Forced convection

Fluid dynamics

• Inviscid flow • Viscous flow

𝑦
𝑣∞
Uniform inlet flow 𝑑𝑣
𝜏=𝜇 𝑣
𝑑𝑦

𝑥
𝜏: shear stress
𝜇: dynamic viscosity
 Fluid dynamics

• Laminar flow • Turbulent flow

Laminar layer
Velocity profile
 Fluid dynamics

Laminar flow
𝑅𝑒 < 2 × 103
Transisional flow
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 103 ÷ 4 × 103
Turbulent flow
𝑅𝑒 > 4 × 103
 Fluid dynamics
Laminar flow Turbulent flow
 Laminar boundary layer
𝑦
• Velocity profile 𝑣∞

𝑣 3𝑦 1 𝑦 3
= − 𝑣 𝑑𝑦
𝛿
𝑣∞ 2 𝛿 2 𝛿
𝑥
𝑥

𝛿 5
• Laminar boundary thickness =
𝑥 𝑅𝑒
Turbulent boundary layer
Laminar layer 𝑦
𝑣∞

Turbulent layer
𝑣 𝛿
𝑑𝑦

𝑥
𝑥

Turbulent boundary thickness

𝛿
= 0.381𝑅𝑒 −0.2 − 10.256𝑅𝑒 −1
𝑥
Forced convection
in flat plate
 Thermal layer
• Temperature profile 𝑦
𝑇𝑓
3
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇 3 𝑦 1 𝑦
= −
𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑓 2 𝛿𝑡 2 𝛿𝑡 𝛿𝑡
𝑇𝑠
𝑥
𝑞

𝛿
• Thermal layer thickness = 1.64 𝑃𝑟
𝛿𝑡
 Differential relations
• Laminar boundary layer 𝑁𝑢 = 0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3

• Buffer layer
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 0.037𝑅𝑒 0.8 − 871 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 105 ÷ 107
൝
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 0.228𝑅𝑒 log 𝑅𝑒 −2.584 − 871 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 107 ÷ 109

• Turbulent boundary layer

𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 0.0296𝑅𝑒 −0.2 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 105 ÷ 107
൝
𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 0.185 log 𝑅𝑒 −2.584 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 107 ÷ 109
 Relation by Whitaker

0.25
0.43 0.8
𝜇∞
𝑁𝑢 = 0.036𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑒 − 9200
𝜇𝑤

𝑃𝑟 = 0.7 ÷ 380
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 105 ÷ 55 × 105
𝜇∞
= 0.26 ÷ 3.5
𝜇𝑤
 Other relations
• For liquid
0.25
0.5 0.43
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.76𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ; 𝑅𝑒 < 105
𝑃𝑟𝑤
0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.037𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.43 ; 𝑅𝑒 > 105
𝑃𝑟𝑤

• For air 𝑁𝑢 = 0.66𝑅𝑒 0.5 ; 𝑅𝑒 < 105

ቊ
𝑁𝑢 = 0.032𝑅𝑒 0.8 ; 𝑅𝑒 > 105
 Other relations
• For vertical plate
𝑁𝑢 = 0.67 𝑅𝑒𝐺𝑎2 𝑃𝑟 3 1Τ9 ; 𝑅𝑒 < 2000
൝
𝑁𝑢 = 0.01 𝑅𝑒𝐺𝑎𝑃𝑟 1Τ9 ; 𝑅𝑒 > 2000
 Other relations
Regime Restrictions Relations

𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 10 5 𝑁𝑢 = 0.332𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 ; 𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

ቊ ൝
𝑃𝑟 = 0.6 ÷ 50 𝑁𝑢 = 0.453𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 ; 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 0.3387𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3

𝑁𝑢 =
ቐ𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 2Τ3 0.25
0.0468
𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 > 100 1+ 𝑃𝑟
0.4637𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑁𝑢 =
Laminar ቊ 2Τ3 0.25
𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 0.0207
1+ 𝑃𝑟
𝑇𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
0.5
ቐ 𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 𝑁𝑢 = 0.564 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟 ≪ 1 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝛿
𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 = 5𝑅𝑒 −0.5
𝐿
𝑅𝑒 < 5 × 105 𝜉 = 0.332𝑅𝑒 −0.5
 Other relations
Regime Restrictions Relations

5 7 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 0.0296𝑅𝑒 −0.2 ; 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡

𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 10 ÷ 10 ൝
𝑁𝑢 = 0.030784𝑅𝑒 0,8 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 ; 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
ቊ 𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 0.185 log 𝑅𝑒 −2.584

Turbulent 𝑅𝑒 = 107 ÷ 109

𝛿
𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 105 ÷ 107 = 0.381𝑅𝑒 −0.2 − 10.256𝑅𝑒 −1
𝐿
𝑅𝑒 = 5 × 105 ÷ 107 𝜉 = 0.0592𝑅𝑒 −0.2
𝑅𝑒 = 107 ÷ 109 𝜉 = 0.37 log 𝑅𝑒 −2.584

𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
ቊ 𝑁𝑢 = 0.037𝑅𝑒 0.8 − 871 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
𝑅𝑒 < 107
Laminar – 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
Turbulent 0.25
𝑅𝑒 < 107 𝜇𝑓
𝜇𝑓 𝑁𝑢 = 0.036 𝑅𝑒 0.8 − 9200 𝑃𝑟 0.43
= 0.26 ÷ 3.5 𝜇𝑤
𝜇𝑤
 Forced convection
in laminar tube flow
 Fluid dynamics
Velocity profile
𝑟

𝑟𝑜 𝑇𝑜 , 𝑣𝑜

2
𝑣 𝑟
• Velocity profile =1−
𝑣𝑜 𝑟𝑜
2 4
𝑣𝑜 𝑟𝑜2 𝑟 1 𝑟 𝜕𝑇
• Temperature profile 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + −
4𝑎 𝑟𝑜 4 𝑟𝑜 𝜕𝑥
The bulk temperature
𝐿

𝑇𝑏1 𝑇𝑏2
𝑇𝑤
𝑞
Temperature varies in a wide range
?
𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇
Bulk temperature

𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇𝑏2 − 𝑇𝑏1

 The bulk temperature

𝑇𝑏1 + 𝑇𝑏2
If 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡, 𝑞 = ℎ 𝑇𝑤 −
2

𝑇𝑏1 +𝑇𝑏2
then, fluid properties are determined at
2
 Differential relations
𝑵𝒖 𝒇𝑹𝒆
Cross section of tube
𝑞𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 𝟒

3.111 2.470 13.333

3.608 2.976 14.227
𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 = 2𝑏 4.123 3.391 15.548
𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 = 3𝑏 4.790 3.960 17.250
𝑏 𝑎 = 4𝑏 5.331 4.440 18.230
𝑎
𝑏
𝑎 𝑎 = 8𝑏 6.490 5.597 20.585
𝑏
𝑎 𝑎՜∞ 8.235 7.541 24.000
heated
𝑏
𝑎 insulated 𝑎՜∞ 5.385 4.861 24.000
4.002 3.340 15.054
4.364 3.657 16.000
Empirical relations
 Graphical plot
𝑁𝑢
15 Circular tube

10

𝑥 1
𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
0
3 × 10−4 10−3 10−2 10−1 0.3
 Relation by Hausen

𝑑
0.0668𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 𝐿 𝜇
0.14
𝑁𝑢 = 3.66 + 2Τ3
𝑑 𝜇𝑤
1 + 0.045 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝐿

𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 = 0.1 ÷ 104
𝐿
Relation by Sieder & Tate

1Τ3 0.14
1Τ3
𝑑 𝜇
𝑁𝑢 = 1.86 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
𝐿 𝜇𝑤

𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 > 10
𝐿
 Other relations
0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.17𝑅𝑒 0.33 𝑃𝑟 0.43 𝐺𝑟 0.1
𝑃𝑟𝑤
𝐿
> 50
𝑑

𝜀
0.165625 = 10−6 ÷ 10−3
𝑆𝑡𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 = 2
ቐ𝑑
𝜀 5.74 𝑅𝑒 = 5000 ÷ 108
ln + 0.9
3.7𝑑 𝑅𝑒
 General relations
0.25
0.43
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑤

𝐾 = 𝑓 𝑅𝑒, 𝐺𝑟
𝐿
If < 50, multiplied by 𝜀
𝑑

𝑳
𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝒅
𝜺 1.9 1.7 1.44 1.28 1.18 1.13 1.05 1.02 1.0
 Forced convection
in turbulent tube flow
 Differential relations
• Laminar layer thickness
𝛿 1 Laminar layer
= ; 𝑅𝑒 = 104
𝑑 466
𝛿 1 𝛿
= ; 𝑅𝑒 = 105 𝑑
𝑑 3660
𝛿 1 Turbulent core
= ; 𝑅𝑒 = 106
𝑑 28400

