corrected barometer reading ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 30-215

There are simple formulae by which approximate values of the temperature

and height corrections can be obtained without tables. As these may sometimes
be useful, they are shown in Table 11.
Corrections to Millibar Barometers
CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND GRAVITY. As previously explained, the
standard conditions for millibar barometers were changed from gravity 9-8062
m/s2 and temperature 285°A to gravity 9-80665 m/s2 and temperature 0°C
(273°A) with effect from 1 January 1955. The temperature corrections for
barometers conforming to the old conventions, i.e. with NPL certificates
dated 31 December 1954 or earlier, are given in Table 6 and those for new
barometers, i.e. with NPL certificates dated 1 January 1955 or later, in Table 7.
The corresponding gravity corrections are given in Table 8 (old barometers)
and Table 9 (new barometers). These tables are all similar in form to the corre­
sponding tables for inch barometers and require no further explanation.
REDUCTION TO STANDARD LEVEL. Corrections for reducing the barometer
reading in millibars to mean sea level are given in Table 10 for various heights
up to 50 metres and dry-bulb temperatures in degrees Celsius.
The index correction as given in the NPL certificate must also be applied.

EXAMPLE. In latitude 27°N, the barometer reads 1017-3 mb at a height of 16 metres above
sea level. The attached thermometer reads 298°A, the dry bulb in the screen reads 25°C,
the index correction of the barometer is -h 0-3 mb and the date of the NPL certificate is
20.2.57.
mb
Uncorrected reading ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1017-3
Index correction ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... + 0-3

Temperature correction for 298°A (Table 7) .

Gravity correction in latitude 27°N (Table 9)

1011-7
Height correction for 16 metres at air ttmp. of 25°C (Table 10) ... ... ... + 1-8
Corrected pressure at m.s.l. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1013-5

The correction slide. Meteorological Office marine barometers are fitted with
a correction slide. This attachment makes the use of tables unnecessary for the
reduction and correction of millibar barometer readings. (See Figure 3.)
A sliding piece, movable by rack and pinion, and mounted beside the
attached thermometer, carries two scales; the lower, alongside the mercury
column of the thermometer, is marked 'Correction to Barometer', and the
upper, 'Height above Water Line'. Alongside the upper scale is mounted a
strip of metal on which is engraved a 'Latitude Scale'. On the other side of the
latitude scale there is engraved, on the upper part of the 'Attached Thermo­
meter Scale', an 'Index Scale'. The Latitude Scale is fixed in such a position
relative to the Index Scale as to allow for the index error of the instrument and
should not, therefore, be moved. The whole slide is clamped to the barometer.
There are a number of older-pattern scales in use in which the Index Scale
is omitted but these are adjusted for index error of the instrument before issue.
Before reading the barometer, adjust the correction slide so that the height of
the barometer above the water line, on the appropriate scale, coincides with the
latitude of the ship on the latitude scale. The correction to be applied to the
barometer reading is then read off in line with the top of the mercury column in
the thermometer.
 CONVERSION OF INCHES TO MILLIBARS
A table for the conversion of barometer readings in inches to millibars is
given as Table 14. In certain instances abroad, barometric pressures given in
millimetres may be encountered. No table is given for the conversion of milli­
metres to millibars as the conversion may be made very simply by increasing
the pressure in millimetres by one-third. For example, 750-0 mm is very nearly
equal to 1000-0 mb.
In barometers graduated with both millibar and inch scales, and made
before 1 January 1955, the uncorrected readings taken at the same time will
not be comparable. The reason for this is that the millibar graduation is con­
structed to give the true atmospheric pressure at its standard temperature of
about 285°A (12°C) at sea level in latitude 45°, whereas the inch scale is gradu­
ated to give true atmospheric pressure at a temperature somewhat below 0°C
at sea level in latitude 45°. (See explanation on page 7.) The correction for
temperature is different for each scale and it is only when both readings have
been fully corrected that they will agree, on conversion.
In barometers conforming to the new conventions, however, the readings on
the two scales will be directly related by 1000 mb = 29-530 inches, because the
standard instrumental conditions of temperature and gravity are the same.

THE POSITION, SETTING UP, AND CARE OF THE MERCURY

BAROMETER
Position of the barometer. In ships, the mercury barometer is usually situated
in the chart room for practical convenience. The chart room is not always
the best place for the barometer as it is often in an exposed position. Further­
more, the pumping of a marine barometer is reduced to a minimum when the
instrument is near the centre of the ship but, except in small vessels, this is
usually impracticable.
It is not possible to give fixed rules for the precise location of the barometer
as circumstances vary in different ships. The following points, however, should
be observed:
(a) It must be out of the way of unauthorized persons.
(b) It must not be exposed to the direct rays of the sun.
(c) It must not be exposed to suddenly varying conditions of temperature
due to causes within the ship, such as draughts of air from boilers,
engine room, etc.
(d) The lighting should not be such as to cause a glare on the glass surface
of the barometer tube. The light should come from behind or from the
side of the observer.
Setting up the barometer. The mercury barometer is supported so that it
swings in gimbals and therefore tends to remain vertical when the ship is rolling.
In order to give the instrument room to swing, it is supported by a suspension
arm, hinged at one end. The hinged end can either be screwed to a bulkhead
or shipped into a socket screwed to a bulkhead. The height of the suspension
arm should be such that the top of the mercury at its highest probable position
is just below the height of the eye of an average observer. A barometer that is
too high is almost certain to cause errors of parallax. (See Figure 18.)
8
 260

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3. The correction slide. Both these types may still be found
 (a)

FIGURE 4. Stowage of the Kew-pattern marine barometer

03
*

FIGURE 5. The marine open-scale barograph. A description appears on pages 16-18

FIGURE 6(a). General view of Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2
Note housed static vent on left side of instrument beneath cap

FIGURE 6(6). Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2. View of interior

 -30

-20

-10

(«) (c)

FIGI KI 7. Thermometer, and air and sea protectors

FIGURE 8. The portable marine screen
 INDICATOR MK.5
MO. REF MET. 21806
(b)

FIGURE 9. The distant-reading equipment Indicator Mk 5. A description appears on page 27

 (a) (b)
FIGURE 10. FIGURE 11. FIGURE 12.
The canvas sea-temperature bucket The rubber sea-temperature bucket MET 1800 The rubber sea-temperature bucket Mk 3a
(a) Assembled for flight (6) View with covers removed
FIGURE 13. The British radiosonde Mk lib
FIGURE 14. Cup generator anemometer Mk 4 with wind vane, dials and recorder
 r holograph by It. R. Ynli-

FIGURE 15. Cup generator anemometers and wind vanes in an ocean weather ship
FIGURE 16. Solarimeter (pyranometer) on board an ocean weather ship. The front of the
mounting is open and shows the silica gel container connected by a tube to the solarimeter.
The pendulum part of the gimbal mounting is also seen below. The white horizontal guard
plate (305 mm in diameter), which is normally fitted around the solarimeter in the plane of the
base of the glass dome, has been removed for the purpose of this photograph.
 The socket having been screwed to the bulkhead, the instrument should be
carefully lifted, the hinged part of the suspension arm bent back at right angles
and shipped into the socket so that the longer portion of the suspension arm is
horizontal. The mercury should then fall gradually and the instrument will be
ready for observation in about two hours; this also allows time for the instru­
ment to take up the temperature of its surroundings. Sometimes in a new tube
the mercury does not readily quit the top of the tube. If, after an hour or so,
the mercury has not descended, tap the cistern end rather sharply, or make the
instrument swing a little in its gimbals, which should cause the mercury to fall
in the tube. If this method does not succeed, the force of the tap must be slightly
increased, but undue violence must not be used.
Figure 4 shows a marine barometer (a) housed in its case when in harbour and
(b) in sea position. The case should be firmly secured to the bulkhead. The
socket is screwed near the bottom of the case and a clip 'A' is provided to hold
the barometer in its housed position when in port. (Note.—the short screws
holding the socket in the box are insufficient to hold the weight of the barometer
when in the sea position. These short screws should be replaced by longer ones
at least 4 cm, screwed through the socket and box and into the bulkhead.
A hook should be fitted to secure the lid open while at sea.
Taking down the barometer. Whenever a barometer has to be unshipped
and placed in its box, first lift the instrument out of its socket and bring it
gradually into an inclined position to allow the mercury to flow very gently
up to the top of the glass tube, avoiding any sudden movement which would
cause the mercury to strike the top of the tube with violence. The absence of
air in the tube makes the force of the blow little different from that of a solid
rod of metal, so that it might break the tube. The barometer should then be
taken lengthwise and laid in its box. To be carried with safety it should be held
with the cistern end upwards or lying flat and it must on no account be subject
to jars or concussions, which might cause air to find its way into the upper end
of the tube, even if they did not damage the instrument.
Care of the barometer. The barometer should be kept clean and dry. The
gimbal screws should be examined occasionally, as they are usually made of
brass and in the course of time may wear through, owing to the movement of
the instrument at sea, particularly in small ships. Dust, particularly on the
correction slide, should be removed by gently brushing the instrument with a
camel-hair brush or a soft cloth. Metal polish should never be applied. A very
little clock oil or log oil may occasionally be used for lubrication.
If the rack and pinion of the correction slide become very stiff they may be
overhauled as follows. Remove the slide from the barometer and place it face
downward. A small brass block securing the pinion in position will then be seen.
Remove this by taking out the four screws. Wipe the pinion and its bearing
with a soft rag to remove dirt and old oil; apply a little fresh clock oil. Now
remove the four small screws, two at each end of the rack. The slider can then
be taken out. Wipe off all dirt and old oil from the rack and bearing surfaces.
Put a drop of fresh clock oil on the rack and on the back of the slider. Re­
assemble, taking care to see that the pinion is properly engaged in the rack
before tightening the screws. The slider should then move up and down quite
smoothly.
The screws which secure the latitude scales should not be touched during
this operation.
 READING THE MERCURY BAROMETER
Temperature of the instrument. This is read to the nearest whole degree on the
scale of the attached thermometer. The observation should be made immediately
on reaching the instrument in order that the thermometer should be affected
as little as possible by bodily heat radiated from the observer.
Height of the mercury column. After the temperature of the barometer has
been read, the barometer may be touched with the hand, but care should be taken
to do this as lightly as possible. Tap gently with the finger until the tapping no
longer affects the shape of the mercury surface in the tube. Turn the milled
head at the side of the instrument until the lower edge of the vernier and the
lower edge of the sliding piece at the back of the instrument, which moves with
the vernier, when in line, appear just to touch the uppermost part of the domed
surface of the mercury.
A white background, e.g. a piece of white paper placed behind the instru­
ment, is an advantage. An electric torch can be used to illuminate the back­
ground but do not use a naked light as this may lead to an inaccurate setting.
If the mercury is not perfectly pure, it may happen that, when the barometer
is falling, the top of the mercury column no longer shows a domed (convex)
surface. The surface may be flat or even concave. The exact setting of the
vernier is much more difficult under these conditions. The observer should
move the vernier slowly downwards, keeping its lower edge and the lower edge
of the sliding piece at the back in line as well as he can, till the white background
just disappears at the centre of the tube. He should then move his eye a little
up and down to make sure that the white background still remains invisible at

1060—I

990-

Reading IOl27mb
FIGURE 17. Reading a millibar barometer, using a vernier scale. The reading is 1012-7 mb
10
the centre of the tube, before he takes the reading. In this case a bright white
background, for example a piece of white paper held behind the top of the
mercury column, is almost essential.
Figure 17 illustrates the process of reading the vernier, which is read in the
same way as that of a sextant. The illustration shows a millibar barometer, the
reading being 1012-7 millibars.
Accuracy of reading. It is important that barometer readings for transmission
by radio or for entry in a meteorological logbook be carefully made. An err­
oneous pressure reading may considerably mislead a forecaster, and the error
may have serious consequences for ships at sea, particularly in tropical storm
areas. Some possible sources of error are shown below.
ERROR DUE TO THE CORRECTION SLIDE BEING IMPROPERLY SET. In all CaSCS the
correction slide (see page 7) should be reset before reading the barometer. This
is particularly important where the ship is changing her latitude.
ERRORS DUE TO PARALLAX. If the eye is not in line with both the bottom of the
vernier and the sliding piece at the back, the reading will be incorrect owing to
errors of parallax. Whether the eye is too high or too low, the reading will be
too high. If the eye is too high, only the front of the vernier can be seen and
this will be in line with the top of the mercury column and the eye. If the eye is
too low, the sliding piece at the back of the vernier will be in line with the top
of the mercury column and the eye, the lower front edge of the vernier being
indistinguishable. (See Figure 18.)

Back of Cursor

Cursor
Horizonhal plan

FIGURE 18 Errors due to parallax

Correct position of the observer Incorrect position of the observer
The eye of the observer and the lower edges In neither case is the eye of the observer in
of the front and back of the cursor are all in a the horizontal plane tangent to the meniscus,
horizontal plane tangent to the meniscus. and the result in both cases is too high a
reading.

ERRORS IN READING THE MAIN SCALE. The simplest error that can be made in
reading the barometer is that of making an actual mistake of 10 mb or 1 mb;
such an error is usually due to making a mistake in counting the number
of divisions on the fixed scale. The only means of guarding against such errors
is care. After a reading has been logged it should be checked to make sure
that no misreading has been made. In making the first reading, attention
should be concentrated on the accuracy of the last figure (tenths of a millibar);
in the check reading attention should be concentrated on the figures of higher
value.
ERROR DUE TO WIND. It has been found that strong winds, blowing near the
barometer, may affect the indicated pressure. When such winds are blowing
during a observation, therefore, the doors of the charthouse in which the
barometer is hung should be kept closed. This applies just as much to the lee
door as to the weather door.
11
 ERROR DUE TO CHANGE OF DRAUGHT. A change in height above the water-line
after loading or unloading, is sometimes overlooked. In some ships the differ­
ence in pressure readings between the light and loaded draught could approach
1-Smb.
ERRORS DUE TO PUMPING. When a ship is in a seaway, the mercury of the
barometer may oscillate up and down in the barometer tube. This is termed
'pumping' and is due to the following causes :
(a) Oscillations of the mercury caused by the pitching and rolling of the
ship.
(b) Oscillations caused by the swinging of the instrument about its point
of support.
(c) The eifect of wind gusts on the air pressure of the room in which the
barometer is hung.
(d) Variations of atmospheric pressure caused by the change of height of
the ship due to her vertical motion on the waves.
The mean reading should be recorded, to obtain which the vernier should
be set by eye midway between the highest and lowest positions of the mercury
column. The pumping is often very irregular, and in order to get an accurate
mean the observer is advised to take three pairs of readings, one of each pair
being the highest reading obtainable and the other the lowest. The result
recorded is the mean of the whole set. Thus, if observations obtained were as
follows:
Highest Reading Lowest Reading
1007-6 mb ... ... ... 1006-5 mb
1007-5 mb ... ... ... 1006-6 rnb
1007-7 mb ... ... ... 1006-6 mb
the mean reading would be 1007-1 mb.

THE ANEROID BAROMETER

The aneroid barometer consists of a circular metallic chamber exhausted of
air and hermetically sealed. Variations of atmospheric pressure produce varia­
tions in the dimensions of the vacuum chamber and these changes are magnified
mechanically, optically or electrically so that the atmospheric pressure may be
read on a convenient scale. The principle of the aneroid barometer was first
suggested in 1698 but no useful instrument was constructed until 1843.
The majority of aneroid barometers indicate the pressure by means of a
pointer which rotates around a graduated dial. The vacuum chamber, usually
called the aneroid capsule, has to provide the force needed to move the pointer
and this prevents it from responding freely to pressure variations. This type of
instrument is useful in showing pressure changes and some of the better quality
instruments are suitable for all pressure readings. The aneroid has the advantage
that, unlike the mercurial barometer, it does not suffer from 'pumping' although
it does rise and fall slightly with change of height of the ship in the waves of a
seaway.
Precision aneroid barometer. The Meteorological Office has now adopted,
as its standard instrument, a type of precision aneroid barometer in which
the force required to operate the indicating mechanism is provided by the
observer, allowing the capsule to respond freely to pressure changes. The sensing
element is a stack of three disc-type aneroid capsules fixed to the inside wall
12
of a cast metal box. Some magnification of the capsule movement is provided by
a lever, pivoted on jewelled bearings. One end of the lever is kept in contact
with the capsule by means of a light hairspring and a micrometer screw, which
extends through the case and actuates a digital counter, is brought into contact
with the other end of the lever by the observer. Contact is indicated by a small
cathode-ray tube; a continuous line of light indicates that contact is made
and a broken line of light indicates that the circuit is broken. When the micro­
meter screw is set so that the contact is just broken the digital counter indicates
the pressure in millibars and tenths. The box containing the aneroid capsules
is completely air-tight except for one hole, and that orifice is fitted with a
damping device which restricts the response of the instrument to the rapid
pressure variations caused by the rise and fall of a ship.
The Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2 (as shown in Figures 6a and 6b) is
the type issued to Voluntary Observing Ships.
INSTALLATION OF THE MK 2 ANEROID BAROMETER. The installation of the
barometer on board ship should be carried out by the Port Meteorological
Officer. It should be mounted on a mounting plate on a fore-and-aft bulkhead.
When this has been done the damping cap should be fitted. Firstly unscrew the
Static Vent (Figure 6a) reverse it and screw it back in finger-tight making sure
that the O ring on the static tube beds firmly.
READING THE MK 2 ANEROID BAROMETER. Press the black switch button. If the
thread of light in the Cathode Ray Indicator is broken, turn the knob so that
the pressure reading decreases until the thread becomes continuous. When the
light is continuous turn the knob so that the pressure reading increases until the
thread of light just breaks. This should be repeated a second time to avoid any
error due to overshooting. The pressure should be read in the window when the
light breaks. If parts of two figures show equally in the tenth-of-a-millibar
position the odd number should be taken.
The pressure as read must be corrected to mean sea level. Firstly apply the
correction from the calibration correction card supplied with the barometer and
secondly apply the correction given by Table 10. This must be done for all
observations.
MAINTENANCE OF THE MK 2 ANEROID BAROMETER. The only maintenance
required is the renewal of the battery. When the indicator thread becomes dim
and it is difficult to see whether or not it is broken the battery should be changed.
REMOVAL OF BATTERY. The battery cover is a plastic disc on the right-hand
side of the barometer. Press it gently inwards and rotate it slightly anti-clockwise
and it can be removed. Lever the spring clip from the top contact of the battery
and remove the battery, insert a new one and then push the spring clip on to
the terminal. Replace the plastic cover by pressing in gently and rotate it
slightly clockwise. The battery should last for about 12 months.
Corrections to aneroid readings. Aneroid barometers of good quality are
compensated, by the manufacturers, for such changes in temperature as they
are likely to experience, either by leaving a calculated small amount of air in
the vacuum chamber, or by the use of a bimetallic lever. Such aneroids, there­
fore, do not require correcting for temperature. No aneroids require correcting
for latitude, as the principle on which they are based is the balancing of atmos­
pheric pressure by the elasticity of metal, so that the force of gravity does not
come into the picture. The only corrections which should be applied to an
aneroid reading ate those for altitude (see Tables 10 and 11) and where necessary
for index error.
13
 FIGURE 19. Schematic drawing of Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2
Aneroid capsule Counterbalance I Gearing BI Battery, 1 -5 V
assembly Sliding electrical J Knob EI Voltage converter
B Pivoted bar contacts Vj 'Magic-eye' indic­ R! Resistance
C Hairspring Mechanical ator type DM70 R 2 Resistance
D Micrometer-type contacts Sj Switch
spindle and nut H Counter
 Precautions necessary with an aneroid barometer. The instrument should be
placed where it is not liable to sudden jars which may alter its index correction,
rapid changes of temperature and where the sun cannot shine directly on to it.
Dial aneroids should be tapped gently before a reading is taken as the pointer
is liable to stick. This is not necessary with the digital precision aneroids.
All aneroids require careful comparisons with barometers whose accuracy
can be relied on, as changes in the elasticity of the metal of which the vacuum
chamber is composed may cause appreciable variations in the index correction.
Such changes are rare in good quality instruments. Every opportunity should be
taken when the vessel is in harbour of making a comparison with a reliable
barometer. With a Precision Aneroid Barometer Mk 2 the damping cap should
be removed before making a comparison with a check barometer. Comparisons
against a mercury barometer while the ship is at sea are not likely to be satis­
factory as the readings of a mercury barometer on a rolling ship cannot be
considered as reliable for this purpose.
All Port Meteorological Officers and many harbour and mercantile marine
offices have a standard barometer which is available for such comparisons.
A record should be kept of all barometer comparisons; this will be useful in
assessing the reliability of the instrument and the correction to be applied to
dial aneroids when at sea.
Adjustment of aneroid readings. The reading of a dial aneroid may be cor­
rected, if desired, by means of the adjusting screw at the back. Whenever such
an alteration of the index correction is made, the fact should be noted, with the
date. Such adjustments should, however, only be made if the index correction
becomes too great; small changes in the index error of the instrument should be
allowed for by altering the correction to the applied readings. No attempt
should be made to alter the setting of the Meteorological Office digital Precision
Aneroid Barometer Mk 2.

THE BAROGRAPH
A typical barograph is shown in Figure 5. It is constructed on exactly the same
principle as the aneroid barometer, but records its readings by the movement
of a pen over a suitable chart.
To increase the movement through which the pen travels in response to
pressure changes, the vacuum chamber takes the form of either a number of
individual capsules or one large chamber with corrugated walls. The bottom
of this vacuum chamber is anchored to the instrument base while the top is
connected to the pen arm through a series of levers which still further magnify
the movement by pressure changes and which can be arranged to compensate
for temperature changes. The variation of volume of the vacuum chamber is
thus translated into a vertical movement of the pen arm. This pen arm carries a
pen filled with special ink and pressure changes are presented as a mark on a
chart attached to a clockwork-operated drum. This pressure is recorded as a
continuous line whose height at any point represents the pressure at the time it
was recorded. This record is known as a barogram.
The barograph is a valuable adjunct to the barometer aboard ship in pro­
viding a continuous record of atmospheric pressure between the times at which
the barometer was read.
15
 The barograph is not a precision instrument and should never be used as an
alternative to the barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure at fixed times.
Its advantage is that it provides a graphical record of fluctuations of pressure,
together with the times at which they occur, such as the moment of passing of a
line squall and its readings are valuable to the meteorologist and to the mariner
for various practical purposes.
The open-scale barograph. Barographs may be made in various scales of size,
the smaller being more convenient when space is limited. In such smaller instru­
ments the vacuum chamber and the clock drum are themselves smaller, and the
pressure changes recorded on the chart are of a correspondingly reduced scale.
To report barometric tendencies with the accuracy required for synoptic
meteorological observations, it is desirable that larger, and hence more open
scaled barographs be used. Records from such barographs, when carried on
board ships, may, however, be unsatisfactory because, due to their greater sensi­
tivity, the trace is not a fine line but a ribbon of appreciable width, resulting
from vibration, pressure changes from gusts of wind and from the movement of
the ship. Because of this, an oil-damped open-scale barograph (Meteorological
Office Marine Mk 2) is used aboard British Selected Ships. In this instrument
the vacuum chamber is contained in a brass cylinder filled with oil which, to
compensate for changes of volume of the vacuum chamber, must pass through
a small orifice. In this way short time-period changes are damped out and only
the major persistent changes shown on the chart. As a further precaution
against vibration the instrument is mounted on rubber pads.
Care of the barograph. The barograph is a delicate instrument and must be
handled carefully. Friction between the working parts of the apparatus must
be avoided as far as possible. The bearings should be cleaned occasionally and
oiled with good clock oil, care being taken to remove excess of oil.
Friction occurs between the pen nib and the paper on which it writes. The
pressure of the pen nib on the paper should be reduced to the minimum con­
sistent with a continuous trace; this pressure should be tested from time to
time.
In the open-scale barograph now in use the pen arm which carries the pen
nib is suspended like a gate and it is so arranged that the slope of the gate
bearings is adjustable. It is thus possible to regulate the pressure of the pen nib
on the chart. In Figure 5, A denotes the gate suspension which is suitably
adjusted before issue.
Excess of ink in the pen nib should be avoided. Do not let ink come in
contact with the metal pen arm which carries the pen nib as this will cause the
pen to adhere firmly to the pen arm so that it cannot be removed and cleaned.
The ink may also cause the metal to become brittle and break. Should the pen
arm become inked, it should be washed and slightly oiled. A thin, clear trace
on the chart should be aimed at. The pen nib should be washed from time to
time in water or methylated spirit. The point of the pen nib should be fine, so
as to give a narrow trace, but it must not be so fine as to scratch or stick to the
paper. A new pen nib may be improved by drawing the point once or twice
along an oil stone, but any oil should afterwards be removed. The pen nib should
be filled with ink weekly, using the ink-bottle and filler supplied.
The barograph, when used on board ship, should be located in a position
where it will be least affected by concussion, vibration or movement of the ship.
Setting of the barograph. The barograph is set to give the correct mean-sea-
level reading by comparison with the reading of the mercury barometer or
16
precision aneroid, after the latter has been corrected to give mean-sea-level
pressure.
In the type of barograph shown in Figure 5, the setting is made by adjusting
the height of the fulcrum of the principal lever B by means of the milled head
screw C on the central bridge. In other instruments the adjustment is made by
raising or lowering the point in the base plate to which the lowest of the set of
aneroid boxes is fixed. This is done by means of a milled-head screw on the base
plate near the aneroid boxes.
Standardizing the barograph. Like the aneroid barometer, and for the
same reason (the possibility of changes in the elasticity of the metal of which the
vacuum boxes are composed), the readings of the barograph should be com­
pared at least once a week with those of a mercury barometer, duly corrected.
The most suitable time is when the weekly chart is changed, and the reading of
the barometer, together with the date and Greenwich Mean Time (GMT),
should be entered up on the chart. If the ship does not carry a barometer, every
other opportunity of making such a comparison should be taken.
Adjustments to the barograph should not be made too frequently, but only
if its readings become appreciably different from those of the barometer, and
a note of the adjustment should be made on the chart, giving time and date.
The barograph clock and chart. The barograph may be fitted with various
clocks which will rotate a drum quickly or slowly as desired, round which the
chart is fixed. For many applications a rotation in 24 hours will be necessary to
show up the small-scale features of pressure changes but, for most uses at sea,
the clock chosen will rotate once per week. The chart must therefore be changed
weekly, the clock being wound at the same time. Before removing the chart
from a small barograph the pen arm must first be moved away from the chart
by means of the lever provided. On open-scale barographs the pen arm auto­
matically lifts off the chart when the lid is lifted. Before the new chart is put on
the drum, the date and time should be entered on it in pencil. Time marks should
be made each day at 1200 GMT and just before the chart is removed, the
times being entered on the chart, for the purpose of correcting the time scale
should the barograph clock run fast or slow. The barograph should be kept
to GMT throughout the voyage. For the purpose of making time marks,
barographs have a small button on the outer case which, when depressed,
acts on a rubber roller (D in Figure 5), which slightly moves the pen arm
vertically.
Before fixing the chart on the drum, the latter must first be lifted from the
clock by removing the key and unscrewing the milled nut which holds the drum
in place. The chart is then placed round the drum where it is held in position
by two short spring clips that hold its bottom and top edges. When fixing on
the drum, care must be taken that the horizontal lines printed on the chart are
parallel to the flange at the base of the drum. As the length of the chart is slightly
greater than the circumference of the drum, there is some overlap when the
chart is put on the drum. The last portion of the chart should come on top of
the first portion, so that if the chart is not changed at the end of seven days, the
pen will not catch on the edge of the chart and tear it, or damage itself.
The drum is then replaced on the clock and the whole is rotated till the pen
records the correct GMT. In order to avoid time errors that might be caused
by backlash in the teeth of the clock gears, the final movement of the drum,
when setting it, should be in the opposite direction to that in which it normally
rotates.
17
 THE CHANGE OR TENDENCY OF THE BAROMETER
The change or tendency of the barometer, always a valuable observation to
seamen, is also of considerable value to the forecaster.
The barometric tendency, by international usage, is denned as the change in
the barometric pressure in the last three hours. It is required in radio weather
messages and is read off from the barograph. The position of the pen on the
chart at the time of observation, and the reading of the trace three hours earlier,
should be noted, if possible to the tenth of a millibar. The difference between
these two readings will give the tendency. It should not be taken as the difference
between two readings on the barometer, but should always be read off from the
barograph, since the barograph method is less liable to error, and anyway the
barometer is not customarily read every three hours at sea. Also, mistakes in
reading a barograph are more likely to be detected, owing to the continuous
availability of the trace.
It is essential that the barograph trace should be fine and sensitive, with the
instrument free from mechanical faults such as sticking, and as far as possible
not vitiated by the effects of vibration, or of unequal heating due to sunshine or
nearby sources of heat.
Allowance for course and speed. To estimate the true tendency of the
barometer reported from a ship under way, a meteorological service needs to
allow for course and speed, and, therefore, in a ship's weather report provision
is made for reporting the course and speed of the ship. This allowance for the
course and speed of the ship should not be made by the observer on board ship
when reporting tendency in a weather message. This allowance can be readily
made at the meteorological office ashore when the observations are studied by
forecasters or processed by computers.
The characteristic of the barometric tendency. This is the name given to the
coded description of the nature of the changes the pressure has undergone in
the last three hours. It is generally required in ships' weather reports, and is
read off from the barograph trace. The diagrams in Figure 20 show the various
pressure changes that might have to be reported, together with the code figures
to be used in reporting them.
The codes to be used in reporting the barometric tendency and characteristic
are given, with other codes, in the Ships' Code and Decode Book (Met. O. 509)
and in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Vol. 3.
The diurnal variation in the pressure. Superposed upon its irregular variations
due to changes in the weather, the barometric pressure has a regular rise and
fall twice a day, the maximum values occurring at about 10 and 22 hours and
the minimum values at about 04 and 16 hours, local time. In temperate regions
the amplitude of these diurnal variations is comparatively small, so that they are
usually lost in the much greater irregular variations of these regions, but nearer
the tropics, the amplitude of the diurnal variation increases and the magnitude
of other changes in general decreases, so that the diurnal variations become very
marked and can be clearly seen, day after day, on a barograph chart. In these
regions, therefore, barometric changes do not indicate changes in the weather,
unless they remain considerable after the diurnal variation has been discounted.
Tables have been prepared for the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans,
between latitudes 0° and 20°, N or S, showing the corrections for diurnal
variation to be applied to the observed pressure to reduce it to the mean for the
day, and the average values of the barometric change in an hour, throughout
18
 Code Pressure now,
Figure Trace Description of Curve compared with
3 hours ago
/•N
0 Xs Rising, then falling
Rising, then falling
The same
Higher
x- Rising, then steady
1 | Higher
Rising, then rising more slowly

2 -<x Rising, (steadily or unsteadily) Higher

o'
^—
Falling, then rising
3 Steady, then rising Higher
Rising, then rising more quickly

4 Steady The same

5 \x Falling, then rising The same

v"
\x Falling, then rising Lower
Falling, then steady
6 [ Lower
Falling, then falling more slowly

7 XX Falling (steadily or unsteadily) Lower

$
Steady, then falling
g Rising, then falling [• Lower
Falling, then falling more quickly

FIGURE 20. Code numbers used to indicate the characteristic of barometric tendency

the day, due to the diurnal variation. These tables are given in the meteorological
text of the appropriate Admiralty sailing directions. Corresponding figures do
not differ greatly from one ocean to another or between north and south
latitudes and have been averaged in this handbook to give values that will be
approximately correct in any ocean for the two bands of latitude 0°-10°, N or S,
and 10°-20°, N or S. These values are shown in Tables 12 and 13 (see also
Figure 21). In the tropics, should the barometer, after correction for diurnal

—— Lot. o°-IO°NorS N
Lot.lO°-20°NorS

FIGURE 21. Mean diurnal variation of pressure

19
variation (Table 12) be as much as 3 millibars below the monthly normal for
the locality, the mariner should be on the alert, as there is a distinct possibility
that a tropical storm has formed, or is forming. A comparison of subsequent
hourly changes in his barometer with the corresponding figures in Table 13, will
show whether these changes indicate a real further fall in pressure and, if so, its
amount.
When the observer on board ship is reporting barometric tendency, or entering
it up in his log, he should not correct it for changes due to normal diurnal variation.
This correction, like the correction for course and speed of the ship, is made, if
necessary, as a matter of routine by the meteorological office receiving the
observations.

20
 CHAPTER 2
The Measurement of Temperature and Humidity
The temperatures normally measured at sea for meteorology are those of the
air, at the height of the bridge, and of the sea, just below its surface. Humidity,
i.e. a measure of the evaporated water contained in the air, is also required,
but as this is obtained by similar instrumentation, it is included under the same
general heading.
Thermometers. Any device which measures temperature is a thermometer.
There is a wide range of physical phenomena related to temperature, almost
any one of which may be used as a thermometer but the two which will be most
frequently encountered are based on the expansion of a suitable substance
with increased temperature and, similarly, the change of electrical resistance in
a conductor. The simplest, cheapest and most commonly encountered device is
the liquid-in-glass thermometer, the liquid employed being mercury or alcohol.
Such a thermometer consists of a glass tube of very fine bore, at the end of which
a bulb has been blown to act as a reservoir. The whole of the tube and bulb is
filled with the chosen liquid at a high temperature and the open end of the tube
is then sealed. On cooling, the liquid will contract until the tube is only partly
filled by liquid, the exact point reached by the liquid being a measure of the
temperature of the thermometer, and hence, under suitable conditions, of its
surroundings, at any given moment. A scale may now be engraved on the tube,
or thermometer stem, to allow actual temperature to be read.
The thermometer was invented at approximately the same time as the
barometer. Galileo made a crude kind of thermometer in which the liquid
was open to the air. True thermometers were first brought into general use
by the Grand Duke Ferdinand II of Tuscany who is said to have possessed
such instruments in 1654. The liquid used in these early thermometers was
alcohol.
While mercury is the most satisfactory liquid for general thermometric use,
thermometers intended for very cold climates contain pure alcohol. The reason
for this is that mercury would solidify at the low temperatures of polar regions.
Mercury freezes at about - 39°C (- 38°F) while alcohol freezes only at - 130°C
(- 202°F), though it becomes a thick liquid and therefore useless for thermo­
metric purposes at - 90°C (- 130°F).
Thermometers employing the electrical change of resistance due to tempera­
ture give no direct visual indication but must be placed in an electrical circuit
which will enable the resistance and hence, from previous calibration, the
temperature, to be measured. Such thermometers usually are constructed from
a length of fine wire, drawn from a material such as platinum, tungsten etc.,
which is ductile and will not corrode with time. For meteorological use, a
spool of such wire is permanently enclosed in a small-diameter metal cylinder,
for protection.
Graduation of thermometers. The earliest known graduation of a thermo­
meter was that made in 1701 by Sir Isaac Newton, who divided the range of
temperature between the freezing point of water and the temperature of the
human body into twelve degrees.
21
 Later scientists used as fixed points the temperature of a mixture of salt
and ice, and the boiling point (at standard pressure) of water. The SI unit of
temperature is the kelvin (symbol K), widely used in scientific work. It is defined
as the fraction 1/273-16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point
of water; the triple point of a substance being the pressure-temperature con­
dition, unique for a given substance, at which the substance may exist in the
solid, liquid or gaseous state. On this scale water freezes at 273-15 K and boils
(at standard pressure) at 373-15 K. For normal use the Celsius (known as the
centigrade) temperature (symbol °C) has also been approved by the International
Committee on Weights and Measures. It is defined as:
t = T-T0

where t = Celsius temperature, T = thermodynamic temperature in kelvins,

and T0 = 273-15 K. On this scale water freezes at 0°C and boils (at standard
pressure) at 100°C. It is the official scale for the measurement of all meteorolog­
ical temperatures.
The Fahrenheit scale (symbol C F), once in general use in the English-
speaking world, now rapidly becoming obsolete, had two fixed points; zero
was taken as the temperature of a mixture of salt and ice and 100 as the temper­
ature of the human body. This gave the freezing point of water as 32°F and the
boiling point (at standard pressure) as 212°F. For a time the Meteorological
Office used a scale of temperature called 'Absolute' which approximated to the
scale now called the kelvin. The symbol was °A. On this scale the water froze at
273°A and boiled (at standard pressure) at 373°A. This scale may still be found
on older mercury barometers and in some correction tables.
Conversion of thermometer scales. To convert Celsius readings to Fahrenheit
use the following rule: Multiply by 9/5 and add 32. Similarly, to convert from
Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 and multiply by 5/9. From Fahrenheit to
kelvin (formerly known as Absolute), proceed as for Celsius and add 273-15.
Table 20 gives the values on the Celsius and kelvin scales corresponding to each
degree Fahrenheit, from 0°F to 119°F.
Scale markings. Thermometer scales can take various forms. As the
liquid-in-glass thermometer is particularly fragile, it is usually protected in some
way or other, and the scale is often incorporated in this protection. In the standard
Meteorological Office sheathed thermometer (Figure 8a) the scale is engraved
directly upon the thermometer stem, the back being coloured to allow easy
reading. The thermometer stem is then enclosed in an outer glass tube, which adds
to the strength of the whole and protects the scale from erosion. In this case the
thermometer is therefore read through the outer glass tube. In other instances the
basic glass thermometer is partially enclosed with a wood and metal protecting
frame, to which is attached a separate scale, engraved on a flat white surface. In
such cases the thermometer itself will carry a more simple scale, without numbers
to indicate the true temperature. This is done to ensure that the thermometer has
not moved with respect to the fully engraved scale, and this point should
be frequently inspected when such thermometers, now rather obsolescent, are
used.
Electrical thermometers are usually read by dial and pointer, the pointer
either being operated by the resistance thermometer electrical circuits or by
manually setting to achieve a prescribed effect—the 'zeroing' of a secondary
pointer, or by the lighting or extinction of electric lamps.
22
 Reading the thermometer. The thermometer should be read with care.
Though the Fahrenheit scale is graduated only to whole degrees,* the reading
on both Celsius and Fahrenheit thermometers should be given by estimation to
the nearest tenth of a degree. This is not only necessary for general accuracy but
also for practical reasons, i.e. the computation of relative humidity and the
dew-point (see page 26), and the determination of the difference between air and
sea surface temperatures. In some coded radio weather messages, however, the
temperature is required only to the nearest degree.
When reading a thermometer, care should be taken to keep the eye at the
same level as the end of the column, otherwise there will be an error due to
parallax.
The mercury column of a thermometer occasionally separates in one or more
places. The thermometers should therefore be examined before each observation
to see if the column is continuous. If there is any break in the column, take the
instrument down, swing it briskly at arm's length with the bulb end away from
you till the column is again continuous, and replace it. After this, give the
thermometers another 10 minutes to pick up the correct temperatures again,
before taking the observation. With the alcohol-in-glass thermometer some
alcohol may flow into the upper end of the tube unless the thermometer is
stored with the bulb end downwards.
Thermometers should be kept clean. In damp weather any moisture should
be removed from the dry bulb a little while before taking the reading. The
graduations on the glass of mounted thermometers may in time become in­
distinct. Since the marks are cut in the glass, a rub with an ordinary lead pencil
or a wipe over with Indian ink will make the graduations clear again.
For all types of liquid-in-glass thermometer it is best always to store in a
vertical or near vertical position and never with the bulb higher than the end
of the stem. In consequence a spare thermometer is most conveniently retained
in its box, which can be conveniently located in a rack or a clip which will hold
it in a vertical position.

THE DRY- AND WET-BULB THERMOMETERS

An instrument for measuring the humidity of the air is called a hygrometer.
There are several kinds of hygrometers, but the form in common use, the dry-
and wet-bulb thermometers, also known as Mason's hygrometer or a psy-
chrometer, is the simplest and is described below.
Of the two thermometers contained in the thermometer screen, no more
need be said of the dry-bulb for measuring air temperature, beyond ensuring
that it is secured firmly into the clips provided. The operation of and attention
to the wet-bulb thermometer requires a little further description.
Operation of a wet-bulb thermometer. The evaporation of water requires
heat, the 'latent heat of evaporation'. This is derived from the surroundings—
the air, the water itself and/or from the thermometer used for the measurement.
The faster the evaporation the greater the demand for latent heat and hence the
greater will be the cooling of the surroundings. However, the rate of evaporation
under any particular circumstance will be determined by the dryness of the
surrounding air, the air temperature and the rate at which air flows past the

•Ships' Celsius thermometers are graduated in half degrees.

23
thermometer. A measure of humidity, i.e. the degree of dryness or wetness of
the air, can thus be obtained by wetting a thermometer and noting the degree to
which it is cooled. In practice it is both inconvenient and unnecessary to wet the
whole thermometer—wetting the bulb alone will suffice. The bulb itself is thus
enclosed in a small muslin bag, tied on by means of a wick, the other end of
which is placed in a small water container placed beside the thermometer.
Capillary action will then ensure that the muslin is kept wet, and the cooling
action of evaporation can then be measured by reading, firstly, the dry-bulb
thermometer, then the wet-bulb thermometer and by subtraction, the differ­
ence, the 'wet-bulb depression'. The third requirement is knowledge of the
rate of the air flow. A value has been assumed so that, from the air temperature
and wet-bulb depression, a reasonably correct measure of humidity may be
obtained from the tables provided. This combination of a dry- and wet-bulb
thermometer is known as a psychrometer.
Air can contain only a limited amount of evaporated water, according to its
temperature. When this point is reached, no further evaporation will take place
and the wet-bulb thermometer will read the same as the dry-bulb thermometer.
The air is then said to be saturated. If the air becomes drier, the rate of evapora­
tion increases and the wet-bulb temperature falls. The depression of the wet-
bulb can reach over 20°C (36°F) in a hot dry climate, such as that of Khartoum
during part of the year. It sometimes amounts to 10°C (18°F) in England, but at
sea the difference seldom reaches 5°C (9°F). When the humidity of the atmos­
phere is high, during or just before or after rain, when fog is prevalent, or when
dew is forming, there is little or no evaporation and the two thermometers give
the same, or very nearly the same reading.
We may sum up the facts about humidity and the dry- and wet-bulb
thermometers as under:
Humidity Evaporation

High ... Weak ... Dry and wet bulbs read almost the same.

Low Intense . . . Wet bulb reads much lower than dry.

Muslin and wick for wet bulbs. The wet-bulb thermometer needs careful
attention in order to get correct readings. The bulb of this thermometer should
be covered with a single thickness of thin clean muslin or cambric, which is kept
moist by attaching to it a few threads of darning cotton dipping into the small
reservoir of water placed near it.
From the muslin provided, a small piece should be cut, sufficient to cover the
bulb, and should be stretched smoothly over it, creases being avoided as far as
possible. The muslin is kept in place by attaching the cotton wick in the follow­
ing way. Take a round turn in the wick, with the strands middled on the bight,
and pass the ends through the bight, forming a round turn and cow hitch. Any
superfluous muslin or loose ends should then be trimmed off (Figure 22a).
Muslin caps ready threaded with cotton are sometimes supplied. These are
slipped over the bulb, and the thread is then pulled tight and tied (Figure 22b).
The strands should be long enough to reach two or three inches below the
lowest part of the bulb, in order that their lower ends can be immersed in the
water vessel, but not long enough to hang in a bight, or water will drip from the
wick at the lowest point of the curve until the reservoir is emptied.
24
 FIGURE 22. (a) Wet bulb with ordinary muslin and wick (6) Muslin cap

Precautions necessary in taking wet-bulb observations. To get correct readings

the muslin must be damp, but not dripping. If it is too wet, the reading of the
thermometer will be too high. If it is not wet enough, the reading will again be
too high. The former defect may be cured by cutting down the number of
threads supplying moisture to the bulb. Take care, however, that this remedy
does not make the muslin too dry.
It is important that the water should be pure. Ordinary water contains
substances in solution and, if such water is used, as it evaporates it deposits
these substances on the thread and muslin; the free flow of water to the muslin
and its evaporation therefrom are checked, and the thermometer may read too
high. Moreover, the rate of evaporation from impure water may differ appreci­
ably from that for pure water. It is therefore desirable that distilled water
should be used. This may be available from the ship's radio office, but is liable
to become contaminated with acid in the course of a voyage. If, therefore,
sufficient distilled water can be collected from the ship's radio office at the
commencement of a voyage, this should be used. If distilled water is not
available, condenser water from the engine-room may be used.
The muslin should be changed at least once a week and more often if it be
dirty or contaminated by salt spray. The presence of salt in the water will cause
the thermometer to read too high and, if any spray has reached the instrument,
the muslin and wick should be replaced by new ones. It is advisable to do this
in any case after bad weather. If it is found that an encrustation of lime or other
impurity has formed on the thermometer bulb, this should be scraped off. A
note should be made in the 'Remarks' column of the meteorological logbook
whenever the muslin is changed.
After the muslin has been changed, some time must be allowed to elapse
before observations are resumed. This is to ensure that the proper degree of
wetting has been achieved and that the thermometer and wetted muslin have
attained the properly balanced temperature.
Wet-bulb temperature higher than dry-bulb. If the reading of the wet-bulb
thermometer is above that of the dry-bulb, first make sure that the readings were
25
correct. Then ensure that the muslin and thread are moist but not too wet and
that the dry bulb is indeed dry. (If the latter has to be wiped, allow it to cool to
the air temperature before a second reading.) If no fault is found, book the
temperatures as they have been read and note in the 'Remarks' column that
the reading has been checked, the muslin and thread examined, and that the
ventilation is adequate.
Except as a result of a defect, it is impossible in normal circumstances for the
wet bulb to read higher than the dry if a temperature is steady, and if the wet
bulb is above freezing point (see below). If the temperature is changing, how­
ever, one of the thermometers may be more sensitive than the other and follow
the temperature changes with less lag. Under such circumstances it is possible
that the wet-bulb thermometer may sometimes be found to be reading higher
than the dry bulb. In such a case the wet bulb should be taken as correct and the
dry-bulb reading adjusted to equality with the wet bulb. If this phenomenon
occurs frequently and the fault cannot otherwise be traced, it may lie in one of
the thermometers. These should be examined and if there is nothing obviously
wrong the spare thermometer should be brought into use to replace the first one,
and then (if necessary) the other thermometer, till satisfactory observations are
again obtained.
Wet-bulb readings during frost. During frost, when the muslin is thinly
coated with ice, the readings are still valid because evaporation takes place from
a surface of ice as freely as from one of water. If the muslin is dry it must be
given an ice coating by wetting it slightly with ice-cold water, using a camel-hair
brush or by other means. The water will usually take 10 to 15 minutes to freeze.
Excess of water must not be used as it takes much longer to freeze and will also
not give accurate readings. After the wetting of the muslin, the temperature
generally remains steady at 0°C (32°F) until all the water has been converted
to ice. It then begins to fall gradually to the true ice-bulb reading. No reading
must be recorded until the temperature of the ice bulb has fallen below that of
the dry bulb and remains steady. Dry windy weather may cause the ice to evap­
orate completely before the time of the next reading, in which case the procedure
of wetting the bulb must be gone through again. The original coating of ice will
give satisfactory results as long as it lasts.
It must be pointed out that supercooled water may exist on the wet bulb
at temperatures well below freezing point and that, if this is not noticed by the
observer, serious errors will occur. The freezing can be started by touching the
wet bulb with a snow crystal, a pencil, or other object.
Measures of humidity. Dew-point and relative humidity can be obtained
from the readings of the dry and wet bulb.
The dew-point is the temperature at which dew would begin to form on the
bulb of the thermometer if the air were cooled down, the amount of water vapour
in it remaining unchanged. Tables 15 to 18 give the dew-point for dry-bulb
temperatures and depressions of the wet bulb. The depression of the wet bulb
is the difference between the dry- and wet-bulb readings. The amount of this
depression depends on the ventilation to which the wet-bulb thermometer is
subjected and Tables 15 and 17 are to be used for observations in which the
thermometers are exposed in the standard marine screen. Since the amount
of evaporation from ice and water surfaces is not the same, lines are ruled in
the tables to call attention to the fact that above the line evaporation is going
on from a water surface while below the line it is going on from an ice surface.
Intermediate figures must therefore be obtained by extrapolation.
26
 In order that values of the wev-bulb depression of the necessary accuracy shall
be available, it is especially desirable at low temperatures that the thermometers
should be read to the tenth of a degree. This is because dew-point changes
rapidly at low temperatures with changes in wet-bulb depression.
The relative humidity is the amount of water vapour actually present in the
air, expressed as a percentage of the amount the air would contain at that
temperature if it were saturated. Table 19 gives the relative humidity for dry-bulb
temperature and depression of the wet bulb. In the British Meteorological
Office a relative humidity of 95 per cent is taken as a guide in determining
whether to report mist or haze (see tables on page 44).

ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETER MK 2

The electrical resistance of platinum wire varies in a known way with changes
of temperature. This characteristic is used in electrical resistance thermometers.
Thin platinum wire in the form of a helix is enclosed inside a highly conductive
ceramic former which is further encased in a close-fitting stainless-steel tubular
sheath for protection. A plug of epoxy resin is placed in the head of the thermo­
meter to prevent ingress of moisture to the platinum element. Electrical leads
are brought through the head of the thermometer for connection to a suitable
device to measure the change in resistance.
The Meteorological Office Resistance Thermometer Element Mk 2 has a
diameter of 6 mm and a stem length of approximately 100 mm with a sensing
length of 25 mm at the lower end of the stem. The thermometer is of the four-
lead type, two of which are used for lead-compensation purposes.
When used as a wet-bulb thermometer a special tight-fitting tubular wick is
fitted. Although the sensing part of the thermometer is located in the lower
part, the full length of the stainless-steel stem conducts heat and it is essential
that the wick is pushed up as far as possible, completely covering the stem, to
ensure accurate wet-bulb readings.
The thermometers are generally used connected to the Meteorological Office
Electrical Thermometer Indicator Mk 5, which is to be replaced by a digital
readout thermometer indicator at a later date.
Electrical Thermometer Indicator Mk 5. Basically the indicator consists of
an electrical a.c. balanced bridge circuit which is used to compare resistances.
For temperature measurements the resistance of a remote Electrical Resistance
Thermometer is compared with that of a precision resistor, known as the reference
resistor. The difference is measured by means of a precision potentiometer and a
temperature reading is taken from a suitably calibrated dial integral with it.
The dial is calibrated from + 50 to - 50°C. Compensating leads are used to
balance the resistance of the leads connecting the remote thermometer to the
indicator.
The indicator and resistance thermometers will normally be installed by
Meteorological Office technicians. If temperature is to be measured accurately
the variable resistors in the electrical bridge must be carefully set to match
individual thermometers and leads, and this can only be carried out with the
correct test equipment. The user must not reset any variable resistors or change
any thermometer or lead.
An illustration of the Electrical Thermometer Indicator Mk 5 is shown in
Figure 9. Switch (a) is the on/off switch, switch (b) selects the thermometer to
27
be used, with positions 1 to 6 for thermometers on long leads and 7 to 8 for
thermometers on short leads. The electrical bridge inside the indicator is
balanced by turning knob (c) and the balance indicated by the neon lamps (d).
The temperature is read directly in degrees Celsius from the clock-type dial
integral with knob (c). Switch (e) is used when checking the accuracy of the
electrical bridge and for setting up the brightness of the neon balance indicator;
it is normally left in the 'USE' position.
Operating the indicator:
(1) Use switch (b) to select the required thermometer.
(2) Make sure that switch (e) is in the 'USE' position.
(3) Press switch (a) and allow 10 seconds for the bridge to warm up.
(4) If the bridge is unbalanced one neon indicator will be on and the other
off. If the right-hand neon indicator is off turn knob (c) clockwise, if the
left-hand neon is off turn knob (c) anti-clockwise; the bridge is balanced
when both neons are on.
(5) The temperature is read directly in degrees Celsius from the dial integral
with knob (c). The small hand makes one revolution for 100°C (- 50
to + 50°C) and the large hand makes one revolution for 10°C. Each
numbered division for the small hand is therefore 10° and for the large
hand 1°. If the small hand is to the right of zero the temperature is
positive and must be read clockwise from the black figures. If the small
hand is to the left of zero the temperature is negative and must be read
anti-clockwise from the red figures. Although it is possible to read the
tens and units figures from the small hand and the units and tenths
figures from the larger hand, it is, in practice, better to read the tens
figure from the small hand and the units and tenths figures from the
larger hand.

THE MARINE SCREEN

Exposure of thermometers. No matter how accurate a thermometer may be,
it can do no more than indicate its own temperature. It is therefore essential
that the thermometer is in correct contact with the medium whose temperature
it is to measure, in order that it may 'share' its true temperature, and that it is
protected from any extraneous source of heat. When measuring the air tempera­
ture, particular problems arise on this score, in that the thermometer must
be shielded from the heat radiated by the sun, the sea and from the ship itself,
yet at the same time the air, which is itself transparent to such radiated heat,
must be allowed to flow freely past the thermometer. Even when not in use no
normal meteorological thermometer, for whatever purpose it is supplied, must
ever be exposed to full sunlight for more than a moment or two, and when
stored, should be kept in its box.
A thermometer screen is used to shield the thermometer from external
radiation, yet allowing an adequate flow of air.
Design of thermometer screen. There are several acceptable designs of
thermometer screens, although only one is regarded as the Meteorological
Office standard marine type. The essential features of any such screen, which at
present is made of wood, are that the vertical walls are composed of louvres or
28
'jalousies', constructed so that no direct radiation can reach the thermometers
but allowing relatively free air flow to reach the thermometer, while in addition
vertical ventilation is permitted through the slotted floor and through holes
in an inner roof. Hence, should the air within the screen become warmer or
colder than its surroundings, it may rise or sink, and be replaced by outside air
of the correct temperature. Such screens are painted white as a further pre­
caution against radiation. Screens should be repainted when necessary and a
watch should be kept for possible rotting of the woodwork, particularly in the
lower corners. Marine screens will normally contain two thermometers, the
dry bulb and the wet bulb.
Position of marine screen. The screen should be placed in the open air and,
for convenience in reading the thermometers, about 1-5 metres above the deck.
It may be exposed in sun or shade, preferably slung from an awning spar or ridge
rope, so as to have an unimpeded circulation of air flowing through it. It
should be out of the way of unauthorized persons; it must not be exposed
to suddenly varying conditions due to causes within the ship, such as draughts of
air from boilers, engine-room, etc. The lighting at night should be so arranged
that it cannot affect the temperature of the thermometers. By day or by night
the light should come from behind or from the side of the observer. The
thermometer screen is usually placed on the bridge.
The position of the thermometer screen requires great attention. It cannot
be too strongly emphasized that the temperature of the free air is required, not
of that affected by heat from the ship. The most suitable location is where the
air will come direct on to the screen from the sea before passing over any part
of the ship. The ship is a source of local heat; radiation takes place from the
hull and from sunny decks, deck houses, etc., especially in the tropics. Radiation
of heat, or warm draughts of air, may be felt from galleys, engine and boiler
rooms, stokehold and funnel. The thermometer screen should be as far as
possible removed from all such sources of local heating which will tend to cause
false air temperatures, particularly on days when the relative wind is light. The
choice of the bridge will avoid some of these sources of heating.
The position of the screen may need changing with shifts of wind or altera­
tions of course. When not in use it may be stowed as most convenient.
Setting up the thermometers. Sheathed thermometers are held in place by
means of three clips. The thermometers should not be allowed to touch the floor
of the screen but if they slip down through the clips a rubber grummet (obtainable
from Port Meteorological Officers) should be placed over the thermometer,
resting above the top or bottom clip. The plastic water bottle is held in place with a
plastic or metal clip.

ASPIRATED AND WHIRLING PSYCHROMETERS

The system of measuring humidity by means of dry- and wet-bulb thermo­
meters contained in a louvred thermometer screen assumes that the design of
the screen controls the internal air flow between limits usually taken as 2-4 knots.
Although in the open air the assumption appears reasonably correct, there wil!
be occasions when greater accuracy is needed or, for temporary observations, a
thermometer screen cannot be erected. Moreover the assumption will rarely, if
ever, be true if temperatures and humidities are to be measured in confined
spaces, for example within the hold of a ship.
29
 The difficulty is overcome by artificially ventilating the thermometers at a
controlled rate. Such thermometers are said to be 'aspirated'. Aspiration is
performed by a fan which, operated by electric or clockwork motor, or even by
hand (at a controlled speed) will draw air over the thermometers at a known
rate. Aspirated thermometer systems include their own shield against direct
radiation. An even more simple system ensures adequate ventilation by whirling
or rotating the thermometers by hand at a controlled rate, the thermometers
being mounted in a suitable holder to permit this. Such hand-held psychrometers
are normally provided with no precautions against radiation whatsoever and
must therefore be used only in the shade. This is also desirable in the case of the
mechanically aspirated psychrometer.
As the rate of ventilation produced by aspirated and whirled psychrometers
differs from that assumed to prevail in the static thermometer screen, different
hygrometric tables must be employed, and the greatest care must be taken to
ensure that the tables appropriate to the method are in fact used. Tables 16 and
18, at the end of this book, are those correctly employed with aspirated and
whirling psychrometers. As with Tables 15 and 17, lines are ruled to draw
attention to the fact that above the line evaporation is taking place from a
water surface, while below the line it is occurring from an ice surface. Inter­
polation of readings must therefore not be made between figures on different
sides of the line.

THE APPLICATION OF HYGROMETRIC OBSERVATIONS IN THE

CARE AND PROPER VENTILATION OF CARGO
Sweating, or the deposition of moisture, is a frequent cause of damage, both
to cargo and to the internal structure of a ship, and it is desirable to keep a
record, not only of the temperature and humidity of the outside air through
which the ship is passing, but also of the temperature and humidity of the air
in each hold, as far as this is practicable. Although deductions from such data
will vary according to the nature of the cargo and the construction of the ship,
experience of these observations should help the seaman to judge whether, at
any particular time, his cargo and the structure of his ship are in danger of
damage by moisture and whether conditions are likely to be improved, or the
reverse, by ventilation.

SEA TEMPERATURE
The routine meteorological requirement is for observation of sea-water temper­
ature taken from near or just below the surface. The precise depth is not specified
but any one of several methods is regarded as adequate. These methods are:
(a) by obtaining a sample by bucket;
(b) by thermometer immersed in the sea or in proximity to the sea;
(c) by engine-room intake temperature.
Bucket method. From a slow-moving ship having a bridge height of up to
about 10 metres it is comparatively easy to draw a sample of sea water on board
30
by almost any form of bucket strong enough to withstand the water pressure
while being towed. A thermometer may then be inserted and the water tempera­
ture measured. Small buckets made of double-skinned canvas or rubber are very
suitable for this purpose. Single-skinned canvas buckets are not suitable because
any evaporation from the sides of the bucket would lower the temperature of the
water sample.
The problem of getting a sea-water sample with a bucket becomes increas­
ingly difficult as ships' size, speed and height of bridge are increased. Canvas
buckets are so light that they would obviously be unsuitable for a fast ship from
a high bridge. Even if not torn away on entry into the sea, little water would
remain by the time it had been drawn up to deck level and the bucket's life would
be very short. A smaller and somewhat heavier bucket made of rubber reinforced
by canvas is now supplied to all British Voluntary Observing Ships. This bucket
is little more than a closed length of rubber hose and it is suitable for taking
sea temperatures in almost any ship, but a complete solution of successfully
using a bucket regardless of the size and speed of ship has yet to be found.
Extensive trials with this rubber bucket have shown that the temperature of the
water sample changes very slowly after it has been hove on deck.
The small rubber buckets described above were originally designed to con­
tain a thermometer which was lowered and immersed in the sea with the bucket
itself. A high rate of thermometer breakage was experienced and the policy now
is to immerse the thermometer into the sample of sea water when the bucket
is drawn up on deck. There is in fact little disadvantage in this: whether the
thermometer is immersed in the sea or inserted later, it will do no more than
measure the temperature of the sample at the moment of observing.
Whichever type of bucket is used, it should be swung as far out as possible to
avoid the shallow layers of water close to the hull which have been warmed by
the ship itself. Probably the best way of getting the water sample is to use the
bucket as though one were taking a cast of the hand lead. On entering the water
the bucket should submerge quickly and cleanly. If drawn along the surface, a
fault to which some designs are particularly prone, it will be filled with spray,
possessing some temperature intermediate to that of the sea and that of the air.
On being withdrawn, a thermometer should be inserted into the sample
immediately. This should be done in the shade; direct sunlight, in addition to its
direct effect upon the thermometer, can warm the sea-water sample very quickly.
Individual thermometers are calibrated either for complete immersion into
the medium whose temperature is to be measured, or for contact through the
thermometer bulb alone (e.g. clinical thermometers). Meteorological thermo­
meters are invariably of the former class and, if not large, would give rise to
unacceptable errors when the air/sea temperature differences are large. In
consequence the whole thermometer should be covered by the sea water without
touching either the sides or bottom of the bucket. Devices which hold the
thermometer within the bucket may be available, but otherwise it should be held
at the extreme end by finger tip, without actually letting the fingers (which are a
source of heat) enter the sample. With the large canvas bucket the thermometer
should be moved with a slow stirring action. After immersion for about one
minute the thermometer should be withdrawn just sufficiently to allow the scale
to be read, the bulb and as much of the stem as possible being left immersed.
Almost any meteorological thermometer may be used for this purpose.
Where special support frames called sea protectors (Figure 7b) are employed
for use with the canvas bucket (Figure 10) the thermometer must be of suitable
31
dimensions, but otherwise it is convenient to use the type common to those
employed for dry- and wet-bulb observation.
After use, the thermometer should be dried and returned to its box for
careful storage with the bulb end downwards.
Distant-reading thermometers. There would obviously be many advantages
in measuring temperature by means of a distant-reading instrument while the
thermometer bulb was actually immersed in the sea. In its most simple form such
a device would be lowered by cable alongside the ship and readings taken in­
board while it was towed. There are, however, certain difficulties in such a
method. It is difficult to control the depth of such a device or even ensure that it
enters the water at all and does not merely skip along the surface. The strain of
towing upon the cable can also be a cause of error in the electrical measurements,
while a freely towed device could damage itself against the side of the ship.
Such devices are still being developed experimentally but no standard generally
usable instrument is yet available.
Some ships, mainly of foreign origin, employ a submerged electrical thermo­
meter attached to the hull of the ship, indicating its observations by cable to the
bridge. This is most convenient, but the thermometer, even though partially
protected, is vulnerable to damage by flotsam or when in dock and the hull
itself must be pierced to allow entry of the cable.
A method evolved by the Meteorological Office and installed in a few
modern ships is somewhat similar but places the thermometer inside the hull,
measuring the sea temperature by conduction through the ship's side plating,
the principle being that steel is such a good conductor that it transmits the
temperature of the surrounding sea water. The thermometer, which is in the
form of a small, thin, printed electrical resistance circuit little bigger than a
postage stamp, is fixed to the inside of the hull in a forward and unheated
compartment of the ship at a point a metre or so below the normal water-line.
The system which requires the whole plate to change temperature with that of
the sea, has a long tirpe lag, and is thus unaffected by short-period roll or pitch,
but would be invalidated if the position of the thermometer were raised above
sea level by change in loading. The system demands cabling to the place where
temperatures are to be read, normally the bridge, and installation is therefore
somewhat costly.
Engine-room intake temperatures. The temperature of the engine-room intake
water can be taken as a measure of sea-water temperature either by thermometer
or by thermograph. To an extent dependent on the individual ship, the accuracy
will be questionable although the method is very convenient and may well be
the only one possible (in the absence of the hull thermometer described above)
when the bucket method cannot be used because of rough seas, too great a ship
speed or a bridge too high above the water. The errors arise from the
varying depth from which the water is drawn as the ship rolls or pitches and the
risk of pre-heating as the water passes through pipes at or close to engine-room
temperature or through oil and water tanks on the inside of the hull. A sample
of the intake water may be drawn off by tap, the subsequent procedure being
that described in the bucket method above, or the temperature measured by a
thermometer installed within the intake pipe. In the latter case the thermometer
will usually be inserted in a pocket formed within the pipe, and the main prob­
lem which then arises is of assuring good thermal conductivity. One of the
disadvantages of using intake temperatures is the liability to error due to
having to telephone the thermometer reading from the engine-room to the
32
bridge. Obviously it would be possible to have a distant-reading arrangement
so that the intake temperature could be read on the bridge but this would be
an expensive arrangement.

THE MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

Solar radiation (the electromagnetic radiation from the sun) is the prime
driving force of all atmospheric disturbances so it is important to measure the
energy from this source received at different parts of the globe, both on land and
at sea. This radiation consists of a large range of wave-lengths, but three broad
categories can be recognized:
(a) Wave-lengths too short for the eye to see, known as ultra-violet radiation.
(b) Wave-lengths to which the eye is sensitive, known as light.
(c) Wave-lengths too long for the eye to see, known as infra-red radiation.
At sea the measurement is usually of the total energy in all these wave­
lengths which fails on a unit horizontal area. About half the energy measured is,
in fact, light and the remainder is either ultra-violet or infra-red radiation. In
the absence of cloud or an atmosphere all the solar radiation would, of course,
come only from the direction of the sun and the remainder of the sky would be
dark, but in natural conditions a considerable portion of the energy is received
as diffuse or scattered radiation. When the sky is overcast all the radiation
received is diffuse.
The instrument in general use in the Meteorological Office for measuring
solar radiation is a Moll-Gorczynski solarimeter or pyranometer (see Figure 15).
It is a horizontal thermopile (with the surface blackened to increase absorption)
with alternate thin strips of manganin and constantan, one set of junctions
being along the centre line of the surface (the active junctions) while the remain­
ing junctions are in good thermal contact with the relatively massive supporting
posts, which are insulated electrically but not thermally from the base plate.
When radiation falls on this thermopile the temperature of the centre is raised
and a small voltage (some millivolts) is produced between the leads, this voltage
being recorded as described below. The thermopile is shielded by two glass domes
and the outer one needs to be wiped clean whenever necessary—particularly of
spray deposits at sea; the interior of the instrument is kept dry by silica gel
(in a screw-off holder) which must be renewed when necessary. A white hori­
zontal guard plate, removed for the photograph (Figure 16), is mounted level
with the thermopile surface to help protect the outside of the instrument from
direct radiation.
All the British Ocean Weather Ships have these solarimeters in a special
gimbal mounting, so that the thermopile remains horizontal, and they must
naturally be fitted in as unobstructed a position as possible—normally high on
the bridge. The recording is usually on a chart of a self-balancing potentiometer,
but the Meteorological Office Data Logging Equipment (Modle), now in use at
land stations and aboard the British Ocean Weather Ships, produces a chart,
a digital display and punched paper tape (later to be magnetic tape), the tapes
being processed by the Meteorological Office computer to yield the required
mean values.
Hydrographic survey ships of the Royal Navy, British research ships and
certain British Selected Ships have also been supplied with these special mount-
33
ings; here the recording is mostly by the chart display of a self-balancing
potentiometer, but increasing use is being made of a direct magnetic-tape
recorder, which can be processed by the computer.
Those ships having solarimeters (pyranometers) receive special installation
and maintenance instructions and there is a regular exchange of recalibrated
instruments arranged by the National Radiation Centre of the Meteorological
Office.

34
 CHAPTER 3
General Meteorological Instruments
Instruments have been developed for land stations for the measurement of
almost every meteorological element, with the notable exception of cloud type
and amount. These, being purely subjective observations, can only be assessed
by human interpretation. Unfortunately very few of the instruments designed
for land stations are capable of operating with reasonable satisfaction on board
ship where special problems arise, not only from the motion of the vessel, its
forward movement and exposure to saline spray, but also because of the dis­
turbances created by the ship itself in the surrounding atmosphere.
In consequence, methods suitable for land stations would be at best merely
an unnecessary expense if used at sea, and at worst would soon fail to operate
or give misleading results. For example, a hair hygrograph, an instrument giving
a continuous recording of the relative humidity of the air, relies upon the
change of length of a bundle of human hairs for its operation. In addition to
the adverse effect of ship's movement upon the very light and delicate pen
movement, the existence of salt upon the hairs would seriously affect their
readings.
Pressure, temperature and, to a large degree, humidity have been covered
in the preceding chapters. For general interest the standard instruments for
measuring the other normally observed elements are given below, without
regard as to whether they might, in special circumstances, be adapted for ship
use.
WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION
Anemometer. This consists of cups rotatable about a vertical shaft or a propeller
rotating about a horizontal shaft. When driven by the wind at a speed propor­
tional to wind force, the rotating shaft drives an electrical generator whose
output is itself proportional to the speed of rotation. A voltmeter may thus
be calibrated as wind speed. Anemometers are not normally used aboard
merchant ships because of the difficulty of finding a suitable site and also
because of expense. The British Weather Ships carry two anemometers on a
yardarm, one each side of the main mast at a height of 20 metres above the
water, which seems to be the site furthest from eddying effects. But even here
estimates are made regularly of wind force and direction from the appearance
of the sea as a check on the instruments. (See Figures 13 and 14.)
Wind vane. The wind direction may be directly observed by the position
of the wind vane or remotely read at ground (or deck) level by an electrical
direction transmitter known as a Magslip (for mains power) or a Desynn
(battery operation).
RAINFALL
Rain-gauge. Rainfall is collected over a known horizontal area by means of a
funnel placed over a metal can or glass bottle. The water so collected may be
stored for measurement as a total quantity over an interval of 12 or 24 hours,
or be made to operate one of various recording devices.
35
 CLOUD HEIGHT
Cloud-height balloons. These are small balloons filled with hydrogen to give
them a known rate of ascent. When released from the ground they are timed
with a stopwatch until seen to enter the cloud base. From the rate of ascent and
the time taken the cloud height is then computed.
Cloud searchlight. This method is only available at night. A small searchlight
is projected vertically on to the cloud base and observed from a known distance,
usually about 300 metres. From the point of observation, the apparent angle of
the bright spot where the searchlight falls on to the cloud is observed by alidade,
theodolite or sextant and the height can thus be calculated.
Cloud-base recorder. This is an automatic device in which the same principles
are employed as for the cloud searchlight, in that the angle at which a projected
beam of light meets the cloud is measured over a known baseline. In this auto­
matic instrument, the light is 'modulated', i.e. is interrupted at a known rate,
and a photocell, replacing the human eye, detects only this modulated light
even in the presence of daylight. The cloud-base recorder can thus operate
day or night and will provide a continuous record of cloud height from its
own operation of the angle of sight measured by the photocell system.

UPPER WINDS
Pilot-balloon ascent. Small hydrogen-filled balloons, whose rate of ascent is
predetermined, are followed by optical theodolite. From the observed bearings
the horizontal movement of the balloon, and hence the wind, can be computed
for each layer of the atmosphere through which the balloon passes. This method
is rarely used in routine practice.
Wind-finding radar. This method is similar to the pilot-balloon ascent but
the balloon is followed by radar. In consequence, the upper winds may be
computed even when the balloon is invisible in cloud or fog. The balloon
carries a 'radar reflector' to provide proper radar response. The radar is specially
designed to give precision bearings of azimuth and elevation and accurate
ranges.

UPPER-AIR TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY

Radiosonde. A device carried by hydrogen-filled balloons to make frequently
repeated observations of pressure, temperature and humidity and to signal these
observations to the ground by radio (see Figure 13). The radiosonde is frequently
carried aloft by the same balloon used for radar-winds. Special ground equip­
ment and staff training is usually required to receive and decode the radiosonde
signals. Consequently observations of this kind are not made from British
merchant ships although they are made regularly aboard weather ships.

VISIBILITY
Visibility recorder or transmissometer. Light from a lamp of known output is
transmitted over a prescribed distance parallel to the ground. It is then received
by a calibrated photocell. The degree by which the light has been attenuated by
mist or fog is thus observable. An alternative system, employing the increased
amount of light scattered backwards towards the light when fog exists, is already
in use by Trinity House on lighthouses and light-vessels.
36
 Part II Non-instrumental Observations
Introduction. Non-instrumental observations are very important and, being
estimates, they are dependent upon the personal judgment of the observer.
This judgment is the product of training and experience at sea, together with
practice in making the observations. To acquire a technique of observation,
adherence to the official instructions is essential. The aim of these instructions
is not only to outline a satisfactory method of making observations, but to
impose a standard procedure such that two observers, despite differences in
training, will make approximately the same observation in similar circum­
stances. The assumption that observations are comparable, or made according
to the same procedure, is the basis of synoptic meteorology or of a study of
climate.
Observations from ships are of special importance to the forecaster not only
because they enable him to complete his charts over the oceans, but also because
weather sequences at sea are simpler than those on land. They are therefore
more characteristic of the air masses and hence more useful in the air-mass
analysis that precedes the preparation of forecasts. Numerous instances occur
in which the presence or absence of adequate ship reports has made all the
difference between good and bad weather forecasts. An observer should never
forget that his individual effort, his particular observations, may supply just the
information required to resolve a forecasting problem hundreds or thousands
of miles away.
The making of meteorological observations at sea is attended by many
difficulties that are unknown to the observer on shore. It is in overcoming them
that the experience and training of the mariner are important. These difficulties
largely result from the movement of the ship and the absence of landmarks.

CHAPTER 4

Wind, Weather and Visibility

Wind force and direction. Wind force is expressed numerically on a scale from
0 to 12.* This scale, which originally defined the wind force in terms of the
canvas carried by a frigate, was devised by Captain, afterwards Admiral, Sir
Francis Beaufort in the year 1808 for use in vessels of the Royal Navy. Since
Admiral Beaufort's time, however, so many changes had taken place in the
build, rig, and tonnage of sea-going vessels that in 1874 Beaufort's scale was
adapted to the full-rigged ship with double topsails of that period. With the
passing of sail, this specification meant very little to those who had no experience
in square-rigged ships, and the practice arose of judging wind force from the
state of the sea surface. In 1939 the International Meteorological Organization
agreed to the use of a sea criterion by which the wind force was judged from
the appearance of the sea surface. This specification, brought into use in 1941,
is shown on pages 38 and 39. Photographs showing the appearance of the sea
corresponding to each Beaufort force are given between pages 40 and 41.
*See Note to Table 23.
37
 BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND FORCE

Probable Probable
Mean Limits of height of maximum
wind wind speed waves height of
Beaufort speed in knots Descriptive waves
scale in knots terms Sea criterion in
metres* in
number metres*
Measured at a height
of 10 metres above sea level
Sea like a mirror. — —
0 00 Less than 1 Calm
1-3 Ripples with the appearance of scales are formed but 0-1 01
1 02 Light air
without foam crests.
4-6 0-2 0-3
2 05 Light breeze Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced; crests
have a glassy appearance and do not break.
UJ 7-10 0-6 1-0
oo 3 09 Gentle breeze Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy
appearance. Perhaps scattered white horses.
10 1-5
4 13 11-16 Moderate breeze Small waves, becoming longer; fairly frequent white
horses.
2-0 2-5
5 19 17-21 Fresh breeze Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced long form;
many white horses are formed. (Chance of some spray.)
3-0 4-0
6 24 22-27 Strong breeze Large waves begin to form: the white foam crests are more
extensive everywhere. (Probably some spray.)
4-0 5-5
7 30 28-33 Near gale Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins
to be blown in streaks along the direction of the wind.
Moderately high waves of greater length ; edges of crests 5-5 7-5
8 37 34-40 Gale
begin to break into spindrift. The foam is blown in well-
marked streaks along the direction of the wind.
 BEAUFORT SCALE OF WIND FORCE—continued

Mean Limits of
wind wind speed Probable Probable
Beaufort speed in knots Descriptive height of maximum
scale in knots terms Sea criterion waves height of
number in waves
Measured at a height metres* in
of 10 metres above sea level metres*
9 44 41-47 Strong gale High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction 7-0 100
of the wind. Crests of waves begin to topple, tumble and
roll over. Spray may effect visibility.
10 52 48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging crests. The 9-0 12'5
resulting toam in great patches is blown in dense white
U)
streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole the
surface of the sea takes a white appearance. The tumbling
of the sea becomes heavy and shocklike. Visibility affected.
11 60 56-63 Violent storm Exceptionally high waves. (Small and medium-sized ships 11-5 16'0
might be for a time lost to view behind the waves.) The sea
is completely covered with long white patches of foam
lying along the direction of the wind. Everywhere the
edges of the wave crests are blown into froth. Visibility
affected.
12 — 64 Hurricane The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea completely white 14 —
and over with driving spray; visibility very seriously affected. or over

*These columns are added as a guide to show roughly what may be expected in the open sea, remote from land. In enclosed waters, or when near
land with an off-shore wind, wave heights will be smaller and the waves steeper.
NOTES.—(a) It must be realized that it will be difficult at night to estimate wind force by the sea criterion.
(b) The lag effect between the wind getting up and the sea increasing should be borne in mind.
(c) Fetch, depth, swell, heavy rain and tide effects should be considered when estimating the wind force from the appearance of the sea.
 In using this specification it is assumed that the observation is made in the
open ocean and that the wind has been blowing long enough to raise the
appropriate sea. The possibility of a lag between the wind getting up and the
sea increasing must be considered. The appearance of the sea surface also
depends on many other factors such as the fetch of the wind (i.e. distance from
weather shore), the swell, the presence of tides, and whether or not precipitation
is occurring. These effects should be allowed for before deciding the appropri­
ate number on the scale. Experience is the only sure guide but the following
remarks may be of some use:
(a) A discrepancy between wind and sea occurs frequently close inshore
where winds of a local character are likely.
(b) An off-shore wind does not produce its appropriate sea close inshore
but requires a certain fetch before its full effect is produced.
(c) Swell is the name given to waves, generally of considerable length,
raised by winds at a considerable distance from the point of observation.
Swell is not taken into account when estimating wind.
(d) Tides or strong currents affect the appearance of the sea surface, a
wind against tide or current causing more 'lop'—a weather tide—and the
wind in the same direction as a tide or current producing less disturbance
of the sea surface—a lee tide.
(e) Precipitation, especially if heavy, produces a smoothing effect on the
sea surface.
(f) There is evidence that the height of the sea disturbance caused by a
wind of a particular force is affected by the difference between sea and air
temperatures, the sea being the warmer medium. If this difference
increases, there is an appreciable increase in the sea disturbance, and
vice versa.

Beaufort force can be transformed approximately into wind speed by means

of a table of equivalents included in the specification of Beaufort force given
on pages 38 and 39.
The International Code (used for making meteorological reports by radio)
makes provision for the reporting of wind speed in knots. The observer may
derive this from the table of equivalents, taking the mid point of the range
corresponding with the observed Beaufort force; or, better still, he may inter­
polate according to his own judgment. For example, if the wind is estimated
to be over Beaufort 5 but not quite Beaufort 6, it might be reported as having
a mean speed of 21 knots.
Wind direction is logged as the true, not the compass, direction and is
given to the nearest ten degrees. The exposed position that a ship's standard
compass usually occupies gives a clear all-round view and from it the observer
takes a compass bearing, noting the tops of the waves, the ripples, the spray
and the faint lines that generally show along the wind. It is usually best to look
to windward in judging wind direction, but in some lights the direction is more
evident when looking to leeward.
Meteorologists as well as seamen use the term 'veering' to indicate a change
of wind in a clockwise direction and the term 'backing' to denote a change in an
anticlockwise direction.
Estimation of wind force and direction can often be made in the same way
at night but sometimes on very dark nights it is impossible to see the effect of
40
STATE OF SEA PHOTOGRAPHS, FOR ESTIMATING WIND SPEED
(SEE PAGE 37)
See footnotes on page 39

is*
!•

Photograph by R. R. Baxter (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 0
Wind speed less than 1 kn. (Sea like a mirror.)

Photograph by R. R. Baxter (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 1
Wind speed 1-3 kn; mean, 2 kn.
(Ripples with'the appearance of scales are formed, but without foam crests.)

SEA PLATE I
 Photograph by R. R. Baxter (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 2
Wind speed 4-6 kn; mean, 5 kn.
(Small wavelets, still short but more pronounced—crests have a glassy appearance and do
not break.)

Photograph by R. Palmer

FORCE 3
Wind speed 7-10 kn; mean, 9 kn.
(Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. Foam of glassy appearance. Perhaps scattered white
horses.)

SEA PLATE II
 Photograph by P. J. UVuu'r

FORCE 4
Wind speed 11-16 kn; mean, 13 kn.
(Small waves, becoming longer; fairly frequent white horses.)

Photograph by R. R. Baxter (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 5
Wind speed 17-21 kn; mean, 19 kn.
(Moderate waves, takirg a more pronounced long form; many white horses are formed.
Chance of some spray.)

SEA PLATE III

 Photograph by R. R. Baxter {Crown Copyright)

FORCE 6
Wind speed 22-27 kn; mean, 24 kn.
(Large waves begin to form; the white foam crests are more extensive everywhere. Probably
some spray.)

Photograph by R. R. Baxter (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 7
Wind speed 28-33 kn; mean, 30 kn.
(Sea heaps up and white foam from breaking waves begins to be blown in streaks along the
direction of the wind.)

SEA PLATE IV
 Photograph by R. R. Baxter {Crown Copyright)

FORCE 8
Wind speed 34-40 kn; mean, 37 kn.
(Moderately high waves of greater length; edges of crests begin to break into spindrift. The
foam is blown in well-marked streaks along the direction of the wind.)

•sf-
Photograph by O. R. Bates

FORCE 9
Wind Speed 41^7 kn; mean, 44 kn.
(High waves. Dense streaks of foam along the direction of the wind. Crests of waves begin to
topple, tumble and roll over. Spray may affect visibility.)

SEA PLATE V
 Photograph by Kevin O'Keeffe (Crown Copyright)

Photograph hy 1. Hodkinson

FORCE 10
(The upper and lower photographs illustrate the difference in appearance between
seas viewed along the trough and at right angles Jo the trough respectively.)
Wind speed 48-55 kn; mean, 52 kn.
(Very high waves with long overhanging crests. The resulting foam, in great patches, is blown
in dense white streaks along the direction of the wind. On the whole, the surface of the sea
takes on a white appearance. The tumbling of the sea becomes heavy and shock-like. Visibility
affected.)

SEA PLATE VI
 Photograph by Post Office (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 11
(The1 upper and lower photographs illustrate the difference in appearance between
seas \icwed along the trough and at right angles to the trough respectively.)
Wind speed 56-63 kn; mean, 60 kn.
[Exceptionally high waves. (Small and medium sized ships might be for a time lost to view
behind the waves.) The sea is completely covered with long white patches of foam lying along
the direction of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the wave crests are blown into froth.
Visibility affected.]

SEA PLATE VII

 \

\
Photograph by Post Office (Crown Copyright)

FORCE 12
Wind speed 64-71 kn; mean, 68 kn; the Beaufort Scale actually extends to Force 17 (up to
118 kn), but Force 12 is the highest which can be identified from the appearance of the sea.
(The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea completely white with driving spray; visibility very
seriously affectel;

SEA PLATE VIII

the lighter winds on the sea surface. In such cases the apparent or relative wind
force and direction must be estimated by their effect, i.e. by the 'feel' upon the
face or upon a moistened finger, or by the direction in which the smoke is
blowing. Allowance must then be made for the ship's course and speed. In a
fast ship considerable difference exists between the apparent and true wind
directions. When the wind is astern and of the same velocity as the ship there is
apparent calm on board the ship. In a calm a ship steaming 10 knots will have
an apparent head wind of velocity 10 knots, but as soon as the wind blows
from any direction out of the fore and aft line, the difference between the appar­
ent and true directions will vary with each angle on the bow, and each force of
the wind. The true wind may be obtained from the apparent wind by use of the
parallelogram of velocities, or Table 22 as explained below. In Figure 23 if, for
example, the ship is travelling along the line AB with speed 15 knots and the
wind appears to be coming from the direction DA with speed 29 knots (Beaufort
scale 7), the true direction of the wind is along CA and its speed 18 knots.

B
FIGURE 23. Wind, parallelogram of velocities

This result is easily obtained graphically by drawing the figure, making BA

proportional to 15 and DA proportional to 29, and then measuring DB which is
equal to CA, where ABDC is a parallelogram. The angle CAD, which is the
same as BDA, is measured with a protractor and gives the difference between
the true and apparent directions of the wind. Table 23 enables the conversion
from apparent to true wind to be made by inspection.
In fast vessels the task of estimating accurately the true wind force and
direction is no easy one and special care is required; this applies particularly to
occasions when the wind is very light, and on dark nights.
Anemometers have as yet found only limited use at sea. the chief problem
being to achieve a suitable exposure. The ship disturbs the airflow in its vicinity
with the result that the wind measured by the instrument is not representative
of the true airflow over the open sea. If a portable cup anemometer is used, the
exposure may be varied at will and the best position chosen for any particular
wind direction. The instrument measures 'apparent' wind speed. To determine
the true value, the wind direction must first be estimated and then allowance
made for the speed of the ship.
Wind force and direction, taken alone, do not completely specify the
character of the wind. It is well known that on occasions the wind is particularly
gusty, as in showery weather. Less frequently, definite squalls may occur.
The difference between a gust and a squall is essentially one of time-scale,
a gust being momentary, whereas a squall may last several minutes. It is
F 41
important when making the observations to note any unusual gustiness and the
occurrence of squalls. When the latter occur it is of advantage if the time be
noted together with any sudden change in wind direction. It is of interest to
note that gusts have no appreciable effect in raising waves, whereas squalls
may act for a sufficient length of time to raise a group of waves which tend to
travel with the squall.

WEATHER
For the purposes of the meteorological logbook, the term 'weather' embraces
those elements covered by the 'present weather' and 'past weather' codes, i.e.
fog, precipitation, etc. (See Met. O. 509, Ships' Code and Decode Book.)
For a concise description of weather, Admiral Beaufort devised a system
known as the Beaufort notation. Since 1958 this method has not been used to
record weather at the synoptic hour but it is given below as it provides a handy
way of amplifying the main synoptic report, or of recording the weather between
observations, e.g. duration of precipitation, in the remarks column of the
meteorological logbook for research purposes. It may also be found useful in
the Deck Logbook and in the plotting of weather bulletins.
The present codes are sufficient to describe the weather for synoptic purposes,
and they are also suitable for data processing by computer or by other machine
methods.

The Beaufort notation

Weather Beaufort Weather Beaufort

letter letter
Blue sky (0-2/8 clouded) . b Overcast sky. (The whole sky
Sky partly clouded (3-5/8 covered with unbroken cloud) o
clouded) be Squally weather q
Cloudy (fr-8/8 clouded) . c Rain ..... r
Drizzle .... d Sleet (i.e. rain and snow
Wet air (without precipitation) e together) .... rs
Fog .... f Snow ..... s
Gale .... g Thunder .... t
Hail .... h Thunderstorm with rain or
Precipitation in sight of ship or snow ..... tlr or tls
station JP Ugly threatening sky u
Line squall kq Unusual visibility . V
Storm of drifting snow ks Dew ..... w
Sandstorm or duststorm . kz Hoar frost .... X
Lightning 1 Dry air . y
Mist .... m Dust haze .... z

The system has been extended since Beaufort's day to provide indication
of intensity and continuity. Capital letters are now used to indicate occasions
when the phenomenon noted is intense. On the other hand, occasions of slight
intensity are distinguished by adding a small suffix 'o'.
Thus R = Heavy rain.
r = Moderate rain.
r0 = Slight rain.
42
 The prefix 'i' indicates 'intermittent', thus:
if = Fog patches.
ir0 = Intermittent slight rain.
The prefix 'p' indicates 'shower of, thus:
pR = Shower of heavy rain.
ps 0 = Shower of slight snow.
A solidus '/' is used in 'present weather' to distinguish present conditions
from those in the past hour, thus:
c/r0 = Cloudy after slight rain in the past hour.
Continuity is indicated by repeating the letter, thus:
rr = Continuous moderate rain.
The following are further examples of the use of Beaufort notation:
cs0s0 = Cloudy with continuous slight snow.
oid0 = Overcast with intermittent slight drizzle,
bif = Blue sky with fog patches.
cqprh = Cloudy with squalls and shower of moderate rain and hail,
crrm = Cloudy with continuous moderate rain, and mist.
In past weather the letters are used in the same way but their order from left
to right indicates sequence in time.
Thus 'b, be, cpr' indicates cloudless conditions, becoming partly cloudy,
followed by cloudy conditions with shower(s) of rain.
Precipitation. A distinction is drawn in the present and past weather codes
between rain, drizzle and showers. Showers are of short duration and the fair
periods between them are characterized by clearances of the sky. Showers fall
from clouds having great vertical extent and usually isolated. They do not often
last more than half an hour. Showers are characteristic of an unstable polar
air mass, usually flowing in the rear of a depression, but they are by no means
confined to this situation.
Rain and drizzle fall from overcast or nearly overcast skies. The distinction
between rain and drizzle depends not on the amount of the precipitation but
on the size of the drops. Drizzle is 'precipitation in which the drops are very
small' (diameter less than 0-5 mm). Slight rain, on the other hand, is precipita­
tion in which the drops are of appreciable size (they may even be large drops),
but are relatively few in number. Observers should decide from the size of the
drops whether the precipitation is drizzle or rain, and from the combined
effect of the number and size of the drops whether the precipitation is slight,
moderate, or heavy. The description 'heavy' is relatively rare in temperate
latitudes.
Precipitation is defined as intermittent if it has been discontinuous during the
preceding hour, without presenting the character of a shower. Observers should
cultivate the practice of recording the times of onset and cessation of precipita­
tion.
Fog, mist and haze. Fog, mist and haze have in the past been used, rather
loosely, to describe decreasing degrees of obscurity in the atmosphere. Modern
practice reserves the description 'haze' for occasions when the obscurity is
caused by solid particles such as dust or sea salt. Fog and mist are akin in that
they are both composed of minute water drops and may thus be distinguished
from haze. In practice the distinction is usually made by means of the dry- and
wet-bulb readings. The following table gives the approximate criterion for the
43
reporting of mist and haze at various temperatures. Intermediate values may be
obtained by interpolation. If the depression of the wet bulb is more than about
that shown in the relevant column B, haze should be reported. If the depression
is less, the obscurity should be reported as mist. (A relative humidity of 95 per
cent is used by the British Meteorological Office as a guide to the dividing line
between mist and haze.)

DEPRESSION OF THE WET BULB CORRESPONDING TO A RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF 95%

Column Columns B Column Columns B

A A
Dry Depression, °C Dry Depression, °F
Bulb
°C Stevenson Aspirated Bulb
°F Stevenson Aspirated
screen psychrometer screen psychrometer
40 0-8 0-8 100 1-3 1-4
35 0-7 0-7 90 1-2 1-3
30 0-7 0-7 80 1-2 1-2
25 0-6 0-6 70 1-0 1-0
20 0-5 0-6 60 0-8 0-9
15 0-5 0-5 50 0-7 0-7
10 0-4 0-4 40 0-6 0-6
5 0-3 0-3 32 0-4 0-5
0 0-3 0-3

The further distinction between mist and fog is only one of degree and is
arbitrarily assigned. When the visibility is reduced to less than 1 km or 0-54 n.
mile the obscurity is described as fog; when greater than 1 km it is known as
mist.
Visibility. Although the use of such terms as fog, mist and haze is suitable
for a general indication of the state of visibility in the ww code or in the text
of a ship's logbook, a more precise method is needed in weather messages to
indicate to the meteorologist the degree of obscurity of the atmosphere, irres­
pective of the reason that causes it. On land, observations are made of a number
of selected objects at fixed distances, the distances increasing roughly in such a
way that each distance is nearly double the next smaller distance. The deter­
mination of the most distant object of the series which is visible on any given
occasion constitutes the observation of visibility. At sea such a detailed deter­
mination of visibility is not usually possible, but in making estimates of visibility
a coarser scale is used, as shown below.

VISIBILITY SCALE FOR USE AT SEA

Code Code
figure figure
90 Less than 50 m 95 1-1 n. mile or 2 km
91 50m 96 2-2 n. mile or 4 km
92 0-11 n. mile or 200m 97 5-4 n. mile or 10 km
93 0-27 n. mile or 500 m 98 10-8 n. mile or 20 km
94 0-54 n. mile or 1 km 99 27-0 n. mile or 50 km
Note 1. If the distance of visibility is between two of the distances given in the table, the code
figure for the shorter distance is reported.
Note 2. The prefix '9' before each of the scale numbers appears here because this table is
part of a code for reporting visibility in two figures by radio (see Ships' Code and Decode Book
(Met. O. 509) or Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Vol. 3).

In a long vessel the determination of the lowest numbers offers no difficulty

as objects at known distances may be used. Visibility numbers in the middle
range indicate conditions of obscurity such that the visibility is greater than the
44
length of the ship but is not sufficient to allow full speed to be maintained. The
only means of obtaining observations for the higher numbers of the scale are as
follows. When coasting and when fixes can be obtained, the distance of points
when first sighted, or last seen may be measured, from the chart. In the open
sea, when other ships are sighted, visibility may be estimated by noting the
radar range when the vessel is first sighted visually and again when it disappears
from view. It is customary to use the horizon to estimate visibility numbers in
the higher range although this cannot be relied upon. There are cases of ab­
normal refraction when the visible horizon may be very misleading as a means
of judging distances, particularly when the height of the eye is great, as in the
case of an observer on the bridge of a large liner.
The estimation of visibility at night is very difficult. What the meteorologist
is interested in knowing is the degree of transparency of the atmosphere. But
the distance seen at night depends on the amount of illumination; and the
distance at which a light is seen depends on its intensity or candle-power. If
there is no obvious change in meteorological conditions, the visibility just
after dark will be the same as that recorded just before dark irrespective of
the fact that one may not be able to see as far. A deterioration in visibility can
sometimes be detected afterwards and the visibility figure adjusted accordingly.
In doing this, care must be taken not to confuse the effect of a decrease in
illumination, as for example when the moon sets, with a genuine decrease in
visibility. The presence of a 'loom' around the vessel's navigation lights is
frequen cly a guide to deteriorating visibility.

45
 CHAPTER 5
Clouds and Cloud Height by Estimation
A normal observation of cloud at sea involves :
(a) The identification of the cloud types present.
(b) An estimation of the height of the base of the lowest cloud in the sky.
(c) An estimation of the amount of all cloud of type CL (or CM, if no CL).
The fundamental distinction in structure, which has great significance for
forecasting, is between 'layer' or 'sheet' clouds, and 'heap' clouds, i.e. clouds
with marked vertical development. Examples of the latter are cumulus, some­
times known as the 'wool pack' or 'cauliflower' cloud, and cumulonimbus, the
'thundercloud' or 'anvil' cloud. In the further classification of sheet or layer
clouds the consideration of height is taken into account, but the classification
is not strictly one of height so much as of appearance. The main classification
is into ten types as follows :
Sheet clouds Approximate limits (see also page 52)
f Cirrus (G)~]
•{ Cirrocumulus (Cc) |>Base above 18 000 feet (5500 m)
l^Cirrostratus (Cs)J

fNimbostratus* (Ns)l
<{ Stratocumulus (Sc) j
|^ Stratus (St) j
)>Base below 6500 feet (2000 m)
Heap clouds (with vertical development) j
Cumulus (Cu) |
Cumulonimbus (Cb)J
Descriptions of the different types are given below, f
Cirrus (Ci). Detached clouds of delicate and fibrous appearance, without
shading, generally white in colour, often of a silky appearance. Cirrus appears
in the most varied forms, such as isolated tufts, lines drawn across a blue sky,
branching feather-like plumes and curved lines ending in tufts. These lines are
often arranged in bands which cross the sky in lines and which, owing to the
effect of perspective, appear to converge to a point on the horizon, or to two
opposite points (i.e. polar bands). Cirrostratus and cirrocumulus often take
part in the formation of these bands. Before sunrise and after sunset, cirrus is
sometimes coloured bright yellow or red. Owing to their great height cirriform
clouds are illuminated long before other clouds and fade out much later.
Observation of cirrus at night is difficult but, if thick and extensive, it may be
noted by its dimming effect on stars.
*See footnote on page 51.
fSee after page 56 for cloud photographs. It will be noted that these are arranged in order
of 'Cloud type' according to the specifications of the code for reporting cloud. (Pages 50-52.)
46
 Cirrocumulus (Cc). A cirriform layer or patch composed of small white
flakes or of very small globular masses, without shadows, which are arranged in
groups or lines, or more often in ripples resembling those of the sand on the
sea-shore.
In general, cirrocumulus represents a degraded state of cirrus and cirro-
stratus, both of which may change into it. In this case the changing patches
often retain some fibrous structures in places. Real cirrocumulus is uncommon.
It must not be confused with small altocumulus on the edges of altocumulus
sheets. In the absence of any other criterion the term cirrocumulus should
only be used when:
(a) there is evident connection with cirrus or cirrostratus,
or (b) the cloud observed results from a change in cirrus or cirrostratus.
Cirrostratus (Cs). A thin whitish veil, which does not blur the outlines of the
sun or moon, but gives rise to haloes. Sometimes it is quite diffuse and merely
gives the sky a milky look; sometimes it more or less distinctly shows a fibrous
structure with disordered filaments. Cirrostratus may be observed at night by
noting the slight diffusion of light around each star, whose brilliance is at the
same time dimmed. It is almost impossible to differentiate between thick cirrus
and cirrostratus at night in the absence of moonlight.
Altocumulus (Ac). A layer or patches, composed of laminae or rather
flattened globular masses, the smallest elements of the regularly arranged layers
being fairly small and thin, with or without shading. These elements are arranged
in groups, in lines, or waves, following one or two directions and are sometimes
so close together that their edges join.
When the edge or a thin translucent patch of altocumulus passes in front of
the sun or moon a corona appears. This phenomenon may also occur with
cirrocumulus and with the higher forms of stratocumulus. Irisation or iridescence
is another possibility with altocumulus. (See also pages 97 and 106.)
The limits within which altocumulus is met are very wide. At the greatest
heights, when made up of small elements, it resembles cirrocumulus; alto­
cumulus, however, is distinguished by not being either closely associated with
cirrus or cirrostratus or evolved from one of these types. It is often associated
with altostratus and either form may change into the other.
Two important varieties of altocumulus are 'altocumulus castellanus' and
'altocumulus lenticularis'. Altocumulus castellanus is a variety peculiar to a
thundery state of the atmosphere, and is sure evidence of high-level instability.
In this form individual cloudlets are extended vertically upwards in heads or
towers, like small cumuli. The lenticular variety of altocumulus has clouds of
an ovoid or lens shape, with clear-cut edges and sometimes showing irisations. It
occurs frequently over mountainous country and in 'fohn', 'scirocco' and
'mistral' winds. It may also often be seen after the passage of weak cold fronts.
Altostratus (As). Striated or fibrous veil, more or less grey or bluish in
colour. This cloud is like thick cirrostratus, but does not show halo phenomena;
the sun or moon shows vaguely, with a gleam, as though through ground glass.
Sometimes the sheet is thin with forms intermediate with cirrostratus. Some­
times it is very thick and dark, perhaps even completely obscuring the sun or
moon. In this case differences of thickness may cause relatively light patches
between very dark parts; but the surface never shows real relief, and the striated
or fibrous structure is always seen in places in the body of the cloud. Every
gradation is observed between high altostratus and cirrostratus on the one
hand and low altostratus and nimbostratus on the other. In practice it is
47
important to distinguish between altostratus (thin) through which the sun
or moon is visible and altostratus (thick) which completely obscures the sun
or moon.
Nimbostratus (Ns). A low, amorphous (i.e. without form), and rainy layer,
of a dark grey colour and nearly uniform; feebly illuminated seemingly from
inside. Precipitation from nimbostratus is nearly always 'continuous'; but
precipitation is not a sufficient criterion. Cloud may be described as nimbo­
stratus before precipitation has started. There is often precipitation which does
not reach the ground; in this case the base of the cloud is always diffuse and
looks 'wet' on account of the general trailing precipitation, 'virga',* so that it
is not possible to determine precisely the limit of its lower surface.
Nimbostratus is usually the result of a progressive lowering and thickening
of a layer of altostratus. Beneath nimbostratus there is generally a progressive
development of very low ragged clouds (scud). These clouds are usually referred
to as stratus fractus (St fra).
Stratus (St). A uniform layer of cloud, resembling fog but not resting on the
ground. When this very low layer is broken up into irregular shreds it is desig­
nated stratus fractus (St fra). A veil of true stratus generally gives the sky a
hazy appearance which is very characteristic, but which in certain cases may
cause confusion with nimbostratus. When there is precipitation the difference is
manifest; stratus cannot give the continuous precipitation usually associated
with nimbostratus. When there is no precipitation a dark and uniform layer
of stratus can easily be mistaken for nimbostratus. The lower surface of nimbo­
stratus, however, always has a wet appearance (widespread trailing precipitation
or virga); it is quite uniform and it is not possible to make out definite details.
Stratus on the other hand has a 'drier' appearance and, however uniform it may
be, it shows some contrasts and some lighter transparent parts. Stratus is
often a local cloud and, when it breaks up, the blue sky is often seen.
A common mode of stratus formation is the slow lifting of a fog layer due
to increase in wind speed or warming of the surface.
Stratocumulus (Sc). A layer or patches composed of rounded masses or
rolls; the smallest of the regularly arranged elements are fairly large; they
are soft and grey, with darker parts. These elements are arranged in groups,
in lines, or in waves, aligned in one or two directions. Very often the rolls are
so close that their edges join together; when they cover the whole sky as on the
continent, especially in winter, they have a wavy appearance. The difference
between Stratocumulus and altocumulus is essentially one of height. A cloud
sheet called altocumulus by an observer at a lower height may appear as Strato­
cumulus to an observer at a considerably greater height.
Stratocumulus may form by the spreading out of cumulus. This happens
over land in the evening when the day-time cumulus clouds begin to spread out
prior to dissolving. Another example is when developing cumulus meets a
pronounced inversion layer. If unable to penetrate this layer the cloud spreads
out horizontally in the form of Stratocumulus.
Cumulus (Cu). Thick clouds with vertical development; the upper surface
is dome-shaped and exhibits rounded protuberances, while the base is nearly
horizontal. When the cloud is opposite to the sun the surfaces normal to the

*Latin; Virga—streak, bough or broom.

