Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Wireless and Mobile Computing
Subject Code: IT-602
Semester: 6th
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Wireless & Mobile Computing (IT602)

Unit I:
An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency (RF) fields into alternating current
(AC) or vice-versa. There are two basic types: the receiving antenna, which intercepts RF energy and
delivers AC to electronic equipment, and the transmitting antenna, which is fed with AC from electronic
equipment and generates an RF field.

Radiation Pattern (Variation Pattern)

The energy radiated by an antenna is, represented by the Radiation pattern of the antenna. Radiation
Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of radiated energy into space, as a
function of direction.
Let us look at the pattern of energy radiation.

Figure 1: Energy radiation

The figure given above shows radiation pattern of a dipole antenna. The energy being radiated is
represented by the patterns drawn in a particular direction. The arrows represent directions of radiation.
The radiation patterns can be field patterns or power patterns.
 The field patterns are plotted as a function of electric and magnetic fields. They are plotted on
logarithmic scale.
 The power patterns are plotted as a function of square of the magnitude of electric and magnetic
fields. They are plotted on logarithmic or commonly on dB scale.
Radiation Pattern in 3D
The radiation pattern is a three-dimensional figure and represented in spherical coordinates (r, θ, Φ)
assuming its origin at the center of spherical coordinate system. It looks like the following figure −

Figure 2 : 3D Radiation pattern

The given figure is a three dimensional radiation pattern for an Omni directional pattern. This clearly
indicates the three co-ordinates (x, y, z).

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Radiation Pattern in 2D
Two-dimensional pattern can be obtained from three-dimensional pattern by dividing it into horizontal
and vertical planes. These resultant patterns are known as Horizontal pattern and Vertical
pattern respectively.

Figure 3: Omni directional radiation pattern in H and V planes

The figures show the Omni directional radiation pattern in H and V planes as explained above. H-plane
represents the Horizontal pattern, whereas V-plane represents the Vertical pattern.
Lobe Formation

In the representation of radiation pattern, we often come across different shapes, which indicate the
major and minor radiation areas, by which the radiation efficiency of the antenna is known.
To have a better understanding, consider the following figure, which represents the radiation pattern of a
dipole antenna.

Figure 4: Radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.

Here, the radiation pattern has main lobe, side lobes and back lobe.
 The major part of the radiated field, which covers a larger area, is the main lobe or major lobe.
This is the portion where maximum radiated energy exists. The direction of this lobe indicates the
directivity of the antenna.
 The other parts of the pattern where the radiation is distributed side wards are known as side
lobes or minor lobes. These are the areas where the power is wasted.
 There is other lobe, which is exactly opposite to the direction of main lobe. It is known as back
lobe, which is also a minor lobe. A considerable amount of energy is wasted even here.

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Type of antenna Examples Applications

Dipole antenna, Monopole antenna, Helix Personal applications, buildings,

Wire Antennas
antenna, Loop antenna ships, automobiles, space crafts

Waveguide (opening), Horn antenna Flush-mounted applications, air-

Aperture Antennas
craft, space craft

Parabolic reflectors, Corner reflectors Microwave communication,

Reflector Antennas
satellite tracking, radio astronomy

Convex-plane, Concave-plane, Convex- Used for very high frequency

Lens Antennas
convex, Concave-concave lenses applications

Micro strip Circular-shaped, Rectangular shaped Air-craft, space-craft, satellites,

Antennas metallic patch above the ground plane missiles, cars, mobile phones etc.