• Dimensionless relations
𝑁𝑢 = 0.0395𝑅𝑒 0.75 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4
Empirical relations
 Relation by Dittus & Boelter

• For full turbulent

𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 𝑛

𝑃𝑟 = 0.6 ÷ 100
ቐ 𝑛 = 0.4; heating of the fluid
𝑛 = 0.3; cooling of the fluid
 Relation by Gnielinski

• For full turbulent

𝑁𝑢 = 0.0214 𝑅𝑒 0.8 − 100 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 104 ÷ 5 × 106

൝
𝑁𝑢 = 0.012 𝑅𝑒 0.87 − 280 𝑃𝑟 0.4 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 3 × 103 ÷ 106
 Relation by Sieder & Tate

• For full turbulent

0.14
0.8 1Τ3
𝜇
𝑁𝑢 = 0.027𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝜇𝑤
 Relation by Nusselt

• For entrance region

0.055
0.8 1Τ3
𝑑
𝑁𝑢 = 0.036𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝐿
𝐿
= 10 ÷ 400
𝑑
 Relation by Nusselt
• For full turbulent
0.25
0.8 0.43
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 𝜀ℓ 𝜀𝑅 0.021𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑤

𝑅𝑒 = 104 ÷ 500 × 104

𝑃𝑟 = 0.6 ÷ 2500
𝐿
> 50
𝑑
 Relation by Nusselt
• For full turbulent
0.25
0.8 0.43
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 𝜀ℓ 𝜀𝑅 0.021𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑤
𝜺ℓ = 𝒇 𝑹𝒆; 𝑳Τ𝒅 𝑳Τ𝒅
𝑹𝒆 𝟏 𝟐 𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟒 1.65 1.50 1.34 1.25 1.17 1.13 1.07 1.03 1
𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 1.51 1.40 1.27 1.18 1.13 1.10 1.05 1.02 1
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 1.34 1.27 1.18 1.13 1.10 1.08 1.04 1.02 1
𝟏𝟎𝟓 1.28 1.22 1.15 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.03 1.02 1
𝟏𝟎𝟔 1.14 1.11 1.08 1.05 1.04 1.03 1.02 1.01 1
𝒅 𝒅: 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
𝜺𝑹 = 𝟏 + 𝟏, 𝟕𝟕 𝑹 ቊ
𝑹: 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒃𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆
 Relation by Petukhov
𝑓
𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 𝜇𝑏
𝑛
8
𝑁𝑢 =
𝑓 0.5 𝜇𝑤
1.07 + 12.7 𝑃𝑟 2Τ3 − 1
8
𝑓 = 1.82 log 𝑅𝑒 − 1.64 −2
𝑇𝑤 +𝑇𝑏
Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑓 =
2

𝑃𝑟 = 0.5 ÷ 2000
𝑛 = 0; 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡 or gas
𝑅𝑒 = 104 ÷ 5 × 106
ቐ𝑛 = 0.11; 𝑇𝑤 > 𝑇𝑏 𝜇𝑏
𝑛 = 0.25; 𝑇𝑤 < 𝑇𝑏 = 0.8 ÷ 40
𝜇𝑤
 Relation by Seban & Shimazaki

• For liquid metals in smooth tubes

0.8
𝑁𝑢 = 5.0 + 0.025 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

𝑇𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 > 102
𝐿
> 60
𝑑
Relation by Skupinshi, Tortel & Vautrey

• For liquid metals in smooth tubes

0.827
𝑁𝑢 = 4.82 + 0.0185 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

𝑅𝑒 = 3.6 × 103 ÷ 905 × 103

ቐ𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 = 102 ÷ 104
𝑞𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
 Relation by Lubarsky & Kaufman

• For liquid metals in smooth tubes

0.4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.625 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 = 102 ÷ 104

𝑞𝑤 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡
𝐿
> 60
𝑑
 Other relations

• For liquid metals in smooth tubes

0.5
𝑁𝑢 = 0.53 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

• For air 𝑁𝑢 = 0.018𝑅𝑒 0.8

 Other relations

• For liquids

0.14 2Τ3
0.8 0.33
𝜇 𝑑
𝑁𝑢 = 0.024𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 1+
𝜇𝑤 𝐿