48
observer are brighter than the edges of the protuberances. When the light comes
from the side the clouds exhibit strong contrasts of light and shade; against the
sun, on the other hand, they look dark with a bright edge. True cumulus is
definitely limited above and below, and its surface often appears hard and clear-
cut; but one may also observe a cloud resembling ragged cumulus in which
the different parts show constant change. This cloud is called cumulus fractus
(Cu fra). Cumulus, whose base is horizontal, clear-cut and generally of a grey
colour, has a uniform structure, that is to say it is composed of rounded parts
right up to its summit, with no fibrous structure. One of the species of cumulus,
cumulus congestus, can produce abundant precipitation in the tropics. As
cumulonimbus generally results from development and transformation of
cumulus, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish cumulus with great vertical extent
from cumulonimbus. If it is not possible to decide on the basis of other criteria,
the cloud should, by convention, be called cumulus if it is not accompanied by
thunder, lightning or hail.
Cumulus having but small vertical development and little individual extent
is known as 'fair-weather cumulus' to distinguish it from the ordinary 'large
cumulus'.
Cumulonimbus (Cb). Heavy masses of cloud, with great vertical develop­
ment, whose cumuliform summits rise in the form of mountains or towers, the
upper parts having a fibrous texture and often spreading out in the shape of an
anvil. The base of the cloud resembles nimbostratus, and one generally notices
'virga' (trailing precipitation). This base has often a layer of very low ragged
clouds below it.
Cumulonimbus clouds generally produce showers of rain or snow, and
sometimes of hail or soft hail, and often thunderstorms as well. If the whole of
the cloud cannot be seen, the fall of a moderate or heavy shower is enough to
characterize the cloud as a cumulonimbus. A cumulonimbus cloud may cover the
whole sky, in which case the base alone is visible and resembles nimbostratus
from which it is difficult to distinguish it. If the cloud mass does not cover all the
sky and if even small portions of the upper parts of the cumulonimbus appear,
the difference is evident. In other cases the distinction can only be made if the
preceding evolution of the clouds has been followed or if precipitation occurs.
Cumulonimbus gives showers whereas nimbostratus is associated with con­
tinuous precipitation. When there is doubt as to the choice between cumulo­
nimbus and cumulus, cumulonimbus should be reported if it is accompanied by
lightning, thunder, or hail.
The lower surface of cumulonimbus sometimes has an udder-like or mamil-
lated appearance which is referred to as 'mamma'. When a layer of menacing
cloud covers the sky and mammatus structure and trailing precipitation are both
seen it is a sure sign that the cloud is the base of a cumulonimbus, even in the
absence of all other signs.
The clouds which develop in the rear of depressions are often cumulonimbus.
However, by the spreading out of the upper parts of this cloud and the dissolving
of the lower parts, altocumulus or stratocumulus can form. Dense cirrus will
develop when the cirriform upper parts of cumulonimbus spread out.
Making the observations. The aspect of the sky is continually changing and
the cloud formations in evidence at one particular time may not be typical,
that is to say they may not be easily recognizable from the standard descriptions
given above. If, however, the observer watches the sky over a period of time he
will often find that doubtful cloud forms may be referred to a previous state of
49
development that was typical. Hence the first rule in cloud observing—watch
the sky as often as possible and not merely at the time of observation.
Coding the observations. The forecaster who eventually receives and uses the
observer's reports does not merely want to know what clouds are present. It has
been found that certain distributions or arrangements of clouds in the sky, in
other words certain 'states of sky', are of particular significance. The observer
is required to report these rather than the presence of a particular cloud form.
These states of sky are as follows, separate specifications being used for low,
medium and high cloud.

SPECIFICATION OF FORM OF LOW CLOUD (CL) (Sc, St, Cu, Cb)

Code
figure
0 No Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus or Cumulonimbus.
1 Cumulus with little vertical extent and seemingly flattened, or ragged
Cumulus other than of bad weather,* or both.
2 Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical extent, generally with pro­
tuberances in the form of domes or towers, either accompanied or not
by other Cumulus or by Stratocumulus, all having their bases at the
same level.
3 Cumulonimbus the summits of which, at least partially, lack sharp
outlines, but are neither clearly fibrous (cirriform) nor in the form
of an anvil; Cumulus, Stratocumulus or Stratus may also be present.
4 Stratocumulus formed by the spreading out of Cumulus; Cumulus
may also be present.
5 Stratocumulus not resulting from the spreading out of Cumulus.
6 Stratus in a more or less continuous sheet or layer, or in ragged shreds,
or both, but no Stratus fractus of bad weather. *
7 Stratus fractus of bad weather* or Cumulus fractus of bad weather,
or both, usually below Altostratus or Nimbostratus.
8 Cumulus and Stratocumulus other than that formed from the spreading
out of Cumulus; the base of the Cumulus is at a different level from
that of the Stratocumulus.
9 Cumulonimbus, the upper part of which is clearly fibrous (cirriform),
often in the form of an anvil; either accompanied or not by Cumu­
lonimbus without anvil or fibrous upper part, by Cumulus, Strato­
cumulus, Stratus or Stratus fractus.
/ Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus and Cumulonimbus invisible owing
to darkness, fog, blowing dust or sand, or other similar phenomena.

SPECIFICATION OF FORM OF MEDIUM CLOUD (CM) (Ac, As, Ns)

Code
figure
0 No Altocumulus, Altostratus or Nimbostratus.
1 Altostratus, the greater part of which is semi-transparent; through this
part the sun or moon may be weakly visible, as through ground glass.
•'Bad weather' denotes the conditions which generally exist during precipitation and a
short time before and after.
50
 2 Altostratus, the greater part of which is sufficiently dense to hide the
sun or moon, or Nimbostratus.*
3 Altocumulus, the greater part of which is semi-transparent; the various
elements of the cloud change only slowly and are all at a single level.
4 Patches (often in the form of almonds or fishes) of Altocumulus, the
greater part of which is semi-transparent; the clouds occur at one or
more levels and the elements are continually changing in appearance.
5 Semi-transparent Altocumulus in bands, or Altocumulus in one or
more fairly continuous layers (semi-transparent or opaque), pro­
gressively invading the sky; these Altocumulus clouds generally thicken
as a whole.
6 Altocumulus resulting from the spreading out of Cumulus (or Cumo-
lonimbus).
7 Altocumulus in two or more layers, usually opaque in places, and not
progressively invading the sky; or opaque layer of Altocumulus, not
progressively invading the sky; or Altocumulus together with Altos­
tratus or Nimbostratus.*
8 Altocumulus with sproutings in the form of small towers or battle­
ments, or Altocumulus having the appearance of cumuliform tufts.
9 Altocumulus of a chaotic sky, generally at several levels.
/ Altocumulus, Altostratus and Nimbostratus invisible owing to dark­
ness, fog, blowing dust or sand or other similar phenomena, or more
often because of the presence of a continuous layer of lower clouds.

SPECIFICATION OF FORM OF HIGH CLOUD (CH) (Ci, Cs, Cc)

Code
figure
0 No Cirrus, Cirrocumulus or Cirrostratus.
1 Cirrus in the form of filaments, strands or hooks, not progressively
invading the sky.
2 Dense Cirrus, in patches or entangled sheaves, which usually do not
increase and sometimes seem to be the remains of the upper part of
a Cumulonimbus; or Cirrus with sproutings in the form of small
turrets or battlements, or Cirrus having the appearance of cumuliform
tufts.
3 Dense Cirrus, often in the form of an anvil, being the remains of the
upper parts of Cumulonimbus.
4 Cirrus in the form of hooks or of filaments, or both, progressively
invading the sky; they generally become denser as a whole.
5 Cirrus (often in bands converging towards one point or two opposite
points of the horizon) and Cirrostratus, or Cirrostratus alone; in either
case, they are progressively invading 'the sky, and generally growing
denser as a whole, but the continuous veil does not reach 45 degrees
above the horizon.

•For synoptic purposes nimbostratus is included among the medium clouds in the code
since it is continuous with the altostratus existing above it and has been formed as a result of a
progressive lowering of altostratus from medium cloud level.
51
 6 Cirrus (often in bands converging towards one point or two opposite
points of the horizon) and Cirrostratus, or Cirrostratus alone; in either
case, they are progressively invading the sky, and generally growing
denser as a whole; the continuous veil extends more than 45 degrees
above the horizon, without the sky being totally covered.
7 Veil of Cirrostratus covering the celestial dome.
8 Cirrostratus not progressively invading the sky and not completely
covering the celestial dome.
9 Cirrocumulus alone, or Cirrocumulus accompanied by Cirrus or
Cirrostratus, or both, but Cirrocumulus is predominant.
/ Cirrus, Cirrocumulus and Cirrostratus invisible owing to darkness, fog,
blowing dust or sand or other similar phenomena, or more often
because of the presence of a continuous layer of lower clouds.

The use of these specifications, instead of reporting each individual cloud

form, effects an economy and is also advantageous to the forecaster, who knows
how to associate a state of sky with a particular weather situation.
The estimation of cloud height. Apart from some ships of the Royal Navy
and occasionally on ocean weather ships, cloud height at sea is obtained by
estimation. The first step in estimating cloud height consists of identifying the
cloud as a type belonging to one of the three classes, low, medium or high. Low
clouds have their bases below 6500 feet (2000 m). Medium cloud layers usually
occur at levels between 6500 and 18 000 feet (2000 and 5500 m), and high clouds
are usually above 18 000 feet (5500 m). As a rough guide, the heights of the
bases of the various types of low cloud may be expected to be between the
following limits:

Stratus Usually below 2000 feet (600 m) and sometimes nearly

down to the surface.
Nimbostratus 500 to 4000 feet (150 to 1200 m), usually below 2000 feet
(600 m) in moderate rain or snow.
Cumulonimbus 2000 to 5000 feet (600 to 1500 m).
Stratocumulus 1500 to 4500 feet (450 to 1350 m).
Cumulus 1500 to 5000 feet (450 to 1500 m).

These limits tend to be considerably higher in low latitudes; this applies

particularly to high clouds.
It is difficult to estimate cloud height without much practice. The apparent
size of the cloud elements is often an indication of height. For example, the
lower the height of the individual cloudlets of an altocumulus layer, the larger
they will normally appear. Layers having the appearance of altocumulus with
large individual elements are often found at heights between 6000 feet (1800 m)
and 10 000 feet (3000 m). The estimation of the height of stratified cloud, e.g.
altostratus or nimbostratus, is particularly difficult. The lack of pronounced
structure makes it easy to gain a false impression of height. Valuable experience
can be gained on occasions when the observer knows that his ship is steaming
towards a depression by watching the gradual lowering of the cloud base. The
observer's impressions of the appearance of the sky in the successive stages of
lowering will assist his judgment on future occasions. It is only by such experi­
ence that an observer can distinguish between a layer of nimbostratus in the
52
lower middle band and a similar layer at, perhaps, only 2000 to 3000 feet
(600 to 900 m).
Care must be taken before using the apparent speed of cloud as an index to
its height. This apparent speed depends not only on the velocity of the wind at
cloud level but also on the course and speed of the ship itself.
When coasting, cloud height may sometimes be estimated by comparison
with the height of the mountains or hills in the background. In using this
method, however, it should be remembered that cloud is usually lower over the
hills than elsewhere and that it is the general level over the sea that is required.
The estimation of cloud amount. The amount of cloud was in the past
estimated as the number of tenths of sky covered. At a conference of the
International Meteorological Organization (Washington 1947) it was recom­
mended that amount of cloud be reported in eighths instead of tenths. This
change of procedure was brought into force with the introduction of the revised
International Code (Washington) on 1 January 1949.
In making the observation it is necesary to stand in a position affording an
uninterrupted view of the whole sky. To make an estimate for the whole sky at
once requires practice and is rather difficult at first. It is convenient to imagine
the sky divided into quadrants by two arcs drawn at right angles through the
zenith.
Each quadrant represents two-eighths of the total sky. If we choose the
most appropriate of the figures—
0 = Clear or almost clear of cloud
1 = About half covered
2 = Completely or almost completely covered with cloud—
for each separate quadrant, then the total amount of cloud for the whole sky is
obtained simply by adding the amounts in the separate quadrants.
At night the observation of total cloud amount is noted by observing which
stars are showing and which are obscured. It is more difficult to differentiate
between low, middle and high clouds and reliable observation depends upon
the degree of illumination and the experience of the observer.

53
 CHAPTER 6

Ocean Waves
The complex nature of wave motion at sea. The action of wind in producing
waves is not precisely understood. The effect of the wind varies from the tiny
ripples ruffled on a pond by the merest breath of air to the mighty rollers of the
North Atlantic and Roaring Forties. All ocean waves, other than those caused
by movements of the sea floor and tidal effects, owe their origin to the generating
action of the wind. Wave motion, however, may persist even after the generating
force has disappeared, being then slowly dissipated by frictional forces.
An observer of the motion of the sea surface at a particular place will, in
genera], notice a complicated wave form such as is shown in Figure 27 (page 58),
which may be regarded as the result of the superposition of a number of simple
regular wave motions having different lengths and speeds.
The ideal observer is an instrument known as a wave-recorder which registers
automatically the up and down motion of the water surface and enables a record
such as Figure 27 to be drawn. This record can be analysed or split up into its
component simple waves. Most wave-recorders can only be effectively used from
the shore, offshore installations or from stationary ships and hence it is not
possible to measure sea disturbance in general by this method although it would
be most desirable to do so.
The distinction between sea and swell. The system of waves raised by the
local wind blowing at the time of observation is usually referred to as 'sea'.
Those waves not raised by the local wind blowing at the time of observation,
but due either to winds blowing at a distance or to winds that have ceased to
blow, are known collectively as 'swell'. Usually, one component of the swell
dominates the rest, but occasionally two component wave motions crossing
at an angle may be observed. These are referred to as 'cross swells'. Sea and
swell may both be present at the same time and the sea may be from a different
direction and have different period and height to the swell, or both sea and
swell may be from the same direction.

FIGURE 24. Characteristics of a simple wave

The characteristics of a simple wave. The following definitions are used in

describing a simple wave:
(a) SPEED, c, usually expressed in knots, is the speed at which individual
waves travel.
(b) LENGTH, L, expressed in metres, is the horizontal distance between succes­
sive crests or successive troughs.
54
 (c) PERIOD, T, expressed in seconds, is the time interval required for the
passage of successive crests (or successive troughs) past a given point.
(d) HEIGHT, H, expressed in metres, is the vertical distance between the top
of a crest and the bottom of a trough.
The following relations are found to hold for a simple wave:
Speed = 3-1 x period
Length = 1 -555 X (period)2 metres.
(In application to actual sea waves, which are not simple, the constant 1-555
should be reduced by a factor ranging between about \ and f.)
By means of these formulae, measurements of one of the variables can be
used to calculate the other two. The following table gives these relations numeri­
cally for different wave periods:

Period Length Speed

seconds metres knots
2 6-2 6-2
4 24-9 12-4
6 56-0 18-6
8 99-5 24-8
10 155-5 31-0
12 223-9 37-2
14 304-8 43-4
16 398-0 49-6
18 503-9 55-8
20 622-0 62-0

There is no inherent theoretical relation between the height and period of a

simple wave. We can imagine the height to be varied at will, the period (and
hence length and speed) remaining constant. In real wave motion, however, in
which many simple waves are superposed there is a further consideration that
enables us to see how the height is limited. If we call the quotient H/L the
'steepness' of the wave, it is found that the mean steepness does not increase
beyond 7-6 per cent (1/13). If the mean steepness is less than this figure then
the waves are capable of absorbing more energy from the wind, thus increasing
their height relative to their length. When the limiting steepness is reached,
surplus energy received from the wind is dissipated by the breaking of the
waves at the crests (white horses). This limiting value of the steepness explains
why the mean maximum height of the sea waves is roughly in proportion
to their length; for example, wind-driven waves of length 120 m (period 9
seconds) would not be expected to have a mean maximum height greater than
9 m. If the wave-length were about 150 m (period 10 seconds) this limiting
value of the mean maximum height would be increased to 12m. On the other
hand, long swells, perhaps 300-600 m in length, may have heights of less than
half a metre.
When the height of the wave is small compared with its length, the wave
profile can be adequately represented by a simple sine curve. As the height
becomes relatively greater, however, it is seen that the crests become sharper
and the troughs much more rounded, the precise profile being a curve known as
a 'trochoid'. This is the curve that would be traced on a bulkhead by a marking
point fixed to the spoke of a wheel, if we imagined the wheel to be rolled along
under the deckhead.
55
 In Figure 25 the large circle represents the wheel and P the marking point on
a spoke, OP, the distance from the axle being called the tracing arm. The arrow
shows the direction in which the circle rolls and in which the wave is supposed
to be travelling. AB is the base, i.e. the straight line under which the circle
is to roll, the length AB being equal to the half circumference of the wheel, AR.
Now as the circle rolls, when position 3 of the circle reaches position 3 of
the base, the semi-circle FPG will be in the position shown by the dotted
semi-circle; and the marking point P will coincide with the point D, having
described part of a trochoid PD. When the circle has completed half a revolution,
the marking point P will coincide with E, having described the trochoid curve
PDE which is half a wave-length; the diameter POH represents the height of the
wave. The nearer the marking point is to the axle of the wheel, the flatter will
be the trochoid.

FIGURE 25. Representation of a trochoidal wave form

In an ideal wave each water particle revolves with uniform speed in a circular
orbit, perpendicular to the wave ridge (the diameter of the orbital circles being
the height of the wave) and completes a revolution in the same time as the wave
takes to advance its own length. At a wave-crest the motion of the particles is
wholly horizontal, advancing in the same direction as the wave; at mid height
on the front slope it is wholly upwards; in the trough it is again horizontal but
in the opposite direction to the travel of the wave, and at mid height on the back
slope it is wholly downwards. This motion may be seen by watching a floating
object at the passage of a wave. The object describes a circle but is not carried
bodily forward by the wave.
The disturbance set up by wave motion must necessarily extend for some
distance below the surface; but its magnitude decreases very rapidly in accord­
ance with a definite law, the trochoids becoming flatter and flatter as the depth
increases, and the water particles revolving in ever-decreasing circles. At a
depth of one wave-length the disturbance is less than a five-hundredth part of
what is is at the surface, so that the water at that depth may be considered
undisturbed. The motion associated with the largest ocean waves is inappreci­
able at even moderate depths, as is demonstrated by experience in submarines.
56
 Eilean Ban, A r/c oj Loclmlsh Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

Photograph by C. E. Wellington

CL 1 Cumulus with little vertical extent. The cloud elements shown in the upper picture are in
an early stage of development; they are small, shallow and have ragged edges. In the lower
picture they are in a slightly more advanced stage and some show the characteristic domed
tops
CLOUD PLATE I
 From Dale, MllSord Haven Photograph by ft. K. Pilsbliry

CL2 Cumulus of moderate or strong vertical extent. This is a further stage in the development of
CL 1. The cloud has become much deeper and the tops are 'cauliflower shaped'. The outlines
are clear cut and there is no tendency for the upper parts of the cloud mass to become blurred
or fibrous in texture. When the cloud is well developed, rain showers may occur. Stratocumulus
cloud may also be present but it must be at the same level as the base of the Cumulus.

Near Tenby, Dyfed Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CL3 Cumulonimbus without anvil. Normally this is a further stage in the development of CL 2.
The tops are beginning to acquire a fibrous appearance. When it is uncertain whether the
cloud is CL3 or C L9, the latter should be selected if the cloud gives rise to lightning, thunder
or hail. Cumulus, Stratocumulus or Stratus may also be present.
CLOUD PLATE II
 Photograph by R. K. Pitsbury

CL4 Stratocumulus formed by the spreading out of Cumulus. Cloud of this type forms when the
upper parts of Cumulus clouds, which had previously been gaining height, can no longer do so
and begin to spread out horizontally, forming a layer of Stratocumulus, as illustrated above.
(See Plate XIV describing the formation of CM 6.) Sometimes the spreading out is only temp­
orary and the Cumulus resumes growth above the stable layer.
Another type of CL4 often occurs in the evening when convection ceases and, in conse­
quence, the Cumulus begins to flatten, and assumes the appearance of patches of Stratocumulus.

CLOUD PLATE III

 From Malaliidi', near Dublin Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

Lough Gill, Co. Sligo Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CL5 Stratocumulus not formed by the spreading out of Cumulus. The individual cloud masses
may be separate and in the form of elongated bands as shown in the upper picture, or they
may be closed up into a continuous or nearly continuous layer, as shown in the lower photo­
graph. Often the cloud is dark and heavy looking, but it can be light in tone when it is at a
fairly high level, or when it is thin.

CLOUD PLATE IV
 Benbulbin, Co. Sf/go Photograph by R. K. Pikbury

North Antrim Photograph by K. K. Plhbury

C L6 Stratus in a more or less continuous sheet or layer, or in ragged shreds, or both. The upper
picture shows a layer of Stratus with its base about 350 feet above ground level, 1100 feet
above sea level. In the lower picture the ragged Stratus was formed from lifted sea fog.

CLOUD PLATE V
 Photograph by C. A. Clarke

Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CL7 Stratus fractus of bad weather, or ragged Cumulus, or both, generally moving fast and
changing shape rapidly. These clouds (known to mariners as 'scud') often form beneath a layer
of Nimbostratus, as in the upper picture, or a layer of Altostratus, as in the lower picture.

CLOUD PLATE VI
 Bricllington Bay Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CL8 Cumulus and Stratocumulus, other than that formed from the spreading out of Cumulus,
with their bases at different levels. The base of the Cumulus is normally at the lower level and
occasionally the tops may reach or penetrate the Stratocumulus as illustrated above.

CLOUD PLATE VII

 Photograph by K. J. Karris

CL9 Cumulonimbus with anvil. This is a massive cloud of great vertical depth and horizontal
extent, having a frayed-out fibrous top in the shape of an anvil. It normally develops from
CL3 and commonly gives rise to thunderstorms and/or hail showers. Underneath the base of
the cloud, which is often very dark, there are frequent low, ragged clouds, which in storms are
only a few hundred feet above the surface. Occasionally the upper parts of the cloud merge with
Altostratus or Nimbostratus. The lower picture shows the appearance which the base of a
Cumulonimbus cloud presents when it is overhead. The downward-hanging protuberances
are due to turbulent downdraughts and are known as 'mamma'.

CLOUD PLATE VIII

 Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CM 1 Thin Altostratus. The background cloud seen in the picture has probably developed from
the thickening Cirrostratus associated with an approaching warm front. Most of the cloud sheet
is light grey and semi-transparent with the sun shining weakly through it. The cloud below the
Altostratus is Stratocumulus (CL5).

CLOUD PLATE IX
 Caldy Island, Carmarthen Bay Photograph by R. A'. Pilsbury

Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CM2 Thick Altostratus or Nimbostratus. This develops from thickening CM ]. If only the denser
parts of the cloud hide the sun or moon it is denned as Altostratus; if the cloud is sufflciently
opaque throughout to obscure them completely, it is Nimbostratus, as shown in the lower
picture (with Stratus fractus beneath the cloud layer).

CLOUD PLATE X
 Bembridge, hie of Wight Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

-***;

Photograph by C. J. P. Cave

CM 3 Semi-transparent Altocumulus, at a single level, not invading the sky. The elements in the
cloud sheet are small, rounded and more or less uniform; near the sun they are translucent.
The sky may contain several Altocumulus patches of different opacity, as in the upper picture,
or thin, lightly shaded sections as in the lower picture.

CLOUD PLATE XI
 Photograph by C. A. Clarke

CM4 Altocumulus lenticularis. The clouds shown in the picture are due to wave motion in the
atmosphere and they are seen mainly over hilly country. At sea they are therefore likely to be
seen only in certain coastal waters in the direction of the land. The cloud elements are smooth
looking and taper away towards the ends; they have bright translucent edges and show definite
shading. In another variety of the cloud the elements are composed of fine granules and ripples
lying in thin irregular patches, vaguely lenticular in shape and having fairly pronounced
shading. Parts of the cloud near the sun often show the delicate colouring known as irisation.

CLOUD PLATE XII

 Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CMS Altocumulus increasing and thickening. The essential feature of this cloud type is that it
spreads from some particular direction on the horizon and increases in amount, perhaps
finally covering the whole sky. It may be in one or more layers of varying degrees of density,
some parts being translucent and others heavily shaded. Sometimes it may resemble Strato-
cumulus at a high level.

CLOUD PLATE XIII

 Photograph by G. A. Clarke

CM6 Altocumulus formed by the spreading out of Cumulus or Cumulonimbus. In certain atmo­
spheric conditions,* the tops of these clouds reach a level above which they cannot rise, and
they are compelled to flatten out horizontally, forming patches of Altocumulus of rather
irregular thickness and shape, as shown in the picture. (Care should be taken not to confuse
these with the anvil-shaped tops of Cumulonimbus.) If many large Cumulus-type clouds
are present, the patches of Altocumulus, resulting from the spreading out of their tops, may
coalesce to form quite an extensive layer.
* When there is a marked temperature inversion in the atmosphere it acts as a barrier to air
rising by convection.

CLOUD PLATE XIV

 Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury
CM7 Altocumulus not increasing. This type includes:
(a) Patches, sheets or layers of Altocumulus at different levels, not increasing.
(b) Parches, sheets or layers of Altocumulus at a single level, generally opaque, not
increasing.
(c) Altocumulus, together with Altostratus or Nimbostratus.
The upper picture shows type (c) with the Altocumulus merging with Altostratus near the
horizon. Beneath the thick patch of Altocumulus, type (b), in the lower picture can be seen small
pendant globules called 'mamma'.

CLOUD PLATE XV
 Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

Photograph by C. J. P. Cave

CM8 Altocumulus castellanus and Altocumulus floccus. Both these types are associated with
developing thundery conditions over a wide area as opposed to thunderstorms arising from
locally generated Cumulonimbus clouds. The upper picture shows a long line of typical
Altocumulus castellanus in the distance; in the top half of the picture there are lines of Alto­
cumulus in cumuliform tufts (Altocumulus floccus). The lower picture shows very ragged
Altocumulus floccus in considerable quantity.

CLOUD PLATE XVI

 Skye from Sound of Sleat Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

C,y,9 Altocumulus of a chaotic sky, generally at several levels. The main characteristic of the sky
is its heavy and stagnant appearance. There are usually clouds of all medium types mixed with
clouds of type C L and C H .

CLOUD PLATE XVII

 Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CH 1 Cirrus in hooks or filaments, not progressively invading the sky. The picture clearly shows
the fibrous structure of Cirrus, with hooks at the ends of the fine strands. This type of Cirrus
often occurs with other Cirrus clo.uds and should be classified as C H 1 only when the combined
cover of all filaments, strands or hooks exceeds the total of other types of Cirrus present.

CLOUD PLATE XVIII

 Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

Photograph by K. K. Pilsbury

CH 2 Dense Cirrus. The Cirrus occurs in dense patches or entangled sheaves (upper picture),
not usually increasing in amount. The two dense patches in the centre of the lower picture are
typical examples. Sometimes the Cirrus is arranged in narrow bands, with sproutings in the
shape of small turrets or battlements, or showing cumuliform tufts.

CLOUD PLATE XIX

 Photograph by R. A'. Pilsbury

CH3 Dense Cirrus from Cumulonimbus, often in the form of an anvil. These clouds are white
and fibrous and may be entirely separate from the Cumulonimbus of which they were a part.

Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CH4 Cirrus invading the sky. These clouds can be seen as separate, delicate filaments with
fibrous trails. The Cirrus elements in the picture are moving from left to right, invading the sky
and thickening, but no Cirrostratus is present.

CLOUD PLATE XX
 Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CH5 Cirrus and/or Cirrostratus below 45 altitude. A whitish veil progressively invading the
sky but less than 45° above the horizon from which the cloud is spreading. Cirrus of this
type develops as a result of the continued spread of CH4. The clouds in the upper part of the
picture are Cirrus. Nearer the horizon the Cirrus has merged into a sheet of Cirrostratus.

CLOUD PLATE XXI

 Near CloveUy, looking north Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CH6 Cirrus and/or Cirrostratus above 45° altitude. The picture shows Cirrus thickening rapidly
to Cirrostratus, already extending higher than 45° above the horizon. The main sheet of Cirro-
stratus is often preceded by long filaments or hooks of Cirrus, sometimes in bands across the
sky.

CLOUD PLATE XXII

 i ii (Mi
Photograph by R. K. Pihbury

CH7 Veil of Cirrostratus covering the whole sky. The cloud is usually light, uniform and nebul­
ous, but it may be white and fibrous showing striations. It gives rise to halo phenomena round
the sun or moon. Sometimes the veil is so thin that it is difficult to distinguish it from the blue
sky, and halo phenomena may provide the only reliable evidence of its presence.

Photograph by G. A. Cfarke

CH8 Cirrostratus not increasing and not covering the whole sky. The veil or sheet of clouds
extends from one horizon but leaves a segment of blue sky in the other direction. The cloud
either remains constant in amount or decreases. The picture shows a fairly dense sheet of
Cirrostratus clearing away after the passage of a cold front.
CLOUD PLATE XXIII
 by R. K. Pihbury

Photograph by R. K. Pilsbury

CH9 Cirrocumulus. This code figure is only used when the amount of Cirrocumulus is greater
than any other types of Cirrus which may be present. The upper picture shows a typical
example in the centre of the picture, the cloud elements being very much smaller than those
found in Altocumulus. A few Cumulus clouds are also present. In the lower picture the elements
are composed of small, ragged cumuliform tufts.

CLOUD PLATE XXIV

 Wave groups. Experience shows that waves generally travel in groups with
patches of dead water in between, the wave height being a maximum at the
centre of each group. We have said earlier that any observed wave motion can
be regarded as built up from a number of simple wave forms. Let us consider,
for example, the superposition of two simple wave motions having the same
height but slightly different periods. If the crests of the two wave motions are
made to coincide at the initial point of observation the height of the resultant
wave will be twice that of each component wave. To each side of this point,
however, owing to the difference of period, the additive effect becomes less
until a point is reached where the heights of the component waves, being of
different sign, completely annul each other's effect. Beyond this point the
heights again become additive until the troughs of the component waves coin­
cide. In other words, there is a variation of height superposed on the ordinary
wave motion. It can also be shown that two simple wave trains moving in slightly
different directions give a resultant pattern composed of 'short-crested' waves
as distinct from the 'long-crested' waves of simple wave motions.
The speed of a wave group is not the same as that of the individual waves
composing it. Each individual wave in its turn emerges from the dead water in
the rear of the group, travels through the group and subsides in the dead water
ahead of it. The speed of the wave group must therefore be less than the speed
of an individual wave. Both theoretical considerations and experience show that
the wave group travels at one half the speed of the individual waves.
The origin and travel of swell. Swell waves originate in the heavy seas created
in a storm area. Short waves have an insufficient store of energy to enable them
to travel long distances against the dissipating action of friction. Hence, in
general, it follows that swell waves are long waves in comparison with the wind-
driven waves at the place of observation.
In calculating the distance travelled by swell, care must be taken to dis­
tinguish between the speed of the individual waves and the speed of the wave
groups. If, for example, a ship reports the sudden onset of waves whose speed,
calculated from the period, is 30 knots, then another ship in the line of advance
of these waves will experience their onset at a time obtained by allowing a speed
of | X 30 = 15 knots for the disturbance.
As swell travels its height decreases. Investigations by the Institute of Ocean-
ographic Sciences show that if R is the distance from the point of generation
in nautical miles then the amplitude at distance R is (^)* of that at the point
of generation by the wind. Thus, a swell would lose one-half of its height in
travelling a distance of 1200 nautical miles. The long swells are the greatest
travellers.
Waves in shallow water. All the previous remarks refer to waves in deep
water. When a deep-water wave enters shallow waters it undergoes profound
modification. Its speed is reduced, its direction of motion may be changed and,
finally, its height increases until, on reaching a certain limiting depth, the wave
breaks on the shore. Water may be regarded as shallow when the depth is less
than half the length of the wave.
The decrease in speed when a wave approaches the shore accounts for the
fact that the wave fronts become, in general, parallel to the shore prior to
breaking. Figure 26 shows a wave, approaching the shore at an angle, being
refracted until it becomes parallel to the shore.
The same reasoning may be applied to explain how waves are able to
bend round headlands and to progress into sheltered bays.
H 57
 FIGURE 26. Refraction of a wave approaching the shore at an angle

OBSERVING OCEAN WAVES

The inherent difficulties of observation. It has been remarked earlier that the
ideal observer is a wave-recorder which can register automatically the up and
down motion of the sea surface at a fixed point. A typical record is shown in
Figure 27.

Interval 6 seconds
i i i i i i l l i l i i i i i i i i i l l l i i i i i i

FIGURE 27. Wave form of the sea surface

The record is, in general, complex and shows immediately all the difficulties
inherent in eye observation. For example, are all the waves to be considered on
an equal footing or are only the big waves to be counted? Since the wave
characteristics vary so much, what average values shall be taken ? It is obvious
that if comparable results are to be obtained the observer must follow a definite
procedure. The flat and badly formed waves ('A' in Figure 27) between the wave
groups cannot be observed accurately by eye and different observers would
undoubtedly get different results if an attempt were made to include them in the
record. The method to be adopted, therefore, is to observe only the well-formed
waves in the centre of the wave groups. The observation of waves entails the
measurement or estimation of the following characteristics:
Direction Period Height
Reliable average values of period and height can only be obtained by observing
at least twenty waves. Of course, these cannot be consecutive; a few must be
selected from each succeeding wave group until the required number has been
obtained. Only measurements or quite good estimates are required. Rough
guesses have little value and should not be recorded.
58
 It will often be found that there are waves coming from more than one
direction. For example, there may be a sea caused by the wind then blowing
and a swell caused by a wind that has either passed over or is blowing in a distant
area. Or there may be two swells (i.e. cross swells) caused by winds blowing
from different directions in distant areas. In such cases the observer should
distinguish between sea and swell, and report them separately, giving two groups
for swell when appropriate.
The direction, height and period of the sea wave may be quite different from
that of the swell wave. It will, however, often happen—particularly with winds
of Beaufort force 8 and above—that the sea and swell waves are both coming
from the same direction. In that case it is virtually impossible to differentiate
between sea and swell and the best answer is to look upon the combined wave
as being a sea wave and log it accordingly.
Observing waves from a moving ship. Care must be taken to ensure that the
observations, especially those of period, are not influenced by the waves
generated by the motion of the ship.
(a) DIRECTION FROM WHICH THE WAVES COME. This is easily obtained either
by sighting directly across the wave front or by sighting along the crests
of the waves and remembering that the required direction differs from
this by 90 degrees. Direction is always recorded true, not magnetic.
(b) PERIOD. For measurements of period a stopwatch is desirable. If this
is not available an ordinary watch with a seconds hand may be used or,
alternatively, a practised observer may count seconds.
The observer selects a distinctive patch of foam or a small object
floating on the water at some distance from the ship, and notes the time
at which it is on the crest of each successive wave. The procedure is
repeated for the larger waves of each successive group until at least
twenty observations are available. The period is then taken as the
average time for a complete oscillation from crest to crest. In a fast ship
it will be found that the 'patch of foam' method will rarely last for more
than one complete oscillation and that many waves have to be observed
separately. With practice, suitable waves can easily be picked out and the
timing from crest to crest becomes quite simple. When it is desired to use
an object (an empty beer can is usually conspicuous against the sea and
will remain afloat long enough to serve its purpose) it should be thrown
as far forward as possible.
Another method available to the observer with a stopwatch is to
observe two or more consecutive 'central' waves of a wave group while
the watch is running continuously, then to stop the watch until the
central waves of the next wave group appear, the watch being then
restarted. This procedure is repeated until at least twenty complete
oscillations have been observed. The period is then obtained by dividing
the total time by the number of oscillations. It is important to note that
the periods between times of crests passing a point on the ship are not
the ones required.
(c) HEIGHT. Although wave-recorders are fitted to a few research ships, there
is at present no method of measuring the height of waves suitable for
general use on merchant ships, but a practised observer can make useful
estimates. The procedure to be adopted depends on the length of the
waves relative to the length of the ship. If the length of the waves is
59
short in comparison with the ship's length, i.e. if the ship spans two or
more wave crests, the height should be estimated from the appearance
of the waves at or on the side of the ship, at times when the pitching and
rolling of the ship is least. For the best result the observer should take
up a position as low down the ship as possible, preferably amidships
where the effect of pitching is least, and on the side of the ship towards
which the waves are coming.
This method fails when the length of the waves exceeds the length of
the ship, for then the ship rises bodily with the passage of each wave
crest. The observer should then take up a position in the ship so that
his eye is just in line with the advancing wave crest and the horizon,
when the ship is vertical in the trough. The height of eye above the
ship's water line is then the height of the wave. The nearer the observer
is to an amidships position the less chance will there be of the measure­
ment being vitiated by pitching. If the ship rolls heavily it is particularly
important to make the observation at the moment when she is upright
in the trough. Exaggeration of estimates of wave height is mostly due to
errors caused by rolling. (See Figure 28. When the ship is rolling (b), the
observer at 'o' has to take up a higher position to get a line on the
horizon than when she is upright (a).)

(a)

(b)
FIGURE 28. Estimation of wave height at sea

The observation of height of waves is most difficult when the length

of the waves exceeds the length of the ship and their height is small. The
best estimate of height can be obtained by going as near the water as
possible, but even then the observation can only be rough. In making
height estimates an attempt should be made to fix a standard of height
in terms of the height of a man or the height of a bulwark, forecastle or
well-known dimension in the ship. There is generally a tendency to
overestimate the height of short waves and underestimate the height of
long waves.
Estimating the height of a wave from a high bridge in a fast ship is a
difficult job and much will depend on the skill and ingenuity of the
observer; in many cases all one can hope for is a very rough estimate.
All estimates of wave height should be made preferably with the ship
on an even keel so that the observer's height of eye is consistent.
The inherent difficulties already mentioned, together with the
practical difficulties of estimation, make it essential that the recorded
60
 height be the average value of about twenty distinct observations.
These observations should be made on the central waves of the more
prominent wave groups.
Wave observations at night or in low visibility. Under these conditions the
most that the observer can normally hope to record is direction and an estimate
of height, or perhaps direction only, which would at least indicate the presence
of waves. Such observations might be of considerable value in tropical waters in
the hurricane season. It is only on very bright nights that the observation of
period would be practicable.
Observing waves from weather ships. Wave-recorders, which can record the
period and height of the waves, have been installed in the British ocean weather
ships. But even when no special instruments are carried, weather ships have the
advantage of being able to manoeuvre so as to secure the best conditions for
wave observation. The methods outlined in (b) may be used to better advantage
than by ordinary merchant ships. For example, a floating object may be observed
for a considerable time; it is not lost in the distance as occurs when the ship is
moving.
In addition to these observations the height, length and period of waves can
be determined from a stationary ship as follows:
(a) The estimation of wave height may be much assisted with the use of a
dan buoy of known height.
(b) Length can be observed by streaming a buoy for such a distance astern
that the crests of successive waves are simultaneously passing the buoy
and the observer. The distance between the two is the wave-length.
(c) Period can be obtained by noting the time taken for the wave to travel
the distance between the buoy and the observer.
By simple division the speed of the individual waves can be deduced.
The importance of wave observations. The study of ocean waves has only
recently been put on a scientific basis by the utilization of an automatic method
of recording and the subsequent analysis of the record into component simple
waves. The establishment of a network of specially equipped observing stations
would probably add much to our present knowledge of the generation, trans­
mission and decay of ocean waves. The new method of recording has made
evident the limitations of former methods of observation, including the use of
sea and swell scales, and has indicated the necessity of obtaining quantitative
observations of wave characteristics.
Of practical importance is the fact that quantitative wave observations may
be used for identifying the approximate position of a storm centre when suitable
weather observations are lacking. The use of swell as an indication of the
approach of a tropical storm is well known. The forecasting of swell on exposed
coasts, such as those of Morocco and Portugal, is of considerable value for the
protection of coastal shipping and port installations. The accuracy of these
forecasts depends largely on an adequate supply of reliable ships' observations.
Statistics of the period and height of waves would be of value to naval architects
particularly in respect of stability, rolling and behaviour of the ship structure
in a seaway.

61
 CHAPTER 7
Observations of Ocean Currents and Ice
OCEAN CURRENT OBSERVATIONS
Introduction. Present knowledge of the general patterns of surface currents of
the oceans has been largely derived from the systematically recorded observa­
tions made from ships on passage over more than a century. This knowledge is
summarized in atlases, charts and Sailing Directions wh'ch have been prepared
for the benefit of the navigator. However, much remains to be learnt about the
currents, for instance about the general flow of waters that are remote from the
main shipping routes, about local variations and intensities of currents and
about the variabilities of currents through the course of the year and from one
year to another. Consequently there is a continuing need for observations of
surface currents. Moreover, as improved navigational aids allow increasing
accuracy and frequency of observation, better and more detailed analyses of
the currents will become possible, to the benefit not only of navigation but also
of the various aspects of marine science.
Marine observers are reminded that towards the end of the Meteorological
Logbook is a section reserved for recording the set and drift of currents observed
during a voyage. Observations of ocean currents will be very welcome from any
ship, whether reporting meteorological observations or not.
The method of observing currents. This consists of deriving the set and drift
from the direction and distance respectively between a dead-reckoning (DR)
position (obtained making due allowance for leeway) and the corresponding
observed position. The current so deduced is the mean current affecting the ship
over the distance between the fixes when the DR plot was started (the 'From'
position) and finished (the To' position); it is assumed that this is the current at
a depth of about half the ship's draught.
In calculating the DR position it is important that the course or courses
should be corrected for leeway so that—as far as can be judged—the difference
between DR and 'To' positions is due only to current and not to a combination
of wind and current. The assessment of leeway can only be made by the mariner
with his full knowledge of the vessel's performance and state of loading. If he has
considerable doubt about the appropriate allowance for leeway—say because
of gales during the period of the DR plot—an observation should not be
recorded.
In general, observations should not be recorded when the derived value
of current is likely to be unrepresentative or inaccurate. The following aspects
concerning the representativeness and accuracy of observation should be borne
in mind.
Representativeness of observations. The ideal observation of current would
represent the purely non-tidal movement of water at a single point at a given
time. Such an observation cannot be made in practice from a ship on passage
but the departure from the ideal does not usually decrease the value of the
results to a serious extent so long as certain limitations are heeded. An observa­
tion of current should not be made:
62
 (a) where significant tidal streams are to be expected;
(b) when the distance between 'From' and To* positions exceeds about
400 miles;
(c) when the 'From' and To' positions are separated by more than a day's
sailing—say by more than 25 hours, allowing for the ship's clocks
being retarded;
(d) when there is reason to believe that the current changes significantly
between the 'From' and To' positions, i.e. when passing from one
system of currents to another, when passing a strait, a cape, or a current
race;
(e) so as to overlap another observation: for example if there are successive
fixes at positions A, B, C and D the overlapping observations from A to
C and from B to D are not both required since they are not independent
of each other; and
(f) when the accuracy of either the 'From' to To' fix is suspect.
Accuracy of observations. In effect the observed current is calculated from the
difference between two vectors, i.e. the vector representing movement of the
ship with respect to the water and the vector representing movement over the
ocean bed. Since the difference is normally much smaller than either vector, the
accuracies of values used to calculate these vectors crucially affect the accuracy
of the inferred current.
The vector of movement with respect to the water depends on course
(corrected for compass error and for leeway) and on distance run through the
water. The application of compass error is of obvious importance; corrections
for leeway have already been discussed. Distance run can be measured with high
accuracy by means of some modern devices such as the electromagnetic log.
If it is necessary to assess distance run from propeller revolutions the allowance
for slip under the prevailing conditions (wind, sea, draught, state of ship's
bottom) becomes important.
The accuracy of the vector of movement over.the ocean bed is governed by
the accuracy of the two fixes—for the 'From' and To' positions. Again some
modern navigational aids can give especial accuracy, e.g. satellite navigator.
Usefully accurate fixes may also be derived by a number of means, such as by
observation of two or more stars at twilight, or by Loran or Omega navigational
systems. A noon position based on forenoon sight and meridian altitude is not
desirable for calculation of current if more accurate types of fix are available
since the run between sights depends on a due appreciation of the current—the
very element that is being sought.
Interval between 'From' and To' positions. As already stated the interval
should not be too large; if the ship passes through two or more different currents
then the observed (mean) value will be representative of none of the constituent
currents. On the other hand the interval should not be too small since a given
error in position fixing will produce an error in the calculated rate of current
which is greater if the interval of time is short than if it is long. The combination
of possibly inaccurate fix and short interval of time would make unreliable,
for example, an observation based on a noon position, found from forenoon
sight and meridian altitude, and a fix at approximately 1415, using the Sun and
Venus. Indeed whenever use is made of a noon position based on forenoon and
noon sights—with its inherent inaccuracies, however carefully compiled—the
current should be calculated over the longest permissible interval of about 24
63
hours. At the other extreme, with both fixes highly accurate (say by satellite) an
interval as short as three hours might be adequate.

ICE OBSERVATIONS
Under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1960, the
master of every ship that meets with dangerous ice has the obligation to report
this by all means available to ships in the vicinity and to the nearest coast radio
station or signal station. (Details of the prescribed form of signal are given in
Chapter 14.)
Apart from this primary obligation with regard to the immediate safety
of life the mariner provides important contributions to the knowledge of ice at
sea in two ways:
(a) By including in the routine synoptic weather report an ICE group or a
plain-language report of ice whenever this is appropriate. This inform­
ation is used especially for mapping the existing state and development
of the ice as a basis for operational advice to mariners.
(b) By making entries in the section for ice reports towards the end of the
Meteorological Logbook. This is a more detailed report than (a) above
and its purpose is statistical rather than operational; the information is
used for scientific investigations, including the preparation of maps
showing average and extreme positions of ice edges. It should be borne
in mind when no sea ice is encountered, though this is normally to be
expected for the time of year and sea area, then a 'nil' report gives
significant information and should be entered; such 'nil' reports can be as
important as reports of ice sightings.
Some background knowledge of the physics and climatology of sea ice and
icebergs is helpful to the observer. Such knowledge can be obtained from
Meteorology for Mariners—Chapter 17 deals with formation and movement
and Chapter 18 with distribution of sea ice and icebergs. Also The Mariner's
Handbook (NP 100, Fourth Edition, published in 1973 by the Hydrographer of
the Navy) contains a chapter on ice and gives a selection of photographs
illustrating a number of ice terms. Some of these photographs are shown between
pages 72 and 73.
To ensure consistency in the use of terms for ice these have been defined by
the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and published in 1970 in a
glossary entitled WMO sea-ice nomenclature; the publication is comprehensively
illustrated by photographs.
The terms of the Nomenclature with full definitions (incorporating the
latest) amendments and arranged in alphabetical order are reproduced
on pages 66 to 74. To assist the observer in selecting the term most appropriate
for a certain state or process this alphabetical list is preceded by a section in
which terms are arranged according to subject. Some brief explanatory remarks
are included in this section but reference should be made to the alphabetical
list for the full definition of any term.
64
 ICE TERMS ARRANGED BY SUBJECT
1. ORIGIN OF ICE
The terms lake ice, river ice, sea ice and glacier ice primarily refer to the
origin of the ice, not its present location.

2. DEVELOPMENT
(a) New ice: A general term for recently formed ice which includes frazil ice,
grease ic.e, slush and shuga.
(b) Nilas: A thin elastic crust of ice. Subdivisions are dark nilas, light nilas.
(c) Pancake ice: Predominantly circular pieces of ice, with raised rims due
to the pieces striking against one another.
(d) Young ice: Ice in the transition stage between nilas and first-year ice.
Subdivisions are grey ice and grey-white ice.
(e) First-year ice: Sea ice of not more than one winter's growth, developing
from young ice. Subdivisions are thin first-year ice/white ice, medium
first-year ice, thick first-year ice.
(f) Old ice: Sea ice which has survived at least one summer's melt. Sub­
divisions are second-year ice, multi-year ice.
3. FAST ICE
Fast ice is sea ice which forms and remains fast along the coast, where it is
attached to the shore, to an ice wall, to an ice front, between shoals or
grounded icebergs. Some associated terms are young coastal ice, icefoot,
anchor ice, grounded ice, stranded ice and hummock.