Yagi-Uda antenna, Micro strip patch array, Used for very high gain
Array Antennas Aperture array, Slotted wave guide array applications, mostly when needs to
control the radiation pattern

Table 1: Antenna Types

Antenna Gain: The parameter that measures the degree of directivity of antenna’s radial pattern is known
as gain. An antenna with a higher gain is more effective in its radiation pattern. Antennas are designed in
such a way that power raises in wanted direction and decreases in unwanted directions.
G = (power radiated by an antenna)/(power radiated by reference antenna)

Radio Wave Propagation (Propagation Modes)

In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The antennas of
different specifications can be used for these purposes. The sizes of these antennas depend upon the
bandwidth and frequency of the signal to be transmitted.
The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the atmosphere and in free space may be divided in
to the following three categories −
 Line of sight (LOS) propagation
 Ground wave propagation
 Sky wave propagation
In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth, and the
ionosphere act as a wave guide for electromagnetic wave propagation.
In these frequency ranges, communication signals practically propagate around the world. The channel
band widths are small. Therefore, the information is transmitted through these channels has slow speed
and confined to digital transmission.

Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation

Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we commonly notice. In
the line-of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a minimum distance of sight.
Which means it travels to the distance up to which a naked eye can see. Now what happens after that? We
need to employ an amplifier cum transmitter here to amplify the signal and transmit again.

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Figure 5: Line-of-sight propagation

The figure depicts this mode of propagation very clearly. The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if
there occurs any obstacle in its transmission path. As the signal can travel only to lesser distances in this
mode, this transmission is used for infrared or microwave transmissions.

Ground Wave Propagation

Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of earth. Such a wave is called as direct wave.
The wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets reflected to the receiver. Such a
wave can be termed as reflected wave.

Figure 6: Components of Ground wave propagation

The above figure depicts ground wave propagation. The wave when propagates through the Earth’s
atmosphere is known as ground wave. The direct wave and reflected wave together contribute the signal
at the receiver station. When the wave finally reaches the receiver, the lags are cancelled out. In addition,
the signal is filtered to avoid distortion and amplified for clear output.

Sky Wave Propagation

Sky wave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here the wave is
projected onto the sky and it is again reflected back onto the earth.

Figure 7: Sky wave propagation

The sky wave propagation is well depicted in the above picture. Here the waves are shown to be
transmitted from one place and where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an example of
broadcasting.
The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are reflected from the ionosphere. It
consists of several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude from 30- 250 miles above the surface of

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the earth. Such a travel of the wave from transmitter to the ionosphere and from there to the receiver on
Earth is known as Sky Wave Propagation. Ionosphere is the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere,
which is suitable for sky wave propagation.

Fading
Fading is variation of the attenuation of a signal with various variables. These variables include time,
geographical position, and radio frequency. Fading is often modeled as a random process. A fading channel
is a communication channel that experiences fading. In wireless systems, fading may either be due to
multipath propagation, referred to as multipath induced fading, weather (particularly rain), or shadowing
from obstacles affecting the wave propagation, sometimes referred to as shadow fading.

Slow fading arises when the coherence time of the channel is large relative to the delay requirement of the
application. In this regime, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel is considered roughly
constant over the period of use. Slow fading can be caused by events such as shadowing, where a large
obstruction such as a hill or large building obscures the main signal path between the transmitter and the
receiver. The received power change caused by shadowing is often modeled using a log-normal
distribution with a standard deviation according to the log-distance path loss model.

Fast fading occurs when the coherence time of the channel is small relative to the delay requirement of
the application. In this case, the amplitude and phase change imposed by the channel varies considerably
over the period of use.

Rayleigh fading: The magnitude of a signal that has passed through such a transmission medium (also
called a communications channel) will vary randomly, or fade, according to a Rayleigh distribution — the
radial component of the sum of two uncorrelated Gaussian random variables.
Rayleigh fading is viewed as a reasonable model for tropospheric and ionospheric signal propagation as
well as the effect of heavily built-up urban environments on radio signals. Rayleigh fading is most
applicable when there is no dominant propagation along a line of sight between the transmitter and
receiver. If there is a dominant line of sight, Rician fading may be more applicable. Rayleigh fading is a
special case of two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading.