3 3
ቊ 𝑅𝑒 = 7 × 10 ÷ 1000 × 10
𝑃𝑟 = 1 ÷ 500
 Other relations

• For gases and vapors

2Τ3
0.786 0.45
𝑑
𝑁𝑢 = 0.024𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 1+
𝐿

3 3
ቊ 𝑅𝑒 = 7 × 10 ÷ 1000 × 10
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7 ÷ 10
 Other relations

• For gases and vapors in fixed packing

6𝑑ത
−
𝑁𝑢 = 0.813𝑅𝑒 0.9 𝑒 𝑑

𝑅𝑒 is determined by equivalent diameter of particles 𝑑ҧ

 Other relations

• For gases and vapors in fluidized bed,

from column to fluid
1.5 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.4
𝑐𝜌𝑑 𝑔 𝜂 𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.16
𝑘𝛽 0.9
𝑐: specific heat capacity of particles
𝜌: density of particles
𝑑: diameter of particles
𝑔: gravity acceleration
𝑘: thermal conductivity of fluid
𝜂: fluidized efficiency
𝛽: volume coefficient of expansion
 Other relations

• For gases and vapors in fluidized bed,

from fluid to particle bed

𝑁𝑢 = 0.016𝑅𝑒1.3 𝑃𝑟 0.67
൞𝑁𝑢 = 0.426𝑅𝑒 0.3 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 𝐴𝑟 0.17 ; 𝑅𝑒𝐴𝑟 0.4 < 2.15
1Τ3
𝑁𝑢 = 0.943𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝐴𝑟 0.69 ; 𝑅𝑒𝐴𝑟 0.4 > 2.15
−1

𝑁𝑢, 𝑅𝑒, 𝐴𝑟 are determined by diameter of particles 𝑑

 Other relations

6 × 10−5
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4 1−
𝑅𝑒 1.8

𝑅𝑒 = 2000 ÷ 104
 Other relations

0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾𝑃𝑟 0.43
𝑃𝑟𝑤

𝑅𝑒 = 2000 ÷ 104

𝑹𝒆 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 2.2 2.3 2.5 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

𝑲 2.2 3.6 4.9 7.5 10 12.2 16.5 20 24 27 30 33
 General relation

𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒 𝑚 𝑃𝑟 𝑛

𝐶, 𝑚, 𝑛 are constants to be determined

from experimental data
 General relation
104
𝑁𝑢
𝑃𝑟 0.4

For smooth flow

3
10

102

𝑅𝑒
101
103 104 105 106
Forced convection
in flow across
 Fluid dynamics

𝜌∞ ; 𝑣∞

𝜕𝑝
<0
Velocity profile 𝜕𝑥
𝑣 𝑦
𝛿
𝑥

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
>0 =0
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑣
<0
𝜕𝑦
Empirical relations
for cylinders
 Relation by Fand

𝑁𝑢 = 0.35 + 0.56𝑅𝑒 0.52 𝑃𝑟 0.3

𝑅𝑒 = 10−1 ÷ 105
Relation by Knudsen & Katz

𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
𝑇𝑤 +𝑇𝑏
Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑓 =
2

𝑹𝒆 𝑪 𝒏
4 × 10−1 ÷ 4 × 100 0.989 0.330
4 × 100 ÷ 4 × 101 0.911 0.385
4 × 101 ÷ 4 × 103 0.683 0.466
4 × 103 ÷ 4 × 104 0.193 0.618
4 × 104 ÷ 4 × 105 0.0266 0.805
 Relation by Knudsen & Katz
103
𝑁𝑢
𝑃𝑟 1Τ3

102

101

100

𝑅𝑒
10−1
10−1 101 103 106
 Relation by Knudsen & Katz
• For noncircular cylinder
Cross section of tube 𝑹𝒆 𝑪 𝒏
𝑣∞
𝑑 5 × 103 ÷ 105 0.246 0.588

𝑣∞
𝑑 5 × 103 ÷ 105 0.102 0.675

5 × 103 ÷ 1.95 × 104 0.160 0.638

𝑣∞
𝑑

1.95 × 104 ÷ 105 0.0385 0.782

𝑣∞
𝑑 5 × 103 ÷ 105 0.153 0.638

𝑣∞
𝑑 4 × 103 ÷ 1.5 × 104 0.228 0.731
 Relation by Eckert & Drake

0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.43 + 0.5𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.38 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 1 ÷ 103
𝑃𝑟𝑤
0.25
0.6 0.38
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.25𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 103 ÷ 2 × 105
𝑃𝑟𝑤