4. FLOATING ICE
Floating ice is any form of ice floating in water and can include not only
sea ice but also river ice, lake ice and glacier ice (ice of land origin). Forms of
floating ice are pancake ice, floe, ice cake,floeberg, glacier berg, tabular berg,
ice island, bergy bit and growler.

5. PACK ICE
Pack ice is used in a wide sense to include any area of sea ice, other than
fast ice, no matter what form it takes or how it is disposed.

6. AREAL EXTENT AND AREAL DENSITY OF ICE

Ice cover is used to express areal coverage of ice within a large geographical
region, e.g. Baffin Bay, Barents Sea. Concentration is used to express areal
density of ice in a given, comparatively small, area. The following descriptive
terms imply different concentrations: compact, consolidated, very close,
open and very open pack ice; open water, ice-free.

7. ARRANGEMENT OF ICE
Icefield, ice massif, belt, tongue, strip, bight, ice jam, ice edge, ice boundary,
iceberg tongue.

8. MOTION PROCESSES
Diverging, compacting, shearing.
65
 9. DEFORMATION PROCESSES
Fracturing, hummocking, ridging, rafting and finger rafting result from
pressures exerted on the ice.
Weathering.

10. OPENINGS IN THE ICE

Fracture. See also crack, tide crack flaw and fracture zone.
Lead. See also shore lead, flaw lead.
Polynya. See also shore polynya, flaw polynya and recurring polynya.

11. GENERAL CHARACTER OF ICE SURFACE

Deformed ice : Ice which has been squeezed together and in phases forced
upwards (or downwards). Subdivisions are rafted ice, ridged ice, hummocked
ice.
Level ice: Sea ice which is unaffected by deformation.

12. ICE-SURFACE FEATURES

Standing floe, ram, bare ice, snow-covered ice, sastrugi, snowdrift.

13. TERMS RELATED TO MELTING

Puddle, thaw holes, dried ice, rotten ice, flooded ice.

14. ICE OF LAND ORIGIN

Firn.
Glacier ice. See also glacier, ice wall, ice stream, glacier tongue.
Ice shelf. The seaward edge is termed an ice front.
Calved ice. See also iceberg, ice island, bergy bit and growler.

15. SKY AND AIR INDICATIONS

Water sky, ice blink, frost smoke.

16. TERMS RELATING TO SURFACE SHIPPING

Beset, ice-bound, nip, ice under pressure, difficult area, easy area, iceport.

17. TERMS RELATING TO SUBMARINE NAVIGATION

Ice canopy, friendly ice, hostile ice, bummock, ice keel, skylight.

ICE TERMS ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Aged ridge: Ridge which has undergone considerable weathering. These ridges
are best described as undulations.
Anchor-ice: Submerged ice attached or anchored to the bottom, irrespective of
the nature of its formation.
Bare ice: Ice without snow cover.
Belt: A large feature of pack ice arrangement, longer than it is wide, from 1 km
to more than 100 km in width.
Bergy bit: A large piece of floating glacier ice, generally showing less than 5 m
above sea level but more than 1 m and normally about 100-300 m2 in area.
66
Bergy water: An area of freely navigable water with no sea ice present but in
which ice of land origin is present.
Beset: Situation of a vessel surrounded by ice and unable to move.
Big floe: See Floe.
Bight: An extensive crescent-shaped indentation in the ice edge, formed by
either wind or current.
Brash ice: Accumulations of floating ice made up of fragments not more than
2 m across, the wreckage of other forms of ice.
Bummock: From the point of view of the submariner, a downward projection
from the underside of the ice canopy; the counterpart of a hummock.
Calving: The breaking away of a mass of ice from an ice wall, ice front or iceberg.
Close pack ice: Pack ice in which the concentration is 7/10 to 8/10 (6/8 to less
than 7/8), composed of floes mostly in contact.
Compacted ice edge: Close, clear-cut ice edge compacted by wind or current;
usually on the windward side of an area of pack ice.
Compacting: Pieces of floating ice are said to be compacting when they are
subjected to a converging motion, which increases ice concentration and/or
produces stresses which may result in ice deformation.
Compact pack ice: Pack ice in which the concentration is 10/10 (8/8) and no
water is visible.
Concentration: The ratio expressed in tenths or oktas describing the mean
areal density of ice in a given area.
Concentration boundary: A line approximating the transition between two areas
of pack ice with distinctly different concentrations.
Consolidated pack ice: Pack ice in which the concentration is 10/10 (8/8) and the
floes are frozen together.
Consolidated ridge: A ridge in which the base has frozen together.
Crack: Any fracture which has not parted.
Dark nilas: Nilas which is under 5 cm in thickness and is very dark in colour.
Deformed ice: A general term for ice which has been squeezed together and in
places forced upwards (and downwards). Subdivisions are rafted ice, ridged
ice and hummocked ice.
Difficult area: A general qualitative expression to indicate, in a relative manner,
that the severity of ice conditions prevailing in an area is such that navig­
ation in it is difficult.
Diffuse ice edge: Poorly defined ice edge limiting an area of dispersed ice;
usually on the leeward side of an area of pack ice.
Diverging: Icefields or floes in an area are subjected to diverging or dispersive
motion, thus reducing ice concentration and/or relieving stresses in the ice.
Dried ice: Sea ice from the surface of which melt-water has disappeared after
the formation of cracks and thaw holes. During the period of drying, the
surface whitens.
Easy area: A general qualitative expression to indicate, in a relative manner,
that ice conditions prevailing in an area are such that navigation in it is not
difficult.
Fast ice: Sea ice which forms and remains fast along the coast, where it is
attached to the shore, to an ice wall, to an ice front, between shoals or
grounded icebergs. Vertical fluctuations may be observed during changes
of sea level. Fast ice may be formed in situ from sea water or by freezing of
pack ice of any age to the shore, and it may extend a few metres or several
hundred kilometres from the coast. Fast ice may be more than one year old
67
 and may then be prefixed with the appropriate age category (old, second-year
or multi-year). If it is thicker than about 2 m above sea level it is called an
ice shelf.
Fast-ice boundary: The ice boundary at any given time between fast ice and
pack ice.
Fast-ice edge: The demarcation at any given time between fast ice and open water.
Finger rafted ice: Type of rafted ice in which floes thrust 'fingers' alternately
over and under the other.
Finger rafting: Type of rafting whereby interlocking thrusts are formed, each
floe thrusting 'fingers' alternately over and under the other. Common in
nilas and grey ice.
Firn: Old snow which has recrystallized into a dense material. Unlike snow, the
particles are to some extent joined together; but, unlike ice, the air spaces
in it still connect with each other.
First-year ice: Sea ice of not more than one winter's growth, developing from
young ice: thickness 30 cm-2 m. May be subdivided into thin first-year
ice/white ice, medium first-year ice and thick first-year ice.
Flaw: A narrow separation zone between pack ice and fast ice, where the pieces
of ice are in chaotic state; it forms when pack ice shears under the effect of a
strong wind or current along tiiefast ice boundary (cf. shearing).
Flaw lead: A passage-way between pack ice and fast ice which is navigable by
surface vessels.
Flaw polynya: A.polynya between pack ice and fast ice.
Floating ice: Any form of ice found floating in water. The principal kinds of
floating ice are lake ice, river ice, and sea ice, which form by the freezing of
water at the surface, and glacier ice (ice of land origin) formed on land or
in an ice shelf. The concept includes ice that is stranded or grounded.
Floe: Any relatively flat piece of sea ice 20 m or more across. Floes are sub­
divided according to horizontal extent as follows:
GIANT: Over 5-4 n. mile across.
VAST: 1-1-54 n. mile across.
BIG: 500-2000 m across.
MEDIUM: 100-500 m across.
SMALL: 20-100 m across.
Floeberg: A massive piece of sea ice composed of a hummock, or a group of
hummocks, frozen together and separated from any ice surroundings. It may
float up to 5 m above sea level.
Flooded ice: Sea ice which has been flooded by melt-water or river water and
is heavily loaded by water and wet snow.
Fracture : Any break or rupture through very close pack ice, compact pack ice,
consolidated pack ice, fast ice, or a single floe resulting from deformation
processes. Fractures may contain brash ice and/or be covered with nilas and/or
young ice. Length may vary from a few metres to many nautical miles.
Fracture zone: An area which has a great number of fractures.
Fracturing: Pressure process whereby ice is permanently deformed, and rupture
occurs. Most commonly used to describe breaking across very close pack ice,
compact pack ice and consolidated pack ice.
Frazil ice: Fine spicules or plates of ice, suspended in water.
68
Friendly ice: From the point of view of the submariner, an ice canopy containing
many large skylights or other features which permit a submarine to surface.
There must be more than 10 such features per 30 n. mile (56 km) along the
submarine's track.
Frost smoke : Fog-like clouds due to contact of cold air with relatively warm
water, which can appear over openings in the ice, or leeward of the ice edge,
and which may persist while ice is forming.
Giant floe: See Floe.
Glacier: A mass of snow and ice continuously moving from higher to lower
ground or, if afloat, continuously spreading. The principal forms of glacier
are: inland ice sheets, ice shelves, ice streams, ice caps, ice piedmonts, cirque
glaciers and various types of mountain (valley) glaciers.
Glacier berg: An irregularly shaped iceberg.
Glacier ice: Ice in, or originating from, a glacier, whether on land or floating
on the sea as icebergs, bergy bits or growlers.
Glacier tongue: Projecting seaward extension of a glacier, usually afloat. In the
Antarctic glacier tongues may extend over many tens of nautical miles.
Grease ice: A later stage of freezing than frazil ice when the crystals have
coagulated to form a soupy layer on the surface. Grease ice reflects little
light, giving the sea a matt appearance.
Grey ice: Young ice 10-15 cm thick. Less elastic than nilas and breaks on swell.
Usually rafts under pressure.
Grey-white ice: Young ice 15-30 cm thick. Under pressure more likely to ridge
than to raft.
Grounded hummock: Hummocked grounded ice formation. There are single
grounded hummocks and lines (or chains) of grounded hummocks.
Grounded ice: Floating ice which is aground in shoal water (cf. stranded ice).
Growler: Smaller piece of ice than a bergy bit or floeberg, often transparent but
appearing green or almost black in colour, extending less than 1 m above
the sea surface and normally occupying an area of about 20 m2.
Hostile ice: From the point of view of the submariner, an ice canopy containing
no large skylights or other features which permit a submarine to surface.
Hummock: A hillock of broken ice which has been forced upwards by pressure.
May be fresh or weathered. The submerged volume of broken ice under the
hummock, forced downwards by pressure, is termed a hummock.
Hummocked ice: Sea ice piled haphazardly one piece over another to form an
uneven surface. When weathered, has the appearance of smooth hillocks.
Hummocking: The pressure process by which sea ice is forced into hummocks.
When the floes rotate in the process it is termed screwing.
Iceberg: A massive piece of ice greatly varying in shape, more than 5 m above
sea level, which has broken away from a glacier, and which may be afloat or
aground. Icebergs may be described as tabular, dome-shaped, sloping,
pinnacled, weathered or glacier bergs.
Iceberg tongue: A major accumulation of icebergs projecting from the coast,
held in place by grounding and joined together by fast ice.
Ice blink: A whitish glare on low clouds above an accumulation of distant ice.
Ice-bound: A harbour, inlet etc. is said to be ice-bound when navigation by
ships is prevented on account of ice, except possibly with the assistance of
an ice-breaker.
Ice boundary: The demarcation at any given time between fast ice and pack ice
or between areas of pack ice of different concentrations (cf. ice edge).
69
Ice breccia: Ice pieces of different age frozen together.
Ice cake: Any relatively flat piece of sea ice less than 20 m across. See Small
ice cake.
Ice canopy: Pack ice from the point of view of the submariner.
Ice cover: The ratio of an area of ice of any concentration to the total area
of sea surface within some large geographic locale; this locale may be global,
hemispheric, or prescribed by a specific oceanographic entity such as Baffin
Bay or the Barents Sea.
Ice edge: The demarcation at any given time between the open sea and sea ice
of any kind, whether fast or drifting. It may be termed compacted or diffuse
(cf. ice boundary).
Ice field: Area of pack ice consisting of any size of floes, which is greater than
5-4 n. mile across (cf. ice patch). See Large, Medium, Small icefield.
Icefoot: A narrow fringe of ice attached to the coast, unmoved by tides and
remaining after the fast ice has moved away.
Ice-free: No ice present. If ice of any kind is present this term should not be used.
Ice front: The vertical cliff forming the seaward face of an ice shelf or other
floating glacier varying in height from 2 to 50 m or more above sea level
(cf. ice wall).
Ice island: A large piece of floating ice about 5 m above sea level, which has
broken away from an Arctic, ice shelf, having a thickness of 30-50 m and an
area of from a few thousand square metres to 150 n. mile2 or more, and
usually characterized by a regularly undulating surface which gives it a
ribbed appearance from the air.
Ice jam: An accumulation of broken river ice or sea ice caught in a narrow
channel.
Ice keel: From the point of view of the submariner, a downward-projecting
ridge on the underside of the ice canopy, the counterpart of a ridge. Ice keels
may extend as much as 50 m below sea level.
Ice Limit: Climatological term referring to the extreme minimum or extreme
maximum extent of the ice edge in any given month or period based on
observations over a number of years. Term should be preceded by minimum
or maximum (cf. mean ice edge).
Ice massif: A concentration of sea ice covering hundreds of nautical miles
square, which is found in the same region every summer.
Ice of land origin: Ice formed on land or in an ice shelf, found floating in water.
The concept includes ice that is stranded or grounded.
Ice patch: An area of pack ice less than 54 n. mile across.
Ice port: An embayment in an ice front, often of a temporary nature, where ships
can moor alongside and unload directly on to the ice shelf.
Ice rind: A brittle shiny crust of ice formed on a quiet surface by direct freezing
or from grease ice, usually in water of low salinity. Thickness to about 5 cm.
Easily broken by wind or swell, commonly breaking in rectangular pieces.
Ice shelf: A floating ice sheet of considerable thickness showing 2-50 m or more
above sea level, attached to the coast. Usually of great horizontal extent
and with a level or gently undulating surface. Nourished by annual snow
accumulation and often also by the seaward extension of land glaciers.
Limited areas may be aground. The seaward edge is termed an ice front.
Ice stream: Part of an inland ice sheet in which the ice flows more rapidly and
not necessarily in the same direction as the surrounding ice. The margins
70
 are sometimes clearly marked by a change in direction of the surface slope
but may be indistinct.
Ice under pressure: Ice in which deformation processes are actively occurring
and hence a potential impediment or danger to shipping.
Ice wall: An ice cliff forming the seaward margin of a glacier which is not
afloat. An ice wall is aground, the rock basement being at or below sea
level (cf. ice front).
Lake ice: Ice formed on a lake, regardless of observed location.
Large fracture: More than 500 m wide.
Large ice field: An icefield over 11 n. mile across.
Lead: Any fracture or passage-way through sea ice which is navigable by
surface vessels.
Level ice : Sea ice which is unaffected by deformation.
Light nilas: Nilas which is more than 5 cm in thickness and rather lighter in
colour than dark nilas.
Mean ice edge: Average position of the ice edge in any given month or period
based on observations over a number of years. Other terms which may be
used are mean maximum ice edge and mean minimum ice edge (cf. ice limit).
Medium first-year ice: First-year ice 70-120 cm thick.
Medium floe: See Floe.
Medium fracture: 200-500 m wide.
Medium ice field: An icefield 8-11 n. mile across.
Multi-year ice: Old ice up to 3 m or more thick which has survived at least two
summers' melt. Hummocks even smoother than in second-year ice, and the
ice is almost salt-free. Colour, where bare, is usually blue. Melt pattern
consists of large interconnecting irregular puddles and a well-developed
drainage system.
New ice: A general term for recently formed ice which includes frazil ice, grease
ice, slush and shuga. These types of ice are composed of ice crystals which
are only weakly frozen together (if at all) and have a definite form only
while they are afloat.
New ridge: Ridge newly formed with sharp peaks and slope of sides usually
40°. Fragments are visible from the air at low altitude.
Nilas: A thin elastic crust of ice, easily bending on waves and swell and under
pressure, thrusting in a pattern of interlocking 'fingers' (finger rafting).
Has a matt surface and is up to 10 cm in thickness. May be subdivided into
dark nilas and light nilas.
Nip: Ice is said to nip when it forcibly presses against a ship. A vessel so caught,
though undamaged, is said to have been nipped.
Old ice: Sea ice which has survived at least one summer's melt. Most topo­
graphic features are smoother than on first-year ice. May be subdivided into
second-year ice and multi-year ice.
Open pack ice: Pack ice in which the ice concentration is 4/10 to 6/10 (3/8 to
less than 6/8), with many leads and polynyas, and th&fioes are generally not
in contact with one another.
Open water: A large area of freely navigable water in which sea ice is present
in concentrations less than 1/10 (1/8). There may be ice of land origin present,
although the total concentration of all ice shall not exceed 1/10 (1/8).
Pack ice: Term used in a wide sense to include any area of sea ice, other than
fast ice, no matter what form it takes or how it is disposed.
71
Pancake ice: Predominantly circular pieces of ice from 30 cm to 3 m in diameter,
and up to about 10 cm in thickness, with raised rims due to the pieces striking
against one another. It may be formed on a slight swell from grease ice, shuga
or slush or as a result of the breaking of ice rind, nilas or, under severe
conditions of swell or waves, of grey ice. It also sometimes forms at some
depth, at an interface between water bodies of different physical character­
istics, from where it floats to the surface; its appearance may rapidly cover
wide areas of water.
Polynya: Any non-linear shaped opening enclosed in ice. Polynyas may contain
brash ice and/or be covered with new ice, nilas or young ice; submariners
refer to these as skylights. Sometimes the polynya is limited on one side by
the coast and is called a shore polynya or by fast ice and is called a flaw
polynya. If it recurs in the same position every year, it is called a recurring
polynya.
Puddle: An accumulation on ice of melt-water, mainly due to melting snow, but
in the more advanced stages also to the melting of ice. Initial stage consists
of patches of melted snow.
Rafted ice: Type of deformed ice formed by one piece of ice overriding another
(cf. finger rafting).
Rafting : Pressure processes whereby one piece of ice overrides another. Most
common in new and young ice (cf. finger rafting).
Ram: An underwater ice projection from an ice wall, ice front, iceberg orfioe.
Its formation is usually due to a more intensive melting and erosion of the
unsubmerged part.
Recurring polynya: A polynya which recurs in the same position every year.
Ridge: A line or wall of broken ice forced up by pressure. May be fresh or
weathered. The submerged volume of broken ice under a ridge, forced
downwards by pressure, is termed an ice keel.
Ridged ice: Ice piled haphazardly one piece over another in the form of ridges
or walls. Usually found in first-year ice (cf. ridging).
Ridged-ice zone: An area in which much ridged ice with similar characteristics
has formed.
Ridging: The pressure process by which sea ice is forced into ridges.
River ice: Ice formed on a river, regardless of observed location.
Rotten ice: Sea ice which has become honeycombed and which is in an advanced
state of disintegration.
Sastrugi: Sharp, irregular ridges formed on a snow surface by wind erosion and
deposition. On mobile floating ice the ridges are parallel to the direction of
the prevailing wind at the time they were formed.
Sea ice: Any form of ice found at sea which has originated from the freezing of
sea water.
Second-year ice: Old ice which has survived only one summer's melt. Because
it is thicker and less dense tha.nfirst-year ice, it stands higher out of the water.
In contrast to multi-year ice, summer melting produces a regular pattern of
numerous small puddles. Bare patches and puddles are usually greenish-blue.
Shearing: An area of pack ice is subject to shear when the ice motion varies
significantly in the direction normal to the motion, subjecting the ice to
rotational forces. These forces may result in phenomena similar to a flaw
(q.v.).
Shore lead: A lead between pack ice and the shore or between pack ice and an
ice front.
72
ICE PHOTOGRAPHS
(See pages 64-74)

O
 Scott Polar y?t'\(Y/rc7i Institute

2. Light Nilas
 Photograph by Dr Swithinbank, Scott Polar Research Institute

3. Very open Pack Ice

 Institute of Oceanographic Sciences

4. Open Pack Ice

 ' of Oceanographic Scien

5. Very close Pack Ice

 Photograph by Dr Sv/ilhinbank, Scott Polar Research Institute

6. Ice Edge
 -Antarctic Expedition

7. Lead
 Photograph by /. /•". Hurley
8. Hummocked Ice
 Institute of Oceanographic Sciences

9. Growler
 Photograph by C. Murray-Levick

10. Bergy Bit

 Institute of Occanographic Sciences

11. Glacier Berg

 Institute oj Oceunographic Sciences
12. Tabular Berg
Shore polynya: A polynya between pack ice and the coast or between pack ice
and an ice front.
Shuga: An accumulation of spongy white ice lumps, a few centimetres across;
they are formed from grease ice or slush and sometimes from anchor-ice
rising to the surface.
Skylight: From the point of view of the submariner, thin places in the ice
canopy, usually less than 1 m thick and appearing from below as relatively
light, translucent patches in dark surroundings. The under-surface of a
skylight is normally flat. Skylights are called large if big enough for a sub­
marine to attempt to surface through them (120 m), or small if not.
Slush: Snow which is saturated and mixed with water on land or ice surfaces,
or as a viscous floating mass in water after a heavy snowfall.
Small floe: See Floe.
Small fracture: 50-200 m wide.
Small ice cake: An ice cake less than 2 m across.
Small ice field: An icefield 5-4-8 n. mile across.
Snow-covered ice: Ice covered with snow.
Snowdrift: An accumulation of wind-blown snow deposited in the lee of obstruc­
tions or heaped by wind eddies. A crescent-shaped snowdrift, with ends
pointing downwind, is known as a snow barchan.
Standing floe: A separate floe standing vertically or inclined and enclosed by
rather smooth ice.
Stranded ice: Ice which has been floating and has been deposited on the shore
by retreating high water.
Strip: Long narrow area of pack ice, about 0-5 n. mile or less in width, usually
composed of small fragments detached from the main mass of ice, and run
together under the influence of wind, swell or current.
Tabular berg: A flat-topped iceberg. Most tabular bergs form by calving from
an ice shelf and show horizontal banding (cf. ice island).
Thaw holes: Vertical holes in sea ice formed when surface puddles melt through
to the underlying water.
Thick first-year ice: First-year ice over 120 cm thick.
Thin first-year ice/white ice: First-year ice 30-70 cm thick.
Tide crack: Crack at the line of junction between an immovable icefoot or ice wall
and fast ice, the latter subject to rise and fall of the tide.
Tongue: A projection of the ice edge up to several nautical miles in length,
caused by wind or current.
Vast floe: See Floe.
Very close pack ice: Pack ice in which the concentration is 9/10 to less than 10/10
(7/8 to less than 8/8).
Very open pack ice: Pack ice in which the concentration is 1/10 to 3/10 (1/8 to
less than 3/8) and water preponderates over ice.
Very small fracture: 0-50 m wide.
Very weathered ridge: Ridge with tops very rounded, slopes of sides usually
20°-30°.
Water sky: Dark streaks on the underside of low clouds, indicating the presence
of water features in the vicinity of sea ice.
Weathered ridge: Ridge with peaks slightly rounded and slope of sides usually
30°-40°. Individual fragments are not discernible.
Weathering: Processes of ablation and accumulation which gradually eliminate
irregularities in an ice surface.
K 73
White ice: See Thin first-year ice.
Young coastal ice: The initial stage of fast ice formation consisting of nilas or
young ice, its width varying from a few metres up to 100-200 m from the
shoreline.
Young ice: Ice in the transition stage between nilas and first-year ice, 10-30 cm
in thickness. May be subdivided into grey ice and grey-white ice.

74
 Part III Phenomena

CHAPTER 8
The Observation of Phenomena
Introduction. The seaman has unusual opportunities for observing natural
phenomena of all kinds. This can be made an interesting hobby, and the observer
may be lucky enough, sooner or later, to make a rare, or even unique, observa­
tion, which if carefully observed and recorded, will contribute to scientific
knowledge. The comparative frequency or rarity of certain phenomena is indi­
cated in this and the four following chapters, as far as our present knowledge
goes. Phenomena of unknown origin are occasionally seen at sea and these
should be carefully observed and recorded.
It is however not only the rare observations which are of value. All meteoro­
logical phenomena, whether optical or general, are directly related to the state
of the atmosphere and weather prevailing at the time, and their recording in the
Remarks Column of the Meteorological Log or in the space provided for
Additional Remarks, helps to complete the information given by routine
observations. Also there is probably a good deal to be learnt yet about many
of the more common phenomena, including their frequency and geographical
distribution, for which purpose it is obvious that all observations made in any
part of the world should be put on record.
Hints are given in these chapters on the observations or measurements
which are necessary if the phenomenon is to be correctly identified. Observations
are much more valuable if accompanied by drawings or sketches, in black and
white or colour, or by photographs. If there is not room in the log, the observa­
tions and sketches can be attached to it.
The more interesting and unusual observations and illustrations are pub­
lished in The Marine Observer. Notes and sketches on phenomena which are
outside the scope of the Meteorological Office are always sent on to the relevant
authority for examination and comment.
Methods of observation. Some optical phenomena such as coronae and iri­
descent cloud appear to be very near the sun or moon. Those near the sun may
not be seen at all unless the eyes are shaded from direct sunlight. Apart from this,
optical phenomena such as halos, coronae etc., viewed in the day-time, when the
sky is often very bright, are more easily seen if the amount of light entering the
eye is reduced, and sometimes a very faint halo etc., can only be seen if this is
done. The sky may be viewed through neutral-tinted glass of a light tone, such
as the lightest of those on a sextant, or the reflection from black glass may be
used, if available, or from a piece of ordinary glass painted on one side with
black enamel or backed with black paper. If a pair of ordinary sun-glasses of
suitable colour is available, this is the best method of all. Yellow-brown, not too
deep, has been found to be very satisfactory. Glasses of this colour have the
power of slightly increasing contrast, so as to show distant land more distinctly
on a misty day. The natural colour of any phenomenon is, of course, modified
by these. The same methods also give a better view of clouds, of the details in a
75
 bright cloud mass, or of the very faint extensions, near the limit of visibility, of
cloud in a blue sky.
There is a useful tip for seeing any very faint light at night, which is near or
just beyond the limit of direct visibility. Do not look directly at the object, or
where you suspect it to be, but fix the attention on a point a little way above,
below, or to the side of it. Then view the spot 'out of the corner of the eye'.
Light will thus be seen that would otherwise be invisible or, if it is directly visible,
it will appear brighter by this process of 'averted' or 'oblique' vision. This
applies to very faint light of every sort, whether concentrated in a point or
diffused, such as faint terrestrial lights, faint stars, comets' tails, all zodiacal
light phenomena and the fainter parts of aurorae.
In the case of phenomena of considerable duration, it is best to make notes
of the various appearances as they are seen to come into view, or of other
changes, carefully recording the times throughout the progress of the phenom­
enon. This is preferable to trusting to the memory afterwards. Rough sketches
can also be made at the time and subsequently worked up into finished drawings
or sketches. If colour is to be used, notes of the various colours should be made
at the time.
It is desirable that observations be accompanied by sketches and/or photo­
graphs, whenever possible. These will often show detail that cannot be put into
words. Sketches may be made either in ink or in pencil; in some cases delicacy
of shading or fine detail is better rendered in pencil. When chosen for repro­
duction in The Marine Observer, the sketches are redrawn on tracing linen to
enable engraved blocks to be made for the printer. Although sketches in colour
cannot be so reproduced in The Marine Observer they may be of value in ampli­
fying the detail given in the written observation.
An accurate account of the size and relative positions of the main features
of what is seen is the prime requirement. Angular measurements are necessary in
many cases for the identification of the phenomenon, as explained in the sub­
sequent chapters. These are best incorporated in the written observation, unless
the accompanying sketch is purely a diagrammatic one.
Phenomena such as haloes, rainbows and waterspouts may be photographed,
giving a sufficiently short exposure, such as would best show cloud detail. The
best results, particularly in the case of coloured objects, can only be got by the
use of colour film or panchromatic film of suitable speed with a suitable colour
filter over the lens. The same remarks apply to mirage, which has very rarely
been photographed, though there appears to be no reason why satisfactory
results should not be obtained.

OBSERVATIONS BY RADAR
With radar sets working on 3 cm or 10 cm, having a suitable form of present­
ation (e.g. PPI), echoes are obtained from rain up to distances of 40 n. mile or
more. In this way showers, fronts and thunderstorms may be located and warn­
ing given of their approach. Echoes from cloud have been reported, but these
are probably due to rain or drizzle within the cloud and not to the cloud particles
themselves.
Objects at ground level or sea level are normally visible on the radar screen
at distances a little beyond the visible horizon, owing to refraction. In certain
conditions, however, much greater ranges are obtained. This occurs most
76
frequently over the sea, and is due to a temperature inversion near the surface
and/or a fall of humidity with height which causes reflection or abnormal
refraction of the rays.
The reverse effect, i.e. a smaller degree of refraction than is usual—or sub-
refraction—can occur owing to a very pronounced temperature lapse rate and/or
an increase of humidity with height. Sub-refraction however is neither a very
marked nor frequent phenomenon.
Ordinary meteorological fronts are not a major cause of abnormal radar
ranges. Due to absorption of the radio energy, very heavy rain may tend to
mask a radar target behind the rain area; this effect is unlikely to be significant
on a wave-length of 10 cm but it may become important at shorter wave-lengths.
The use of radar as a means of detection of ice should be borne in mind. In
normal meteorological conditions, echoes from most bergs may be detected
at a useful range, but in certain meteorological conditions sub-refraction may
occur and normal detection ranges be appreciably reduced. It has also been
found that at times, even under favourable conditions, a very poor echo has been
obtained from quite a large berg, the inclination of the slope presented to the
observer apparently having an effect upon its reflecting properties, which is of as
much account as the length or height of the berg. Bergy bits, growlers or pieces
of pack ice, especially if smoothed by weathering, may pass undetected in strong
sea clutter, even if they are large enough to sink or damage ships. On the other
hand, in conditions where sea clutter is well marked, the cessation of such
echoes may indicate the presence of pack ice.
Radar can therefore only be considered as an additional aid to the navigator
in the detection of ice but it must be clearly understood that an absence of
indication on the screen does not necessarily mean the absence of dangerous
ice in the nieghbourhood of the vessel.

77
 CHAPTER 9
Astronomical Phenomena
ECLIPSES
Partial eclipses of the sun or moon provide interesting spectacles but afford no
opportunity for the seaman to make observations of particular value. Little
diminution in sunlight is perceived until more than half the sun's disc is covered
by the moon. An appreciable fall of temperature occurs during a large partial
eclipse of the sun.
A total eclipse of the sun is perhaps the grandest of all natural phenomena.
While almost of annual occurrence, its visibility on any occasion is confined to a
very small area, along a line usually less than 100 n. mile wide, so that in any fixed
place it is in general very rare. The duration of the total phase is very short,
usually from a few seconds up to about two minutes, though in very exceptional
circumstances it may be considerably more, the possible maxima being nearly
eight minutes. During totality the fall of temperature is marked; often the wind
changes or springs up, if previously calm. The sky darkens and has a peculiar
appearance, often with lurid cloud colours. During totality the bright planets
and the brighter stars may be seen.
Very occasionally a ship at sea or in harbour may be on the line of totality
and several of such observations have been received in the last 50 years. The
seaman fortunate enough to witness such an eclipse should endeavour to record
all that he sees in as full detail as possible. There is so much to see in such a
short time that it is desirable for several persons to observe in company. At
the instant the moon finally covers the round body of the sun normally seen,
the solar corona will spring into view. This is an irregularly extended atmosphere
of the sun, pearly-white in colour, giving about half as much light as the full
moon. It has a definite shape which varies according to the position of the
year of observation in the 11-year cycle of solar activity (see under Sunspots).
Near the time of maximum activity the corona is disposed fairly equally round
the sun, with a definite structure of rays and bands, and sometimes curved forms
like flower petals. Near the time of minimum activity the corona shows much
less structural detail and the form is quite different. A wide band, more or less
parallel sided, stretches outward from the equatorial region of the sun, one on
each side of the sun, and these bands may extend a long distance, up to two or
more solar diameters. At this time the polar regions usually show only a few
short rays of coronal light. In the intermediate years of the solar cycle, the
corona assumes forms intermediate between those described above.
Owing to the short duration of total solar eclipses and their comparative
rarity, the total time for which the corona has been seen in the last 150 years is
probably about two hours. Its exact form on any particular occasion is unpre­
dictable. Marine observers can therefore make observations of real scientific
value if the form, extent and detail of the corona is carefully noted and sketched.
As the fainter extensions of the corona are best seen with the unaided eye and the
structural detail is best seen with binoculars or a small telescope, it is best,
especially when the duration of totality is short, to have two observers, each
working in one of these different ways.
78
 One or more of the great rose-red eruptions of hydrogen and calcium gas
from the sun, known as prominences, may be seen adjacent to the moon's
limb without optical assistance, especially if the sun is near its state of maximum
activity. Unlike the corona, these may be seen in full sunlight on any day, by
astronomers using special apparatus. Other features of a total eclipse on which
attention may be concentrated are (a) meteorological effects, (b) the changing
colour effects of sky and cloud and the rapid onrush of the moon's shadow
through the air as the total phase begins, (c) the visibility of planets and stars.
The total phase of a lunar eclipse generally lasts a considerable time, some­
times for nearly two hours; the exact duration depends on how centrally the
moon passes through the earth's shadow. The totally eclipsed moon usually
remains visible, appearing in some shade of red or copper. Careful observation
of this colour, and its changes, if any, during the total phase are of value. A
general statement of the degree of brightness of the totally eclipsed moon should
also be given, noting how far its surface markings remain visible. The totally
eclipsed moon receives reddish sunlight by refraction through the section of the
earth's atmosphere in profile to the moon at the time, and the amount and
colour of the refracted light vary according to the cloudiness and other meteoro­
logical conditions in this part of the atmosphere. When fine dust in sufficient
quantity is suspended in the air after a big volcanic eruption, the moon may
almost, or even completely, disappear from sight during total eclipse. Such an
observation should be carefully recorded, with all relevant detail.

COMETS
Comets are members of the Solar System, moving in elliptical orbits, in most
cases so enormously elongated that the period of revolution round the sun
may be hundreds or even thousands of years. A few return in a comparatively
short time, one of these being the well-known Halley's Comet, with a period
of about 76 years, last seen in 1910.
Comets are much less dense than planets, and consist of a loose aggregation
of widely separated small solid bodies, ranging from the size of a grain of sand
to that of small stones, probably with an admixture of larger pieces. The
diameter of this collection is usually only a few hundred miles, but may be
several thousand. Comets are only seen in that part of their orbit near the sun,
when they shine partly by reflected light but mainly by the vaporizing of the
material of the comet by the sun's heat. An interesting feature of a comet is its
tail, which is only formed when the comet is relatively near the sun. This consists
of dust and gases ejected from the head, probably by light pressure and electrical
repulsion. The tail of a large comet may be many millions of miles in actual
length. The apparent length may be anything from a degree or two to 60° or 80"
or more. The direction of the tail is from the comet's head away from the sun.
This direction bears no relation to the direction of the movement of the head of
the comet in its orbit. The tail of a cornet, unlike the transitory trail of a meteor,
therefore does not show the direction in which the comet has travelled.
Most comets never become bright enough to be seen without telescopic aid
and some never develop tails, but a bright comet is a magnificent naked-eye
spectacle. There should be no confusion between the appearance of a comet and
a meteor. A meteor is only seen for a few seconds as it travels more or less
rapidly over its apparent path in the sky. A comet remains apparently fixed
79
among the stars and sets with them in due course. It has a continuous movement
relative to the stars, but in most cases this can only be seen in a naked-eye or
binocular observation by comparing its position on successive nights. The period
of naked-eye visibility of a comet may be anything from a few days to a number
of weeks. It finally becomes invisible by either getting too faint, or passing into
the daylight region of the sky or changing in declination so as to sink below the
horizon.
Astronomers measure the position of the head of a comet relative to stars
near it in the field of view of a telescope, or large-scale photographs may be
taken. From a minimum of three such observations on successive nights, the
comet's orbit in space and its subsequent apparent track in the sky can be
computed. Angular distances of the comet from two or three bright stars,
measured by sextant, are not sufficiently accurate for this purpose, but serve to
identify the object and help in making an accurate sketch of the comet and its
tail in relation to the stars. It may occasionally happen that more than one naked-
eye comet is visible at the same time.
Valuable observations of a naked-eye comet may be made at sea, and it may
happen that some interesting feature is seen which would not otherwise be put
on record, if conditions of daylight or cloud make observations impossible in
other parts of the world at that particular time. The brightness of the head and
the form and length of the tail may sometimes change appreciably from night to
night. The brightness of the head is estimated by comparison with that of
neighbouring stars or planets, as described under Novae below. The altitude of
the comet's head should be given, as part of this observation, also notes on the
state of the sky, such as whether thin cloud, haze, twilight or moonlight is
present. Careful sketches of the form and length of the tail are valuable and
should include details of the structure of the tail, if any are seen, stating whether
the observation was made with the unaided eye, or with binoculars. The end of
the tail usually fades very gradually into the dark sky and the method of averted
vision (see page 76) can be used to see it as far as possible; binoculars will not
show the fainter extension. It is of special importance to record any tails, other
than the main one, which may be visible; these are normally on the same side
of the head as the main tail, making various angles with it, and they are usually
narrower and fainter than the main tail. On rare occasions a short tail pointing
towards the sun may be seen, i.e. in a direction opposite to that of the main tail.
If the comet shows any peculiarity of colour this should be noted.

THE ZODIACAL LIGHT AND ASSOCIATED PHENOMENA

The zodiacal light. This is observed as the cone-shaped extremity of an elongated
ellipse of soft whitish light which extends from the sun as centre, extending
above the westerly horizon in the evening or the easterly horizon in the morning.
The best time for observation is just after the last traces of twilight have dis­
appeared in the evening, or just before the first traces appear in the morning.
The light retains its apparent place among the stars and gradually sets or rises
with them. It is more brilliant in the tropics, but is very conspicuous even in
temperate latitudes, if observed away from the glare of large towns.
The axis of the light lies in the zodiac, very nearly but not quite in the plane
of the ecliptic. In tropical latitudes, where the ecliptic makes a large angle with
the horizon at all times of the year, the light may be seen well on any clear
80
night or morning in all months. In the temperate latitudes of the northern
hemisphere it is best seen in the evenings of January to March and in the
mornings of September to November.
The light is pearly and homogeneous and differs markedly in quality from
that of the Milky Way, the brightest part of which it may considerably exceed
in luminosity. Its luminosity decreases with altitude above the horizon, since
its brightness is greater the nearer the observed point is to the sun's position
below the horizon. It appears, however, to fall off in brightness near the horizon
on account of the greater thickness of the atmosphere its light has to traverse.
At any altitude the axis of the light is brighter than its lateral parts. In northern
temperate latitudes the edge of the cone towards the north in azimuth is less
well-defined than that towards the south and tends to spread northwards near
the horizon.
The zodiacal light is believed to be a cosmic phenomenon, due to the
reflection of the sun's light from dust or gaseous matter, extending outwards to a
point somewhat beyond the earth's orbit. There is much that is not known about
this phenomenon and new observations from all latitudes will be of real value.
Any features of interest should be noted, such as the colour of the light and any
irregularity of form or light distribution. Observations of its brightness will be
of value, as it is not yet known whether this is constant on successive nights or in
different years. Apparent changes of brightness often occur since the night sky
is not always equally transparent. The presence of a bright planet, especially
Venus, in the region of the light dims it considerably. Estimates of brightness
should be made on moonless nights, after all twilight has disappeared, by com­
paring the light with that of the Milky Way, preferably at about the same
altitude. The position of the Milky Way should be specified, as this varies
markedly in brightness in different parts of the sky. Thus the light on a given
night might be estimated to be twice as bright as the Milky Way in Cygnus.
Observations of the precise position of the light, about which there is still
some uncertainty, may be made by a careful sketch of the cone showing the
position of specified stars, either within, on the edge of, or outside the cone.
Zodiacal band and Gegenschein. Joining the apexes of the cones of the
morning and evening zodiacal lights is an extremely faint luminous band, a
few degrees wide, lying along or nearly along the ecliptic, called the zodiacal
band. On this band, at a point very nearly or exactly 180° from the sun's
position in the ecliptic, is a somewhat brighter and larger but ill-defined patch,
10° or more in diameter, known by the German name 'Gegenschein'. This
therefore is due south (in the northern hemisphere) at midnight, local time.
These phenomena may be observed in temperate latitudes on the clearest
moonless nights when at sufficient altitude; they are somewhat brighter in the
tropics, on account of the greater altitude of the ecliptic. Further observations of
these phenomena are much desired, especially from tropical localities. The
track and width of the band, and the size, shape and position of the Gegenschein
should be noted, together with variations of brilliancy and any special features
seen, but the observation will be found difficult even to keen eyesight. The
Gegenschein is usually invisible for the few nights on which it is projected upon
the Milky Way in its annual journey round the ecliptic.
NOVAE
Sometimes, quite unpredictably, a small star, usually such that a telescope is
required to sight it, brightens up very much, within a few hours or a day or two
81
at the most. This is, somewhat loosely, called a 'nova' or 'new star'. While many
of these never become visible to the naked eye, occasionally one does so and
may even reach the first magnitude, or brighter, thus completely changing the
aspect of the constellation in which it appears. If conspicuous, a nova is generally
mentioned in the newspapers. Should the marine observer hear of one, or
discover one (in which case he will usually find he is not the first discoverer) he
may be interested in following its changes of brightness. The normal history of
a nova is that it remains at full brightness for a short time, probably a day or
two at the most, and then very gradually decreases, the reduction in brightness
being interrupted by slight temporary increases. If the star has attained the
third magnitude or more it may remain visible to the naked eye for several weeks.
If the observer wishes to record the exact brightness of a nova (or other star)
at any time, he may select a star of about the same altitude judged to be exactly
of the same brightness. If no such star is available, he should select two stars
of about the same altitude as the nova, one a little brighter and one a little
fainter than the nova. He can then express the brightness of the nova in terms
of the small interval of brightness between the two comparison stars. For
example, it might be halfway between them in brightness, or one-third of the
interval, counting from the brighter to the fainter, or one-quarter of the interval,
counting from the fainter to the brighter. If such an observation is received,
it can be easily converted into actual magnitudes, since the magnitudes of all
naked-eye stars have been accurately determined. Both these methods break
down if the star is much above the first magnitude, as suitable comparison stars
would probably not be available. One or more of the bright planets, if visible,
might, however, serve for this purpose.
An accurate observation of the magnitude of a nova, especially in its early
stages when the brightness is changing quickly, may be of great value to astrono­
mers, since no other observation might have been made anywhere else at the
same time.

SUNSPOTS
It is very dangerous to the sight to look at the sun, either with or without optical
aid, without using smoked or deeply-tinted glass to reduce the light. This applies
even when the sun is in partial eclipse. The only exception is when the sunlight
is greatly weakened by passage through fairly thick fog, especially when the sun
is at low altitude.
The number and size of sunspots varies in different years. Over a period of
years solar activity, of which the occurrence of large sunspots is one manifesta­
tion, rises to a maximum and subsequently falls to a minimum. The time
between successive maxima varies considerably, but averages about 11 years.
For several years around the time of maximum activity, spots are frequently
large enough to be seen without optical aid; sometimes two or more are thus
visible at the same time. Around the time of minimum activity, spots are either
very small or completely absent. The life of an individual spot may be anything
from a few days to several weeks.
Owing to the sun's rotation on its axis, a spot previously formed, and coming
into view at the sun's eastern limb, will appear to cross the disc in about 14 days,
if it lasts so long. Apparent changes of position of the spots on the sun's disc
take place during the day, but are merely due to the observer's changing angle
82
of view. The imaginary line forming the horizontal diameter of the sun at noon
appears to be tilted upward between sunrise and noon and downward between
noon and sunset, the most extreme tilting occurring at sunrise and sunset.
Daily photographs of the sun through telescopes are taken at one or other
of the astronomical observatories throughout the world. While marine observers
may find it interesting to see the spots and note their changes of form and
position on successive days, especially in years of maximum solar activity, it is
not necessary to make sketches of them in the logbook as these can never be
accurate enough to have any scientific value.
Solar flares. Near certain sunspots there occur areas which undergo sudden
increases in brightness; these are called flares. They are best seen by means of
special instruments which give a picture of the sun's surface in red hydrogen
light. Some of the greatest solar flares have, however, been observed as increases
in the total white light of the sun; seen in this way, a flare lasts for a few minutes
and has about the same area as a large sunspot. The first such observation of a
bright patch on the sun's surface was made in 1859 and several flares have been
similarly observed since then. The appearance of flares cannot be predicted, but
they are more numerous at times of maximum solar activity (as measured by
the numbers of sunspots).
The increase in light intensity during a flare is particularly strong in the ultra­
violet part of the spectrum (the part beyond the visible violet light to which our
eyes are not sensitive). The blast of ultra-violet light emitted from a solar flare
produces several detectable effects in the high atmosphere of the earth.
Associated with the increase in light intensity during a flare, there is ejection
of material particles from the region of the flare out into space. This material
shoots out at speeds of about 300 to 650 kilometres per second, which probably
increases as the material gets further from the sun. If moving in the appropriate
direction, this material causes interesting effects in the high atmosphere. Some
of the high atmospheric effects of solar flares are described in the next chapter.

83
 CHAPTER 10

Phenomena of the High Atmosphere

Regions of the high atmosphere. The high atmosphere of the earth is classified
into regions according to the degree of ionization of the atoms of the atmos­
pheric gases at the level concerned, that is, according to the electrical con­
ductivity. In the lower atmosphere, air is a very good electrical insulator, i.e.
its conductivity is very low. In the high atmosphere, however, many of the
atoms are ionized so that the air is electrically conducting. The classification
into regions depends on the different degrees of conductivity and other electrical
properties at the different levels. There are three regions at the following
approximate heights: the D region, between 48 and 80 km up; the E region,
between 80 and 130 km; and the /"region above 130 km.
High-frequency radio fadeouts. Long-distance radio transmission in the short­
wave band (in the frequency range say from 3 to 30 megahertz) is normally
achieved by reflection of the radiation from the F region, the main influence
of the D and E regions being to absorb some of the energy of the radio waves.
When the blast of ultra-violet light from a solar flare reaches the earth it increases
the ionization in the D region, however, and this increased ionization causes
absorption of HF signals, reducing the signal strength considerably or even
causing a complete fadeout of the received signals. Such a HF radio fadeout
can occur only on the daylight hemisphere of the earth; it usually lasts for about
twenty minutes.
Sudden enhancements of atmospherics. Lightning flashes in the lower atmos­
phere are a source of radio noise, detected over a wide range of frequencies
as the crackles called atmospherics. Thunderstorms and lightning flashes are
most numerous in the tropics, and transmission round the earth to higher lati­
tudes of the resultant radio noise is by means of reflection from the various con­
ducting regions of the high atmosphere. For the low-frequency (LF) part of
atmospherics (in the frequency range below 100 kilohertz) it is the D region
which acts as the reflector. Following a solar flare and the consequent increased
ionization in the D region, the reflection of LF atmospherics is suddenly improved
and the noise level of atmospherics may rise to as much as double its normal
value. The rise takes place in a few minutes and the level remains high for an
hour or two.
High-frequency radio blackouts. When the material ejected from the sun
during solar flares, and at other times, reaches the earth, it affects the electrical
properties of the F region in such a way that it ceases to act as a good reflector
for HF radio. This effect is called an ionospheric storm. It is most severe in high
latitudes because 'the material particles coming from the sun are electrically
charged and are guided to the polar regions by the earth's magnetic field. Being
often, though not always, connected with solar flares, ionospheric storms are
more frequent during solar activity maxima. The HF radio blackout associated
with a severe ionospheric storm may last for several days.
Magnetic disturbances. The earth's magnetic field is almost entirely of inter­
nal origin, being most probably produced by electric currents flowing in the
molten material of the core, but there is a small part of it (less than one-
84
hundredth) which can be attributed to electric currents flowing in the high
atmosphere. It is believed that these currents flow mainly in the E region. The
daily heating of the atmosphere by the sun causes the currents to go through a
regular daily cycle of change. These regular changes are very small in most
places and cannot be detected by an ordinary compass needle, the maximum
change of direction of the needle during a day being about one-fifth of a degree
of arc.
Quicker changes occur at the times of HF radio fadeouts, but they also are too
small to be detected by a compass needle. They are known as magnetic crochets
or as solar flare effects.
Much larger deviations can occur, however. They are the result of large,
irregular changes in the E layer currents, called magnetic storms, which occur
in conjunction with ionospheric storms and HF radio blackouts in high latitudes.
Like the ionospheric storms of the F region, these E region magnetic storms are
caused by the arrival of the material particles ejected from the sun during solar
flares and at other times.
If the magnetic storm be severe, the compass needle may be deflected con­
tinuously in one direction, to the extent of about half a degree, for some hours.
In more intense storms the needle may oscillate one degree or more on either
side of its normal position, and such oscillation may continue for as long as ten
or twenty minutes before dying out. Further oscillation may occur after a period
of quiescence. Deviations of 2° or more have been known, but are rare. During
the great magnetic storm of 25 January 1938 a deviation of 4° eastward was
observed off the Portuguese coast.