Figure 8: Rayleigh fading

Rician fading or Ricean fading: The radio propagation anomaly caused by partial cancellation of a radio
signal by itself — the signal arrives at the receiver by several different paths (hence exhibiting multipath
interference), and at least one of the paths is changing (lengthening or shortening). Rician fading occurs
when one of the paths, typically a line of sight signal, is much stronger than the others. In Rician fading, the
amplitude gain is characterized by a Rician distribution.

Figure 9: Rician fading

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Rayleigh fading is the specialised model for stochastic fading when there is no line of sight signal, and is
sometimes considered as a special case of the more generalised concept of Rician fading. In Rayleigh
fading, the amplitude gain is characterized by a Rayleigh distribution. Rician fading itself is a special case of
two-wave with diffuse power (TWDP) fading.
Model for wireless digital communication

Figure 10 : Wireless digital communication

In this diagram, three basic signal-processing operations have been included. They are:
Source coding:
 In source, coding the encoder converts the digital signal generated at the source output into
another signal in digital form.
 Different source coding techniques are PCM (Pulse code modulation) DM (Delta modulation).
Channel coding:
 Channel encoding done to minimize the effect of channel noise.
 This will reduce the number of errors in the received data and will make the system more reliable.
Modulation:
 Modulation is used for providing an efficient transmission of the signal over the channel.
 The detector is used for demodulation channel decoder and source decoder has exactly the
opposite roles to play as compared to the channel encoder and source encoder respectively.
 If the information rate is maximum, Digital modulation technique can be used because due to the
digital nature of the signal, it is possible to use the advanced processing techniques such as digital
signal processing, image processing, and data compression

The Media Access Control (MAC) data communication protocol sub-layer, also known as the Medium
Access Control, is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer specified in the seven-layer OSI model (layer 2). The
hardware that implements the MAC is referred to as a Medium Access Controller. The MAC sub-layer acts
as an interface between the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer and the network's physical layer. The MAC
layer emulates a full-duplex logical communication channel in a multi-point network. This channel may
provide unicast, multicast or broadcast communication service.

Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Concept Segment spaced Segments sending Segment the Spread the spectrum
into cells or time into disjoint frequency band into using orthogonal
sectors. time slots demand disjoint sub-bands codes.
driven or fixed
patterns.

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Approach SDMA TDMA FDMA CDMA

Terminals Only one terminal All terminals are Every terminal has All terminals can be
can be active in active for short its own frequency active at the same
one cell or one periods of time on uninterrupted place at the same
sector. same frequency. moment
uninterrupted.

Signal Cell structure, Synchronization in Filtering in the Code plus special

separation directed antennas time domain frequency domain. receivers.

Transmission Continuous Discontinuous Continuous Continuous

scheme

Cell capacity Depends on cell Limited Limited No absolute limit on

area channel capacity but
it is an interference
limited system

Advantages Very simple, Established fully Simple, established, Flexible, less

increases capacity digital, flexible robust frequency planning
needed, soft
handover

Disadvantages Inflexible, Guard space needed Inflexible, Complex receivers,

antennas typically (multipath frequencies are needs more
fixed propagation), scarce resource complicated power
synchronization control for senders
difficult

Table 2: Comparison of Media Access Techniques

Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA) is a technology used to assign a channel to clients that don't
need to use it constantly. DAMA systems assign communication channels based on requests issued from
user terminal to a network control system. When the circuit is no longer in use, the channels are then
returned to the central pool for reassignment to other users.
Channels are typically a pair of carrier frequencies (one for transmit and one for receive), but can be other
fixed bandwidth resources such as timeslots in a TDMA burst plan or even physical party line channels.
Once a channel is allocated to a given pair of nodes, it is not available to other users in the network until
their session is finished.

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Packet Reservation Multiple Access (PRMA) refers to a multiple access strategy with frames of a fixed
number of slots. In case a terminal contains a set of data packets or speech segments to deliver, it
competes to gain access in any free slot.
If it can successfully capture the base station (BS), the terminal acquires reservation in the associated slots
of the next frames, right until it releases the reservation. In PRMA, adjacent cells make use of distinct
carrier frequencies in line with a cellular reuse plan. The fundamental process of PRMA includes occupying
a time slot only at the time of speech talk spurts and releasing the channel at the time of silence periods.