𝑃𝑟
For gases: =1
𝑃𝑟𝑤
Relation by Churchill & Bernstein

0.5 1Τ3 0.625 0.8

0.62𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + 1+
2Τ3 0.25 282000
0.4
1+
𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑒 = 102 ÷ 107
𝑇𝑤 +𝑇𝑏
Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑓 =
2
0.5
0.62𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3 𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 0.3 + 1+
2Τ3 0.25 282000
0.4
1+
𝑃𝑟 𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 104 ÷ 4 × 105
 Relation by Whitaker
0.25
0.5 2Τ3 0.4
𝜇
𝑁𝑢 = 0.4𝑅𝑒 + 0.06𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝜇𝑤

𝑅𝑒 = 40 ÷ 105
𝑃𝑟 = 0.65 ÷ 300
𝜇
= 0.25 ÷ 5.2
𝜇𝑤

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
Relation by Nakai & Okazaki

−1
𝑁𝑢 = 0.8237 − 0.5 ln 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

𝑇𝑤 +𝑇𝑏
Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑓 =
2

𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 < 0.2

 Other relations
• For liquids
0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.59𝑅𝑒 0.47 𝑃𝑟 0.38 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 101 ÷ 103
𝑃𝑟𝑤
0.25
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.21𝑅𝑒 0.62 𝑃𝑟 0.38 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 103 ÷ 2 × 105
𝑃𝑟𝑤

𝑁𝑢 = 0.52𝑅𝑒 0.47 ; 𝑅𝑒 < 103

• For air ቊ
𝑁𝑢 = 0.18𝑅𝑒 0.62 ; 𝑅𝑒 = 103 ÷ 2 × 105

• For different angles

𝝋 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
ℎ𝝋 Τℎ90° 0.42 0.50 0.63 0.75 0.80 0.95 0.99 1.0 1.0
 Forced convection
in flow across tube banks
 Fluid dynamics
• Maximum velocity
𝑆𝑛
𝑆𝑛 2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣∞ 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣∞ 1Τ2
𝑆𝑛 − 𝑑 𝑆𝑛 2
+ 𝑆𝑝2 −𝑑
2
𝑆𝑝 𝑆𝑝

𝑣∞ 𝑆𝑛 𝑣∞ 𝑆𝑛

in–line arrangement staggered arrangement

 Fluid dynamics
2 𝑁 0.14
2𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜇𝑤
• Pressure drop ∆𝑝 = 𝑓
𝜌 𝜇
𝐺𝑚𝑎𝑥 : mass velocity at minimum flow area, 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚2 𝑠
𝜌: density of fluid, 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝑁: number of transverse rows
𝜇: fluid viscosity, 𝑁𝑠Τ𝑚2
𝑆𝑝
0.08
𝑑
𝑓 = 0.044 + 0.43
−0.15
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 in–line arrangement
𝑆𝑛 − 𝑑 𝑑
+ 1.13
𝑑 𝑆𝑝
0.118 −0.16
𝑓 = 0.25 + 1.08 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 staggered arrangement
𝑆𝑛 − 𝑑
𝑑
Empirical relations
for tube banks
 Relation by Knudsen & Katz
• For 10 rows deep 𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛
𝑃𝑟 1Τ3

𝑺𝒏
𝑪; 𝒏
𝒅
𝑺𝒑 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0
𝒅 in–line arrangement
1.25 0.386 0.592 0.305 0.608 0.111 0.704 0.0703 0.752
1.5 0.407 0.586 0.278 0.620 0.112 0.702 0.0753 0.744
2.0 0.464 0.570 0.332 0.602 0.254 0.632 0.220 0.648
3.0 0.322 0.601 0.396 0.584 0.415 0.581 0.317 0.608
 Relation by Knudsen & Katz
𝑺𝒏
𝑪; 𝒏
𝒅
𝑺𝒑 1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0
𝒅 staggered arrangement
0.6 – – – – – – 0.236 0.636
0.9 – – – – 0.495 0.571 0.445 0.581
1.0 – – 0.552 0.558 – – – –
1.125 – – – – 0.531 0.565 0.575 0.560
1.25 0.575 0.556 0.561 0.554 0.576 0.556 0.579 0.562
1.5 0.501 0.568 0.511 0.562 0.502 0.568 0.542 0.568
2.0 0.448 0.572 0.462 0.568 0.535 0.556 0.498 0.570
3.0 0.344 0.592 0.395 0.580 0.488 0.562 0.467 0.574
 Relation by Knudsen & Katz
• For 𝑁 rows deep