NOCTILUCENT CLOUDS
About one hour after sunset on clear summer nights, rather lovely clouds with
delicate filigree patterns very like cirrus may be seen to appear slowly in the
darkening northern sky. These are the noctilucent or luminous night clouds.
What is most remarkable about the clouds is their height. They are situated at an
altitude of about 80 km, far above all ordinary clouds. At this great height, the
clouds remain sunlit long after sunset; they are seen by the sunlight they reflect
and become visible when the sky background is sufficiently dark. They cannot be
seen by day, since the light they reflect is minute compared with the light
scattered by the daylight sky.
The clouds are of a pearly-white colour and often show a bluish tinge. They
are classified in the following forms:
TYPE i. Veils. A tenuous, usually structureless background to other forms, rather
like cirrostratus clouds.
TYPE ii. Bands. Long streaks with diffuse edges (Type Ha) or sharply defined
edges (Type lib) often occurring in groups arranged roughly parallel to each
other.
TYPE HI. Billows. Closely spaced short bands in the form of waves.
TYPE iv. Whirls. Contorted forms indicating turbulence at the cloud level.
The clouds have been observed only in latitudes higher than 45°N and most
frequently in latitudes 55° to 60°N. They appear only in the summer months
and most frequently during the weeks following the summer solstice. There are
85
indications that the distribution and behaviour of the clouds in the southern
hemisphere is similar to that in the north, though, for obvious reasons, observa­
tions are few.
The clouds were at first thought to consist of volcanic dust that had been
projected to great heights at the time of a great eruption and had collected
below the inversion of temperature that exists above a height of 80 km. It was
later claimed that volcanic dust could hardly penetrate so high in the atmosphere
and that the clouds therefore were more likely to be formed from dust arising
from the burning up of meteors in their passage through the atmosphere near
the level of the clouds. During recent summers, however, direct evidence
indicating that the cloud particles are ice crystals has been obtained from
rockets carrying sampling surfaces, which were exposed as the rocket penetrated
the clouds. The ice crystals are likely to have formed on a nucleus of cosmic
origin. Physically therefore the clouds are no different from cirrus clouds and
their appearance certainly supports this view.
Systematic observation of the clouds over the globe is only now being
organized with a view to investigating more fully their distribution with respect
to latitude and longitude, their spatial extent and the seasonal frequency of their
occurrence.
Observers should record (a) the night of occurrence specified by two dates,
e.g. 20-21 June 1968, and the latitude and longitude of the place of observation;
(b) the period(s) of time, GMT, during which the clouds were observed; (c) the
forms present, types I to IV as defined above; (d) the horizontal and vertical
extent expressed in degrees of azimuth and elevation, at specified times, say
every quarter hour, half hour, or hour during the night. This information is
best conveyed by drawing a rough sketch showing the configuration of the
cloud elements and the co-ordinates, elevation and azimuth of the visible bound­
aries of the cloud, i.e. the maximum and minimum elevations in different
azimuths and the limiting azimuths, east and west of north.
Photographs are of great value. With fast monochrome film, exposure times
are of the order of 15 to 20 seconds at f/3-5; with colour film of rating ASA 25,
exposure times are 30 to 60 seconds at f/3-5. It is advisable to take several
photographs at different exposures. The time at which photographs are taken
should be recorded to the nearest minute.
Mother-of-pearl cloud. In some winters, in very clear sky, after the passage
of a large, deep depression to the region of northern Scandinavia, a high form
of cloud, known as mother-of-pearl cloud, has been seen in Norway, Scotland
and elsewhere in north-west Europe, almost wholly within the period December
to February. This cloud is of very delicate structure, somewhat lenticular in
form. Its distinguishing feature is that it shows iridescence, which remains visible
after sunset; iridescence on ordinary clouds never persists after sunset. The
colouring is exceptionally brilliant if the angular distance of the cloud from the
sun is less than 40°. They are most spectacular just after sunset, or just before
sunrise. They remain visible for half an hour or more after sunset, suddenly
fading when the sun sinks too low to illuminate them. Before sunrise there is a
correspondingly sudden appearance.
Mother-of-pearl cloud is composed of very minute water drops. Its height
is from about 19 to 29 km so that it is much higher in the atmosphere than the
familiar types of ordinary high cloud. It is a rare phenomenon and its geo­
graphical distribution is very restricted. If seen, full details should be recorded
including the size and shape of the clouds, their positions and angular distances
86
from the sun, the distribution of the colours and the time at which the clouds
darken in the evening, or become illuminated in the morning.

AURORAL DISPLAYS
General remarks. Associated with a severe magnetic storm there is always a
great auroral display. When observing conditions are good this is one of the most
beautiful and impressive of natural phenomena. As no instruments are necessary,
and since reports of auroral displays are of particularly great scientific value,
a fairly full description of aurora is given here, along with suggestions about
methods of reporting observations.
Regions of occurrence. Aurora is primarily a polar phenomenon. It occurs
most frequently in the two so-called auroral zones: these are rings of about 20°
(1200 n. mile) radius, centred on the geomagnetic axis poles (which are different
from the magnetic poles usually marked on maps). The northern auroral zone is
centred at about 79°N, 70°W, in north-west Greenland; it runs from Cape
Farewell across Iceland, over the Norwegian Sea, passing 250 n. mile north of
North Cape, and over the Arctic Ocean south of Franz Josef Land to meet the
Alaskan coast near the mouth of the Mackenzie River. Its highest latitude is
81°N, reached in the Arctic Ocean at about 110°E. Crossing Alaska it descends
to lower latitudes, traverses Hudson Bay at about 60°N, and passes over Davis
Strait to Cape Farewell again. The southern auroral zone is centred at about
79°S, 110°E and rims across Antarctica from the coast of Little America at
about 150°W, through the Falkland Islands Dependencies, to the coast of
Enderby Land, at about 70°E, and over the Antarctic Sea, reaching its lowest
latitude, 59°S, at 110°E.
Even during quiet atmospheric conditions, there are strong electric currents
flowing in the E layer around these two zones. It appears very likely that the
quiet auroral arcs which seem to occur every night in the auroral zones are a
visible manifestation of these currents. The process by which the gases of the
upper atmosphere emit light under the influence of electric currents is similar
to the process of light emission from a neon advertising tube.
During disturbed ionospheric conditions, such as follow the arrival at the
earth of material ejected from the sun during a solar flare, the aurora moves
from its position in the auroral zones and manifests great activity. Such an
auroral display is observable from a wide range of latitudes during the course of
the night. In particular, during a great ionospheric and magnetic storm, aurora
is seen from subtropical and tropical latitudes, sometimes causing panic among
the inhabitants of the countries where such displays are very rare. The duration
of a display at low latitudes is very variable, from a few minutes to some hours,
depending on the characteristics of the ionospheric disturbance concerned.
Height. It has been found that the commonest auroral forms, quiet arcs,
which have a fairly distinct lower border, are nearly always situated in the E
layer. The average height of the lower edge is about 100 km. An auroral arc
is often several hundred kilometres in length and the height above the earth of
the lower edge is the same all along it; the effect of the curvature of the earth
can therefore be clearly seen, producing the characteristic arc shape.
Another very characteristic feature of auroral forms is the appearance of a
folded curtain, produced by bundles of upward-stretching rays. The line of an
aurora] ray is found to be along the direction of the magnetic force at the place
concerned. In the latititudes where aurora is most common, the lines of magnetic
87
 force stand at about 20° from the vertical, inclined away from the geomagnetic
pole. Rays may stretch up to heights of over 960 km, particularly just after
sunset or just before dawn, when the upper parts are still sunlit, being outside
the earth's shadow.
Aurora is entirely a phenomenon of the high atmosphere, where the air
density is low. There are no authenticated measurements of heights less than
64 kilometres.
Variation during a night. During a great magnetic storm the time of maximum
disturbance can occur at any time. Although maximum auroral activity is
closely connected with maximum magnetic disturbance there is a tendency for
auroral activity to reach a peak at any place within an hour or two of local
midnight.
Seasonal variation. During a year there are two maxima of auroral activity
around the equinoxes, which are fairly well marked. Of the twelve greatest
auroral displays occurring during 1874 to 1954, three occurred in March and
four in September.
Sunspot cycle variations. The great auroral displays are associated with great
solar activity and therefore tend to occur around the times of maximum sunspot
number. The observations made during and after the International Geophysical
Year showed that in sub-auroral latitudes maximum auroral frequency coin­
cided with the period of maximum activity of the sun (1957) and that a second­
ary maximum, almost as great as the primary, followed in 1959. At times of
minimum sunspot number, auroral displays show the same tendency as magnetic
storms to recur at 27-day intervals, these being the periods of time required for
successive appearances opposite the earth of the same point on the sun's surface.
Observation of aurora. It is desirable to record all occurrences of aurora, and
to give as good a description as possible, since there is much yet to be learnt
about this phenomenon. Reports from ships are used in conjunction with reports
from observers on land and in aircraft to compile full descriptions of all dis­
plays. These are required in connection with the study of many problems
connected with long distance radio communication and other practical matters.
While auroral reports are required from all latitudes, marine observers who
are familiar with auroral features can make a unique contribution to auroral
studies by keeping a watch for aurora in tropical regions. Several of the great
tropical displays of the past have been very poorly recorded because nearly all
observers in the tropics are unaccustomed to seeing aurora and either do not
recognize it at all or do not report its appearance properly. In addition, reports
from all southern latitudes are very valuable, because nearly the whole of the
inhabited southern hemisphere is at low latitudes where aurora is not often
seen and there is therefore little auroral information available, except for that
obtained by Antarctic expeditions.
The information required is as follows:
TIME. The time of each observation should be given in GMT. The times of
outstanding events should be recorded to the nearest minute. Examples of such
events are: the change from quiet to active forms, the onset of flaming activity,
the increase in elevation of a previously stationary form etc.
ACTIVITY. When an auroral form exhibits no movement or brightness varia­
tions it is said to be quiet. When there are small irregular movements or bright­
ness variations it is said to be active. Two characteristic types of activity are
given special names. When the light from a particular auroral form waxes and
wanes fairly regularly (with a period of between 10 and 100 seconds) it is said
88
to be pulsating. The most impressive type of activity is that known as flaming,
in which waves of light appear to sweep across the forms from the horizon to the
zenith.
BRIGHTNESS. Four grades of brightness are recognized and are specified as
follows: weak, when the light is similar in brightness to that of the Milky Way;
moderate, like cirrus cloud in full moonlight; bright, like cumulus cloud in full
moonlight; and brilliant, when the auroral forms appear brighter than any
moonlit cloud. When the brightness is judged to be intermediate between two of
these grades it can be expressed in such a way as 'weak to moderate'.
FORMS. The common forms and the symbols used to denote them are given in
the drawings of Figure 29. Aurora often appears as a GLOW (Figure 29a) on the
poleward horizon, almost always in the direction of the magnetic meridian; such
a glow is the upper part of some other auroral form whose lower edge is below
the horizon. A common form, particularly in high latitudes, is an ARC crossing
the magnetic meridian; this may be HOMOGENEOUS, i.e. uniform in brightness
(Figure 29b), or RAYED, i.e. with vertical ray-structure (Figure 29c). The reason
for the arc shape is given above, under Height. Multiple arcs, running parallel
to one another across the sky, are not uncommon. The sky between an arc and
the horizon may appear to be darker than the surrounding sky at the same
altitude; this is only a contrast effect, and stars may be seen undimmed in the
so-called 'dark segment'. When the form has not the regular shape of an arc but
has folds along its length it is called a BAND: this also may be HOMOGENEOUS
(Figure 29d) or RAYED (Figure 29e). Rayed bands in which the rays are long
look like curtains or draperies. An active rayed band overhead is perhaps the
most impressive of all auroral forms, particularly if there are colour changes in
the waving folds. Single RAYS (Figure 29f) or bundles of rays are often seen after
the break-up of a rayed arc or band. When such rays rise from behind a surface
feature, a searchlight effect is produced. All rays in any display are very nearly
parallel to one another, but perspective causes convergence and produces fan-
like formations. Rays overhead always appear to converge to a point called the
magnetic zenith, which is displaced from the overhead zenith towards the
equator by an amount depending on the distance from the geomagnetic axis
pole. For the British Isles, for example, the magnetic zenith is about 20° south
of the overhead zenith. When rays surround this point, the rays are said to be
CORONAL (Figure 29g). Particularly towards the end of a display the aurora
appears in PATCHES (Figure 29h), which are like diffuse clouds, without any
arc-type or ray-type structure. In lower latitudes an auroral display often
consists largely of deep red patches.
ELEVATION. This is measured as altitude in degrees from the horizon. The
most important measurement is that of the elevation of the lower edge of an arc
at its highest point. This can be indicated by the letter h; thus h = 25° means
that the highest point of the lower edge of an arc is at an altitude of 25°.
DIRECTION. It is usually sufficient to give this in terms of true compass points,
but accurate directions of features such as isolated bright rays are of value; these
should be given in degrees of true azimuth. A sketch with angles marked on it is
often easier to make and to read than a description in words.
COLOUR. Very often the intensity of auroral light is too low to stimulate the
colour-sensitive part of the eye and all the forms appear pale and grey, like
clouds illuminated by weak moonlight. But when the intensity increases, a
variety of colours is seen. The commonest is yellow-green, one of the character­
istic colours emitted by oxygen gas under the conditions prevailing in the iono-
L 89
(e) Rayed band
FIGURE 29. Auroral forms

90
sphere. Sometimes a red coloration is predominant. This usually comes from
oxygen also, but in aurora at very low levels red nitrogen light has been found.
Nitrogen, however, gives mainly blue and violet shades; and these are strongest
in the long sunlit rays which occur just after sunset and just before dawn. Many
mixtures of these and other colours are possible.
Photography of aurora. Because auroral light is of low intensity, time
exposures are required for photography and this is not often possible on ship­
board. Given steady conditions, an exposure of 15 to 30 seconds, with a lens
aperture of f/3-5 and a fast film, should give a reasonable image of a bright
auroral feature. With colour films of rating ASA 25, exposure times are 20 to
60 seconds at f/3-5 depending on the brightness of the feature. It is advisable to
take several photographs at different exposures.

AIRGLOW
On a clear starlight night, in the absence of normal or abnormal twilight,
moonlight, lunar twilight, thin high cloud over the sky, auroral displays or
artificial illumination from towns etc., the sky background is not dark, but has a
certain degree of luminosity. While some of this luminosity is due to the com­
bined light of stars too faint to be seen individually without the aid of a telescope,
the greater part is due to a faint glow known as the airglow. Older names for
this were 'permanent aurora' and 'earthlight'.
The airglow is generally uniform over the sky except towards the horizon
where it is usually somewhat brighter. The intensity is not always the same on
different nights and there are exceptional nights when the sky background
appears to be unusually light. There are no means of estimating the intensity of
the glow by visual observation, so that the phenomenon is not one which can
be usefully observed at sea.

METEORS AND METEORITES

During the night watches the seaman has many opportunities for obtaining
useful observations of meteors. 'Meteor' is a general term to include all those
small bodies which, travelling through space, encounter the upper part of the
earth's atmosphere and become visible by the incandescence produced by the
friction of very rapid passage through it. It is estimated that many thousands of
millions of these objects enter the atmosphere daily, but all except a minute
fraction of these are much too faint to be naked-eye objects. The vast majority
of all meteors are entirely disintegrated and subsequently settle down slowly to
the earth's surface in the form of extremely fine dust. A number, however, of
greater size, may more or less wholly survive the disintegrating effect and fall
to the earth's surface as solid objects of varying sizes. These are called meteorites.
On rather rare occasions they have been observed to fall into the sea, the actual
splash being seen. Such an event should be recorded in the logbook in full detail.
No meteor should be described as a meteorite unless it is definitely known to
have reached the land surface or have fallen into the sea.
The ordinary small meteors appearing as luminous streaks in the sky are
popularly known as 'shooting stars', but they have of course no connection
with any star, being merely small fragments of matter varying in size from grains
91
of sand to a pea. Larger objects are known as fireballs. These may be as bright
as a first-magnitude star or may equal the planets Jupiter or Venus, or, in the
very finest examples, may greatly exceed the full moon in brilliance. Objects
which fall as meteorites usually appear first as one of these very bright meteors,
but the reverse does not hold good, as the majority of the brighter meteors are
completely disintegrated in the air.
Appearance and speed of meteors. The appearance of meteors is as varied as
their brightness. Some travel fast, others slowly. The apparent path is usually a
straight line or arc, but it may assume other forms. Some leave streaks of sparks
or luminous vapour, known as trails. In many cases the trail disappears
immediately, but in others it remains visible for seconds or minutes, or in rare
cases for periods up to two hours or more. When the trail remains visible for
some time, changes may be observed in it, caused by the air currents of the
high upper air, combined with the fall of the material due to gravity. Most
large meteors and fireballs are strongly coloured and the colours may change
during the flight. Sometimes the meteor appears to break up, the detached
portions then proceeding separately, or it may appear to explode at the end of
its course. The trails are usually reddish, white or golden, whatever the colour
(or changing colours) of the meteor itself.
The duration of a meteor's flight is rarely more than three seconds, and is
apt to be greatly overestimated. The actual speed of a meteor when it enters
the earth's atmosphere is usually between 18 and 84 kilometres per second. The
average height above the earth's surface is 120-130 km at the time of appearance
and 70-80 km at the time of disappearance. The height of the beginning and
end of a meteor's visible path in the atmosphere and its speed are determined by
observations made by two observers some distance apart, up to 100 n. mile or
more. At much greater distances the same meteor could not be seen by both
observers, since an individual meteor is only visible over a small part of the
earth's surface and would thus be below the horizon of one of the observers.
In this joint observation each observer notes the points of appearance and
disappearance of the meteor in the sky as accurately as possible, and the duration
of its flight. The information derived from such observations is valuable, not
only in extending our knowledge of meteors, but also in making inferences about
the temperature of the very attenuated atmosphere at very great heights above
the earth's surface.
Frequency of meteors. Meteor showers. The number of meteors seen in a
given time is usually greater on nights of higher atmospheric transparency,
since more of the fainter meteors are seen, and these are much more numerous
than the brighter ones. On nights of equal clarity, about twice as many are
visible in July to December as in January to June. Furthermore on any single
night of the year the hourly rate of meteor appearance is greater after midnight
than before it. These remarks refer to average conditions. On certain nights
it may be seen that meteors are more numerous than usual and that their tracks,
produced backward, would all converge to the same point or small area in the
sky. Such a group of meteors, with the same radiant point, constitute a meteor
shower. Many of these occur annually, though not always with the same
intensity; some recur only after an interval of a number of years, and others are
unpredicted and unexpected. Prolific showers, with perhaps many thousand
meteors per hour, such as were given by the Leonids in November of 1799, 1833
and 1866, have been extremely rare of more recent years. The collection of
meteors forming a shower are moving in the same general orbit in space and in a
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few cases the orbit of a shower has been found to be the same as that of a known
comet, of whose material the meteors originally formed a part.
Observation of meteors. The complete observation of a meteor comprises:
(a) The positions of the points of appearance and disappearance in the sky.
(b) The duration of the flight.
(c) The magnitude of the meteor relative to a named star or planet, or a
general estimate, such as first magnitude.
(d) Any notable colour, colour changes, persistence of trail, or other
peculiarities.
It is not necessary to record the meteorological conditions at the time of a
meteor observation, but if the flight is only partially seen, owing to cloud, this
should be noted.
Owing to the suddenness of a meteor's appearance, it is often difficult to
fix in mind the points of appearance and disappearance. This should be done as
accurately as possible with respect to neighbouring stars, and from a star atlas.
The right ascension and declination of each point can then be found. Alter­
natively, the position can sometimes be given as an angular distance from one
named star in the direction towards another named star. Such observations of
position, if reasonably accurate, say to the nearest half-degree, are of use in
determining the radiant point of the meteor or for combining with another
observation made at sea or on land, to find its height and speed. Positions by
azimuth and estimated altitude are hardly accurate enough for these purposes.
An observation of the brightness and appearance of a fine meteor is, however, of
interest, even if its track in the sky has not been exactly determined.
Observations of a persistent meteor trail are of interest. The shape of the trail
and its position relative to at least two named stars should be drawn at suitable
intervals of time until it disappears. If carefully timed observations of the same
trail are received from two or more observing ships, some information about the
speed and direction of the wind at the time in the high atmosphere can be
computed.
The appearance of meteors in unusual numbers on any night, especially if
obviously directed from the same point in the heavens, should be put on record.
The occurrence or non-occurrence of showers on a particular night is often of
considerable astronomical interest, and it may happen that the conditions are
such that a meteor shower is visible only in restricted longitudes.

ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES, RESEARCH ROCKETS

AND ALLIED PHENOMENA
Artificial satellites. In August 1975 there were approximately 3500 earth-
orbiting payloads and debris of which about 300 were observable with the
unaided eye by the sunlight reflected from them at times when the observer was
in darkness or twilight. A satellite can normally be distinguished from a planet
or meteor by its angular velocity across the sky, which is much greater than the
former and much less than the latter. In addition, the length of time for which
a meteor can be seen is seldom greater than 3 or 4 seconds, while a satellite may
be visible for up to about 45 minutes and a planet up to about 12 hours. So long
as they behave in a normal manner, i.e. steady course and speed, the passages
93
of satellites are not of great importance and need not be recorded in the meteoro­
logical logbook. A special case, however, is the re-entry of a satellite into the
earth's atmosphere and its burning up. The accurate observation of this event
may yield information about the density of the atmosphere through which the
satellite is travelling.
Re-entry occurs when a satellite, due for example to the cumulative effect of
small drag forces throughout its lifetime, descends into the denser regions of the
high atmosphere. The frictional effects increase as a consequence, it descends still
further and its path about the earth rapidly degenerates into a spiral. During the
final stages of this process the satellite becomes incandescent because of its
extremely high temperature and eventually it disintegrates and burns up.
In appearance, a re-entering satellite is similar to the passage of a meteor but
it is brighter, moves more slowly across the sky and may be visible for several
minutes. A re-entry can happen in any part of the world and, when seen, should
be recorded by following the general rule outlined in Chapter 8. When recording
a possible sighting of a re-entering satellite it is important to note as accurately
as possible the direction of travel of the object across the sky, its brightness
compared with known stars, the time, bearing and elevation angle when first
and last seen, together with any extraneous circumstances such as intervening
cloud which may have curtailed or otherwise limited the observations.
Research Rockets. These are launched from various ranges such as Thumba
in 8° 32'N, 76° 52'E and carry equipment for research into the environment of
the earth, including its high atmosphere, or for astronomical observations. They
are usually projected vertically or nearly so and, after attaining their maximum
height which may be 160 km or more, fall back to the earth's surface. The
direct light from the burning propellent during the upward leg of the flight will
be readily identified but some of the experiments carried by the rockets may
themselves give rise to effects which are visible at night. For example, equip­
ment may be carried which releases chemicals into the high atmosphere.
Some chemical vapours are ejected in the foim of a long bright trail on the
upleg or downleg of the rocket path. Night-time trails usually appear white but
at twilight, about 30 minutes after sunset or before sunrise, the trails are generally
yellow, red or greenish-blue. Although their size depends on the altitude at
which they are released and, of course, on the position of the observer, it is not
unusual for a trail to be as much as 40° long and from 1° to 5° wide. These
vapour trails, which may remain visible for more than 20 minutes, are generally
distorted by winds in the upper atmosphere.
Sometimes 'grenades' are ejected from the rocket during the upward flight,
generating acoustic waves whose reception at the ground enables the wind and
temperature structure of the upper atmosphere to be calculated. At night a
grenade burst would appear similar to an AA shell burst, being much brighter
than a planet but of very short duration. After 2 or 3 seconds another burst
would appear displaced in the direction of flight. The number of bursts may
total about 20. No sounds are likely to be heard as the acoustic waves are
generated at sub-audible frequencies and are very weak in intensity on reaching
the ground. In some rocket firings the grenade ejections are extended above
100 km altitude and the gas products of the explosion then react chemically
with the atmosphere, producing a faintly luminous spherical cloud about the
size of the full moon although very much fainter. Such clouds may last for
5-10 minutes before diffusing and disappearing and during this time the wind
speed and direction can be found from their drift. On other occasions a faintly
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luminous trail may be produced for the same purpose by the release of a certain
chemical from the rocket. The trail, like the grenade clouds, is a soft white in
colour. Such experiments are often held under twilight conditions with sunlight
falling on the releases against a still dark sky. The sunlight is re-radiated in
certain parts of the spectrum from the cloud or trail providing a spectacular
blue-green hue, or the well-known yellow coloration of sodium light, if sodium
vapour has been released.

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 CHAPTER 11
Phenomena of the Lower Atmosphere
The presence of water droplets, ice crystals and dust particles in the atmos­
phere and local abnormalities in the distribution of temperature and humidity
give rise to a wide variety of interesting and beautiful phenomena which are
mainly due to either the reflection, refraction or scattering of the rays of the
sun or moon. Many of these 'optical phenomena' are described below. Also
included are descriptions of a few phenomena which are due to other causes and
which are equally worthy of careful observation when they occur.

ABNORMAL REFRACTION AND MIRAGE

A mirage is produced by refraction of light in the layers of air close to the
earth's surface. Two main classes of mirage occur, (a) inferior and (b) superior, in
which the virtual image is below and above the object, respectively. The inferior
image is seen over a flat, strongly heated surface (e.g. desert) and gives the
illusion of an expanse of water; it is caused by the strong upward reflection of
light from the clear sky towards the observer. The superior mirage is seen
above a flat surface of much lower temperature than the air above it; light from
an object is, in this case, bent downwards towards the observer, as in 'looming'.
In such physical conditions multiple reflections may give rise to various images,
some displaced laterally with respect to the object.
image
^object

observer image observer object

(a) Inferior mirage (b) Superior mirage
FIGURE 30. Mirages

Good descriptions and sketches of the various forms of mirage and the
effects of abnormal refraction are always of interest, especially of the more
striking forms, such as a well-developed superior mirage. Unusual phenomena
should be carefully reported, such as the apparent discontinuity or distortion of
the horizon line that has been occasionally seen, also lateral mirages and the
complicated mixed mirages of the Strait of Messina, known by the name, of
Italian origin, of 'fata Morgana'. When lights are seen at abnormal distances,
the normal distance of visibility should be given. In all observations or abnormal
refraction and mirage, the temperature of air and sea, the type and amount of
cloud present, and the direction and force of the wind should be noted.

GLORY OR BROCKEN SPECTRE

In a foggy atmosphere an observer, standing with his back to the sun, when
this is at low altitude, will sometimes see the shadow of himself, or of his head,
96
thrown upon the fog, together with coloured rings of light surrounding the
shadow. The phenomenon was first noted on the Brocken mountain in Germany
but it is not confined to mountain districts and it is most common in Arctic
regions, where it is seen on every occasion of simultaneous sunshine and fog.
The coloured rings are now usually known as a 'glory'. A typical series of
colours seen in a well-developed one is as follows. There is a general whitish-
yellow colour round the shadow, surrounded by rings of colour in order
outwards: dull red, bluish-green, reddish-violet, blue, green, red, green, red.
A white rainbow at a considerable distance outside the glory is sometimes also
seen.
The shadow of the observer on thick fog may be seen at night if there is a
bright artificial light behind him.

COLOURED SUNS AND MOONS

The various red or orange colours ordinarily exhibited by the sun or moon
when near the horizon are generally caused by these bodies being viewed
through a great thickness of the dust-laden lower atmosphere, which absorbs
most of the sunlight of shorter wave-lengths, leaving the longer ones, mainly
yellow and red, to come through.
Occasionally in twilight the moon appears to be of a greenish colour, usually
a pale greenish-blue or a pale apple-green colour. This is an effect of colour
contrast when the twilight hues of the surrounding sky are brighter than usual,
either purplish or reddish, or when the moon is near or covered by thin,
brightly-tinted cloud.
Coloured suns or moons, not an effect of colour contrast, are sometimes seen.
This phenomenon may be produced by dust or smoke haze in the lower atmo­
sphere, e.g. a scirocco laden with dust from the Sahara may give a blue sun or
moon in the Mediterranean, and a similar colour may be given in the region of
extensive bush fires. The phenomenon may also be produced by volcanic dust
at high atmospheric levels. Blue and green moons were observed on many
occasions after the great eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 and the sun assumed
many different and often quite brilliant colours. Shades of red and copper,
green, golden-green, blue, both silvery and leaden, were seen on various days
in different localities.
Coloured suns and moons were seen over much of western Europe between
26 and 30 September 1950. These were produced by the smoke from an extensive
forest fire in Alberta, Canada which began on 23 September. The sun's colour
was observed in different places as steel-grey, deep blue and purple.
Any observations of this kind are of interest.

CORONAE
A corona consists of one or more coloured rings round the sun or moon as
centre, when this is covered with middle or lower cloud of sufficient thinness to
allow the greater part of the light to come through. It is distinguished from a
halo by its smaller size and different colouring, as explained below. A fully
developed corona shows a bluish-white or yellowish glow, usually 2° or 3° in
diameter, round the sun (or moon). Outside this is a brownish-red ring. The
inner glow and the brownish ring together constitute what is called the aureole.
Outside this are coloured rings, in the opposite colour sequence to that of a halo,
97
viz., violet or blue nearest the sun and red farthest out. Sometimes the whole of
this colour sequence is repeated outwards a second or, on rare occasions, even
a third or fourth time. A corona showing the outer coloured rings is com­
paratively infrequent, but the aureole alone is the commonest of optical meteoro­
logical phenomena and is formed, at any rate partially, whenever broken cloud
edges of cumulus, stratus or stratocumulus pass over the sun or moon.
While the radii of the various haloes are constant, that of a corona varies on
different occasions, being dependent on the size of the water-drops in the cloud.
The outside radius of a fully developed corona is usually much smaller than that
of the 22° halo, and is generally between 5° and 8°. After great volcanic erup­
tions, when fine dust is suspended at great heights in the atmosphere, an aureole
comparable in size with the 22° halo has been seen; it is known as Bishop's ring.
Faint coronae are visible round the bright planets, Venus and Jupiter, and
also Mars when this is sufficiently bright, providing the cloud is very thin.
They may sometimes be seen round the brightest stars, especially if binoculars
are used.
A yellowish blur 2° or 3° in diameter is often seen round the sun or moon
and is sometimes formed by higher cloud than that which normally gives
coronae. Although it has a fairly sharply defined circular edge it must not be
regarded as an aureole unless bounded by the characteristic brownish-red ring.
In certain circumstances the sun or moon may show a halo and a corona
simultaneously.
The name 'corona' is also given to the outer part of the sun's atmosphere
(see page 78); this is directly visible only during a solar eclipse and is disting­
uished by the term 'solar corona'.

CORPOSANT
The electrical phenomenon known as Corposant or St Elmo's Fire is not
infrequently observed at sea during squalls and thunderstorms. It is a luminous
apparition seen at the extremities of masts and sometimes on the stays, aerial,
jackstaff or other parts of the ship. It may appear as a brush discharge of radi­
ating streamers several inches long, or as luminous globes, a number of which
are sometimes seen along the aerial. At other times a structureless glow envelops
an elongated object, such as a mast or an aerial. St Elmo's Fire is usually
bluish or greenish in colour, but a violet glow has been reported and sometimes
the colour is pure white.

CREPUSCULAR RAYS
The word 'crepuscular' means 'associated with twilight'. Occasionally, soon
after sunset, the clear sky appears to be divided into lighter and darker rays
by lines diverging from the position of the sun below the horizon. The lighter
rays are those illuminated by sunshine; they are usually coloured pink, but may,
on different occasions, show some shade of red or orange. The darker rays are
shadows, from which the sunlight is cut off by clouds near or just below the
horizon or by the irregularities of hills and mountains on the horizon. They
appear greenish by contrast with the pink rays.
As the light rays come from the sun, and so are practically parallel, their
apparent divergence is an effect of perspective. In favourable circumstances the
98
light rays and shadows extend right across the sky and appear to converge, by
perspective, to a point a little above the eastern horizon. These 'anti-crepuscular
rays' are generally ill defined.
It is not necessary to record this phenomenon in the logbook unless it shows
some feature of special interest, such as unusually distinct colouring or a well-
defined convergence to the eastern horizon.
On rare occasions one or more bands have been seen extending up into the
sky, from the western horizon, at a later stage of twilight. They appear of a deep
blue colour, darker than the general blue of the sky, and are probably shadows
of mountains well below the horizon. It is of interest to record these observations.
There are two other allied phenomena which are frequently seen and are of
no special interest, unless some unusual feature is observed. The first consists
of pale blue or whitish rays diverging from the sun in the day-time when it is
behind cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud. The rays are sharply defined and sepa­
rated by deep blue bands, which are the shadows of parts of the irregular cloud-
edge. The second is associated with stratus or other cloud obscuring the sun. If
there are small gaps in the cloud, sunbeams pierce these, directed more or less
downward, and are rendered luminous by mist or dust in the air. This is popu­
larly known as 'the sun drawing water'.

DUSTFALL AT SEA
Dust from the land may be blown over the adjacent sea by high winds, but
not normally in appreciable quantity. In special regions, e.g. the Red Sea,
sand or dust storms are not infrequent and are sometimes severe.
Desert dust or sand may be carried up to high levels of the atmosphere and
finally be dispersed over so great an area as not to form any perceptible deposit
on falling. The desert dust from Australia carried north-westward by the south­
east monsoon reduces visibility over the East Indies region but is not observed
as dustfall.
On the other hand, falls of fine reddish or brownish dust from the Sahara,
carried by the trade wind, are experienced over a large area of the eastern
North Atlantic adjacent to the coast of Africa, centred roughly on Cape Verde
Islands. At times this deposit may lie quite thickly on board ship. Visibility
in this area is often poor; not infrequently the sun appears blood-red and at
night all but the brightest stars at high altitudes are obscured.
Considerable or heavy dustfall may be experienced after a great volcanic
eruption. Dust from the eruption of Krakatoa in 1883 was collected on ship­
board in the Indian Ocean at a distance of 1000 nautical miles. After the eruption
of Hekla in March 1947, dust was similarly collected at a distance of 450 nautical
miles. In August 1966 the dust from the eruption of Mount Awu in the Sangihe
Islands covered the decks of a ship 225 nautical miles away in the Celebes Sea.

THE GREEN FLASH

At sunset, the small segment of the upper part of the sun's disc, which is the
last to disappear, may turn emerald-green or bluish-green at the instant of its
setting. The phenomenon thus usually lasts only a fraction of a second, which is
the reason for calling it the 'green flash', but longer durations of the colour are
occasionally seen.
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 The green flash is not always seen and when it is seen it is not always equally
brilliant. It can range from a green of extreme brilliance and purity, conspicuous
without optical aid, down to a trace of grey-green coloration observable only
with binoculars.
The green flash is produced by the last rays of sunlight emanating from the
upper limb of the sun, at sunset, being diffracted before reaching the observer's
eye. The shorter waves which appear as violet, blue and green light suffer
greater refraction than the orange and red longer waves of the white sunlight.
The fringes of the upper limb cannot usually be seen while the main body of the
sun is still above the horizon, as the general sunlight is too strong, but when
most of this is cut off by the horizon they spring suddenly into view. Normally,
only the green fringe is seen, the light of still shorter wave-lengths usually being
scattered by its horizontal passage through the lower atmosphere. The flash is,
however, occasionally seen as a blue one, or as green quickly changing to blue.
On very rare occasions the violet colour has been seen.
The green colour occasionally appears in other ways. Sometimes when
refraction is marked, and the sun's disc is perhaps distorted, the use of shaded
binoculars will show that the upper limb appears to be 'boiling', giving off shreds
or tongues of green 'vapour'. Occasionally the sun's upper limb has been seen
with a narrow green rim when half or more of the disc remained above the
horizon.
A sea horizon is not essential for observing the green flash; it may be equally
well seen when the sun sets behind a distant land surface. It has also often been
seen when the upper limb sinks below a bank or bar of hard-edged cloud at low
altitude, and if there are several parallel bars of cloud in clear sky the phenom­
enon may be seen more than once on the same evening. When the lower line of
the sun appears from behind cloud near the horizon the converse phenomenon,
the 'red flash', has sometimes been seen.
The green flash occurs also with the moon, but has seldom been observed,
presumably because it is fainter and rarely looked for. On the other hand, it
has been frequently seen at the setting of the bright planets Venus and Jupiter,
and an observation of a blue flash from Venus is on record. Many interesting
varieties of phenomena may occur before these planets set, the observation
usually requiring binoculars. Colour changes may be seen, usually between
white, red and green, or two images may appear of the same or different colours.
The planet may exhibit slow 'shimmering' movements, obviously due to
abnormal refraction.
The most favourable conditions for seeing the green flash, at any rate bril­
liantly, is probably some degree of abnormal refraction, whereby the vertical
extent of the colour separation described above is greater than that produced by
normal refraction. In addition, the green flash is most likely to be seen when the
air is relatively dust-free, and without mist or haze, so that the sun remains
brighter and less red than usual at low altitudes. The green flash has been well
observed at sunrise, but less frequently, perhaps because it is less often looked
for. Also, owing to its short duration the phenomenon is liable to be missed
unless the exact spot at which the sun will appear is known.
The green flash has sometimes been called, rather inappropriately, the
'green ray1 . It will be obvious from the remarks made above that it exhibits a
considerable variety of appearances at different times. Further observations,
giving as much detail as possible, will be very useful in increasing our knowledge
100
of this interesting phenomenon and the conditions most favourable for its
appearance.
Other phenomena involving green coloration of the sky in the vicinity of
the sun at the moment of sunset are occasionally seen, and observations of these
are also of interest, as they exhibit much variety. Some examples are (a) a
momentary ray of green light shooting up into the sky, sometimes to a con­
siderable altitude at or just before the final instant of sunset, (b) an appearance
resembling a rapidly rotating green searchlight beam, (c) a transitory appear­
ance as of green mist in the sky above the setting sun.

HALO PHENOMENA
Halo phenomena: a group of optical phenomena in the form of rings, arcs, pillars
or bright spots, produced by refraction or reflection of light by ice crystals suspended
in the atmosphere (cirrifonn clouds, ice fog etc.).
These phenomena may show colours when formed by refraction of the light
from the sun, but halo phenomena produced by the light of the moon are always
white. The many different kinds of halo which have been observed may be
described by reference to Figure 31. This is a composite diagram made up from
a number of drawings of an unusually complete halo display seen at about
midday on 6 March 1941 in various localities in the west Midlands.
The four rings described below (three haloes and the parhelic circle) may
under very favourable conditions appear complete but they are more frequently
incomplete. Parts of these rings, together with the arcs and mock suns described
on pages 102-103, may at times be seen with no apparent connection with one
another; the sky may then assume a very strange appearance.
Halo of 22° (small halo) is the most frequent halo phenomenon and appears
as a luminous ring, F, in the figure, with the sun or moon, S, as centre, and
having a radius of 22°. The space within the ring appears less bright than that
just outside. The ring, if faint, is white; when more strongly developed it shows
coloration; the edge nearest the sun is red and this is followed by yellow and,
in some rare cases, a green or violet fringe can be detected on the outside.
The angle of 22° is the angle of minimum deviation for light passing through
a prism of ice with faces inclined at 60°, and this halo is probably due to the
refraction of light through hexagonal prisms among ice crystals in cloud.
Arcs of contact to 22° halo. Among the phenomena which, from their manner
of formation, can be seen only as arcs, are the so-called arcs of contact. Two of
these are shown in Figure 31—an arc of upper contact, J, and an arc of lower
contact, K. The arc of lower contact is very rare and so also are contact arcs
which occasionally appear at the sides of the halo.
When the sun is low the arcs of upper contact appear with their convex sides
turned towards the sun. The points of contact may appear as mock suns, though
not belonging to the mock-sun ring proper, and they are very luminous. They
may display brilliant colour effects, with the red turned towards the sun and
thus being on the convex side of the arc.
When the sun is high the arcs of upper and lower contact may appear
concave to the sun. Very rarely the ends are joined to form a circumscribing
halo which is approximately elliptical.
Halo of 46° (large halo). The halo of 46° (large halo, G in Figure 31) is
occasionally seen, though it is seldom complete. It is much less common than
101
 FIGURE 31. Halo phenomena
An unusually complete halo display seen at about midday on 6 March 1941 in the west
Midlands; composite diagram based on observations from various localities. Appearances due
to refraction, which may be brilliantly coloured, as on this occasion, are shown black; appear­
ances due to reflection, which are always white, are shown by the finer lines. The outer circle,
H, is the complete horizon, with Z, the zenith, in the centre; S is the sun, P the anthelion,
A, B, C, D, E are parhelia or mock suns; F is the 22° halo, G the 46° halo, J, K are upper and
lower arcs of contact of F; L is the parhelic circle or mock-sun ring (parallel to the horizon),
M the arc through the mock suns at 120° (usually a pair of arcs not joined in the middle),
and N the oblique arc through P (one of a symmetrical pair which may sometimes be seen
together).

the halo of 22° and is always less bright. This halo also has arcs of contact;
in fact these arcs occur more frequently than the halo itself and are sometimes
mistaken for it. This halo requires crystals with faces at right angles.
Parhelic circle (the mock-sun ring). Occasionally a white ring which passes
through the sun parallel to the horizon may be recognized. This is called the
horizontal or parhelic circle or the mock-sun ring. It is shown in Figure 31 in its
complete form, L; frequently, however, the minor arc passing through the sun
is not visible. This portion, cut off by the intersections with the halo of 22°
may in fact be distinct, faint, or invisible on occasions when the major arc, or
parts of it, can be clearly seen. Bright spots may be observed at certain points
of the parhelic circle. These bright spots occur most commonly a little outside
102
the halo of 22° (parhelia, at A and B), occasionally at an azimuthal distance
of 120° from the sun (paranthelia, at E and D), and, very rarely, opposite the
sun (anthelion, at P). The corresponding phenomena produced by the moon are
called paraselenic circle, paraselenae, parantiselenae, and antiselene. When the
parhelia, paranthelia, or the anthelion are particularly bright they are called
mock suns; paraselenae, parantiselenae and the antiselene, when bright, are
called mock moons.
Mock suns shown at A and B in the figure are very luminous and brilliantly
coloured. Red is on the side nearest to the sun, with yellow, green, blue and
violet following; the blue is generally indistinct and the violet usually too faint
to be distinguished. These mock suns are situated approximately on the 22°
halo when the sun's altitude is 10° or less; with increasing altitude they are
formed further outside the halo, being 14° outside when the sun's altitude is
55°. They cannot be formed when the sun's altitude exceeds 60° 45'. They lie on
the parhelic circle which may or may not be visible at the time. Mock suns at E
and D in the figure are white. The image of the sun occasionally observed, at P
in the figure, is a brilliant white and is sometimes termed the 'counter-sun'.
Through the mock suns, D and E in the figure, two separate arms, the
paranthelic arcs, may rarely be seen and they are sometimes (though very rarely)
observed to join and appear to form the continuous arc M. The oblique arc N,
through the anthelion P, is one of a pair; on some occasions one may be clearly
seen while the other is invisible. These arcs, being caused by reflection, are
white.
Halo of 90°. A fourth ring, the halo of 90 , is exceedingly rare; it is not
shown in the figure. The ring is white and cannot be seen in its entirety unless the
sun is in the zenith.
Circumzenithal arcs. Occasionally the upper and lower circumzenithal arcs
may be observed; they appear to lie in horizontal planes. The upper circum­
zenithal arc (brightly coloured, with red on the outside and violet on the inside)
is a rather sharply curved arc of a small horizontal circle near the zenith; the
lower circumzenithal arc is a flat arc of a large horizontal circle near the horizon.
The upper arc occurs only when the angular altitude of the luminary is less
than 32°; the lower arc occurs only when the angular altitude of the luminary is
more than 58°. The upper arc touches the large halo, if visible, when the angular
altitude of the luminary is about 22°; the lower arc touches the large halo when
the angular altitude of the luminary is about 68°. The arcs become increasingly
separated from the large halo as the angular altitude of the luminary departs
from the above values. Circumzenithal arcs may be observed without the large
halo being visible.
Sun pillars may also be seen occasionally, particularly at sunrise or sunset.
They frequently extend about 20° above the sun and generally end in a point.
At sunset they may be entirely red, but are usually a blinding white and show
a marked glittering. If the sun is high in the heavens they may appear as white
bands vertically above or below it, but they are not then very brilliant and are
often short. Occasionally, however, these white columns appear simultaneously
with a portion of the white mock-sun ring, and so form another remarkable
phenomenon, the cross. Sun pillars are due to reflection of sunlight from ice
crystals.
The undersun is a halo phenomenon produced by reflection of sunlight on
ice crystals in clouds. It appears vertically below the sun in the form of a brilliant
white spot, similar to the image of the sun on a calm water surface. It is necessary
103
to look downward to see the undersun; the phenomenon is therefore only
observed from aircraft or from mountains.
The observation of haloes. High latitudes, especially the polar regions, are
the most favourable for frequent and brilliant displays of halo phenomena,
which can be formed not only by cirrostratus cloud, but also by ice fog. Many
fine displays occur, however, in temperate latitudes, where the late spring is
an especially good season.
Cirrostratus is the most favourable cloud for the production of halo pheno­
mena; the thinner and more uniform its texture the better. On the most suitable
occasions, the blue sky is only dimmed with a uniform milky appearance.
When the cloud is thicker in some places than others, and especially when wisps
and streaks of cirrus are mixed with it, not only are the pehnomena less distinct
but straight or curved lines of cloud may be mistaken for additional halo
phenomena.
When thin cirrostratus is present and one or more of the commoner halo
phenomena are well seen, the prospects of seeing some of the rare halo pheno­
mena are good and a careful general look over the whole sky may result in
something else being seen. Attention should chiefly be concentrated on the
following regions (a) that surrounding the sun up to a radius of at least 46°,
(b) a belt of the sky, at the same altitude as the sun, all round the horizon,
(c) the overhead sky, with the zenith as centre.
On account of the methods of formation of halo phenomena, the reflection
and refraction of light by ice crystals, the position of each halo etc., is always
precisely the same relative to the sun or, in some cases, to the zenith. A halo
phenomenon is thus identified by its position in the sky; its appearance is of
secondary importance, though, in some cases, this helps in the identification.
The most essential part of a halo observation is therefore the determination of
its position by angular measurement with reference to the sun (or moon) or, in
appropriate cases, the horizon or the zenith. Most of the rarer phenomena can
only thus be identified with certainty.
The altitude of the sun, to the nearest degree, should also always be given,
since this affects the precise position of certain halo phenomena, and in some
cases determines what phenomena it is possible to see at the time. The radius
of the relatively well-defined inner edge of any halo, or part of a halo, centred
on the sun should be measured in degrees from the sun's centre. In the case of
arcs situated vertically above the sun such as the circumzenithal arc, the distance
of the lowest part of the arc from the sun is all that is required. It is useful,
however, to estimate the extent of any such arc as a fraction of the small circle
of which it forms part.
The mock-sun ring is identified by its parallelism to the horizon, at the sun's
altitude; no measurements are required. A phenomenon situated on it, such
as the anthelion or other bright spot, or the point of intersection of an arc with
it, is measured in the form of azimuth distance from the sun.
The above statement should be sufficient to indicate to the observer the lines
on which he should proceed. The most difficult cases are certain abnormal
phenomena such as are shown in Figures 32 and 33. The diameter of any halo
not centred on the sun or moon could be measured by sextant; the altitude and
azimuth of the estimated centre of the halo would then give its position. The
position of any detached arc could be measured by taking the altitude and
azimuth of each of the two ends, and of the point on the halo equidistant from
these.
104
 FIGURE 32. Solar halo complex
Witnessed from m.v. Nova Scotia, Captain N. R. Land, St John (N.B.) to Liverpool. Observer,
Mr A. C. Herdan, 3rd Officer.
'1 October 1965. Position 43°16'N, 66°15'W. The halo complex was clearly seen from
1200-1600 GMT. The radius of the inner halo was 21°26' and that of the partial outer con­
centric halo was 46°30'. Two wing-shaped arcs, each subtending an angle of about 54', crossed
the outer concentric halo, meeting at the centre of their span directly above the sun and in
contact with the upper edge of the inner concentric halo. At the point of contact (A) a brilliant
spectrum could be seen subtending an angle of at least 1J°. About 1530, the most vivid period,
two more haloes were seen. One was a white arc which would have stretched right across the
halo complex, passing through the position of the sun, if it hadn't been rendered invisible by
the glare. The other was a small, but vivid, inverted half halo of about 6° radius; it was in
contact with the inner halo, its upper edge crossing the latter's lower limb (B). At this point
also vivid coloration was seen. Altitude of sun: 21°50'; bearing 094°. Cloud, small amounts of
Cirrus and Altostratus.'

Having established the position, any point of special interest should be noted,
such as an exceptional degree of brightness or colour, variations in brightness
in different parts of a halo, or a halo appearing elliptical instead of circular,
etc. In the case of the rarer phenomena, the fullest possible information should
be recorded, preferably accompanied by a sketch, on which all angular measure­
ments are shown. In sketching halo phenomena the size of the sun (or moon)
is usually exaggerated, sometimes very greatly. Even in landscape paintings
by well-known artists, the same thing usually occurs. The discs of the sun and
moon are about half a degree in diameter and therefore only about one-
ninetieth of the diameter of the common halo of 22° radius.
There are few other phenomena not included in the previous pages, e.g.
various forms of cross, centred on the sun or moon, are occasionally seen
M 105
I45O-I5OO
GMT

FIGURE 33. Lunar halo complex

Witnessed from m.v. Koraki. Captain H. C. Townend. Tauranga to Melbourne. Observer,
Mr M. J. C. Orr, 2nd Officer.
'28 May 1967. Position 34°34'S: 171°42'E. The 22° halo was first seen at 1415 GMT when
the moon was at an approximate altitude of 60° and bore 090°. At 1450 the tangential arcs
appeared, weak at first but gradually gaining in intensity in the next 10 minutes. The complex
remained visible for about 20 minutes, after which time only the 22° halo was seen. A thin
layer of Cirrostratus to Altostratus was present and also some Cumulus'.

(Figure 34). The vertical arm is usually formed by part of a sun pillar and the
horizontal arm by a short portion of the mock-sun circle. Abnormal phenomena
of unknown origin are also sometimes reported. One such observation is shown
in Figure 32 in which is seen the ordinary 22° halo, with an arc above, probably
part of the 46° halo.