Cellular network organization: A cellular network or mobile network is a communication network where
the last link is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one
fixed-location transceiver, but more normally three cell sites or base stations. These base stations provide
the cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data and others. A cell
typically uses a different set of frequencies from neighboring cells, to avoid interference and provide
guaranteed service quality within each cell.
When joined together these cells provide radio coverage over a wide geographic area. This enables a large
number of portable transceivers (e.g., mobile phones, pagers, etc.) to communicate with each other and
with fixed transceivers and telephones anywhere in the network, via base stations, even if some of the
transceivers are moving through more than one cell during transmission

Operation of cellular systems

The operation of a cellular mobile system can be described as five major functionalities and four additional
utilities. All the functions together make a complete mobile cellular system.
Mobile unit initialization
 When mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest setup control channel used for
system.
 Cells with different frequency bands repetitively broadcast on different setup channels.
 The receiver selects the strongest setup channel and monitors that channel.
 With this the mobile station has automatically selected the BS antenna of the cell within which it
will operate.
 Then handshake takes place b/w the mobile unit and MTSO controlling this cell through the BS in
this cell.
 Handshake is used to identify the user and register its location.
 As long as the mobile station is on, scanning is repeated periodically to account for the motion of
the unit.
 If the unit enters a new cell, then a new BS is selected.
Mobile-originated call
 A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number (Mobile Identification Number, MIN) of the
called unit on the preselected setup channel.
 The receiver of mobile unit checks if the forward channel (from BS) is idle.
 If idle the mobile may transmit over the reverse channel( To base station)
 BS sends request to the MTSO.
Paging
MTSO attempts to complete connection
MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on called mobile number.
BS sends paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.
Call accepted
 Called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being monitored and responds to
that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO.
 MTSO stes up a circuit between calling and called BSs.

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 MTSO selects available traffic channel within each BS’s cell and notifies each BS, which in turn
notifies its mobile unit (a data msg called alert is transmitted over FVC to instruct the mobile to
ring).
 The two mobile units tune to their respective channels.
Ongoing call
 While connection is maintained, two mobile stations exchange voice or data, through BSs and
MTSO.
Handoff
 If a mobile unit moves from range of one cell to another the traffic channel has to change.
 System makes this change without either interrupting the call or alerting the user.

Radio Propagation Effects : These are the effects of Propagation:

 Attenuation The strength of signal falls with distance over transmission medium. The extent of
attenuation is a function of distance, transmission medium, as well as the frequency of the
underlying transmission.
 Distortion Since signals at different frequencies attenuate to different extents, a signal comprising
of components over a range of frequencies gets distorted, i.e., the shape of the received signal
changes. A standard method of resolving this problem (and recovering the original shape) is to
amplify higher frequencies and thus equalize attenuation over a band of frequencies.
 Dispersion: Dispersion is the phenomenon of spreading of a burst of electromagnetic energy during
propagation. Bursts of data sent in rapid succession tend to merge due to dispersion.
 Noise The most pervasive form of noise is thermal noise, which is often modeled using an additive
Gaussian model. Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons and is uniformly distributed
across the frequency spectrum

Handoff: In a cellular telephone network, handoff is the transition for any given user of signal transmission
from one base station to a geographically adjacent base station as the user moves around. In an ideal
cellular telephone network, each end user's telephone set or modem (the subscriber's hardware) is always
within range of a base station. The region covered by each base station is known as its cell. The size and
shape of each cell in a network depends on the nature of the terrain in the region, the number of base
stations, and the transmit/receive range of each base station. In theory, the cells in a network overlap; for
much of the time, a subscriber's hardware is within range of more than one base station. The network
must decide, from moment to moment, which base station will handle the signals to and from each and
every subscriber's hardware.