𝒉𝑵 𝑵 rows deep
𝒉𝟏𝟎 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟏𝟎
in–line 0.64 0.80 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
staggered 0.68 0.75 0.83 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0
 Relation by Zukauskas 0.25
𝑃𝑟
• For 20 rows deep 𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑛 𝑃𝑟 0.36
𝑅𝑒 = 10 ÷ 106 𝑃𝑟𝑤
ቊ 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7 ÷ 500
Geometry 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑪 𝒏
101 ÷ 102 0.80 0.40
102 ÷ 103 Treat as single tubes
in–line arrangement
103 ÷ 2 × 105 0.27 0.63
> 2 × 105 0.21 0.84
101 ÷ 102 0.90 0.40
102 ÷ 103 Treat as single tubes
0,2
𝑆 𝑆𝑛
staggered arrangement For 𝑛 < 2: 0.35 0.60
𝑆𝑝 𝑆𝑝
103 ÷ 2 × 105
𝑆𝑛
For > 2: 0.40 0.60
𝑆𝑝

> 2 × 105 0.022 0.84

 Relation by Zukauskas
• For 𝑁 rows deep

𝒉𝑵 𝑵 rows deep
𝒉𝟐𝟎 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟔 𝟐𝟎
in–line 0.70 0.80 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0
staggered 0.77 0.84 0.89 0.92 0.94 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.0
 Relation by Colburn
• For 10 rows deep, in–line arrangement
0.6 1Τ3
𝑁𝑢 = 0.26𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟

• For 10 rows deep, staggered arrangement

0.6
𝑁𝑢 = 0.33𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟 1Τ3
• For 𝑁 rows deep
𝒉𝑵 𝑵 rows deep
𝒉𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟏𝟎
in–line 0.80 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
staggered 0.73 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
 Relation by Isashenco
0.25
𝑃𝑟
• For 10 rows deep 𝑁𝑢 = 𝑛
𝜀𝐶𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟 0.33
𝑃𝑟𝑤
Geometry 𝜺 𝑪 𝒏
−0.15
in–line arrangement 𝑠𝑝 Τ𝑑 0.26 0.65
1Τ6
𝑆 𝑆𝑛
For 𝑛 < 2:
𝑆𝑝 𝑆𝑝
staggered arrangement 0.91 0.60
𝑆𝑛
For > 2: 1.12
𝑆𝑝

• For 𝑁 rows deep

𝒉𝑵 𝑵 rows deep
𝒉𝟏𝟎 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔 𝟕 𝟖 𝟗 𝟏𝟎
in–line 0.80 0.87 0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
staggered 0.73 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.94 0.96 0.98 0.99 1.0
 Relation by Nusselt

𝑃𝑟 𝑠1 𝑠2 0.18
𝑁𝑢 = 0.021𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.43
𝑃𝑟𝑤 𝑑2

𝑠1

𝑠2
 Other relations
• For in–line arrangement
0.25
0.65 1Τ3
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.23𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑤
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 102 ÷ 2 × 105

• For staggered arrangement

0.25
0.6 1Τ3
𝑃𝑟
𝑁𝑢 = 0.41𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑤
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 102 ÷ 2 × 105
 Other relations
• For air and in–line arrangement
0.65
𝑁𝑢 = 0.21𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 102 ÷ 2 × 105

• For air and staggered arrangement

0.6
𝑁𝑢 = 0.37𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅𝑒 = 2 × 102 ÷ 2 × 105
 Other relations
• For different angles, multiplied by coefficient

𝝋 𝟏𝟎 𝟐𝟎 𝟑𝟎 𝟒𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝟕𝟎 𝟖𝟎 𝟗𝟎
ℎ𝝋 Τℎ90° 0.42 0.50 0.63 0.75 0.80 0.95 0.99 1.0 1.0
Empirical relations
for spheres
 Relation by McAdams