IRIDESCENT CLOUD
Patches of delicate, but often vivid, colouring are occasionally seen at any
time of the day on altocumulus and other middle and high clouds, often covering
quite a large extent of cloud. It may form a very beautiful spectacle, especially
if the sun is hidden from the observer's view by lower cloud. Red and green are
the most common colours, but others, such as lilac, may be seen. Sometimes
the colours lie in bands parallel to the edge of the cloud, but often they form an
irregular mosaic, delicately shading into one another. The colouring resembles
that of coronae, but the bands of colour do not form concentric circles with the
sun as centre. Sometimes a number of coloured patches may be seen along a
straight line passing through the sun.
Iridescence is usually seen on cloud near the sun or within about 30° of
the sun, but may occur at greater distances. It seems to be most frequently
106
 FIGURE 34. Forms of halo cross

observed on cloud that is in process of either formation or evaporation. The

colouring is not normally seen after sunset or before sunrise, but brilliant
iridescence, continuing after sunset, or appearing before sunrise, may be seen
on a very rare high form of cloud, see Mother-of-pearl cloud (page 86).
If the observer is in doubt as to whether he is seeing ordinary sunset cloud
colouring, or iridescent colouring towards the time of sunset, it should be
remembered that the former may cover large areas of cloud, or many isolated
clouds, with one colour. Iridescence, on the other hand, usually shows much
smaller areas of different colour on one cloud and the coloration is purer and
more prismatic, in this respect resembling the colours of the rainbow.
When seen, remarks on the nature and extent of the colouring, the type of
cloud and the approximate angular distance from the sun will be useful.

LIGHTNING
Anything unusual observed during a thunderstorm is worth recording. Some
points in connection with lightning are given below.
Lightning varies in colour on different occasions; it is normally white,
with perhaps a bluish tinge. Sometimes it is quite a bright violet. Other colours
seen are reddish-white, yellowish-white, mauve and blue.
Variations of the ordinary appearance of forked lightning have been seen:
(a) Inequalities of brightness in different parts of the path, known as chain,
or beaded lightning, from the impression left on the eye.
(b) Rocket lightning, so called from the relative slowness of the flash, so
that the progressive lengthening of the streak can be seen.
The special form known as ball lightning resembles a ball of fire, either
falling from a cloud or moving more or less horizontally. It usually lasts only a
few seconds and may disappear noiselessly or with an abrupt clap of thunder.
Ball lightning has been seen at close range and it has sometimes passed into or
through a building. Careful observations of this uncommon, but not extremely
107
rare, form of lightning are specially desired. Rare forms of lightning have been
seen shooting upwards from the top of cumulonimbus cloud, in various branch­
ing or rocket-like forms.
A high frequency of visible flashes sometimes results from more than one
storm in different directions being operative at the same time, so that at night
there is amost continuous illumination of the sea or landscape. Such a lightning
rate has been known to persist for several hours, but this is very rare.
Occasional reports of ships being struck by lightning are received, but this
event is probably of much less frequent occurrence than in the days of wooden
sailing ships. Descriptions of the effect on the ship and on the compasses (see
page 118) will be of interest. Observations of recent years show that in nearly all
cases the foremast or forepart of the vessel is struck.

RAINBOWS
Solar rainbows. The normal appearance of a bright rainbow is as follows.
The chief or primary bow shows the sequence of colours, violet, indigo, blue,
green, yellow, orange and red, the red being on the outside or top of the bow.
In contact with the inside of this bow, one or two fainter 'supernumerary bows'
can frequently be seen with the colours in the same order, the first inner bow being
much fainter than the primary bow and the second fainter still. Supernumerary
bows do not, however, show the full range of spectrum colours; they are
essentially red, or red and green, though other colours may be seen. In cases of
exceptionally brilliant rainbows up to five supernumerary bows may be seen.
Concentric with the primary bow, but 9° outside it, is the secondary rainbow,
in which the full range of colours appear in the reverse order, red inside and
violet at the top or outside. The primary bow is formed by means of one internal
reflection in each raindrop; the secondary bow is fainter, being produced by
two such reflections. The sky between the primary and secondary bow is rather
darker than that inside the primary bow, or the general sky in the neighbour­
hood. The secondary bow is commonly seen, but if the primary bow is faint the
secondary one may not be visible.
Both the primary and secondary bows are seen when the observer has his
back towards the sun. The sun, the observer's eye and the centres of the circles
of which the primary and secondary rainbows form arcs, are always in a straight
line, so that the azimuth of the highest part of the bow is 180° from the sun's
azimuth. The normal radius of the arc of red light of the primary rainbow is
42°, of the violet arc 40|°; in the secondary bow the radii are 51° for red light
and 54° for violet light, all the values given being approximate. Hence the
normal breadth of the primary bow is about If ° and that of the secondary bow
about 3°. It also follows that with the sun at an altitude of 42° the uppermost
point of the primary bow is on the horizon, its centre being 42° below the
horizon, and hence no primary bow can be formed if the sun's altitude exceeds
42°. Similarly no secondary rainbow can be formed if the sun's altitude exceeds
54°. Consequently rainbows are mainly morning and evening phenomena;
nearer midday, if seen at all, the arc of the bow is shorter and the altitude
small. Thunderstorm rain passing away from the observer gives the most
favourable circumstances for the production of bright rainbows.
When the observer is at ground level and the rain cloud is distant, the rain­
bow arcs are always less than semicircles, unless the sun is on the horizon, when
108
they form semicircles. When, however, the rain is near, and especially if the
observer is in an elevated position, such as on the bridge of a ship, the bows will
be greater than a semicircle and may even form complete circles. Several
accounts have been received of bows forming complete circles as far as the
water-line on each side of the ship.
One of the halo phenomena, the circumzenithal arc, may show bright rain­
bow colouring, but is always in such a position that the observer must face the
sun to see it.
Rainbows do not always show the same colouring. The colours seen, and
their relative width and intensity, vary according to the size of the raindrops
producing the bow. The colours are most brilliant and best denned with very
large raindrops such as occur in thunderstorm rain. With fairly large drops,
vivid violet and green may be seen, and also pure red, but little or no blue.
With smaller drops the red weakens and with still smaller ones the green goes,
leaving only the violet. Just before sunset, when the sun is red in colour, especially
in autumn and winter, an all-red rainbow may be produced.
If the raindrops are extremely small, as in the case in some cloud and in fog,
a white rainbow may be formed. Such a bow is called a 'fog-bow' or 'Ulloa's
Ring'. In all rainbows there is some overlapping of the colours; in a white
rainbow the overlapping is so complete that white light is reconstituted. For a
white rainbow to be seen, the observer must be near the cloud or near or in the
fog.
Lunar rainbows. Lunar rainbows are formed in the same way as solar ones,
but are considerably rarer, having regard to the comparatively short periods
that a bright moon is above the horizon. A lunar rainbow is usually fainter
than a solar one and it is not always possible to distinguish colour; the appear­
ance is then whitish. Quite frequently, however, colour may be observed;
more rarely the whole sequence of colour can be seen. Secondary and super­
numerary lunar rainbows are very rarely seen, on account of their faintness.
Reflection rainbows. These are seen occasionally on calm days when a sheet
of water lies in front of or behind the observer standing with his back to the
sun. Such bows are formed by rays of light illuminating the falling raindrops
after reflection at the surface of the sheet of water. The centre of a reflection
rainbow is thus as high above the horizon as the sun, or the same angular dis­
tance above, as the centre of the direct bow is below the horizon; consequently
the arc, when complete, exceeds a semicircle. The direct and reflection rainbows
intersect on the horizon, and the colours have the same sequence.
Observation of rainbows. The observer who wishes to make useful observa­
tions of normal rainbows should record the colours seen, in sequence, with an
indication of their relative widths and intensities. If supernumerary bows are
seen below the primary bow, the number of these and their colouring should be
noted. If the secondary bow is unusually bright it is worth while looking for
supernumerary bows just above it; these have rarely been seen on account of
their faintness. An additional primary bow may be seen when the sea is suffici­
ently calm to give a reflected image of the sun in the sea, which acts as the light
source for the bow. The position of this bow with regard to that formed by the
sun itself varies with the sun's altitude. The secondary bow from the sun's
reflected image is almost always too faint to be observable.
Abnormal bows, or arcs of bows, perhaps intersecting the normal bows, and
sometimes white in colour, have occasionally been seen and it is of special
interest to record these as fully as possible, since no explanation has yet been
109
found for some of them. They sometimes meet the horizon at the same point as
one of the normal bows. In such cases the sequence of colour, or the absence
of colour should be noted. It is essential to give angular measurements of such
bows, in the form of azimuths of the ends of the bow or arc, in which case the
sun's azimuth should also be given. If a normal bow is also seen, the difference
in azimuth between the points where the normal and abnormal bows meet the
horizon will serve to establish the position of the latter. If an abnormal bow is
seen concentric with the normal primary or secondary bow the difference of
altitude of the bows at their highest point should be given.

SCINTILLATION
Scintillation, or twinkling, is the more or less rapid change of apparent bright­
ness of a star, accompanied also at relatively low altitudes by colour changes.
It is due to minor changes in the refractive power of the atmosphere. The
amount of twinkling is always greatest towards the horizon and least in the
zenith. The general amount varies considerably on different nights, so that
at the zenith twinkling may be considerable, slight or entirely absent. Nights
without appreciable twinkling towards the horizon are rare. When the changes
of brightness are small the fluctuations are slower; in proportion as they are
greater they become more rapid.
Colour change is usually shown by stars at altitudes not exceeding 34°;
it never occurs at altitudes greater than 51°. The brightest stars, e.g. Sirius,
at low altitudes show it most and, in favourable conditions, the changes may be
very striking, the star flashing blood-red, emerald-green, bright blue, etc.
Scintillation is also observed in the case of terrestrial lights. The shimmering
seen near the ground on a hot day is akin to it.
The bright planets do not usually appear to twinkle, as they have discs of
definite size, although these are not visible without optical aid. Each point on
the disc twinkles independently of the others, so that on the average the light
is steady. The planet Mercury, only seen in twilight and at relatively low altitudes
may, however, be seen to twinkle because of the small size of its disc, and,
exceptionally, other planets at very low altitudes may exhibit some twinkling.
The relative degree of twinkling in different parts of the world, e.g. in
temperate as compared with tropical latitudes, is not very well known and any
information bearing on this will be of interest. It is probably greatest in temper­
ate latitudes, which are subject to the passage of depressions.

SKY COLORATION, DAY-TIME

The light of the sky in day-time is due to the illumination of the atmosphere
by sunlight. The molecules of air exert a selective action on the colour constit­
uents of sunlight, scattering mainly blue rays towards the observer and letting
the others pass away.
Dust is always present in greater or less degree in the atmosphere, and in
certain states of weather larger particles are present in the lower part of the
atmosphere. The presence of dust tends to weaken the blue of the sky, because
each particle reflects the whole of the white light. The greater the number of
particles and the larger their size the more the sky becomes whitish-blue. For
the same reason the cloudless sky is always whiter near the horizon than at
110
higher altitudes. After heavy rain, such as that due to the passage of a depression,
the larger dust particles have been washed out of the air and the sky is often a
very deep blue.
The sky is often whitened within the region of smoke pollution from a large
town. Natural dust from desert sources, at higher levels in the air, also has
the same effect, e.g. the white skies seen in the region of the East Indies in
the south-east monsoon, caused by dust from the Australian desert. The dust
from great volcanic eruptions may whiten the sky for weeks or months after­
wards, over more or less considerable areas of the globe. After the Krakatoa
eruption the colour of the sky at various times of the day in equatorial regions
was described as white, smoky, yellowish or reddish.
The unclouded sky may also be whitened by what is known as 'optical haze',
which also makes distant terrestrial objects indistinct. This occurs on hot days
and is the result of innumerable little convective uprisings of air, causing con­
fused and variable refraction of light. The shimmering of terrestrial objects on
a hot day also results from the same cause.
The sky may sometimes by covered by a layer of cirrostratus, so thin and
uniform as not to be visible as cloud, but sufficient to dim the blueness, giving
the sky a milky appearance.
A somewhat dirty green coloration of clear patches in a generally overcast
sky is sometimes seen at sea in the day-time, not to be confused with the green
coloration of part of the clear twilight sky in the west. This day-time coloration
is associated with bad or windy weather, or is considered a prognostic of such
weather. Observations of it and of the accompanying or subsequent weather
will be welcomed, as it is not yet fully understood. It appears to occur most
frequently in the Roaring Forties.

SKY COLORATION AT TWILIGHT

When clouds, particularly middle and upper clouds, occur about the time of
sunset or sunrise, or in bright twilight, their coloration is often very beautiful.
The cloud colours are mainly shades of orange, rose or red, since the direct
sunlight illuminating the cloud has passed through a great length of the lower
layers of the atmosphere. Shades of purple are sometimes seen, since a cloud
may at the same time be indirectly illuminated by scattered blue light from
higher atmospheric levels. On rare occasions colouring of exceptional mag­
nificence occurs.
Colour phenomena also occur in a cloudless sky during the twilight periods.
These vary considerably and are best developed in arid or semi-arid land regions.
Some of those which occur more commonly everywhere are mentioned here.
The Primary Twilight Arch appears after the sun has set, as a bright, but not
very sharply defined segment of reddish, or yellowish light, resting on the
western horizon. After the sun has set, a pink or purple glow may be seen,
covering a considerable part of the western sky, known as the First Purple
Light. It reaches its greatest brightness when the sun is about 4° below the
horizon, and disappears when it is about 6° below.
At sunset, a steely-blue segment, darker than the rest of the sky, begins to
rise from the eastern horizon. This is the shadow of the earth thrown by the sun
on to the earth's atmosphere. The Earth-shadow is bordered by a narrow band
of rose or purple colour, called the Counterglow. The whole rises fairly quickly
111
in altitude, the shadow encroaching on the counterglow and soon obliterating it.
With increasing general darkness the edge of the shadow weakens, but may
sometimes be traced up to its passage through the zenith. In the later stages of
twilight, this shadow edge has come down nearly to the western horizon, leaving
a slightly more luminous segment between it and the horizon. Tkis is the
Secondary Twilight Arch. Just before the ending of astronomical twilight, it is
sometimes seen as a fairly well denned whitish arch on the horizon, with an
altitude of only a few degrees at its apex. This might be confused with an
auroral arc visible at very low altitude.
Analogous phenomena, in the reverse order, occur before sunrise. Other
colours are often seen in the cloudless twilight sky, portions of which may be
green, yellow, orange or red, according to the amount of dust and water
vapour present in the air. Instead of the purple light after sunset, the sky very
often shows some shade of clear green, probably when the air is relatively free
from dust.

SKY COLORATION AT NIGHT

Between the visible stars, brighter and fainter, the background of the clear
night sky is not wholly dark. Part of the general luminosity of the sky is due to
the accumulated light of the brighter telescopic stars, which cannot be seen as
individual stars with the unaided eye. The remainder is due to the airglow,
which may vary in intensity on different nights, see page 91. The airglow is
greenish in colour but it is usually too faint for the colour to be seen. In bright
moonlight the sky is generally somewhat greenish, but it is probable that when
the air is relatively dust-free and the full moon is at high altitude it becomes
bluish. Opinion varies on this point, as the colour of faint light is not equally
well seen by different persons.

TWILIGHT
Twilight is due to the illumination of the higher levels of the atmosphere by
the sun when this is below the observer's horizon. The last stage of twilight is
very faint and indefinite and it is not possible to say exactly when it ends.
Astronomical twilight is defined as ending in the evening when the sun's centre
is 18° below the horizon, since by that time sixth magnitude stars, the faintest
that can be seen by the naked eye, have become visible in the region of the
zenith.
Another and shorter twilight period, that of civil twilight, is recognized;
this ends in the evening when the sun is 6° below the horizon. This is assumed to
mark the ending of the time when outdoor labour is possible. The period of
civil twilight is important to the seaman because experience has shown that
subsequent to it the horizon is not sufficiently clearly visible to obtain good
stellar observations. In the later stages of civil twilight such observations can be
made, the brighter fixed stars being visible and the horizon still remaining clearly
visible. Similar definitions apply to morning twilight.
The duration of twilight varies according to the latitude. It is shortest in
the tropics where the apparent track of the sun down to the horizon is steepest.
It also varies to some extent at different seasons, being shortest in all latitudes
112
about the time of the equinoxes. The following table shows the extent of these
variations between the equator and latitude 60°N or S; AT and CT refer to
astronomical and civil twilight respectively.

Equator 30° 50° 60°

AT CT AT CT AT CT AT CT
h min h min h min h min h min h min h min h min
Midwinter ... 1 16 0 26 1 26 0 31 2 1 0 45 2 48 1 9
Equinoxes ... 1 10 0 24 1 20 0 28 1 52 0 37 2 31 0 48
Midsummer ... 1 15 0 26 1 37 0 32 0 51 1 59

In the belt between latitude 48 ^ and the Arctic Circle there is no true
night for some weeks of the midsummer period, as the sun does not sink as
much as 18° below the horizon. There is a similar belt in the southern hemi­
sphere, six months later, during the southern summer. In polar regions there is
a long twilight period of about two months between the long polar periods of
summer daylight and winter night.
At rare intervals abnormally long duration of twilight is observed. This is
caused by the presence of fine dust suspended in the upper air. The dust may
be due to a great volcanic eruption, such as that of Krakatoa in 1883 or to the
fall of an exceptionally large meteor, such as that of 30 June 1908 in Siberia.
Observations of exceptionally bright and long-continued twilight will be of
value.

WATERSPOUTS
A waterspout is a whirlwind over the sea, appearing as a funnel-shaped column
usually extending from the lower surface of cumulonimbus cloud to the sea.
In travelling over the sea this column often becomes oblique or bent; it may
become looped. The spout is in rapid rotation and the wind around it follows
a circular path. Although very local, this wind is often violent, causing confused
but not high sea. A noise of 'rushing wind' may be heard. A waterspout in
most cases forms downwards from the base of the cloud, appearing in its earlier
stages as a dark funnel hanging from the cloud. The sea surface below becomes
agitated and the funnel finally dips into the centre of the spray. The waterspout
may last from a few minutes up to half an hour or more. Sometimes the spout,
formed of condensed water vapour, does not reach the sea, and retreats up into
the cloud. Several may be seen at the same time.
There are a number of theories which attempt to explain the formation of
a waterspout. These theories may be classified into those which relate to the
origin of the more severe tornado storm spout of the tropics and subtropics
and those which relate to the milder 'fair weather' spout of the tropical and
temperate latitudes.
The tornado spout may form over the sea but is more likely to have formed
over land and subsequently to have passed out to sea. Its formation may result
from the horizontal shear between warm and cold air currents existing up to
considerable heights in the atmosphere. Such conditions normally occur along
a cold front or cold occlusion surface. The tornado storm waterspout may
damage even a large vessel if it passes directly over it, the damage being caused
113
partly by tornadic winds, partly by the suddenly reduced pressure and partly
by the deluge of water sometimes released.
The 'fair weather' waterspout is believed to be formed mainly by convection
processes. Under conditions of a high temperature lapse rate near the sea
surface, a small parcel of moist air becomes a little warmer than its environment
and begins to rise. Rotation is caused by the converging surface winds sucked in
under the rising air parcel and energy gained by the atmospheric instability is
augmented by the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour present. The
initial convectional ascending air current may occur directly below cumulonimbus
cloud in which case it may penetrate the cloud, and the rotation increases until a
complete waterspout is formed. Although the 'fair weather' waterspout should
cause no real damage to a large vessel, it should be avoided by the small-boat
mariner.
Observations of waterspouts, with sketches or photographs, and details of
their mode of formation and dissipation are of value. The diameter of the spout
and the direction of rotation should be noted. If it is possible to determine the
rate of rotation, this information is very valuable. Sometimes a streak or mark
on the spout enables this to be done. The spout is a hollow tube; double-walled
spouts have occasionally been recorded. The approximate vertical height of a
spout may be found by sextant measurement of the angle subtended, together
with the known or estimated distance from the ship. The height of a waterspout
from sea surface to cloud base is usually from 1000 feet (300 m) to 2000 feet
(600 m). It may, however, be as little as 100 feet (30 m) or as much as 5000 feet
(1500 m). There is a very great variation in the observed diameters of water­
spouts, from 1 to about 200 metres.
Though waterspouts are infrequent in high latitudes their frequency does not
depend wholly on latitude. In general, more are observed in lower latitudes but
their frequency in tropical and equatorial regions varies considerably in different
oceans. Waterspouts are most common in the following regions: the Equatorial
Atlantic; the South Atlantic; the eastern coast of the United States, south of
lat. 35°N; the Gulf of Mexico; part of the eastern Mediterranean; the Bay of
Bengal; the Gulf of Siam.

114
 CHAPTER 12
Marine Phenomena
SEA COLORATION
The normal colour of the sea in the open ocean in middle and low latitudes
is an intense blue or ultramarine. The following modifications occur elsewhere:
(a) In all coastal regions and in the open sea in higher latitudes, where the
minute floating animal and vegetable life of the sea, called plankton,
is in greater abundance, the blue of the sea is modified to shades of
bluish-green and green. This results from a soluble yellow pigment,
given off by the plant constituents of the plankton.
(b) When the plankton is very dense, the colour of the organisms themselves
may discolour the sea, giving it a more or less intense brown or red
colour. The Red Sea, Gulf of California, the region of the Peru Current,
South African waters and the Malabar Coast of India are particularly
liable to this, seasonally.
(c) The plankton is sometimes killed more or less suddenly, by changes of
sea temperature etc., producing dirty-brown or grey-brown discolora­
tion and 'stinking water'. This occurs on a unusually extensive scale
at times off the Peruvian coast, where the phenomenon is called 'Aguaje'.
(d) Larger masses of animate matter, such as fish spawn or floating kelp,
may produce other kinds of temporary discoloration.
(e) Mud brought down by rivers produces discoloration, which in the case
of the great rivers may affect a large sea area. Soil or sand particles
may be carried out to sea by wind or duststorms, and volcanic dust
may fall over a sea area. In all such cases the water is more or less
muddy in appearance. Submarine earthquakes may also produce mud
or sand discoloration in relatively shallow water, and oil has sometimes
been seen to gush up. The sea may be extensively covered with floating
pumice stone after a volcanic eruption.
It is desirable to record all cases of unusual sea coloration. To determine
the cause, microscopic examination of a sample may be necessary, and whenever
possible a sample should be taken for subsequent examination at the Institute
of Oceanographic Sciences. The sample can be preserved for a considerable
time if a few drops of 40 per cent formalin or of a strong solution of mercuric
chloride are added. Port Meteorological Officers in UK ports carry sets of
bottles and preservative for this purpose and will supply any shipmaster on
request.

ABNORMAL RISES OF SEA LEVEL AND ABNORMAL WAVES

Both these phenomena are popularly included in the term 'tidal waves', but
neither has any connection with the tides. If either occurs, however, at a coast
in conjunction with a high tide, its effect will obviously be greater and more
destructive.
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 Abnormal rises of sea level, on which ordinary sea and swell waves are
superimposed, are produced by severe storms. High water levels are thus
caused on many coasts, but fortunately the rise is rarely large enough to cause
great damage. With strong westerly winds the water level at Cuxhaven, at the
mouth of the Elbe, may rise 1\ metres above the normal. On exceptional
occasions the rise has reached 3i metres above the normal. Destructive rises
mainly occur in connection with tropical revolving storms; rises of as much as
6 and 4 \ metres have been experienced on parts of the east coast of the United
States.
Submarine earthquakes and landslides, and violent volcanic eruptions
near a coast or on an island, produce abnormal waves. Sometimes these are
visible waves, at other times shock waves, the latter giving the sensation in
severe cases of the ship having struck a rock. The visible waves may travel many
hundreds of miles, or in very severe disturbances many thousands of miles.
Single high waves in fair weather, with smooth or moderate sea, are almost
certainly of seismic origin. Sometimes there may be two or more such waves at
intervals. On the other hand, isolated giant waves which have been reported
in gale conditions, are probably caused by a synchronism of the larger waves in
a sea or swell cycle. Some of these have been estimated to reach or exceed a
height of 18 metres.
There have been, in recent years, a number of reports of abnormal waves
causing considerable damage to quite large ships. There have also been reports
of smaller vessels lost without trace possibly as a result of the action of such
waves. It has thus become recognized that from time to time, particularly in
certain sea areas, there can occur very unusual or 'freak' waves, the causes of
which are not yet fully understood and concerning whose frequency we do not
know nearly enough.
A 'freak' wave has recently been defined as a wave of very considerable
height ahead of which there is a deep trough, so that it is the steepness of the
wave which is its outstanding feature and which makes it dangerous to shipping.
Many of the reports of 'freak' waves have come from an area off the coast of
south-east Africa during the period May to October. It is thought to be very
significant that this is an area where a strong current (the Aghulas Current)
runs counter to the high seas generated by the rather frequent south-westerly
gales of the winter months and also to the unusually heavy swells which spread
north-eastwards from the Southern Ocean at that time of the year. Theory
indicates that a counter current opposes the advance of the wave energy through
a sea and that when the current speed reaches one-quarter of the speed of the
waves the wave energy will be trapped, leading to an area of steep and confused
waves beyond which there is a patch of relatively calm water. In practice this is
not inconsistent with the very occasional occurrence of a very high wave,
produced by sea and swell waves getting into phase, whose front is much
steepened by an opposing current.
There are probably other ocean areas where conditions favourable for these
'freak' waves occur from time to time, e.g. in the vicinity of the Gulf Stream
in a period of north-easterly gale. More information is greatly needed. When­
ever these abnormal wave conditions are met with they should be reported in as
much detail as possible. Besides the exact time and position, weather conditions
and the course and speed of the ship, information is needed about wind and
wave conditions, both before and after the encounter, about any other factors
which may influence the state of the sea, and of course a full description of the
116
'freak' wave itself together with a brief note about any damage sustained. This
information should be entered in the 'Additional remarks' pages of the meteoro­
logical logbook or on a Freak Wave Report form available from Port Meteoro­
logical Offices.

MARINE BIOLUMINESCENCE
This phenomenon exhibits many different forms. The more remarkable of these
include:
(a) the diffused white light, which may give enough light to read by, or to
illuminate clouds: it is called 'white water' or 'milky sea'. The even glow
is believed to be due to light from marine organisms of microscopic
size. It is especially prevalent in the Arabian Sea;
(b) systems of moving parallel bands;
(c) rapid light flashes on the sea surface;
(d) upwelling of subsurface water, breaking into vivid luminosity at the
surface;
(e) the great systems of bands rotating round a central luminous 'hub',
known as 'phosphorescent wheels'.
The last-named is a well-authenticated but, in general, rather infrequent
phenomenon, apparently confined to the Indian Ocean north of the equator and
the China Sea region. One or more wheels may occur simultaneously, rotating
in the same or opposite directions.
While progress has been made in classifying the varied forms of luminescence,
it is not yet possible to explain how the majority of them are caused, either as
regards the animal organisms involved or the nature of the stimulus producing
light-emission. Many of the apparent movements of luminous areas, e.g. those
of the 'spokes' of the wheel, are much too rapid to be caused by the actual
movements of organisms through the water. The most inexplicable phenomenon
is that of luminescence in the air a few feet above the sea surface when there is
no light in the water; this has been reported on several occasions.
Most of our knowledge of the varied forms of marine bioluminescence has
been derived from the observations recorded in ships' logbooks and continued
observations will be of the greatest value. When sufficient information is
accumulated marine biologists will be able to work on the problems connected
with the causation of the various phenomena. Observations should be as precise
and detailed as possible and should include estimations of the direction, length
and width of moving bands and of the size of what appear to be individual
luminous organisms. A water sample would be useful if it could be treated with
a preservative. In any case a record of whether a water sample is luminous
when stirred or shaken would be very useful, together with the appearance of
any such luminescence. In the case of moving or rotating bands a careful
estimate of the time interval between the passage of successive bands should
be made. If a wheel is seen it is important to note if it has a visible centre and to
estimate the distance of the centre from the ship, also to record the direction of
rotation of the wheel. The wheel sometimes forms from parallel moving bands,
or changes into these, and all changes of form of the luminescence should be
recorded.
117
 Interesting experiments on the possible nature of the stimulus may be made:
(a) By trying the effect of flashing light on the sea, e.g. from an Aldis light;
sometimes this initiates or increases luminescence, but not always.
(b) The effect of the switching on and off of radar.
(c) No observation of a wheel recorded by a sailing vessel has been found
and it is therefore possible that it is produced by sound or vibration
waves through the water from a modern vessel. It would be of great
value to note the effect on the wheel, if any, produced by stopping the
engines for a few minutes.
The luminescence usually appears white, in the case of 'white water', and
various shades of blue and green, in other forms. Other colours have, however,
been recorded. In all observations it is important to give the colour; in the case
of the more striking moving forms, observers apparently find them so impressive
in other ways that this important factor is almost invariably overlooked. There
is thus very little information, for example, about the colour of the light of the
wheel.

ABNORMAL COMPASS DEVIATIONS

A ship's magnetic compass may show appreciable deviation during the progress
of a considerable or severe magnetic storm (see Magnetic Disturbances, page 84).
When an aurora of an active type is seen, especially in latitudes lower than
those in which aurora is normally seen, the possibility of deflections of the
magnetic compass should always be borne in mind. Mere brightness of aurora
in a region where aurora frequently occurs is no criterion of the occurrence of a
magnetic storm, e.g. a bright, colourless and relatively quiescent aurora seen in
August or September in the western Atlantic on the Belle Isle route.
If a ship be struck by lightning, a sudden abnormal deviation of the compass
may result. This error may be of a temporary or a permanent nature. Chrono­
meters may also be affected.
Abnormal magnetic variation occurs locally in various regions. These
variations, if experienced, should always be recorded, particularly if no mention
of abnormal variation is made in the appropriate Admiralty Pilot or on
Admiralty charts of the region.

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 Part IV Summary of Meteorological Work at Sea
CHAPTER 13
Organization of Voluntary Meteorological Work at Sea
Historical. M. F. Maury, an officer of the US Navy, was the first man to realize
the commercial and scientific value of weather information collected from ships.
Owing to his initiative, the first International Meteorological Conference was
held at Brussels in 1853 to consider international co-operation and a uniform
system of observation. Following this conference, the British Meteorological
Office was established in 1854, under Admiral FitzRoy, as a Department of the
Board of Trade.
On assuming office, FitzRoy issued a circular letter to the masters of mer­
chant ships, inviting their co-operation in observing the weather at sea, and by
1855, 105 ships of the Mercantile Marine and 32 ships of the Royal Navy were
equipped with instruments for this purpose.
Observations were originally recorded in a 'Weather Register' whose general
form was agreed upon at the Brussels Conference. In 1874, Captain Henry
Toynbee, who had then been Marine Superintendent of the Meteorological
Office for seven years, drew up a 'Meteorological Log' based on the original
Weather Register, but incorporating improvements. This was approved inter­
nationally and brought into use by the Meteorological Office for British ships.
This Log has been the means of providing climatological atlases for all oceans,
and has provided a basis for scientific investigation. It underwent very little
change up to the end of World War I, when the use of climatological logbooks
was gradually discontinued in favour of observations made at synoptic hours
and transmitted by radio. In 1953 the method of setting out the observations was
entirely rearranged to produce the present-day meteorological logbook which
is a combined record of observations made and radio weather messages sent.
In 1861, FitzRoy instituted the system whereby certain ports were informed
by telegraph of impending gales and were asked to hoist visual gale-warning
signals for the benefit of shipping. Except for a short break in 1867-68, this
system has been maintained up to the present day.
The invention of wireless telegraphy opened up a new era in marine meteoro­
logy. As early as 1906, HM ships sent observations to the Meteorological Office
by radio, while in 1909 a number of transatlantic liners commenced a similar
service of reports by radio. Owing to the disruption caused by World War I,
it was not until 1921, as a result of arrangements made by the International
Meteorological Organization, that radio weather messages from merchant
ships were organized on a satisfactory scale, and an international code was
introduced for the purpose. In this year a number of Selected Ships commenced
not only recording their observations, but transmitting them by radio in a
special code at the internationally agreed hours of 0000, 0600, 1200 and 1800
GMT. These messages were sent from all oceans through designated shore
radio stations to various meteorological centres in accordance with an inter­
national scheme. The number of ships which continued merely to record their
observations six times daily, at the end of each watch, was gradually reduced as
119
the number recording and reporting at the synoptic hour was increased. Today
all observing ships report at the main synoptic hours and the data recorded in
this manner can still be used for climatological purposes.
At a meeting of the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea, held
in 1929, provision was made (in Article 35) for the international encouragement
of meteorological work at sea. This Convention was revised in 1948 and again in
1960 (see Chapter 14).
During World War II observations from merchant ships again ceased.
In 1946, as a result of a conference held in London, it was agreed that all
meteorological services of the British Commonwealth would co-operate in
organizing meteorological work at sea. In 1947 the International Meteoro­
logical Organization introduced a new universal code for the sending of radio
weather messages by voluntary observing ships of all nations.
Throughout the history of the Marine Division of the Meteorological Office,
observations at sea have been made on a voluntary basis. The number of ships
making observations at any time depends upon requirements but is limited by
practical considerations. The masters and officers of ships undertaking this
work are referred to as the 'Corps of Voluntary Marine Observers', their ships
comprising the 'Voluntary Observing Fleet'.
Marine meteorology and the British Commonwealth. The arrangements for
this generally follow those organized and kept up to date by the World Meteoro­
logical Organization (see page 121).
Voluntary Observing Ships of all nations are divided into three main classes:
'Selected Ships', 'Supplementary Ships' and 'Auxiliary Ships'. The first-named
observe wind, weather, pressure and barometric tendency, temperatures, clouds
and waves. They are equipped with a marine mercurial barometer fitted with a
correction slide or precision aneroid barometer Mk II, a barograph, wet- and
dry-bulb thermometers in a modified marine screen, and a sea thermometer and
bucket.
Supplementary Ships make the same observations with the exception of
barometric tendency, sea temperature and waves, and are not therefore
equipped with barograph, bucket or sea thermometer.
Auxiliary Ships make similar observations to those made by Supplementary
Ships, except that they do not report cloud. They use their own instruments,
which have been previously checked by a Port Meteorological Officer to observe
pressure and temperature. They only record and report when in areas where
shipping is normally sparse.
In addition to the above, many ships engaged in the coastwise and short-sea
trades around the British Isles are supplied with a sea-temperature bucket and
thermometers. They radio sea-water temperatures to the British Meteorological
Office. Several ships trading across the North Sea, and trawlers operating in
distant waters, are asked to radio reports of wind and weather, not involving
the use of instruments, at synoptic hours whenever possible. A number of
distant-water trawlers, however, with a special aptitude for the work are
recruited as Supplementary Ships.
Each Meteorological Service is responsible for recruiting its own ships. In
addition, each Service may recruit ships of other registries which sail regularly
from its ports and do not return to home ports for long periods.
Representatives of Commonwealth and foreign Meteorological Services may,
if they wish, visit any British Selected or Supplementary Ship to discuss local
problems, supply forms, maps or local information, attend instruments, take
120
extracts from logbooks or express appreciation of services rendered. They may
also, if the situation warrants (i.e. paucity of observations in their area), visit
other British ships and request their co-operation as Auxiliary Ships, when in
the area of the Service concerned. Commonwealth Services inform the British
Meteorological Office of the names of Selected and Supplementary Ships
recruited by them. The British Meteorological Office promulgates this informa­
tion, together with the names of all ships recruited in Britain, in each July
number of The Marine Observer.
The World Meteorological Organization. While the Commonwealth Con­
ference provides for uniformity of practice in marine meteorology among the
various Services of the British Commonwealth, the World Meteorological
Organization performs a similar function internationally.
Meteorology is so international in character that co-operation is necessary
between all countries of the world. This was recognized as long ago as 1872
when the International Meteorological Organization (IMO) was formed, which
has ever since acted as an advisory body to National Meteorological Services,
its primary functions being the standardization of codes and procedure, the
improvement of meteorological practice, and the promotion of research. The
Selected Ship Scheme and the issue of weather bulletins for shipping on a
world-wide basis, are co-ordinated in this way.
The IMO was a semi-official body, and in 1947 it was decided that, in
view of the growing world importance of meteorology for commercial, economic
and scientific purposes, it was necessary to change the status of this organiza­
tion. As a result an intergovernmental body, the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO), held its first congress in Paris during 1951, and took
over the duties and responsibilities of the IMO. In this organization technical
problems are deliberated by a number of technical commissions, whose members
are all experts in their particular sphere. All aspects of maritime meteorology
are thus dealt with by the Commission for Marine Meteorology, which advises
the WMO as necessary.
The instructions to observers issued by the Marine Division of the Meteoro­
logical Office conform to the advice of the WMO. Such changes of codes and
procedure as occur from time to time are the result of international agreement.
It is inevitable that progress in meteorology should bring changes of procedure.
Such changes are kept to a minimum, and the basic aim is that every change
should achieve greater world-wide application and uniformity, and hence
simplicity.
All meteorological work done by ships' officers is entirely voluntary. Only
by a voluntary scheme can the requisite high standard of observations be main­
tained. The benefit of this work to mariners lies in the fact that it forms the
basis of the mateorological services for shipping outlined below.
Voluntary observing ships are requested to report their observations at the
standard synoptic hours, viz. 0000, 0600, 1200, 1800 GMT, using the standard
International Weather Code, either in full or abbreviated form. Information
regarding this code and full instructions for coding are to be found in the Ships'
Code and Decode Book (Met. O. 509) or in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals,
Vol. 3.
Meteorological services for shipping. The first meteorological service for
shipping was the issue of visual Gale Warnings, started in 1861. In 1924, a Radio
Weather Shipping Bulletin was instituted; this contained weather reports from
certain coastal stations and forecasts for areas around the British Isles. Since
N 121
then, meteorological warnings of all kinds have been broadcast direct to ship­
ping by radio on an international basis, under arrangements made by the
World Meteorological Organization.
Present-day weather messages to shipping aim at providing not only fore­
casts but such basic information as will enable simple synoptic charts to be
drawn on board ship. Such messages are generally known as 'bulletins'. They
usually contain:
A brief statement of the meteorological situation.
Area forecasts.
Land station reports.
Ships' reports.
Analyses in the International Analysis Code (I.A.C. (Fleet)).
An example of such a bulletin is the Atlantic Weather Bulletin, full particulars
of which are given in Met. O. 509, Ships' Code and Decode Book, and in the
Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Vol. 3. Briefer bulletins for the benefit of
coastal shipping are issued by Post Office coastal stations on W/T and R/T and
by the BBC (see Met. O. Leaflet No. 3. obtainable free from the Meteorological
Office).
A valuable facility now provided by many meteorological services consists
of the broadcasting of weather maps, both actual and forecast, by means of
radio facsimile. By this means complete weather maps drawn by meteorologists
ashore can be reproduced on board ship with minimum delay. Not only weather
maps but also wave height and sea-ice distribution maps can be received in this
way. Installation of the appropriate receiving equipment is, of course, necessary
but up-to-date information then becomes readily available with the minimum
of trouble. (See also Meteorology for Mariners.)
The experience of generations of observers is available in the vast number
of observations from the sea that have been collected since 1854. The task of
the Marine Division of the Meteorological Office has been not only to collect
these observations but to classify and analyse them scientifically and to prepare
climatological and other material based upon them, for the information of
mariners, and of the world in general. The observations, being (except for
those from weather ships) the only ones available from the oceans, are put to
many other useful purposes, and are of great value for research into meteoro­
logical problems. Most of the analysis is carried out with the aid of computers,
and the final results, after careful scrutiny by climatological experts, are issued
in the form of atlases for the different oceans. The atlases contain means values
for each month of the various meteorological elements observed at sea, and
enable the user to assess average conditions at any time in almost any part of the
world.
Guidance for conduct of the work at sea. Direct contact between the
Meteorological Office and ships' masters and observers is maintained through
Port Meteorological Officers at Cardiff, Glasgow, Liverpool, Hull, London,
Middlesbrough and Southampton.
Indirect contact with the Observing Fleet is maintained through the medium
of The Marine Observer, a quarterly publication which contains articles on
meteorology, oceanography, ice, etc., of interest to seamen. A large section in
each number is devoted to observations of phenomena of a meteorological or
general scientific nature, mostly extracted from the meteorological logbooks
of ships of the British Commonwealth.
122
 Instruments are supplied to ships by Port Meteorological Officers and are
delivered by hand. When it is desired to return instruments lent by the Meteoro­
logical Office, the appropriate Port Meteorological Officer should be advised.
When this is not possible, as for example at certain small ports, application
should be made to the Marine Superintendent of the Meteorological Office for
instructions. Similar remarks apply to the return of damaged instruments for
repair or replacement.
Any accident to an instrument, even though no apparent damage is done,
should be reported to the Port Meteorological Officer. This is necessary because
the constants of the instrument may have been altered without any apparent
difference in its working. On no account should a barometer or any other
instrument belonging to the Meteorological Office be sent to an instrument
maker for repair, or any attempt be made to repair the instrument on board
the ship.

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 CHAPTER 14
The International Conference on Safety of Life at Sea, 1960*
Upon the invitation of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organ­
ization, a Conference was held in London from 17 May to 17 June 1960 for the
purpose of drawing up a Convention to replace the International Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea signed in London on 10 June 1948 as well as for the
purpose of revising the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea, 1948.
This Conference took cognizance of the mariners' requirements for meteoro­
logical information and their ability to detect and warn others of hazardous
conditions. The following regulations were therefore included in the SOLAS
Convention, Chapter V—Safety of Navigation.

Regulation 2: Danger Messages

(a) The master of every ship which meets with dangerous ice, a dangerous
derelict, or any other direct danger to navigation, or a tropical storm, or
encounters sub-freezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds
causing severe ice accretion on superstructures, or winds offeree 10 or above on
the Beaufort scale for which no storm warning has been received is bound to
communicate the information by all the means at his disposal to ships in the
vicinity, and also to the competent authorities at the first point on the coast
with which he can communicate. The form in which the information is sent is
not obligatory. It may be transmitted either in plain language (preferably
English) or by means of the International Code of Signals. It should be broad­
cast to all ships in the vicinity and sent to the first point on the coast to which
communication can be made, with a request that it be transmitted to the
appropriate authorities.
(b) Each Contracting Government will take all steps necessary to ensure
that when intelligence of any of the dangers specified in paragraph (a) is received,
it will be promptly brought to the knowledge of those concerned and com­
municated to other interested Governments.
(c) The transmission of messages respecting the dangers specified is free of
cost to the ships concerned.
(d) All radio messages issued under paragraph (a) of this Regulation shall
be preceded by the Safety Signal, using the procedure as prescribed by the
Radio Regulations as defined in Regulation 2 of Chapter IV.

Regulation 3: Information required in Danger Messages

The following information is required in danger messages:

*See International Conference on Safety ofLife at Sea, 1960, H.M.S.O., London.

124
 (a) Ice,Derelicts and other Direct Dangers to Navigation,
(i)
the kind of ice, derelict or danger observed;
(ii)
the position of the ice, derelict or danger when last observed;
(iii)
the time and date (Greenwich Mean Time) when danger last
observed.
(b) Tropical Storms—(Hurricanes in the West Indies, Typhoons in the
China Sea, Cyclones in Indian waters, and storms of a similar nature in other
regions).
(i) A statement that a tropical storm has been encountered. This
obligation should be interpreted in a broad spirit, and information
transmitted whenever the master has a good reason to believe that
a tropical storm is developing or exists in his neighbourhood.
(ii) Time, date (Greenwich Mean Time) and position of ship when the
observation was taken.
(iii) As much of the following information as is practicable should be
included in the message:
—barometric pressure, preferably corrected (stating, millibars,
inches, or millimetres, and whether corrected or uncorrected);
—barometric tendency (the change in barometric pressure during
the past three hours);
—true wind direction;
—wind force (Beaufort scale);
—state of the sea (smooth, moderate, rough, high);
—swell (slight, moderate, heavy) and the true direction from which
it comes. Period or length of swell (short, average, long) would
also be of value;
—true course and speed of ship.
(c) Subsequent Observations. When a master has reported a tropical or
other dangerous storm, it is desirable, but not obligatory, that further observa­
tions be made and transmitted hourly, if practicable, but in any case at intervals
of not more than three hours, so long as the ship remains under the influence
of the storm.
(d) Winds of force 10 or above on the Beaufort scale for which no storm
warning has been received.
This is intended to deal with storms other than the tropical storms referred
to in paragraph (b); when such a storm is encountered, the message should
contain similar information to that listed under paragraph (b) but excluding the
details concerning sea and swell.
(e) Sub-freezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds causing
severe ice accretion on superstructures.
(i) Time and Date (Greenwich Mean Time),
(ii) Air temperature,
(iii) Sea temperature (if practicable),
(iv) Wind force and direction.

Examples
Ice
TTT Ice. Large berg sighted in 4605 N, 4410 W, at 0800 GMT, May 15.
125
Derelicts
TTT Derelict. Observed derelict almost submerged in 4006 N, 1243 W, at
1630 GMT. April 21.
Danger to Navigation
TTT Navigation. Alpha lightship not on station. 1800 GMT. January 3.
Tropical Storm
TTT Storm. 0030 GMT. August 18. 2204 N, 11354 E. Barometer corrected
994 millibars, tendency down 6 millibars. Wind NW, force 9, heavy squalls.
Heavy easterly swell. Course 067, 5 knots.
TTT Storm. Appearances indicate approach of hurricane. 1300 GMT.
September 14. 2200 N, 7236 W. Barometer corrected 29-64 inches, tendency
down -015 inches. Wind NE, force 8, frequent rain squalls. Course 035, 9 knots.
TTT Storm. Conditions indicate intense cyclone has formed. 0200 GMT.
May 4, 1620 N, 9203 E. Barometer uncorrected 753 millimetres, tendency
down 5 millimetres. Wind S by W, force 5. Course 300, 8 knots.
TTT Storm. Typhoon to southeast 0300 GMT. June 12. 1812 N, 12605 E.
Barometer falling rapidly. Wind increasing from N.
TTT Storm. Wind force 11, no storm warning received. 0300 GMT. May 4.
4830 N, 30 W. Barometer corrected 983 millibars, tendency down 4 millibars.
Wind SW, force 11 veering. Course 260, 6 knots.
Icing
TTT experiencing severe icing. 1400 GMT. March 2. 69 N, 10 W. Air
temperature 18 (F). Sea temperature 29 (F). Wind NE, force 8.

Regulation 4: Meteorological Services

(a) The Contracting Governments undertake to encourage the collection of
meteorological data by ships at sea and to arrange for their examination,
dissemination and exchange in the manner most suitable for the purpose of
aiding navigation. Administrations shall encourage the use of instruments of a
high degree of accuracy, and shall facilitate the checking of such instruments
upon request.
(b) In particular, the Contracting Governments undertake to co-operate in
carrying out, as far as practicable, the following meteorological arrangements:
(i) To warn ships of gales, storms and tropical storms, both by the issue
of radio messages and by the display of appropriate signals at coastal
points.
(ii) To issue daily, by radio, weather bulletins suitable for shipping, con­
taining data of existing weather, waves and ice, forecasts, and when
practicable, sufficient additional information to enable simple weather
charts to be prepared at sea and also to encourage the transmission of
suitable facsimile weather charts.
(iii) To prepare and issue such publications as may be necessary for the
efficient conduct of meteorological work at sea and to arrange, if
practicable, for the publication and making available of daily weather
charts for the information of departing ships.
(iv) To arrange for selected ships to be equipped with tested instruments
(such as a barometer, a barograph, a psychrometer, and suitable
apparatus for measuring sea temperature) for use in this service, and
to take meteorological observations at main standard times for surface
126
 synoptic observations (at least four times daily, whenever circum­
stances permit) and to encourage other ships to take observations in a
modified form, particularly when in areas where shipping is sparse;
these ships to transmit their observations by radio for the benefit of the
various official meteorological services, repeating the information for
the benefit of ships in the vicinity. When in the vicinity of a tropical
storm, or of a suspected tropical storm, ships should be encouraged
to take and transmit their observations at more frequent intervals
whenever practicable, bearing in mind navigational pre-occupations
of ships' officers during storm conditions.
(v) To arrange for the reception and transmission by coast radio stations
of weather messages from and to ships. Ships which are unable to
communicate direct with shore shall be encouraged to relay their
weather messages through ocean weather ships or through other ships
which are in contact with shore.
(vi) To encourage all masters to inform ships in the vicinity and also shore
stations whenever they experience a wind speed of 50 knots or more
(force 10 on the Beaufort scale).
(vii) To endeavour to obtain a uniform procedure in regard to the inter­
national meteorological services already specified, and, as far as is
practicable, to conform to the Technical Regulations and recommend­
ations made by the World Meteorological Organization, to which the
Contracting Governments may refer for study and advice any meteoro­
logical question which may arise in carrying out the present Convention.
(c) The information provided for in this Regulation shall be furnished in
form for transmission and transmitted in the order of priority prescribed by the
Radio Regulations, and during transmission 'to all stations' of meteorological
information, forecasts and warnings, all ship stations must conform to the
provisions of the Radio Regulations.
(d) Forecasts, warnings, synoptic and other meteorological reports intended
for ships shall be issued and disseminated by the national service in the best
position to serve various zones and areas, in accordance with mutual arrange­
ments made by the Contracting Governments concerned.

127
 TABLE 1
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 1
(Inch Scale)
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR BEFORE 31 DECEMBER

These corrections are to be subtracted from the barometer readings to reduce them to standard temperature conditions.