Power Control: It is the intelligent selection of transmitter power output in a communication system to
achieve good performance within the system. The notion of "good performance" can depend on context
and may include optimizing metrics such as link data rate, network capacity, outage probability, geographic
coverage and range, and life of the network and network devices. Power control algorithms are used in
many contexts, including cellular networks, sensor networks and wireless LANs.

Sectoring (Sectorization)
The co-channel interference in a cellular system may be reduced by replacing a single omni-directional
antenna at the base station by several directional antennas radiating with in specified sectors. A cell is
normally partitioned in three 120 degree sectors or six 60 degree sectors. A given cell will receive
interference and transmit with only a fraction of the available co-channel cells. In the sectoring scheme,
the co-channel interference is reduced and thus system capacity is improved. Co-channel interference is
reduced because the number of interferer gets reduced

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Figure 11: Sectors

Traffic engineering is a method of optimizing the performance of a telecommunications network by
dynamically analyzing, predicting and regulating the behavior of data transmitted over that network.
Traffic engineering is also known as tele-traffic engineering and traffic management. The techniques of
traffic engineering can be applied to networks of all kinds, including the PSTN (public switched telephone
network), LANs (local area networks), WANs (wide area networks) and cellular telephone networks.

Infinite Sources, Lost Call Cleared, Grade of Service

Lost Call Cleared: The LCC model assumes that, the subscriber who does not avail the service, hangs up the
call, and tries later, the next attempt assumed as a new call. Hence, the call said to be cleared. This also
referred as blocked calls lost assumption.
Blocked calls may be handled in one of two ways. First, blocked calls can be put in a queue awaiting a free
channel; this is referred to as lost calls delayed (LCD), although in fact the call is not lost, merely delayed.
Second, a blocked call can be rejected and dropped. This in turn leads to two assumptions about the action
of the user. If the user hangs up and waits some random time interval before another call attempt, this is
known as lost calls cleared (LCC). If the user repeatedly attempts calling, it is known as lost calls held (LCH).

For each of these blocking options, formulas have been developed that characterize the performance of
the system. For cellular systems, the LCC model is generally used and is generally the most accurate.
The second key element of a traffic model is whether the number of users assumed finite or infinite. For an
infinite source model, there assumed a fixed arrival rate. For the finite source case, the arrival rate will
depend on the number of sources already engaged. In particular, if the total pool of users is L, each of
which generates calls at an average rate of AIL, then, when the cell is idle, the arrival rate is A. However, if
there are K users occupied at time t, then the instantaneous arrival rate at that time is 11.(L - K)/L. Infinite
source models are analytically easier to deal with. The infinite source assumption is reasonable when the
number of sources is at least 5 to 10 times the capacity of the system.

Infinite Sources, Lost Calls Cleared For an infinite source LCC model, the key parameter of interest is the
probability of loss, or grade of service. Thus a grade of service of 0.01 means that, during a busy hour, the
probability that an attempted call is blocked is 0.01 Values in the range 0.01 to 0.001 generally considered
quite well.
The equation of infinite source LCC, known as Erlang B, has the following form:

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Where
A = offered traffic
N = number of servers
P = probability of blocking (grade of service)

Poisson Arrival Process

A commonly used model for random, mutually independent message arrivals is the Poisson process. The
Poisson distribution can obtain by evaluating the following assumptions for arrivals during an infinitesimal
short period of time delta t
The probability that one arrival occurs between t and t+delta t is t + o( t), where is a constant,
independent of the time t, and independent of arrivals in earlier intervals is called the arrival rate.
The number of arrivals in non-overlapping intervals is statistically independent.
The probability of two or more arrivals happening during t is negligible compared to the probability of zero
or one arrival, i.e., it is of the order o( t).
Combining the first and third assumption, the probability of no arrivals during the interval t, t+ delta t is
found to be 1- t + o( t).
Arrival Rate: The arrival rate is expressed in the average number of arrivals during a unit of time.

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