Attached Barometer Reading (Inches)

Thermo­
meter
(°F) 26-5 27-0 27-5 28-0 28-5 29-0 29-5 30-5 31-0
260 300
40 •024 •024 •025 •026 •026 •027 •027 •028 •028 •029 •029
41 •026 •027 •028 •028 •029 •029 •030 •030 •031 •031 •032
42 •029 •030 •030 •031 •031 •032 •033 •033 •034 •034 •035
43 •031 •032 •033 •033 •034 •035 •035 •036 •037 •037 •038
44 •034 •035 •035 •036 •037 •037 •038 •039 •039 •040 •041
45 •036 •037 •038 •039 •039 •040 •041 •042 •042 •043 •044
46 •039 •040 •040 •041 •042 •043 •044 •044 •045 •046 •047
47 •041 •042 •043 •044 •045 •046 •046 •047 •048 •049 •050
48 •044 •045 •046 •046 •047 •048 •049 •050 •051 •052 •053
49 •046 •047 •048 •049 •050 •051 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056
50 •049 •050 •051 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056 •057 •058 •058
51 •051 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056 •057 •058 •059 •060 •061
52 •054 •055 •056 •057 •058 •059 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064
53 •056 •057 •058 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064 •065 •066 •067
54 •059 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064 •066 •067 •068 •069 •070
55 •061 •062 •064 •065 •066 •067 •068 •070 •071 •072 •073
56 •064 •065 •066 •067 •069 •070 •071 •072 •074 •075 •076
57 •066 •067 •069 •070 •071 •073 •074 •075 •076 •078 •079
58 •069 •070 •071 •073 •074 •075 •077 078 •079 •081 •082
59 •071 •072 •074 •075 •077 •078 079 •081 082 •083 •085
60 •074 •075 •076 •078 •079 •081 •082 084 •085 •086 •088
61 •076 •078 •079 •080 •082 •083 •085 •086 •088 •089 •091
62 •079 •080 •082 •083 •085 •086 •088 •089 •091 •092 •094
63 •081 •083 •084 •087 •089 •089 •090 •092 •093 •095 •097
64 •083 •085 •087 •088 •090 •091 •093 •095 •096 •098 •099
65 •086 •088 •089 •091 •093 •094 •096 •097 •099 •101 •102
66 •088 •090 •092 •094 •095 •097 •099 •100 •102 •104 •105
67 •091 •093 •094 •096 •098 •100 •101 •103 •105 •107 •108
68 •093 •095 •097 099 •101 •102 •104 •106 •108 •109 •111
69 •096 •098 •100 •101 •103 •105 •107 •109 •110 •112 •114
70 •098 •100 •102 •104 •106 •108 •110 •111 •113 •115 •117
71 •101 •103 •105 •107 •108 •110 •112 •114 •116 •118 •120
72 •103 •105 •107 •109 •111 •113 •115 •117 •119 •121 •123
73 •106 •108 •110 •112 •114 •116 •118 •120 •122 •124 •126
74 •108 •110 •112 •114 116 •118 •121 •123 •125 •127 •129
75 •111 •113 •115 •117 •119 •121 •123 •125 •127 •130 •132
76 •113 •115 117 •120 •122 •124 •126 •128 •130 •132 •135
77 •116 •118 •120 •122 •124 •127 •129 131 •133 •135 •137
78 •118 •120 123 •125 •127 •129 •131 •134 •136 •138 •140
79 •121 •123 •125 •127 •130 •132 •134 •136 •139 •141 •143
80 •123 •125 •128 •130 •132 •135 •137 •139 •142 •144 •146
81 •125 •128 •130 •133 •135 •137 •140 •142 •144 •147 •149
82 •128 •130 •133 •135 •138 •140 •142 •145 •147 •150 •152
83 •130 •133 •135 •138 •140 •143 •145 •148 •150 •153 •155
84 •133 •135 •138 •140 •143 •145 •148 •150 •153 •155 •158
85 •135 •138 •140 •143 •146 •148 •151 •153 •156 •158 •161
86 •138 •140 •143 •146 •148 •151 •153 •156 •159 •161 •164
87 •140 •143 •146 •148 •151 •153 •156 •159 •161 •164 •167
88 •143 •145 •14S •151 •153 •156 •159 •162 •164 •167 •170
89 •145 •148 •151 •153 •156 •159 •162 •164 •167 •170 •172
90 •148 •150 •153 •156 •159 •162 •164 •167 •170 •173 •175
91 •150 •153 •156 •159 •161 •164 •167 •170 •173 •175 •178
92 •153 •155 •158 •161 •164 •167 •170 •173 •175 •178 •181
93 •155 •158 •161 •164 •167 •170 •172 •175 •178 •181 •184
94 •158 •160 •163 •166 •169 •172 •175 •178 •181 •184 •187
95 •160 •163 •166 •169 •172 •175 •178 •181 •184 •187 190
96 •162 •165 •169 •172 •175 •178 •181 •184 •187 •190 •193
97 •165 •168 •171 •174 •177 •180 •183 -186 •190 •193 •196
98 •167 •170 •174 •177 •180 •183 •186 •189 •192 •196 •199
99 •170 •173 •176 •179 •183 •186 •189 •192 •195 •198 •202
100 •172 •175 •179 •182 •185 •188 •192 •195 •198 •201 •204

128
 TABLE 2
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 2
(Inch Scale)
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificates dated ON OR AFTER 1 JANUAR Y,

wing corrections are to be subtracted from the barometer readings to reduce them to standard temperature
The follow
conditions.

Attached Barometer Reading (Inches)

Thermo­
meter 26-0 26-5 27-0 27-5 28-0 28-5 29-0 29-5 30-0 30-5 31-0
CF)
40 •020 •020 •021 •021 •021 •022 •022 •022 -023 •023 •024
41 •022 •023 •023 •024 •024 •024 •025 •025 •026 •026 •026
42 •025 •025 •026 •026 •027 •027 •028 •028 •029 •029 •029
43 •027 •028 •028 •029 •029 •030 •030 •031 •031 •032 •032
44 •030 •030 •031 •031 •032 •033 •033 •034 •034 •035 •035
45 •032 •033 •034 •034 •035 •035 •036 •036 •037 •038 •038
46 •035 •035 •036 •037 •037 •038 •039 •039 •040 •041 •041
47 •037 •038 •039 •039 •040 •041 •041 •042 •043 •043 •044
48 •040 •041 •041 •042 •043 •043 •044 •045 •046 •046 •047
49 •042 •043 •044 •045 •045 •046 •047 •048 •048 •049 •050
50 •045 •046 •046 •047 •048 •049 •050 •050 •051 •052 •053
51 •047 •048 •049 •050 •051 •051 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056
52 •050 •051 •051 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056 •057 •058 •059
53 •052 •053 •054 •055 •056 •057 •058 •059 •060 •061 •062
54 •055 •056 •057 •058 •059 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064 •065

55 •057 •058 •059 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064 •065 •066 •068
56 •060 •061 •062 •063 •064 •065 •066 •067 •068 •069 •071
57 •062 •063 •064 •065 •067 •068 •069 •070 •071 -072 •074
58 •064 •066 •067 •068 •069 •070 •072 •073 •074 •075 •077
59 •067 •068 •069 •071 •072 •073 •074 •076 •077 •078 •080

60 •069 •071 •072 •073 •075 •076 •077 •078 •080 •081 •083
61 •072 •073 •075 •076 •077 •078 •080 •081 •082 •084 •086
62 •074 •076 •077 •078 •080 •081 •083 •084 •085 •087 •089
63 •077 •078 •080 •081 •082 •084 •085 •087 •088 •089 •092
64 •079 •081 •082 •084 •085 •087 •088 •090 •091 •092 •094

65 •082 •083 •085 •086 •088 •089 •091 •092 •094 •095 •097
66 •084 •086 •087 •089 •090 -092 •094 •095 •097 -098 •100
67 •087 •088 •090 •091 •093 •095 •096 •098 •099 •101 •103
68 •089 •091 •092 •094 •096 •097 •099 •101 -102 •104 •106
69 •092 •093 •095 •097 •098 •100 •102 •103 •105 •107 •108

70 •094 •096 •098 •099 •101 •103 •104 •106 •108 -110 •111
71 •097 •098 •100 •102 •104 •105 •107 •109 •111 •112 •114
72 •099 •101 •103 •105 •106 •108 •110 •112 •114 •115 •117
73 •102 •103 •105 •107 •109 •111 •113 •115 •116 •118 •120
74 •104 •106 •108 •110 •112 •114 •115 •117 •119 •121 •123

75 •106 •108 •110 •112 •114 •116 •118 •120 •122 •124 •126
76 •109 •111 •113 •115 •117 •119 •121 •123 •125 •127 -129
77 •111 •113 •115 •118 •120 •122 •124 •126 •128 •130 -132
78 •114 •116 •118 •120 •122 •124 •126 •128 •131 •133 •135
•116 •118 •121 •123 •125 •127 •129 •131 •133 •135 •138
79
80 •119 -121 •123 •125 •127 •130 •132 •134 •136 •138 •141
81 •121 •123 •126 •128 •130 •132 •135 •137 •139 •141 •143
82 •124 •126 •128 •131 •133 •135 -137 •140 •142 •144 •146
83 •126 •129 •131 •133 •135 •138 •140 •142 •145 •147 •149
•129 •131 •133 •136 •138 •140 •143 •145 •147 •150 •152
84
85 •131 •134 •136 •138 •141 •143 •145 •148 •150 •153 •155
86 •134 •136 •138 •141 •143 •146 •148 •151 •153 •156 •158
87 •136 •139 •141 •144 •146 •148 •151 •153 •156 •158 •161
88 •139 •141 •144 •146 •149 •151 •154 •156 •159 •161 •164
•141 •144 •146 •149 •151 •154 •156 -159 •162 •164 •167
89
90 •143 •146 •149 •151 •154 •157 •159 •162 •164 •167 •170

129
 TABLE 3
CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 1
(INCH SCALE) TO STANDARD GRAVITY IN LATITUDE 45°
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR BEFORE 31 DECEMBER
1954.
These corrections are to be subtracted Jar latitudes 0°-44° and added for latitudes 46°-90°.

Lat. N Correction Lat. N Lat. N Correction Lat. N

orS or S orS or S
(subtract At At (add (subtract At At (add
correction) 29 in. 31 in. correction) correction) 29 in. 31 in. correction)
o
in. in. 0 0
in. in. 0

22 •055 •058 68 45 •000 •000 45

21 •056 •060 69 44 •002 •002 46
20 •058 •062 70 43 •005 •005 47
19 •060 •064 71 42 •008 •008 48
18 •062 •066 72 41 •010 •Oil 49
17 •063 •067 73 40 •013 •014 50
16 •065 •069 74 39 •015 •016 51
15 •066 •070 75 38 •018 •019 52
14 •067 •072 76 37 •021 •022 53
13 •068 •073 77 36 •023 •025 54
12 •070 •074 78 35 •026 •027 55
11 •071 •075 79 34 •028 •030 56
10 •072 •076 80 33 •031 •033 57
9 •072 •077 81 32 •033 •035 58
8 •073 •078 82 31 •036 •038 59
7 •074 •079 83 30 •038 •040 60
6 •075 •080 84 29 •040 •043 61
5 •075 •080 85 28 •042 •045 62
4 •075 •080 86 27 •045 •048 63
3 •075 •080 87 26 •047 •050 64
2 •075 •080 88 25 •049 •052 65
1 •075 •080 89 24 •051 •054 66
0 •076 •081 90 23 •053 •056 67

TABLE 4
CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 2
(INCH SCALE) TO STANDARD GRAVITY, i.e. 9.80665 m/s*

To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR AFTER I JANUAR Y 1955.

Lat. Correction Lat. Correction Lat. Correction Lat. Correction

N N N N
or At At or At At or At At or At At
S 29 in. 31 in. S 29 in. 31 in. S 29 in. 31 in. S 29 in. 31 in.
0
in. in. 0
in in. 0
in. in. 0
in. in.
0 -•078 -•083 25 -•051 -•054 46 + •001 + •001 67 + •052 + •055
26 •048 •052 47 •004 •004 68 •054 •057
5 -•077 -•082 27 •046 •050 48 •007 •007 69 •055 •059
6 •076 •081 28 •044 •047 49 •009 •010 70 •057 •061
7 •075 •081 29 •042 •045 50 •012 •013 71 •059 •063
8 •075 •080 30 •040 •042 51 •014 •015 72 •061 •065
9 •074 •079 31 •037 •040 52 •017 •018 73 •062 •066
10 •073 •078 32 •035 •037 53 •020 •021 74 •064 •068
11 •072 •077 33 •033 •035 54 •022 •024 75 •065 •069
12 •071 •076 34 •030 •032 55 •025 •026 76 •066 •071
13 •070 •075 35 •028 •029 56 •027 •029 77 •067 •072
14 •069 •074 36 •025 •027 57 •030 •032 78 •069 •073
15 •068 •072 37 •023 •024 58 •032 •034 79 •070 •074
16 •066 •071 38 •020 •021 59 •035 •037 80 •071 •075
17 •065 •069 39 •017 •019 60 •037 •039 81 •071 •076
18 •063 •068 40 •015 -016 61 •039 •042 82 •072 •077
19 •062 •066 41 •012 •013 62 •041 •044 83 •073 •078
20 ' •060 •064 42 •009 •010 63 •044 •047 84 •074 •079
21 •058 •062 43 •007 •007 64 •046 •049 85 + •074 + •079
22 •056 n£f\
UOU 44 •004 •004 65 •048 •051
23 •055 •058 45 -•001 -•002 66 + •050 + •053 90 + •075 + •080
24 —053 -•056

130
 TABLE 5
CORRECTION OF INCH BAROMETERS TO MEAN SEA LEVEL
These corrections are to be added to the barometer readings.

Temperature of Air (Dry Bulb in Screen), °F

Height Height
in feet •90° in feet
0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80°

5 •006 •006 •006 •006 •006 •006 •006 •005 •005 •005 5
10 012 •012 •012 •Oil •Oil •Oil •Oil •010 •010 •010 10
15 •019 •018 •018 •017 •017 •017 •017 •016 •016 •015 15
20 •025 •024 •023 •023 •023 •022 •022 •021 •021 •020 20
25 •031 •030 •029 •029 •029 •028 •027 •027 •026 •026 25
30 •037 •036 •035 •035 •034 •033 •032 •032 •031 •031 30
35 •043 •042 •041 •041 •040 •039 •038 •037 •037 •036 35
40 •049 •048 •047 •046 •045 •044 •043 •042 •042 •041 40
45 •056 •054 •053 •052 •051 •050 •049 •048 •047 •046 45
50 •062 •060 •059 •058 •056 •055 •054 •053 •052 •051 50
55 •068 •066 •065 •064 •062 •061 •060 •059 •057 •056 55
•074 •072 •071 •069 •068 •066 •065 •064 •062 •061 60
60
65 •080 •078 •077 •075 •074 •072 •071 069 •068 •066 65
70 •086 •084 •083 •081 •079 •077 •076 •074 •073 •071 70
75 •092 •090 •089 •087 •085 •083 •082 •080 •078 •076 75
•098 •096 •094 •092 •091 •089 •087 •085 •083 •081 80
80
85 •105 •102 •100 •098 •097 •095 •093 •090 •089 •087 85
90 •111 •108 •106 •104 •102 •101 •098 -095 •094 •092 90
95 •117 •114 •112 •110 •108 •106 •103 •101 •099 •097 95
•123 •120 •118 •115 •113 •111 •108 •106 •104 •101 100
100

TABLE 6
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 1
(Millibar Scale)
To be used with barometers havingNational Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR BEFORE
31 DECEMBER, 1954.
These corrections are to be subtracted from the barometer readings when the attached thermometer
is ABOVE 2&5° A, and added when it is BELOW 2B5° A, to reduce the barometer readings to 285° A.

Attached Barometer readings (mb) Attached

thermo­ thermo­
meter meter
(add (subtract
880 900 920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040 1060 correction)
correction)
0-1 0-1 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 0-2 286°A
284°A 0-3 0-3 0-3 0-3 0-3 0-3 0-3 0-4 0-4
283 0-3 287
0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 0-5 288
282 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-7 0-7 0-7 0-7 0-7 0-7
281 0-6 289
0-8 0-8 0-8 0-8 0-8 0-8 0-9 0-9 0-9 09 290
280
0-9 0-9 0-9 •0 1-0 1-0 0 1-1 1-1 1-1 29!
279 1-1 1-1 •1 1-1 1-2 •2 1-2 1-2 1-3
278 1-1 292
1-2 1-2 •3 •3 1-3 1-3 •4 1-4 1-4 1-5 292
277 1-4 •4 •5 1-5 1-5 •5 1-6 1-6 1-6
276 1-4 294
1-5 1-5 •6 •6 1-6 1-7 •7 1-7 1-8 1-8 295
275
1-7 1-7 •7 •8 1-8 1-9 1-9 1-9 1-9 2-0 296
274 1-9 •9 •9 2'0 2-0 2-1 2-1 2-1 2-2
273 1-8 297
2-0 2-0 2-1 2-1 21 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-3 298
272 2-2 2-2 2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5
271 2-1 23 299
2-3 2-3 2-4 2-4 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 300
270
2-4 2-5 2-5 2-6 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-8 2-9 301
269 2-6 2-7 2-7 2-8 2-9 2-9 3-0 3-0 3-1
268 2-6 302
2-7 2-8 2-8 2-9 30 3-0 3-1 3-1 3-2 3'3 303
267 2-9 3-0 3-1 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-4 3-4 304
266 2-9
3-0 3-1 3-2 3-2 3-3 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-5 3-6 305
265
3-2 3-3 3-3 3-4 35 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-7 3-8 306
264 3-4 3-5 3-5 3-7 3-8 3-8 3-9 4-0
263 3-3 36 307
3-5 3-6 3-6 3-7 38 3-9 3-9 4-0 4-1 4-2 308
262 3-7 3-8 3-9 3-9 4-0 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-3 309
261 3-6
3-8 3-9 3-9 4-0 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4.4 4-5 310
260
3-9 4-0 4-1 4-2 4-3 4.4 4-5 4-5 4-6 4-7 311
259 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 49 312
258 4-3 4-4 4'5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 5-0 5-1 313
257 4-2
4.4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 5-0 5-1 5-1 5-2 314
256 4-6 4-7 4-8 4.9 5-0 5-1 5-2 5-3 5-4 315
255 4-5

131
 TABLE 7
TEMPERATURE CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 2
(Millibar Scale)
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR AFTER
1 JANUARY, 1955.
These corrections are to be subtracted from the barometer readings to reduce them to 0° C.

Attached Barometer Readings (Millibars)

Thermometer
920 940 960 980 1000 1020 1040
°A °C
273 0 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00 0-00
274 1 0-16 0-16 0-16 0-17 0-17 0-17 0-18
275 2 0-32 0-32 0-33 0-34 0-34 035 0-36

276 3 0-48 0-48 0-49 0-50 0-51 052 0-53

277 4 0-63 0-64 0-65 067 0-68 070 071
278 5 0-79 0-80 0-82 0-84 0-85 0-87 0-89
279 6 0-95 0-97 0-99 1-01 •03 1-05 1-07
280 7 1-11 1-13 1 15 1 18 •20 1-22 1-25

281 8 1-26 •29 •32 1-35 •38 1-40 1-43

282 9 1-42 •45 •48 1-52 •55 1-57 1-60
283 10 1-58 •61 •64 1-68 •71 1-74 1-77
284 11 1-74 •77 •81 1-84 •88 1-91 1-95
285 12 1-89 •93 •97 2-01 2-05 2-09 2-13

286 13 2-05 2-09 2-13 2-18 2-22 226 2-30

287 14 2-21 2-25 2-30 2-34 2-39 2-44 2-48
288 15 2-36 2-41 2-46 2-51 2-56 2-61 2-66
289 16 2-52 2-57 2-63 2-68 2-73 2-78 2-83
290 17 2-68 2-73 2-79 2-84 2-90 2-96 3-01

291 18 2-84 2-89 2-95 3-01 3-07 3-13 3-19

292 19 2-99 3-05 3-12 3-18 3-24 3-30 3-36
293 20 3-15 3-22 3-28 3-35 3-41 348 3-54
294 21 3-31 3-38 3 '44 3-51 3-58 3-65 3-72
295 22 3-46 3-54 3-61 3-68 3-75 3-82 3-89

296 23 3-62 3-70 3-77 3-84 3-92 3-99 4-07

297 24 3-78 3-86 393 4-01 4-09 4-17 4-25
298 25 3-93 4-02 4 10 4-18 4-26 4-34 4-42
299 26 4-09 4-18 4-26 4-34 4-43 451 4-60
300 27 4-25 4-34 4-42 4-51 4-60 4-69 4-77

301 28 4-40 449 4-59 4-68 4-77 4-86 4-95

302 29 4-56 4-65 4-75 4-84 4-94 5-03 5-13
303 30 4-72 4-81 4-91 5-01 5-11 5-20 5-30
304 31 4-88 4-97 5-07 5-18 5-28 5-37 5-47
305 32 5-03 5-13 5-24 5-34 5-44 5-55 5-65

306 33 5-19 5-29 5-40 5-51 5-61 5-72 5-82

307 34 5-34 5-45 5-56 5-67 5-78 5-89 6-00
308 35 5-50 5-61 5-72 5-84 5-95 6-06 6-17
309 36 5-65 5-76 5-88 6-00 6-11 6-23 6-35
310 37 5-81 5-92 6-04 6-17 6-28 6-40 6-53

311 38 5-97 6-09 6-21 6-34 6-46 6-58 6-71

312 39 6-13 6-25 6-37 6-51 6-63 6-75 6-88
313 40 6-28 6-41 6-54 6-67 6-80 6-93 7-06

132
 TABLE 8
CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 1
(MILLIBAR SCALE) TO STANDARD GRAVITY IN LATITUDE 45°
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR BEFORE
31 DECEMBER, 1954.
These corrections are to be subtracted/or latitudes 0°-44° and added for latitudes 46°-90°.

Lat. N Correction Lat. N Lat. N Correction Lat. N

or S or S or S or S
(subtract At At (add (subtract At At (add
correction) 980mb 1040mb correction) correction) 980mb 1040mb correction)
° mb. mb. 0 ° mb. mb. "
24 1-73 1-83 66 45 0-00 0-00 45
23 1-79 1-91 67 44 0-09 0-09 46
22 1-86 1-97 68 43 0-18 0-19 47
21 1-92 2-04 69 42 0-27 0-29 48
20 1-98 2-10 70 41 0-36 0-38 49
19 2'03 2-16 71 40 0-45 0-47 50
18 2-09 2-22 72 39 0-54 0-57 51
17 2-14 2-28 73 38 0-63 0-67 52
16 2-19 2-32 74 37 0-71 0-75 53
15 2-23 2-38 75 36 0-80 0-85 54
14 2-29 2-42 76 35 0-89 0-94 55
13 2-32 2-46 77 34 0-97 1-03 56
12 2-36 2-50 78 33 1-05 1-11 57
11 2-39 2-54 79 32 1-13 1-20 58
10 2-42 2-57 80 31 1-21 1-29 59
9 2-46 2-61 81 30 1'29 1-37 60
8 2-48 2-63 82 29 1-37 1-45 61
7 2-50 2-66 83 28 1-44 1-53 62
6 2-53 2-68 84 27 1-52 1-61 63
5 2-54 2-70 85 26 1-59 1-69 64
25 1-66 1-76 65
0 2-59 2-75 90

TABLE 9
CORRECTION OF THE MET. O. KEW-PATTERN BAROMETER MK 2
(MILLIBAR SCALE) TO STANDARD GRAVITY, i.e. 9.80665 m/s«
To be used with barometers having National Physical Laboratory certificate dated ON OR AFTER
1 JANUARY. 1955.

Lat. Correction Lat. Correction Lat. Correction Lat. Correction

N N N N
or At At or At At or At At or At At
S 980mb 1040mb S 980mb 1040mb S 980mb 1040mb S 980mb 1040mb
°
mb. mb. ° mb. mb. o
mb. mb. » mb. mb.
0 -2-63 -2-79 25 -1-71 -1-81 46 +0-04 +0-04 67 + 1-75 + 1-86
26 1-64 •74 47 0-13 0-14 ftR
Do 1 -SI
101 1-92
5 -2-59 -2-75 27 •57 •66 48 0-22 0-23 69 1-87 1-99
6 2-57 2-73 28 •49 •58 49 0-31 0-33 70 1-93 2-05
7 2-55 2-71 29 •42 •50 50 0-40 0-42 71 1-99 2-11
8 2-53 2-68 30 •34 •42 51 0-49 0-52 72 2-05 2-17
9 2-50 2-66 31 •26 •34 52 0-58 0-61 73 2-10 2-23
10 2-47 2-62 32 •18 •25 53 0-66 0-70 74 2-15 2-28
11 2-44 2-59 33 •10 •17 54 0-75 0-80 75 2-19 2-33
12 2-41 2-55 34 •02 •08 55 084 0-89 76 2-24 2-37
13 2-37 2-51 35 0-93 0-99 56 0'92 0'98 77 2-28 2-42
14 2-33 2-47 36 0-85 0-90 57 •00 1-06 78 2-32 2-46
15 2-28 2-42 37 0-76 0-81 58 •09 1-15 79 2-35 2-50
16 2-24 2-37 38 0-67 0-72 59 •17 1-24 80 2-38 2-53
17 2-19 2-32 39 0-59 0-62 60 •24 1-32 81 2-41 2-56
18 2-14 2-27 40 0-50 0-53 61 •32 1-40 82 2-44 2-59
19 2-08 2-21 41 0-41 0-43 62 •40 1-48 83 2-46 2-62
20 2-03 2-15 42 0-32 0-34 63 •47 1-56 84 2-48 2-64
21 1-97 2-09 43 0-23 0-24 64 •54 1-64 85 +2-50 + 2-66
22 1-91 2-02 44 0-14 0-15 65 •61 1-71
23 1-84 1-95 45 -0-05 -0-05 66 + 1-68 + 1-79 90 +2-54 +2-70
24 -1-78 -1-88

133
 TABLE 10
CORRECTION OF MILLIBAR BAROMETERS TO MEAN SEA LEVEL
These corrections ore to be added to the barometer readings.

Temperature of Air (°C)

Height (Dry bulb in screen)
-15 -10 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

metres millibars
5 0-7 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-6 0-5
10 1-3 1-3 1-3 1--3 1-2 1-2 1-1 1-1 1-1 1-1
15 2-0 1-9 1-9 1-9 1 .Q 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-7 1-6
20 2-6 2-6 2-5 2-5 2-5 2-4 2-4 2-3 2-3 2-3 2-2 2-2
25 3-3 3-2 3-2 3-1 3-1 3-0 3-0 2-9 2-9 2-8 2-8 2-7
30 4-0 3-9 3-8 3-8 3-7 3-6 3-6 3-5 3-4 3-4 3-3 3-3
35 4-6 4-5 4-5 4.4 4-3 4-2 4-2 4-1 4-0 3-9 3-9 3-8
40 5-3 5-2 5-1 5-0 4-9 4-8 4-7 4-7 4-6 4-5 4-4 4-4
45 6-0 5-9 5-7 5-6 5-5 5-4 5-3 5-3 5-2 5-1 5-0 4-9
50 6-6 6-5 6-4 6-3 6-2 6-0 5-9 5-8 5-7 5-6 5-6 5-5

TABLE 11
APPROXIMATE BAROMETER CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND HEIGHT

Inches Millibars*
Temperature Subtract 0-003 inch for each degree Subtract the temperature of the
F the attached thermometer reads attached thermometer, in degrees A,
above freezing point. from 2?5°A (taking account of
sign), and divide by 6, to get the
correction in millibars.

Height ... The height in feet, increased by The height in feet, increased by
10 per cent, gives the correction in 10 per cent, and divided by 30,
thousandths of an inch. gives the correction in millibars.

Examples:
Inch barometer attached thermometer 56°F Temperature correction — -072 in
height 90 feet Height „ + -099 „
Millibar barometer (NPL certificate before 1 January, 1955):
attached thermometer 299°A Temperature „ — 2-3 mb
height 90 feet Height „ +3-3 „
•For barometers with NPL certificate dated on or after 1 January, 1955, the temperature of
the attached thermometer should be subtracted from 273°A or, if the thermometer is gradu­
ated in °C, from 0°C.

134
 THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE IN
THE ZONES OF LATITUDE 0°-10° AND 10°-20°, N OR S

TABLE 12 TABLE 13
CORRECTION TO BE APPLIED TO THE AVERAGE VALUES OF THE BAROMETRIC
OBSERVED PRESSURE FOR DIURNAL CHANGE IN AN HOUR, DUE TO THE
VARIATION DIURNAL VARIATION

0°-10° 10°-20° 0°-10° 10°-20°

Local NorS NorS Local NorS NorS
Time Time
mb inches mb inches mb inches mb inches
0 -0-6 -•018 -0-5 -•015 0-1 -0-5 -•015 -0-4 -•012
1 -0-1 -•003 -0-1 -•003 1-2 -0-4 -•012 -0-4 -•012
2 +0'3 + •009 +0-3 + •009 2-3 -0-4 - 012 -0-4 -•012
3 +0-7 + •021 +0-7 + •021 3-4 -0-1 -•003 -0-1 -•003
4 +0-8 + •024 +0-8 + •024 4-5 +0'2 + •006 +0-2 + •006
5 +0-6 + •018 +0-6 + •018 5-6 +0-4 + •012 +0-4 + •012
6 +0-2 + •006 +0-2 + •006 6-7 +0-6 + •018 +0-5 + •015
7 -0-4 -•012 -0-3 -•009 7-8 +0-5 + •015 +0-5 + •015
8 -0-9 -•027 -0-8 -•024 8-9 +0-4 + •012 +0-3 + •009
9 -1-3 -•038 -1-1 -•032 9-10 +0-1 + •003 +0-1 + •003
10 -1-4 -•041 -1-2 -•035 10-11 -0-3 -•009 -0-2 -•006
11 -1-1 -•032 -1-0 -•030 11-12 -0-5 -•015 -0-5 -•015
12 -0-6 -•018 -0-5 -015 12-13 -0-7 -•021 -0-6 -•018
13 +0-1 + •003 +0-1 + •003 13-14 -0-6 -•018 -0-6 -•018
14 +0-7 + •021 +0-7 + •021 14-15 -0-6 -•018 -0-4 -•012
15 + 1-3 + •038 + 1-1 + •032 15-16 -0-2 -•006 -0-2 -•006
16 + 1-5 + •044 + 1-3 + •038 16-17 +0-1 + •003 +0-1 + •003
17 + 1-4 + •041 + 1-2 + •035 17-18 +0-4 + •012 +0-3 + •009
18 + 1-0 + •030 +0-9 + •027 18-19 +0-5 + •015 +0-6 + •018
19 +0-5 + •015 +0-3 + •009 19-20 +0-6 + •018 ^0-5 + •015
20 -0-1 -•003 -0-2 -•006 20-21 +0-5 + •015 +0-4 + •012
21 -0-6 -•018 -0-6 -•018 21-22 +0-3 + •009 +0-2 + •006
22 -0-9 -•027 -0-8 -•024 22-23 0 •000 0 •000
23 -0-9 -•027 -0-8 -•024 23-24 -0-3 -•009 -0-3 -•009
24 -0-6 -•018 -0-5 -•015

These tables are based on observations made in British ships, at the hours 0000, 0400,
0800, 1200, 1600, 2000 local time, between 1919-38.
In the tropics, should the barometer, after correction for diurnal variation (Table 12), be
as much as 3 millibars (approximately 0-1 inch) below the monthly normal for the locality, as
shown on meteorological charts, the mariner should be on the alert, as there is a distinct
possibility that a tropical storm has formed, or is forming. A comparison of subsequent
hourly changes in his barometer with the corresponding figures in Table 13 will show whether
these changes indicate a real further fall in pressure and, if so, its amount.
Caution: When entering a barometric pressure in the log, or when including it in a wireless
weather report, the correction for diurnal variation must not be applied.

135
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ON p-on-r-o <-- -^- oo «-« ^* OO-H-* oo « v% oo »—i *n oo
*—i (N <N (N rn m «n >n so so oo oo ON ON ON
ON Ox ON ON ox ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON ON Ox Ox ON Ox ON ON ON ON ON Ox ON,

OTj- 1-^10 ty\ r^i r*^ ^ ^ oo ^H in ON m

oo r— o mr-o \o r-^ r- r*- oo •*}• OO ^^ ^f OO
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rl
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oo f^ >n ON (N »n so
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r-j so Ox
9 ** SSS ONOsSoNON
TJ- in m in so
ON O^ ON ON ON
so
ON ON Ox
r-
ON
r-
ON
oo oo oo ON o\
Ox ON ox Ox Ox

s
z
S -<t oo "»i ^- oo •n oo r4 «n Ox
S
>
p;£»3£
Ox ON ON ON ON
^- >n in «n so
ON ON ON Ox ON
vo so r- r- r^
Ox ON Ox ON ON
OOOOOOONOx
ON Ox ON ON ON

I oo ^H in oo -H
0
O\ ON ON CT\ CT\ ssssl •^- in m »n so
ON ON ox Ox ON
so so r- r- r*-
ON ON Ox ON Ox
(N *n oo *N >n
oo oo oo ON ON
ON ON ON ON ON

p O-ICS^TJ- 0 _(Nrr)TJ. •n SOP- oo ON 0-«r,*

3
<ONOt~OOON

SSS5S Kf5P5PiPj sssss rsc3c3f3r3

ON ON ON ON ON
fsrNi«s«S(N

136
 TABLE 14—(contd)

0 1 2 3 4 * 6 7 8 9
Inches
Millibars
29-5 999-0 999-3 999-7 1000-0 1000-3 1000-7 1001-0 1001-4 1001-7 1002-0
29-6 1002-4 1002-7 1003-0 1003-4 1003-7 1004-1 1004-4 1004-7 1005-1 1005-4
29-7 1005-8 1006-1 1006-4 1006-8 1007-1 1007-5 1007-8 1008-1 1008-5 1008-8
29-8 1009-1 1009-5 1009-8 1010-2 1010-5 1010-8 1011-2 1011-5 1011-9 1012-2
29-9 1012-5 1012-9 1013-2 1013-5 1013-9 1014-2 1014-6 1014-9 1015-2 1015-6
30-0 1015-9 1016-3 1016-6 1016-9 1017-3 1017-6 1017-9 1018-3 10186 1019-0
30-1 1019-3 1019-6 1020-0 1020-3 1020-7 1021 -0 1021-3 1021-7 1022-0 1022-4
30-2 1022-7 1023-0 1023-4 1023-7 1024-0 1024-4 1024-7 1025-1 1025-4 1025-7
30-3 1026-1 1026-4 1026-8 1027-1 1027-4 1027-8 1028-1 1028-4 1028-8 1029-1
30-4 1029-5 1029-8 1030-1 1030-5 1030-8 1031-2 1031-5 1031-8 1032-2 1032-5
30-5 1032-8 1033-2 1033-5 1033-9 1034-2 1034-5 1034-9 1035-2 1035-6 1035-9
30-6 1036-2 1036-6 1036-9 1037-3 1037-6 1037-9 1038-3 1038-6 1038-9 1039-3
30-7 1039-6 1040-0 1040-3 1040-6 1041 -0 1041-3 1041-7 1042-0 1042-3 1042-7
30-8 1043-0 1043-3 1043-7 1044-0 1044-4 1044-7 1045-0 1045-4 1045-7 1046-1
30-9 1046-4 1046-7 1047-1 1047-4 1047-7 1048-1 1048-4 1048-8 1049-1 1049-4

To reduce millimetres of pressure to millibars, increase the number c>t millimetres

by one third. Thousandths of an Inch
Example 764-8 millimetres Inch Millibar Inch Millibar
add 254-9 •0
•001 •006 •2
1019-7 millibars •002 •1 •007 •2
•003 •1 •008 •3
•004 •1 •009 •3
•005 •2
 a! o sasRSssssss assssaaa«s »«r-««*«N-0

cor-^^mN-^oo^* -rm-ooor-m^-o
9
1 ' ' 777 i i
oo 1 ' ' 777 i i
oo 1 M ' i i i i i
i i M 1777
»"- e 7?7T77

11117
O
i i i i

W>
^=a i i i
°9
Fi°2_ ______ i i
sssssasssss i
9 MrlriM — — "" -"-"^H

Ofi**if*irnf*io4f*J<SfSfS
Depresbion
Bul
Wet
of

w O
i-J O
52H «N
-"•""">••"•>""•"'"'"•• """"""

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(Sesr4«M(SfS«Sf^« —

o
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00
6

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6
22-22222=2

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a V Sft^xsxaapis a^ssssa^ ^COt-MJ^^^N-O

138
o
TABLE 15—(contd)
Dry Depression of Wet Bulb Dry
Bulb Bulb

°C °0 0-2° 0-4° 0-6° 0-8° 1 -0° 1 -2° 1 -4° 1-6° 1-8 ° 2-0° 2-5° 3-0° 3-5° 4-0° 4-5° 5-0° 5-5° 6-0° 6-5° 7-0° °C
9 9 9 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 3 2 0 -1 -3 -5 -8 -10 -14 -18 9
8 8 8 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 2 0 -1 -3 -5 -7 -10 -13 -17 8
7 7 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 -3 -4 -7 -9 -12 -16 7
6 6 6 5 5 4 4 3 3 2 1 1 -0 -2 -4 -6 -9 -11 -15 6
2 1 0 0 -2 -4 -6 8 10 14 T
4 4 4 3 2 2 1 1 0 0 -1 -1 -3 -5 -7 -10| -11 -14 -18 4
_ T -2 -8 -17 3
3 3 3 2 1 1 0 0 -1 -3 -5 -11 -14
2 2 2 1 0 0 1 1 2 3 -3 4 1 ,5- -10 13 16 2
1 1 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -4 -5 -7 -9 - -12 -15 -19 1
-1 -5 -6 — 7 -14 — 1o 0
0 0 -1 -2 -2 -3 -4 -4
-2 -3 -4 -4 -5 -6 -6 -7 8 1n -13 - -17
-3 -8 __ 0 -10 -12 -15 --19
-2 -2 -4 -4 -5 -6 -6 -7
-3 -3 -4 -5 -5 -6 -7 -8 -9 -9 -10 -11 -14 -18
-4 -5 -5 -6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -16
-5 -6 -6 -7 -8 -9 -10 -10 -11 -13 -14 -15 -18
-6 -7 -7 -8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -17
-7 -8 -9 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -15 -16 -17 -19
-8 -9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -16 -18 -19
-9 -10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -17 -18 -19

-10 -11 -12 -13 -14 -15 -17 -18

— 11 -12 -13 -14 -16 -17 -18
-12 -13 -14 -16 -17 -18
-13 -15 -16 -17 -18
—14 -16 -17 -18
—15 -17 -18 -19
—16 -18 -19
—17 -19

In the tables, lines are ruled to draw attention to the fact that above the line evaporation is going on from a water surface, while below the line it is going on from an
ice surface. Owing to this interpolation must not be made between figures on different sides of the lines.
For dry bulb temperatures below 0°C (32"F) it will be noticed that, when the depression of the wet bulb is zero, i.e. when the temperature of the wet bulb is equal to
that of the dry bulb, the dew-point is still below the dry bulb, and the relative humidity is less than 100 per cent. These apparent anomalies are a consequence of the method
of computing dew-points and relative humidities now adopted by the Meteorological Office, in which the standard saturation pressure for temperatures below 0DC (32°F)
is taken as that over water, and not as that over ice.
 TABLE 16
DEW-POINT CO
(FOR USE WITH ASPIRATED PSYCHROMETER)

Dry Bulb Depression of Wet Bulb Dry Bulb

°C 20° 2-5° 3-0" 3-5° 4-0° 4-5° 50° 5-5° 6-0° 6-5° 7-0° 7-5° 8-0° 8-5° 9-0" °C
0° 0-5° 1-0° 15°
40 39 39 38 38 37 36 36 35 35 34 33 33 32 31 31 30 29 29 40
40 32 31 30 29 29 28 27 39
39 39 38 38 37 37 36 35 35 34 33 33 32
38 37 37 36 36 35 34 34 33 32 32 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 38
38 29 28 27 27 26 25 37
37 37 36 36 35 35 34 33 33 32 31 31 30 29
36 35 35 34 34 33 32 32 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 25 25 24 36
36 25 24 24 23 35
35 35 34 34 33 33 32 31 31 30 29 29 28 27 26 26
34 33 33 32 31 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 25 25 24 23 22 22 34
34 23 22 21 20 33
33 33 32 32 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 26 25 24 23
32 31 31 30 29 29 28 27 27 26 25 25 24 23 22 22 21 20 19 32
32 20 20 19 18 31
31 31 30 30 29 28 28 27 26 26 25 24 24 23 22 21
30 29 29 28 27 27 26 25 25 24 21 22 22 21 20 19 18 17 17 30
30
28 28 27 26 26 25 24 24 23 22 21 20 20 19 18 17 16 15 29
29 29 17 16 15 14 28
28 28 27 27 26 25 25 24 23 22 22 21 20 19 19 18
26 26 25 24 24 23 22 21 21 20 19 18 17 16 16 15 14 13 27
27 27 13 12 11 26
26 26 25 25 24 23 23 22 21 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 14
24 24 23 22 21 21 20 19 18 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 25
25 25 12 11 10 8 24
24 24 23 23 22 21 20 20 19 18 17 16 16 15 14 13
23 22 22 21 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 23
23 9 8 7 5 22
22 22 21 21 20 19 18 17 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10
20 20 19 18 17 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 6 5 4 21
21 21 6 5 4 2 20
20 20 19 19 18 17 16 15 14 14 13 12 11 10 9 7
18 17 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 3 2 0 19
19 19 3 2 0 -1 18
18 18 17 16 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 4 3 2 0 -2 -3 17
17 17 16 15 15 -2 -4 -6 16
16 16 15 14 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 2 0
12 12 11 10 9 8 7 5 4 3 1 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 15
15 15 14 13 -2 -4 -6 -8 -11 14
14 14 13 12 11 10 10 9 7 6 5 4 3 1 0
8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -11 -14 13
13 13 12 11 10 9 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -13 -17 12
12 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 -22
7 6 5 4 3 1 0 -2 -3 -5 -8 -10 -13 -17 11
11 11 10 9 8 - 2 -3 -5 -7 -10 -13 -16 -21 -29 10
10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0
 TABLE 16—(contd)
Dry Bulb Depression of Wet Bulb Dry Bulb
°C 0" 0-5° 1 -0° 1-5° 2-0° 2-5° 3-0° 3-5° 4-0° 4-5' 5-0° 5-5° 7-0° 7-5° 8-0" 8-5° 9-0° °C
6-0" 65°
9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 -2 -3 -5 -7 -9 -12 -16 -20 -27 -45 9
8 8 1 0 -2 -3 -5 -7 -9 -12 -15 -19 -25 | -25 -36 8
7 7 6 5 4 3 1 0 -1 -3 -5 -7 -9 -11 -14 -18 | -19 -24 -34 7
6 6 5 4 3 1 0 -1 -3 -4 -6 -8 -11 -141 -14 -18 -23 -32 6
5 5 4 3 2 0 -1 -3 -4 -6 -8 -10 f -11 -14 -18 -22 -30 J
4 4 3 2 0 -1 -2 -4 -6 -"1 -9 -11 -14 -17 -22 -28 -45 4
3 3 2 1 -1 -2 -4 -5| -6 -8 -11 -13 -16 -21 -27 -39 3
2 2 1 0 -2 -3| -4 -6 -8 -10 -13 -16 -20 -25 -34 2
1 0 -2f -3 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -15 -19 -24 -31 1
0 -1 -3 -4 -6 -8 -9 -12 -14 -18 -22 -29 -44 0
—IT
-1 —i -2 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11 -14 -17 -37
-2 -4 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -16 -19 -24 -32
-3 -3 -5 -6 -8 -10 -12 -15 -18 -23 -29 -44
-4 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -17 -21 -26 -36
-5 -5 -7 -9 -11 -13 -16 -19 -24 -31
-6 -6 -8 -10 -13 -15 -18 -22 -28 -39
-7 -7 -10 -12 -14 -17 -20 -25 -32
-8 -8 -11 -13 -16 -19 -23 -28 -40
-9 -9 -12 -14 -17 -21 -25 -33
-10 -10 -13 -16 -19 -23 -28 -39
-11 -11 -15 -17 -21 -25 -32
-12 -12 -16 -19 -23 -28 -38
-13 -13 -17 -20 -25 -31 -47
-14 -14 -18 -22 -27 -35
-15 -15 -20 -24 -29 -40
-16 -16 -21 -25 -32
-17 -17 -22 -27 -35

See footnotes to Table 15 (page 139)

 TABLE 17
DEW-POINT (°F)
(FOR USE WITH MARINE SCREEN)

Dry Depression of Wet Bulb Dry

Bulb Bulb
°F 0 6' 7 16 °F
0-5 1 1-5 2 2'5 3 3-5 4 4-5 5 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
100 100 99 99 99 98 97 96 95 95 95 94 92 91 90 88 87 86 84 83 81 80 78 100
99 99 99 98 97 97 96 95 95 94 93 93 91 90 89 87 86 84 83 81 80 78 77 99
98 98 97 97 96 95 95 94 94 93 92 92 90 89 88 86 85 83 82 80 79 77 76 98
97 97 96 96 95 94 94 93 93 92 91 91 89 88 87 85 84 82 81 79 78 76 74 97
96 96 95 95 94 94 93 92 92 91 90 90 88 87 85 84 83 81 80 78 76 75 73 96
95 95 94 94 93 92 92 91 90 90 89 89 87 86 84 83 81 80 78 77 75 74 72 95
94 94 93 93 92 91 91 90 89 89 88 87 86 85 83 82 80 79 77 76 74 72 71 94
93 93 92 92 91 90 90 89 88 88 87 86 85 84 82 81 79 78 76 75 73 71 69 93
92 92 91 91 90 89 89 88 87 87 86 85 84 83 81 80 78 77 75 73 72 70 68 92
91 91 90 90 89 88 88 87 86 86 85 84 83 81 80 79 77 75 74 72 70 69 67 91
90 90 89 89 88 87 87 86 85 85 84 83 82 80 79 77 76 74 73 71 69 68 66 90
89 89 88 88 87 86 85 85 84 84 83 82 81 79 78 76 75 73 71 70 68 66 64 89
88 88 87 87 86 85 85 84 83 83 82 81 80 78 77 75 74 72 70 69 67 65 63 88
87 87 86 86 85 84 84 83 82 81 81 80 79 77 76 74 72 71 69 67 66 64 62 87
86 86 85 85 84 83 83 82 81 80 80 79 78 76 75 73 71 70 68 66 64 62 60 86
85 85 84 84 83 82 82 81 80 79 79 78 77 75 73 72 70 69 67 65 63 61 59 85
84 84 83 83 82 81 81 80 79 78 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 67 66 64 62 60 58 84
83 83 82 82 81 80 79 79 78 77 77 76 74 73 71 70 68 66 64 62 60 58 56 83
82 82 81 81 80 79 79 78 77 76 76 75 73 72 70 68 67 65 63 61 59 57 55 82
81 81 80 80 79 78 77 77 76 75 75 74 72 71 69 67 66 64 62 60 57 55 53 81
80 80 79 79 78 77 76 76 75 74 74 73 71 69 68 66 64 62 60 59 56 54 52 80
79 79 78 78 77 76 75 75 74 73 72 72 70 68 67 65 63 61 59 57 55 53 50 79
78 78 77 77 76 75 74 74 73 72 71 71 69 67 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 49 78
77 77 76 76 75 74 73 73 72 71 70 69 68 66 64 63 61 59 57 55 52 50 48 77
76 76 75 75 74 73 72 72 71 70 69 68 67 65 63 61 60 57 55 53 51 48 46 76
75 75 74 74 73 72 71 71 70 69 68 67 66 64 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 47 44 75
74 74 73 73 72 71 70 69 69 68 67 66 64 63 61 59 57 55 53 50 48 45 43 74
73 73 72 72 71 70 69 68 68 67 66 65 63 62 60 58 56 54 52 49 47 44 41 73
72 72 71 70 70 69 68 67 66 66 65 64 62 61 59 57 55 52 50 48 45 42 39 72
71 71 70 69 69 68 67 66 65 65 64 63 61 59 57 55 53 51 49 46 43 41 38 71
70 70 69 68 68 67 66 65 64 63 63 62 60 58 56 54 52 50 47 45 42 39 36 70

69 69 68 67 67 66 65 64 63 63 62 61 59 57 55 53 51 48 46 43 40 38 34 69
68 68 67 66 66 65 64 63 62 61 61 60 58 56 54 52 49 47 44 42 39 36 32 68
67 67 66 65 65 64 63 62 61 60 59 59 57 55 53 50 48 46 43 40 37 34 30 67
66 66 65 64 64 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 55 S3 51 49 47 44 41 3S 35 32 28 66
65 65 64 63 63 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 54 52 50 48 45 43 40 37 34 30 26 65
64 64 63 62 62 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 53 51 49 47 44 41 38 35 32 28 23 64
63 63 62 61 61 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 52 50 48 45 43 40 37 34 30 26 21 63
62 62 61 60 59 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 51 49 46 44 41 38 35 31 28 23 18 62
61 61 60 59 58 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 50 47 45 42 40 37 34 30 26 21 16 61
60 60 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 48 46 44 41 38 35 32 28 23 19 13 60
59 59 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 47 45 42 40 37 34 30 26 22 16 9 59
58 58 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 46 43 41 38 35 32 28 24 19 13 5 58
57 57 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 45 42 40 37 34 30 26 22 16 10 1 57
56 56 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 43 41 38 35 32 29 25 20 14 7 56
55 55 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 42 40 37 34 30 26 22 17 11 3 55
54 54 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 41 38 35 32 29 25 20 14 8 54
53 53 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 42 40 37 34 31 27 23 18 12 4 53
52 52 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 38 35 32 29 25 20 16 9 0 52
51 51 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 40 37 34 31 27 23 19 13 6 51
50 50 49 48 47 46 45 43 42 41 40 39 36 33 29 25 21 16 10 2 50
49 49 48 47 46 45 44 42 41 40 39 38 35 32 28 24 19 14 7 49
48 48 47 46 45 44 43 41 40 39 38 36 33 30 26 22 17 12 4 48
47 47 46 45 44 43 42 40 39 38 36 35 32 28 24 20 15 9 0 47
46 46 45 44 43 42 40 39 38 36 35 34 30 27 23 19 13 6 46
45 45 44 43 42 40 39 38 36 35 34 32 29 25 21 16 10 3 45
44 44 43 42 41 39 38 37 35 34 32 31 28 23 19 15 8 44
43 43 42 41 39 38 37 36 34 33 31 29 26 22 17 12 4 43
42 42 41 40 38 37 36 34 33 32 30 28 25 20 16 9 3 42
41 41 40 39 37 36 35 33 32 30 29 27 23 18 13 7 4 41
40 40 39 38 36 35 34 32 31 29 27 26 22 17 11 * 1 40

142
 TABLE 17—(contd)
Dry Depression of Wet Bulb Dry
Bulb Bulb
°F 0 0-5 1 1-5 2 2-5 3 3-5 4 4-5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 °F
39 39 38 36 35 34 32 31 29 28 26 24 20 15 12 6 39
38 38 37 35 34 33 31 30 28 26 24 22 18 15 10 3 38
37 37 36 34 33 32 30 29 27 25 23 21 18 13 7 37
36 36 35 33 32 30 29 27 25 23 23 21 16 11 5 36
35 35 34 32 3t 29 28 26 25 23 21 19 14 9 3 35
34 34 33 31 30 28 27 25 23 22 20 17 13 7 34
33 33 32 30 29 27 26 24 22 20 18 16 11 4 33
32 32 31 29 28 26 24 22 21 19 16 14 8 1 32
31 31 29 28 27 25 23 21 19 17 14 12 6 31
30 30 29 27 25 23 22 20 17 15 13 10 4 30
29 29 27 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 11 8 1
28 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 9 6
27 27 25 23 21 19 17 15 13 10 7 4
26 25 23 22 20 18 16 14 11 8 5 2
25 24 22 21 19 17 14 12 10 7 3
24 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 8 5 1
23 22 20 18 16 14 12 9 6 3
22 21 19 17 15 13 10 7 4 1
21 20 18 16 13 11 9 6, 2
20 19 16 14 12 10 7 4 0
19 17 15 13 11 8 5 2
18 16 14 12 10 7 4 0
17 15 13 11 8 5 2
16 14 12 10 7 4
15 13 11 8 5 2
14 12 10 7 4 1
13 11 8 6 3
12 10 7 4 1
11 9 6 3
10 7 5 2
9 6 3 0
8 5 2
7 4 1
6 3 0
5 2
4 1

See footnotes to Table 15 (page 139).

143
 TABLE 18
DEW-POINT (°F)
(FOR USE WITH ASPIRATED PSYCHROMETER)

Dry Bulb Depression of Wet Bulb

°F 0° 1° 2° 3° 4" 5° 6" 7° 8" 9° 10° 11° 12° 13° 14° 15° 16°
100 100 99 98 96 95 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 85 83 82 81 79
98 98 97 96 94 93 92 91 89 88 87 85 84 83 81 80 78 77
96 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 86 85 83 82 80 79 77 76 74
94 94 93 92 90 89 88 86 85 84 82 81 80 78 77 75 74 72
92 92 91 89 88 87 86 84 83 82 80 79 77 76 74 73 71 70
90 90 89 87 86 85 84 82 81 79 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 67
88 88 87 85 84 83 81 80 79 77 76 74 73 71 70 68 67 65
86 86 85 83 82 81 79 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 67 66 64 62
84 84 83 81 80 79 77 76 74 73 71 70 68 67 65 63 61 60
82 82 81 79 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 68 66 64 63 61 59 57
80 80 79 77 76 75 73 72 70 69 67 65 64 62 60 58 56 54
78 78 77 75 74 72 71 69 68 66 65 63 61 60 58 56 54 52
76 76 75 73 72 70 69 67 66 64 62 61 59 57 55 53 51 49
74 74 73 71 70 68 67 65 64 62 60 58 57 55 53 50 48 46
72 72 71 69 68 66 65 63 61 60 58 56 54 52 50 48 45 43
70 70 69 67 66 64 62 61 59 57 55 54 51 49 47 45 42 40
68 68 67 65 63 62 60 59 57 55 53 51 49 47 44 42 39 36
66 66 64 63 61 60 58 56 54 53 51 49 46 44 42 39 36 33
64 64 62 61 59 58 56 54 52 50 48 46 44 41 39 36 33 29
62 62 60 59 57 55 54 52 50 48 46 43 41 38 35 32 29 25
60 60 58 57 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 41 38 35 32 29 25 21
58 58 56 55 53 51 49 47 45 43 40 38 35 32 29 25 21 16
56 56 54 53 51 49 47 45 42 40 38 35 32 29 25 21 16 11
54 54 52 50 49 47 45 42 40 37 35 32 29 25 21 17 11 4
52 52 50 48 46 44 42 40 37 35 32 29 25 21 17 11 5
 TABLE 18—(contd)

Dry Bulb Depression of Wet Bulb

«F 0° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7° 8° 9° 10° 11° 12° 13° 14° 15° 16°
r
46 44 42 40 37 35 32 29 26 22 17 12 6
50 50 48 22 18 13 7
48 48 46 44 42 40 37 35 32 29 26
40 37 35 32 29 26 22 18 14 8 1 |
46 46 44 42
40 37 35 32 30 26 23 19 14 9 2 | 0
44 44 42
42 40 38 35 33 30 27 23 19 15 10 8 2
42
40 40 38 35 33 30 27 24 20 16 | 14 9 2
38 38 36 33 31 28 25 21 | 19 15 9 4
36 36 34 31 28 25 | 23 19 15 10 5
34 34 32 29 | 26 23 20 16 11 6
32 32j 29 27 23 20 17 12 7 1

Depression of Wet Bulb

0° 0-5° 1-0° 1-5° 2-0° 2-5° 3-0° 3.50 4.0° 4-5° 5-0° 5-5° 6-0° 6-5° 7-0° 7-5°

37 26 24 23 21 19 17 15 13 11 8 5 3 0
30 30 29 10 7 4 1
28 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 14 12
26 25 24 22 21 19 17 15 13 11 9 6 4 0
24 23 21 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 5 2
22 21 19 17 16 14 11 9 7 4 1
20 19 17 15 13 11 9 6 4 1
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 3 0
16 14 12 10 8 5 3 0
14 12 10 7 5 2 0
12 10 7 5 2 0

See footnotes to Table 15 (page 139)

 TABLE 19
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (per cenl)
(FOR USE IN A MARINE SCREEN)

Depression of Wet Bulb (degrees Celsius) Dry

Dry Bulb
Bulb
18° 2-0° 2-5° 3-0° 3-5° 4-0° 4-5° 50° 5-5" 6-0° 6-5° 7-0° 7-5° 8-0° 8-5° 9-0° °C
°C 0-2° 0-4° 0-6° 0-8° 1-0° 1-2° 1-4° 1-6°
91 90 89 88 85 82 79 76 73 71 68 66 63 61 58 56 53 51 40
40 99 97 96 95 94 92 63 60 58 55 53 50 39
39 99 97 96 95 94 92 91 90 89 87 84 82 79 76 73 70 68 65
94 92 91 90 89 87 84 81 78 75 73 70 67 65 62 59 57 54 52 50 38
38 99 97 96 95 64 61 59 56 54 51 49 37
37 99 97 96 95 93 92 91 90 88 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 67
92 91 90 88 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 66 63 61 58 55 53 50 48 36
36 99 97 96 95 93 60 57 55 52 49 47 35
33 99 97 96 95 93 92 91 89 88 87 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 63
88 86 83 80 77 74 71 68 65 62 59 56 54 51 49 46 34
34 99 97 96 95 93 92 91 89 53 50 48 45 33
99 97 96 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 83 80 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 56
33 79 76 73 70 67 64 61 58 55 52 49 47 44 32
32 99 97 96 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 83 43 31
94 93 91 90 88 87 86 82 79 75 72 69 66 63 60 57 54 51 48 46
31 99 97 96 65 59 56 53 50 47 44 42 30
30 98 97 95 94 93 91 90 88 87 85 82 78 75 72 68 62
85 81 78 74 71 68 65 61 58 55 52 49 46 43 40 29
29 98 97 95 94 92 91 89 88 86 48 45 42 39 28
97 95 94 92 91 89 88 86 85 81 77 74 70 67 64 60 57 54 51
28 98 70 66 63 60 56 53 50 47 44 41 38 27
27 98 97 95 94 92 90 89 87 86 84 81 77 73 36 26
90 89 87 86 84 80 76 73 69 66 62 59 55 52 49 46 42 39
26 98 97 95 93 92 51 47 44 41 38 35 25
25 98 97 95 93 92 90 88 87 85 84 80 76 72 68 65 61 58 54
79 75 71 68 64 60 57 53 50 46 43 39 36 33 24
24 98 97 95 93 91 90 88 86 85 83 41 38 35 31 23
95 93 91 90 88 86 84 83 79 75 71 67 63 59 56 52 48 45
23 98 96 74 70 62 58 54 51 47 43 40 36 33 29 22
22 98 96 95 93 91 89 88 86 84 82 78 66 31 27 21
89 87 85 84 82 78 73 69 65 61 57 53 49 45 42 38 34
21 98 96 94 93 91 44 40 36 33 29 25 20
20 98 96 94 92 91 89 87 85 83 81 77 73 68 64 60 56 52 48
76 72 67 63 59 55 50 46 42 38 34 31 27 23 19
19 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 85 83 81 32 28 25 21 18
96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 76 71 66 62 58 53 49 45 41 36
18 98 75 70 65 61 56 52 47 43 39 34 30 26 22 18 17
17 98 96 94 92 90 88 86 84 82 80 24 20 16 16
94 91 89 87 85 83 81 79 74 69 64 60 55 50 46 41 37 32 28
16 98 96 53 49 44 39 35 30 26 21 17 13 15
15 98 96 93 91 89 87 85 83 81 78 73 68 63 58
84 82 80 78 72 67 62 57 52 47 42 37 32 28 23 18 14 10 14
14 98 95 93 91 89 86 20 16 11 6 13
95 93 91 88 86 84 81 79 77 71 66 61 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
13 98 76 70 65 59 54 48 43 38 32 27 22 17 12 8 3 12
12 98 95 93 90 88 86 83 81 78 9 4 11
90 87 85 83 80 78 75 69 63 58 52 46 41 35 30 25 19 14
11 97 95 92 56 50 44 38 33 27 22 16 11 5 10
10 97 95 92 90 87 84 82 79 77 74 68 62
o
*
TABLE 19—(contd)
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (per cent)

Dry Bulb Depression of Wet Bulb (degrees Celsius) Dry Bulb

°C 0-2° 0-4° 0-6° 0-8° 1 -0° 1-2° 1-4° 1'6° 1'8° 20° 2-5° 3-0° 3-5° 4-0" 4-5° 5-0° 5-5° 6-0° 6-5° 7-0° 7-5' 8-0° °C

9 97 95 92 89 86 84 81 79 76 73 67 61 54 48 42 36 30 24 18 13 7 2 9
8 97 94 92 89 86 83 80 78 75 72 66 59 52 46 40 33 27 21 15 9 3 8
7 97 94 91 88 85 82 80 77 74 71 64 57 50 44 37 31 24 18 11 5 |——5 7
6 97 94 91 88 85 82 79 76 73 70 63 55 48 41 34 28 21 14 | 13 6 6
5 97 94 90 87 84 81 78 75 72 69 61 53 46 39 31 24 | 22 15 8 2 5
4 97 93 90 87 83 80 77 74 70 67 59 51 44 36 1 32 25 18 10 3 4
3 96 93 89 86 83 79 76 72 69 66 57 49 | 44 36 28 21 13 6 3
2 96 93 89 85 82 78 75 71 67 64 | 58 49 41 33 24 16 9 1 2
1 96 92 88 85 81 | 78 75 71 67 64 55 46 37 29 20 12 3 1
0 96 92 88 84 80 76 73 69 65 61 52 43 33 24 16 7 0
-1 95 91 87 83 78 74 70 66 62 58 49 39 29 20 11 1 -1
-2 94 89 85 81 77 72 68 64 60 56 45 35 25 15 5 -2
-3 93 88 84 79 75 70 66 61 57 53 42 31 21 10 -3
-4 91 87 82 77 72 68 63 59 54 49 38 27 16 5
-5 90 85 80 75 70 65 61 56 51 46 34 22 11 -5
-6 89 84 79 73 68 63 58 53 48 42 30 17 5 -6
-7 88 82 77 71 66 60 55 49 44 39 25 12 -7
-8 87 81 75 69 63 57 52 46 40 35 20 6 -8
-9 85 79 73 67 61 54 48 42 36 30 15 -9
-10 84 77 71 64 58 51 45 38 32 26
-II 83 76 69 62 55 48 41 34 27 21
-12 81 74 67 59 52 44 37 30 22 15
-13 80 72 64 56 48 41 33 25 17 9
-14 79 70 62 53 45 36 28 20 11 3
-15 77 68 59 50 41 32 23 14 5
-16 76 66 56 47 37 27 18 8
-17 74 64 53 43 33 22 12 2

In the tables, lines are ruled to draw attention to the fact that above the line evaporation is going on from a water surface while below the line it is going on from an
: surface (wet-bulb temperature below 0°C>. Owing to this, interpolation must not be made between figures on different sides of the line.
 TABLE 20
CONVERSION OF TEMPERATURE READINGS ON THE FAHRENHEIT SCALE TO THE CELSIUS
(FORMERLY 'CENTIGRADE') AND KELVIN (FORMERLY 'ABSOLUTE') SCALES

°F °C K °F °C K °F °C K
0 -17-8 255-35 40 + 4-4 277-55 80 +26-7 299-85
1 17-2 55-95 41 5-0 78-15 81 27-2 300-35
2 16-7 56-45 42 5-6 78-75 82 27-8 0-95
3 16-1 57-05 43 6-1 79-25 83 28-3 1-45
4 15-6 57-55 44 6-7 79-85 84 28-9 2-05

5 15-0 58-15 45 7-2 80-35 85 29-4 2-55

6 14-4 58-75 46 7-8 80-95 86 30-0 3-15
7 13-9 59-25 47 8-3 81-45 87 30-6 3-75
8 13-3 59-85 48 8-9 82-05 88 31-1 4-25
9 12-8 260-35 49 9-4 282-55 89 31-7 304-85
10 12-2 260-95 50 10-0 283-15 90 32-2 305-35
11 11-7 61-45 51 106 83-75 91 32-8 5-95
12 11-1 62-05 52 11 1 84-25 92 33-3 6-45
13 10-6 62-55 53 11-7 84-85 93 33-9 7-05
14 10-0 63-15 54 12-2 85-35 94 34-4 7-55

15 94 63-75 55 12-8 85-95 95 35-0 8-15

16 8-9 64-25 56 13-3 86-45 96 35-6 8-75
17 8-3 64-85 57 13-9 87-05 97 36-1 9-25
18 7-8 65-35 58 14-4 87-55 98 36-7 9-85
19 7-2 265-95 59 15-0 288-15 99 37-2 310-35
20 6-7 266-45 60 15-6 288-75 100 37-8 310-95
21 6-1 67-05 61 16-1 89-25 101 38-3 11-45
22 5-6 67-55 62 16-7 89-85 102 38-9 12-05
23 5-0 68-15 63 17-2 90-35 103 39-4 12-55
24 4-4 68-75 64 17-8 90-95 104 40-0 13-15
25 3-9 69-25 65 18-3 91-45 105 40-6 13-75
26 3-3 69-85 66 18-9 92-05 106 41-1 14-25
27 2-8 70-35 67 19-4 92-55 107 41-7 14-85
28 2-2 70-95 68 20-0 93-15 108 42-2 15-35
29 1-7 271 -45 69 20-6 293-75 109 42-8 315-95
30 1-1 272-05 70 21-1 294-25 110 43-3 316-45
31 -0-6 72-55 71 21-7 94-85 111 43-9 17-05
32 0-0 73-15 72 22-2 95-35 112 44-4 17-55
33 +0-6 73-75 73 22-8 95-95 113 45-0 18-15
34 1-1 74-25 74 23-3 96-45 114 45-6 18-75
35 1-7 74-85 75 23-9 97-05 115 46-1 19-25
36 2-2 75-35 76 24-4 97-55 116 46-7 19-85
37 2-8 75-95 77 25-0 98-15 117 47-2 20-35
38 3-3 76-45 78 25-6 98-75 118 47-8 20-95
39 +3-9 277-05 79 +26-1 299-25 119 +48-3 321-45

148
 TABLE 21
CONVERSION OF NAUTICAL MILES TO KILOMETRES

Nautical Kilometres Nautical Kilometres

Miles Miles

1 1-9 20 37
2 3-7 30 56
3 5-6 40 74
4 7-4 50 93
5 9-3 60 111
6 11-1 70 130
7 13-0 80 148
8 14-8 90 167
9 16-7 100 185
10 18-5

Based on the International Nautical Mile of 1852 m.

TABLE 22
CONVERSION OF FEET TO METRES

Feet Metres Feet Metres Feet Metres Feet Metres

1 0-30 20 6-1 200 61 2000 610

2 0-61 30 9-1 300 91 3000 910
3 0-91 40 12-2 400 122 4000 1220
4 1-22 50 15-2 500 152 5000 1 520
5 1-52 60 18'3 600 183 6000 1830
6 1-83 70 21-3 700 213 7000 2130
7 2-13 80 24-4 800 244 8000 2440
8 2-44 90 27 '4 900 274 9000 2740
9 2-74 100 30-5 1000 305 10000 3050
10 3-05

149
 TABLE 23 To face page 150(0
TO OBTAIN APPROXIMATELY THE TRUE FORCE AND DIRECTION OF THE WIND, FROM ITS APPARENT FORCE AND DIRECTION, ON THE DEC|K OF A MOVING VESSEL

Apparent Apparent direction of wind, in degrees 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° Apparent
force of off the bow force of
wind,
Beaufort Speed of vessel in knots 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 Beaufort
scale scale
1 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 180 180 180 180 180 180 174 178 179 179 179 179 167 176 177 178 178 179 163 174 176 177 177 178 161 172 175 177 177 177 158 171 175 176 176 177 1
True force, Beaufort scale 134567 134567 134567 134567 2 3 4567 234567

2 True direction, degrees off the bow . . — 180 180 180 180 180 96 171 175 177 177 178 100 163 171 174 175 176 105 157 168 171 173 174 110 154 165 169 171 173 115 152 163 168 170 172 2
True force, Beaufort scale 023456 123456 123456 123456 1 3 4556 2 3 4 5 6 '6
3 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 0 180 180 180 180 180 24 126 167 172 175 176 44 116 156 166 170 172 62 116 150 161 166 169 75 118 146 157 163 167 86 121 145 155 162 165 3
True force, Beaufort scale 212455 213456 223456 223456 2 3 4456 334456
4 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 0 0 180 180 180 180 15 32 116 159 169 172 30 56 110 145 159 166 45 73 112 138 153 160 59 85 116 138 150 156 70 97 121 138 148 155 4
True force, Beaufort scale 311345 321345 322345 333345 3 3 3456 434456
5 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 0 0 0 180 180 180 13 21 43 112 152 164 27 40 68 108 137 152 39 56 82 110 130 144 52 70 93 115 131 142 64 82 102 119 131 141 5
True force, Beaufort scale 431124 ^ J 4. ^ J *T 433334 444556

6 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 0 0 0 0 180 180 13 17 25 49 102 144 25 33 47 71 103 130 37 48 63 85 107 125 49 61 77 95 112 125 60 73 88 103 117 127 6
True force, Beaufort scale 543212 543223 544334 5 5 5455 655556
7 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 00000 — 12 15 20 28 47 83 24 29 38 51 71 97 36 43 54 68 85 103 47 56 68 80 95 109 58 68 79 91 103 114 7
True force, Beaufort scale 654320 654432 655444 665444 6 6 5555 666666
8 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 000000 12 14 17 21 30 45 23 27 33 41 53 69 34 40 47 57 69 84 45 53 61 71 82 94 56 64 73 82 93 102 8
True force, Beaufort scale 766543 766543 776544 776655 7 7 6666 877777

9 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 000000 11 13 15 18 22 30 22 25 30 35 43 53 33 38 44 51 59 70 45 50 57 65 73 82 56 62 69 76 84 93 9

True force, Beaufort scale 887654 887654 887665 887766 9 8 8777 988888

10 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 000000 11 12 14 16 19 23 22 24 28 32 37 44 33 37 41 47 53 60 44 49 53 60 66 74 54 60 66 72 78 85 10

True force, Beaufort scale 998766 998766 998776 998877 10 9 9888 10 9 9 9 9 8
11 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 000000 11 12 13 15 17 20 22 24 26 29 33 38 33 36 39 43 48 54 44 47 51 56 62 68 54 58 63 68 73 79 11
True force, Beaufort scale 10 10 9 8 8 7 10 10 9 8 8 7 10 10 9 9 8 7 10 10 9 9 8 8 11 10 10 9 9 9 11 10 10 10 10 9
12 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 000000 11 12 13 14 16 18 22 23 25 28 31 35 32 35 38 41 45 49 43 46 50 54 58 63 54 57 61 66 70 75
True force, Beaufort scale 11 11 10 9 9 8 11 11 10 10 9 8 11 11 10 10 9 9 11 11 10 10 10 9 12 11 11 10 10 10 12 11 11 11 10 10 12

Beaufort Wind Scale .. 10 11 12

Average Velocity in Knots 0 13 18 24 30 37 44 52 60 68

When the apparent force of the wind is zero, it is obvious that the speed of the wind is just equal to the speed
of the ship, and the direction of the wind diametrically opposite to the direction in which the ship is proceeding.
Beaufort 12 was formerly defined as 'any wind above 65 knots', no matter by how much it exceeded this limit.
In 1946 it was decided, internationally, to extend the Beaufort scale to force 17 (109-118 knots) in order to make
provision for the much greater wind speeds observed in the upper air. The upper limit for force 11 was altered from
65 to 63, and the limits for force 12 were taken as 64-71 knots.
As it is unlikely that mariners will be able to estimate winds exceeding force 12, the table above is not extended
further than force 12 for apparent wind force, and if the true wind, computed from the apparent wind and the speed
of the ship, is over 71 knots, it is shown as greater than force 12 (>12).
 TO fa» page 150 (/i) TABLE 23—(contd)
TO OBTAIN APPROXIMATELY THE TRUE FORCE AND DIRECTION OF THE WIND, FROM ITS APPARENT FORCE AND DIRECTION, ON THE DECK OF A MOVING VESSEL

Apparent Apparent direction of wind, in degrees Apparent

force of off the bow 60° 70° 80° 90° 100° 110°
wind, force of
Beaufort Speed of vessel in knots 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 wind,
5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 Beaufort
scale scale
1 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 156 171 174 176 176 176 157 170 174 175 175 176 157 170 173 175 175 176 158 170 173 17:: 175 176 159 171 174 175 175 176 162 171 174 175 176 176 1
True force, Beaufort scale 234567 234567 234567 2 3 4 :i 6 7 234567 244567
2 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 120 151 162 167 169 171 125 152 161 166 169 171 130 153 162 166 169 171 135 154 162 16" 169 171 139 156 163 167 169 171 145 159 164 168 170 172 2
True force, Beaufort scale 234567 234567 234567 3 4 4 :i 6 7 345567 345667
3 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 96 125 145 154 160 164 105 129 144 154 160 164 112 133 146 155 160 164 121 139 150 157 161 164 128 143 153 158 162 165 134 148 156 160 164 166 3
True force, Beaufort scale 334566 334567 344567 345*67 345677 445678
4 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 82 104 125 139 147 153 92 113 129 141 148 154 101 120 134 143 150 155 111 126 138 14« 152 156 119 132 143 149 154 158 127 139 147 153 157 160 4
True force, Beaufort scale 444566 445567 445667 455^77 456678 456778
5 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 75 92 109 123 133 141 85 102 116 128 136 143 95 110 122 132 139 145 105 118 129 137 143 148 114 126 135 142 147 151 123 133 141 146 150 154 5
True force, Beaufort scale 555566 555667 556677 5 5 6 <& 7 8 566788 567888
6 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 71 84 98 110 121 130 82 94 106 117 126 133 92 104 114 123 131 137 102 112 122 m 136 141 111 121 129 135 140 145 120 129 136 141 145 149 6
True force, Beaufort scale 656667 666677 666778 667788 677889 677899
7 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 69 79 90 100 110 119 79 89 99 108 117 124 89 99 108" 116 123 129 99 108 116 123 129 134 109 117 124 130 135 139 118 126 132 136 141 145 7
True force, Beaufort scale 766677 777778 777888 7 7 8 if 8 9 788899 7 8 8 9 9 10
8 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 67 75 84 93 102 109 77 86 94 102 109 116 88 96 103 110 117 123 98 105 112 11$ 124 129 107 114 120 126 131 135 117 123 128 133 137 140 8
True force, Beaufort scale 877778 888888 888899 8 8 9 <> 9 9 8 8 9 9 10 10 8 9 9 10 10 11
9 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 66 73 80 87 94 102 76 83 90 97 104 110 87 93 100 106 112 116 97 102 109 114 119 124 106 112 117 122 127 131 116 121 126 130 134 137 9
True force, Beaufort scale 988888 999999 9 9 9 9 9 10 9 9 9 ip 10 10 9 9 10 10 10 11 9 10 10 10 11 12
10 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 65 71 77 83 89 96 75 81 87 93 99 104 86 91 97 102 108 112 96 101 106 111 116 120 105 110 115 119 123 127 115 119 124 128 131 134 10
True force, Beaufort scale 10 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 10 10 11 11 11 12 10 11 11 11 12 12
11 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 65 69 74 79 85 91 75 80 85 90 95 100 85 90 95 99 104 108 95 100 104 104 113 116 104 109 113 117 121 125 114 119 123 126 129 132 11
True force, Beaufort scale 11 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 li 12 12 11 11 12 12 12 12 11 12 12 12>12>12
12 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 64 68 72 77 81 86 74 79 83 87 92 96 84 88 93 97 101 106 94 98 103 106 110 114 104 108 112 115 118 121 114 118 121 124 127 130 12
True force, Beaufort scale 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12>12>12 12 12>12>12>12>12 12>12>12>12>12>12

Beaufort Wind Scale .. 10 11 12

Average Velocity in Knots 0 13 18 24 30 37 44 52 60 68

See footnotes overleaf.

 TABLE 23—(contd) To face page 150 (HI)
TO OBTAIN APPROXIMATELY THE TRUE FORCE AND DIRECTION OF THE WIND, FROM ITS APPARENT FORCE AND DIRECTION, ON THE DECK OF A MOVING VESSEL

Apparent Apparent direction of wind, in degrees 120° Apparent

force of off the bow 130° 140° 150° 160° 170° 180° force of
Beaufort Speed of vessel in knots 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 Beaufort
scale scale
1 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 164 172 175 176 176 177 167 173 175 176 177 177 169 174 176 177 177 178 172 176 177 178 178 178 174 177 178 178 178 179 177 179 179 179 179 179 180 180 180 180 180 180 1
True force, Beaufort scale 244567 345567 344567 345667 345667 345667 345667
2 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 150 162 166 170 171 172 155 164 169 171 172 174 160 167 171 173 174 174 165 170 173 174 175 176 170 174 175 176 176 177 175 177 178 178 178 178 180 180 180 180 180 180 2
True force, Beaufort scale 345677 345677 345678 345678 345678 345678 345678
3 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 142 152 159 163 166 168 148 157 162 165 168 170 155 161 166 168 170 172 160 166 169 171 172 174 168 171 173 174 175 176 173 175 176 177 177 177 180 180 180 180 180 180 3
True force, Beaufort scale 456678 456678 456778 456778 456778 456778 456788
4 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 135 145 152 156 159 162 142 151 156 160 164 165 150 157 161 164 166 168 158 163 166 168 170 171 166 169 171 172 173 174 173 174 175 176 176 '177 180 180 180 180 180 180 4
True force, Beaufort scale 5 5 6 7, 8 8 566788 566789 567789 567789 567789 567789
5 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 131 140 146 151 154 157 140 146 152 156 158 161 148 154 158 161 163 165 156 160 163 166 167 168 164 167 169 170 172 172 172 173 174 175 175 176 180 180 180 180 180 180 5
True force, Beaufort scale 667889 667889 667899 6 7 7 8 9 10 6 7 7 8 9 10 6 7 7 8 9 10 6 7 7 8 9 10
6 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 129 136 142 147 150 153 138 144 149 152 156 158 147 151 155 158 160 162 155 159 161 163 166 167 164 166 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 175 175 180 180 180 180 180 180 6
True force, Beaufort scale 678899 7 7 8 8 9 10 7 7 8 9 9 10 7 8 8 9 9 10 7 8 8 9 10 10 7 8 8 9 10 10 7 8 8 9 10 10
7 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 128 134 139 143 147 150 137 142 146 150 152 155 146 150 153 156 158 160 154 157 160 162 163 165 163 165 167 168 169 170 171 172 174 174 174 175 180 180 180 180 180 180 7
True force, Beaufort scale 7 8 8 9 9 10 8 8 9 9 10 10 8 8 9 10 10 11 8 8 9 10 10 11 8 8 9 10 10 11 8 8 9 10 10 11 8 8 9 10 10 11
8 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 126 132 136 140 143 146 135 140 144 147 150 153 145 148 151 154 157 158 154 156 159 160 162 164 162 164 166 167 168 169 171 172 173 174 174 174 180 180 180 180 180 180 8
True force, Beaufort scale 8 9 9 10 10 11 9 9 10 10 11 11 9 9 10 10 11 11 9 9 10 10 11 12 9 9 10 11 11 12 9 9 10 11 11 12 9 9 10 11 11 12
9 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 125 129 134 138 141 144 135 138 142 145 148 150 144 147 150 152 155 156 154 155 157 159 161 163 162 164 165 166 168 168 171 172 173 173 174 174 180 180 180 180 180 180 9
True force, Beaufort scale 9 10 10 11 11 12 9 10 10 11 11 12 10 10 11 11 12 12 10 10 11 11 12 12 10 10 11 11 12>12 10 10 11 11 12>12 10 10 11 11 12>12
10 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 124 128 132 135 138 141 134 137 141 143 146 149 144 146 149 151 154 156 153 155 156 158 160 162 162 163 164 165 167 168 171 172 173 173 173 174 180 180 180 180 180 180 10
True force, Beaufort scale 10 11 11 12 12>12 10 11 11 12 12>12 10 11 11 12>12>12 10 11 12 12>12>12 11 11 12 12>12>12 11 11 12 12>12>12 11 11 12>12>12>12
11 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 123 128 131 134 137 139 134 137 140 142 145 147 143 146 148 150 152 154 153 155 156 158 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 171 171 172 173 173 174 180 180 180 180 180 180 11
True force, Beaufort scale 11 12 12>12>12>12 11 12 12>12>12>12 11 12 12>12>12>12 11 12>12>12>12>12 12 12>12>12>12>12 12 12>12>12>12>12 12 12>12>12>12>12
12 True direction, degrees off the bow . . 123 127 130 133 135 137 134 136 138 141 143 145 143 145 147 149 150 152 153 154 156 157 159 160 162 163 164 165 166 167 171 171 172 172 173 173 180 180 180 180 180 180 12
True force, Beaufort scale 12>12>12>12>12>12 12>12>12>12>12>12 12>12>12>12>12>12 12>12>12>12>12>12 >12>12>12>12;>12>12 >12>12>12>12>12>12 >12>12>12>12>12>12

Beaufort Wind Scale .. 10 11 12

Average Velocity in Knots 0 13 18 24 30 37 44 52 60 68

See footnotes on first page of this Table.

 APPENDIX

THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

(Systeme International d'Unites)
The International System (SI) consists of seven 'base units' together with two
'supplementary units'. From these are formed others known as 'derived units'.
The base and supplementary units, and some of the derived units, have been
given names and symbols. The symbols are printed in lower case except where
derived from the name of a person; for example m (metre), but A (ampere).
Symbols are not pluralized (1 m, 10 m) nor do they take a full stop. The names
of the units do not, however, take capitals (except of course at the beginning
of a sentence), although they may be pluralized; for example, 1 kelvin, 10
kelvins.
The base units are:
metre (symbol m) the unit of length
kilogram (symbol kg) the unit of mass
second (symbol s) the unit of time
ampere (symbol A) the unit of electrical current
kelvin (symbol K) the unit of thermodynamic temperature, defined as
the fraction 1/273-16 of the thermodymanic
temperature of the triple point of water.
candela (symbol cd) the unit of luminous intensity
mole (symbol mol) the unit of the amount of a substance which
contains the same number of molecules as there
are atoms in exactly 12 grams of pure carbon.
The two supplementary units are:
radian (symbol rad) the measure of a plane angle
steradian (symbol sr) the measure of a solid angle

A few of the derived units are:

Quantity Name of unit Symbol Expressed in base units
frequency hertz Hz 1 Hz = 1 s-1
fprce newton N 1 N = 1 kg m/s2
pressure pascal Pa 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
work joule J 1J= 1Nm
power watt W 1 W = 1 J/s
(1 newton = 105 dynes, 1 pascal = 10~2 millibars, 1 joule = 107 ergs).

NON-SI UNITS
The following non-Si units are in current use in the Meteorological Office and
may be found in publications of the Office.
151
1. Pressure
The millibar is used as the unit of pressure in meteorology. Despite the
recommended abbreviation mbar, the Meteorological Office will continue
to use mb, (1 mb=l hPa, where h=hecto=102).

2. Temperature
The unit Celsius (symbol °C) continues to be used.
Celsius temperature = temperature (in kelvins) minus 273-15 K (note that
the sign ° is no longer used with K).
A difference in temperature should be expressed by use of the international
symbol 'deg' without a qualifying C or K.

3. Distance
There is a continuing requirement for some distances to be measured in
nautical miles (symbol n. mile).
Because the nautical mile varies with latitude, an internationally agreed
International Nautical Mile is preferred. This has been in use in the United
Kingdom since 1970.
The International Nautical Mile is denned as 1852 m (6076-12 feet).

4. Height
Heights other than cloud heights are expressed in metres. Because of the
requirements of aviation the heights of cloud will continue for the time
being to be expressed in feet (1 foot = 0-3048 m).

5. Speed
The derived SI unit is the metre per second (m/s). However, the World
Meteorological Organization recommends the use of the knot for horizontal
wind speed for the time being (1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = 0-5 m/s).
The symbol kn for knot is recommended to avoid confusion with the symbol
for kilotonne and will be used in Meteorological Office publications.
6. Time
Units other than SI, such as day, week, month and year, are in common use.
7. Direction
Direction is measured in degrees clockwise from north and refers to the true
compass, indicated by the symbol °T, for example 320°T.
8. Cloud amounts
The use of 'okta' for the measurement of cloud amount is authorized by the
World Meteorological Organization.

152
 INDEX
Abnormal compass deviation 118 conversion of inches to millibars 8,136
Abnormal refraction 96 correction slide .. .. .. 7
Abnormal rise of sea level 115 corrections to .. .. ., 4
Abnormal waves 115 graduation of scales .. .. 3
Absolute scale 22 gravity, correction for .. .. 5-7
Accidents to instruments .. 123 index corrections to .. .. 5
'Aguaje' 115 inch, corrections to .. .. 5
Airglow 91 Kew-pattern marine .. .. 2,3
Altitude, correction for mercury mercury .. .. .. .. 1
barometer 6,7 millibar, corrections to .. .. 7
correction for aneroid barometer 13 position of .. .. .. 8
Altocumulus 47 precision aneroid Mk 2 .. .. 12
castellanus 47 reading of .. .. .. 10
lenticularis 47 reduction to standard level .. 6,7
Altostratus 47 scales, graduation of .. .. 3
Anemometer 35 setting up and taking down .. 8,9
use at sea .. 41 temperature of .. .. .. 10
Aneroid barometer 12 temperature, corrections for .. 5,7
adjustment to reading of 15 Barometric tendency:
corrections to readings 13 characteristic of .. .. .. 18
precautions necessary 15 allowances for course and speed 18
precision 13 Beaufort notation .. .. .. 42
precision, schematic drawing 14 Beaufort scale of wind force .. 37-39
Artificial satellites 93 Bioluminescence .. .. .. 117
Aspirated and whirling psychro- Brocken Spectre .. .. .. 95
meters 29 Bucket:
Astronomical phenomena 78 canvas .. ,. .. .. 30,31
Atlantic Weather Bulletin 122 rubber .. .. .. .. 30,31
Atmosphere, phenomena of higher 84 Bulletins .. .. .. .. 122
phenomena of lower 96
regions of the high 84
Atmospheric pressure 1
Atmospherics, sudden enhancement Canvas bucket .. .. .. 30, 31
of 84 Capillarity .. .. .. .. 3
Aureole 97 Care of instruments:
Aurora: aneroid barometer .. .. 15
activity of .. 88 barograph .. .. .. 16
brightness of 89 mercury barometer .. .. 9
colour of .. 89 thermometers .. .. .. 23
direction 89 Cargo, care and ventilation of .. 30
elevation 89 Castellanus, Altocumulus .. .. 47
forms of .. 89 Celsius scale .. .. .. 22
height 87 Change or tendency of barometer 18
ionospheric and magnetic storms, Characteristic of barometer tendency 18
connection with 87 Circumzenithal arc .. .. .. 103
observation of 88 Cirrocumulus .. .. .. 47
photography 91 Cirrostratus .. .. .. .. 47
regions of .. 87 Cirrus .. .. .. .. 46
seasonal and night variation of .. 88 Clock and chart for barograph .. 17
sunspot cycle variations 88 Cloud:
amount, estimation of .. .. 53
base recorder .. .. .. 36
Backing wind 40 height balloons .. .. .. 36
Ball lightning 107 height, estimation of .. .. 52
Balloons, meteorological 36 high, specification of .. .. 51
Bar (pressure unit) 4 iridescent .. .. .. .. 106
Barograph 15 low, specification of .. .. 50
care of 16 medium, specification of .. 50
clock and chart .. 17 mother-of-pearl .. .. 86,107
open-scale 16 searchlight .. .. .. .. 36
setting of .. 16 types .. .. .. .. 46
standardizing 17 Clouds:
Barometer: code for .. .. .. .. 50
accuracy of reading 11 heap .. .. .. .. 46
12 noctilucent .. .. .. 85
aneroid observation of .. .. .. 49
care of 9
change or tendency of 18 sheet .. .. .. .. 46
153
 INDEX—contd.
Coloration, of the sea .. .. 115 Halo phenomena 101
of the sky, day-time .. .. 110 circumscribed 101
night .. .. .. .. 112 circumzenithal arc •• •• 103
twilight .. .. .. .. Ill colour of .. .. •- 101" -103
Comets .. .. .. .. 79 cross 105
Commonwealth scheme for marine description of 101
meteorology .. .. .. 120 display 102
Compass deviations, abnormal .. 118 lower contact arc to 22° halo .. 101
Conversion, inches to millibars .. 8,136 lunar 106
feet to metres .. .. .. 149 mock moons (paraselenae) 103
nautical miles to kilometres .. 149 mock suns (parhelia) 103
thermometer scales .. 22,148 mock sun (or moon) ring 102
Corona, solar and lunar .. .. 97 observation of 104
solar during eclipse .. .. 78 of 22° 101
Coronal rays .. .. .. 89 of 46° 101
Corposant .. .. .. .. 98 of 90° 103
Counterglow .. .. .. .. Ill parhelic circle 102
Crepuscular rays .. .. .. 98 sun pillars 103
Cross swells .. .. .. .. 54,59 undersun 103
Cumulonimbus .. .. .. 49 upper contact arc to 22° halo 101
Cumulus .. .. .. .. 48 Haze .. 43
Cumulus fractus .. .. .. 49 Heap clouds 46
Currents, ocean: High atmosphere, phenomena of .. 84
observations .. .. .. 62 High cloud, specification of form .. 51
Humidity and temperature 24
Humidity, relative .. .. 27,44, 146
Danger messages .. .. .. 124 Hygrometers 23
Data logging equipment .. .. 33 observations, application in care
Depression of wet-bulb .. .. 24, 26 and ventilation of cargo 30
Desynn transmitter .. .. 35
Dew-point .. .. .. .. 26
Distant-reading sea thermometer .. 32 Ice, detection by radar .. .. 77
Diurnal variation of pressure .. 18 observations .. .. .. 64
Drizzle, definition of .. .. 43 terms arranged by subject .. 65
Dry- and wet-bulb thermometers .. 23 terms arranged in alphabetical
Dustfall at sea .. .. .. 99 order .. .. .. .. 66
Dust, meteoric .. .. .. 91 Inch barometer:
volcanic 79,97,99,111,113 conversion to millibars .. .. 8
corrections to .. .. .. 5
Earthlight (airglow) .. . .. 91 graduation of scale .. .. 3
Earthquakes, submarine . .. 116 Indicator Mk 5 .. .. .. 27
Earth-shadow .. . .. Ill Infra-red radiation .. .. .. 33
Eclipses .. .. . .. 78 Instrumental observations .. .. 1
Electrical thermometers . .. 21 Instruments, accidents to .. .. 123
indicator Mk 5 . .. 27 supply and return of .. .. 123
Engine-room intake temperature .. 32 International Conference on Safety
of Life at Sea, 1960 .. .. 124
International Meteorological
Facsimile .. .. .. .. 122 Organization .. .. .. 120
Fahrenheit scale .. .. .. 22 International System of Units (SI) .. 151
Fata Morgana .. .. .. 96 Ionospheric storm .. .. .. 84
Fireballs .. .. .. .. 92 Iridescent cloud .. .. .. 106
Flash, green .. .. .. .. 99
red .. .. .. .. .. 100
Fog .. .. .. .. .. 43 Kelvin scale .. .. .. .. 22
Fog-bow .. .. .. .. 109 Kew-pattern marine barometer .. 2,3
Fohn wind, connection with alto­
cumulus .. .. .. .. 47
Freak waves .. .. .. .. 116 Landslides .. .. .. .. 116
Frost .. .. .. .. .. 26 Lenticular altocumulus .. .. 47
Lightning .. .. .. .. 107
ships struck by .. .. .. 108
Gegenschein .. .. .. ,. 81 Log, meteorological .. .. .. 119
'Glory' .. .. .. .. 96 Low cloud, specification of form .. 50
Gravity correction for barometers 5,6 Lunar:
Green flash .. .. .. .. 99 coronae .. .. .. .. 97
Gust, definition of .. .. .. 41 eclipses .. .. .. .. 78
154
 INDEX—contd.
Lunar: contd. Phenomena: contd.
haloes .. .. .. .. 106 marine .. .. .. .. 115
rainbow .. .. .. .. 109 observation of .. .. .. 75
radar .. .. .. .. 76
zodiacal light .. .. .. 80
Magnetic disturbances .. .. 84 Phosphorescent wheels .. .. 117
storms .. .. .. .. 85 Pillar, sun .. .. .. .. 103
Magslip transmitter .. .. .. 35 Pilot-balloon ascent .. .. 36
Mamma .. .. .. .. 49 Plankton .. .. .. .. 115
Marine meteorology and the British Port Meteorological Officers 120,122
Commonwealth.. .. .. 120 Precipitation .. .. .. .. 43
Marine Observer .. .. 75,121,122 Precision aneroid barometer .. 13
Marine phenomena .. .. 115 Pressure:
Medium cloud, specification of form 50 atmospheric .. .. .. 1
Mercury barometer (see under Baro­ definition of .. .. .. 4
meter) diurnal variation .. .. .. 18
Meteorological: Psychrometers .. .. .. 29
instruments, general .. .. 35
Officers, Port .. .. 120,122 Radar:
services for shipping .. .. 121 ice, detection of .. .. .. 77
work at sea .. .. 119,122,126 observations by .. .. 76
Meteors: phenomena .. .. .. 76
and meteorites ,92 Radiation, solar .. .. .. 33
appearance and speed of 92 infra-red .. .. .. .. 33
fireballs ,92 ultra-violet .. .. .. 33
frequency of 92 Radio:
height of .. 92 atmospherics .. .. .. 84
observation of 93 blackouts .. .. .. 84
shooting stars 91 fade-outs .. .. .. .. 84
showers of 92 Radiosonde .. .. .. .. 36
Milky sea 117 Rain, definition of .. .. .. 43
Millibar barometer (see under Baro­ Rainbows .. .. .. .. 108
meter) abnormal .. .. .. 109
Millibar, definition of 4 fog-bow or UUoa's Ring .. 109
Millimeters, barometer graduations 3 lunar .. .. .. .. 109
Mirage 96 observation of .. .. .. 109
Mist 43 reflection .. .. .. .. 109
Mock suns and moons 103 solar .. .. .. .. 109
Moon, eclipse of 78 supernumerary and secondary .. 109
green flash 99 white .. .. .. .. 109
Moon and sun, coloured 97 Rainfall .. .. .. .. 35
Mother-of-pearl cloud 86,107 Rain-gauge .. .. .. .. 35
Muslin and wick 24 Rays, auroral .. .. .. 89
Muslin caps 24 crepuscular .. .. .. 98
Red flash .. .. .. .. 100
Nimbostratus 48 Refraction, abnormal and mirage .. 96
Noctilucent clouds 85 Relative humidity .. .. .. 27,44
Non-instrumental observations 37 Research rockets .. .. .. 94
Novae (new stars) 81 Rubber bucket .. .. ..30,31

Safety of Life at Sea, International

Ocean current observations .. 62 Conference, 1960 .. .. 124
Ocean waves .. .. .. .. 54 St Elmo's fire .. .. .. 98
Open-scale barograph .. .. 16 Scintillation .. .. .. .. 110
'Optical haze' .. .. .. Ill Scirocco, connection with altocumulus 47
connection with coloured sun or
Paraselenae (mock moons) .. .. 103 moon .. .. .. .. 97
Parhelia of 22° .. .. .. 101 Screen, marine .. .. .. 28
Parhelic circle .. .. •. 102 design of .. .. .. .. 28
Pascal .. .. .. .. 4 exposure of thermometers .. 28
Phenomena: position of .. .. .. 29
artificial satellites and research Scud .. .. .. .. .. 48
rockets .. .. .. -. 93 Sea and swell, distinction between.. 54
haloes .. .. .. •• 101 Sea:
of high atmosphere .. .. 84 criterion for judging wind force .. 38-39
of lower atmosphere .. .. 96 level, abnormal rise of .. .. 115
155
 INDEX—contd.
Sea: contd. Thermometer: contd.
temperature 30 distant-reading, sea 32
water sample 115 dry- and wet-bulb 23
Selected Ships 119 electrical 21,22,27
Sheet clouds 46 exposure of 28
'Shooting stars' 91 Fahrenheit scale .. 22
Shower cloud 49 graduations of 21
Showers, definition of 43 Kelvin scale 22
SI units 151 liquid-in-glass 21,23
Sky, appearance of (Beaufort nota- reading of 23
tion) 42 scale markings 22
coloration, day-time 110 sea .. 30
night 112 setting up of 29
twilight 111 Tidal waves 115
Slide, correction 7 Trochoidal wave form 56
Smoke pollution 111 Tropical storms, warning of 124 125,126
Solar coronae 97 Twilight . 112
eclipses 78 abnormally long . 113
flares 83 arch 111,112
haloes 101 astronomical and civil . 112
radiation 33 duration of . 112
rainbow 108 sky coloration 111,112
Solarimeters (pyranometers) 33 Twinkling of stars .. . 110
Spectre, Bracken 96
Squall, definition of 41
Stars, new 81 Ulloa's Ring (fog-bow) .. .. 109
Storms: Ultra-violet radiation .. .. 33
ionospheric 84 Units, International System (SI) .. 151
magnetic 85 Upper-air temperature and humidity 36
tropical, warning of 124,125,126 Upper winds .. .. .. .. 36
Stratocumulus 48
Stratus 48 Veering wind .. .. .. 40
Stratus fractus 48 Velocity (wind), parallelogram of: 41
Submarine earthquakes .. 116 Ventilation of cargo .. .. 30
Sun (see also under Solar): Virga .. .. .. .. .. 48
coloured .. .. .. .. 97 Visibility .. .. .. .. 44
green flash .. .. .. .. 99 recorder or transmissometer .. 36
mock .. .. .. 101-103 scale for use at sea .. .. 44
pillar .. .. .. .. 103 Volcanic dust .. 79,97,99,111,113
prominences .. .. .. 79 Volcanic eruptions .. 99,116
red flash .. .. .. .. 100 Voluntary meteorological work at
Sunspots .. .. .. .. 82 sea .. .. .. ..119
cycle variation .. .. .. 82,88 Voluntary Observing Fleet .. .. 120
Supplementary Ships .. .. 120
Sweating of ship and cargo .. 30
Swell .. .. .. .. ..40,54 Waterspouts .. .. .. 113
and sea, distinction between .. 54 Wave recorders .. .. .. 54,58
cross .. .. .. .. 54,59 Waves .. .. .. .. 54
origin and travel of .. .. 57 abnormal .. .. .. .. 115
below sea surface .. .. .. 56
Temperature: distinction between sea and swell 54
and humidity .. .. .. 24 groups of .. .. .. .. 57
dry- and wet-bulb .. .. 23 importance of observations .. 61
effect of local heating on .. 29 in shallow water .. .. 57
engine-room intake .. .. 32,33 observing .. .. .. 58
sea .. .. .. .. .. 30 observing from Weather Ships . 61
upper-air .. .. .. .. 36 origin and travel of swell . 57
simple characteristics of .. . 54
Tendency or change of pressure .. 18 tidal .. .. .. .115
allowance for course and speed .. 18 Weather, observations . . 42
characteristic of . .. 18 notation, Beaufort . . 42
diurnal variation . . .. 18 Wet-bulb thermometer . . 23
Thermometers . . .. 21 during frost .. . .26
Absolute scale . . .. 22 higher than dry-bulb . . 25
alcohol .. . . 21 humidity .. .. . . 26
Celsius scale .. . .. 22 muslin and wick for . . 24
conversion of scales . 22,148 operation of .. . .23
156
 INDEX—contd.
Wind: World Meteorological Organization 121
-finding radar .. .. .. 36
speed and direction .. .. 35
upper, measurement of .. .. 36
Work at sea, guidance for the Zodiacal band .. .. .. 81
conduct of .. .. ..122 Zodiacal light .. .. .. 80

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