• For gases 𝑁𝑢 = 0.37𝑅𝑒 0.6

𝑅𝑒 = 17 ÷ 7 × 104

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Relation by Achenbach

• For gases

1.6 0.5
3𝑅𝑒
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + 0.25𝑅𝑒 + ; 𝑅𝑒 = 100 ÷ 3 × 105
104
𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 2 31𝑅𝑒 3
𝑁𝑢 = 430 + + 5
− 16
; 𝑅𝑒 = 3 × 105 ÷ 50 × 105
20 4 × 10 10

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Relation by Kramers

• For liquids

𝑁𝑢𝑃𝑟 −0.3 = 0.97 + 0.68𝑅𝑒 0.5

𝑅𝑒 = 1 ÷ 2000

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Relation by Vliet & Leppert

• For liquids
0.25
−0.3
𝜇𝑤
𝑁𝑢𝑃𝑟 = 1.2 + 0.53𝑅𝑒 0.54
𝜇

𝑅𝑒 = 1 ÷ 2 × 105

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Relation by Whitaker

• For gases and liquids

0.25
0.5 2Τ3 0.4
𝜇
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + 0.4𝑅𝑒 + 0.06𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
𝜇𝑤

𝑅𝑒 = 3.5 ÷ 8 × 104
ቊ
𝑃𝑟 = 0.7 ÷ 380
Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Relation by Witte

0.5
𝑁𝑢 = 2 + 0.386 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟

𝑅𝑒 = 356 × 102 ÷ 1525 × 102

Fluid properties at 𝑇𝑏
 Convection
in boiling & evaporation
 The effects
• Dimension 𝐿
Geometry • Position in space
• Roughness 𝜀

• Temperature difference ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

• Thermal conductivity 𝑘
• Heat flux 𝑞
• Viscosity 𝜇 , velocity 𝑣
• Fluid direction 𝜙

ℎ
• Density 𝜌 , heat capacity 𝑐𝑝 …
• Mass flowrate 𝑚
• Concentration, wettability…
• Pressure drop ∆𝑝

Fluid
Operation
properties
 Regimes of pooling boiling
Nucleate boiling is useful
for process design

Vapour will be observed

log ℎ

over the water surface. No

bubbles will be observed
Film boiling

∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡

10−1 100 101 102 103 104

 Empirical relations
𝑚: mass flow per unit depth 𝑘𝑔Τℎ
Authors Restrictions Relations
Water in horizontal tube, 𝑚 < 195 ℎ = 1870𝑞 0.13
Zakharov
Water in horizontal tube, 𝑚 > 195 ℎ = 535𝑞 0.26
Water in vertical tube, 𝑚 < 150 ℎ = 8.15𝑞 0.6
Tananaiko I.M. Water in vertical tube, 𝑚 = 150 ÷ 400 ℎ = 23.6𝑞 0.527
Water out of vertical tube, 𝑚 = 100 ÷ 3000 ℎ = 560𝑞 0.05 𝑚0.2 𝑎−0.3
Bressler R. Turbulent vertical plate ℎ = 1.45𝑞 0.54
NaOH 2% out of vertical tube, 𝑞 = 2 ÷ 6 × 104 ℎ = 1860𝑞 −0.195 𝑚0.604
NaOH 10% out of vertical tube, 𝑞 = 2 ÷ 6 × 104 ℎ = 432000𝑞 −0.465 𝑚0.2
Rishkov I.A. NaOH 15% out of vertical tube, 𝑞 = 2 ÷ 6 × 104 ℎ = 1580000𝑞 −0.525 𝑚0.075
NaOH 25% out of vertical tube, 𝑞 = 2 ÷ 6 × 104 ℎ = 1070000𝑞 −0,.5 𝑚0.085
Water out of vertical tube, 𝑞 = 2 ÷ 6 × 104 ℎ = 12.1𝑞 0.32 𝑚0.435
Liquefied air in short tube, 𝑞 = 120 ÷ 9400 ℎ = 80𝑞 0.46 𝑚0.1
Vishner I.P.
Industrial tube, 𝑞 = 120 ÷ 9400 ℎ = 450𝑞 0.25
 Empirical relations
Authors Restrictions Relations
Boiling water with horizontal surface
𝑞 < 16 𝑘𝑊 Τ𝑚2 1 Τ3
൞ 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0 ÷ 7.76℃
ℎ = 1042 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
ℎ = 0 ÷ 2060 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾

Boiling water with horizontal surface

𝑞 = 16 ÷ 240 𝑘𝑊 Τ𝑚2 3
൞ 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 7.32 ÷ 14.4℃
ℎ = 5.56 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
ℎ = 2180 ÷ 16600 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾
Jakob & Hawkins
Boiling water with vertical surface
𝑞 < 3 𝑘𝑊 Τ𝑚2 1 Τ7
൞𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 0 ÷ 4.51℃
ℎ = 537 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
ℎ = 0 ÷ 670 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾

Boiling water with vertical surface

𝑞 = 3 ÷ 63 𝑘𝑊 Τ𝑚2 3
൞𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 4.41 ÷ 9.43℃
ℎ = 7.96 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
ℎ = 680 ÷ 6680 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾
 Regimes of flow boiling
ℎ
Liquid forced convection

Vapor forced convection

Bubble
Slug

Annular Mist
Transition

0 Quality 𝑥% 100
 Empirical relations
𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

For convection 𝑁𝑢 = 0.019𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 0.4

𝐺 1−𝑥 𝐿 𝑥: dryness
𝑅𝑒 = 𝐺: mass flowrate
𝜇
Authors Restrictions Relations
Boiling water 3.96
McAdams 𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 2.253 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
Pressure system 𝑝 = 0.2 ÷ 0.7𝑀𝑃𝑎
Boiling water
Levy
Pressure system 𝑝 = 0.7 ÷ 14𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑞𝑏𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 283𝑝4Τ3 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 3

𝑠𝑝
= 1.3 𝑁𝑢 = 0.01𝑅𝑒 0.9 𝑃𝑟 0.4
Flush irrigation outside 𝑑
of horizontal tube bank 𝑠𝑝
= 1.7 ÷ 2 𝑁𝑢 = 0.0245𝑅𝑒 0.73 𝑃𝑟 0.4
𝑑
 Empirical relations
Authors Restrictions Relations
0.9
𝜋𝑑𝐿
Film boiling downward in tube, 𝑅𝑒 < 7000 𝑁𝑢 = 198 × 10−7 𝑅𝑒 0.35 𝑃𝑟 0.3
𝜎
Kewille J.F.
0.9
𝜋𝑑𝐿
Film boiling downward in tube, 𝑅𝑒 > 7000 𝑁𝑢 = 54 × 10−7 𝑅𝑒 0.5 𝑃𝑟 0.3
𝜎
Haase B. & Film boiling downward in tube without
Struve H. bubble, 𝑞 < 8000 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝑁𝑢 = 554 × 10−5 𝑅𝑒 0.856 𝑃𝑟 0.344
CFCl3 film boiling downward in tube,
𝑚 < 100
𝑁𝑢 = 0.9𝑅𝑒 −0.33

Film boiling downward in tube, 0.844

Struve H. 𝑚 = 100 ÷ 800 𝑁𝑢 = 0.176𝑅𝑒 0.196
−
𝑃𝑟 + 2.95
Film boiling downward in tube, 0.778
𝑚 > 800
𝑁𝑢 = 0.152 − 𝑅𝑒 0.231
𝑃𝑟 + 5.47
Sinek J.R. & 1 Τ3
Young E.H.
Film boiling upward in tube 𝑁𝑢 = 0.01 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟
 Empirical relations

For flow boiling water in vertical tube 𝑝 = 5 ÷ 170𝑎𝑡𝑚

ℎ = 2.54 𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 3 𝑒 𝑝Τ1.551

by Jakob
Convection in condensation
 The effects

• Wall surface
Geometry • Tube arrangement

• Temperature 𝑇𝑠 , 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡
• Heat flux direction 𝜑
• Vapor velocity 𝑣
• Heat flux 𝑞
• Wall temperature
• Fluid direction 𝜙
• Superheat
•
•
Mass flowrate 𝑚
Pressure drop ∆𝑝
ℎ •
•
Foul gas
Co–condensable

Fluid
Operation
properties
 Empirical relations
Condensation number
1Τ3
𝜇2
𝐶𝑜 = ℎ
𝑘 3 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 𝜌𝑙𝑖𝑞 − 𝜌𝑣𝑎𝑝 𝑔

Authors Restriction Relation

Vertical plate 𝑅𝑒 < 1800 𝐶𝑜 = 1.47𝑅𝑒 −1Τ3
Differential equation
Horizontal cylinder 𝑅𝑒 < 1800 𝐶𝑜 = 1.514𝑅𝑒 −1Τ3
Kirkbride Turbulent film 𝑅𝑒 > 1800 𝐶𝑜 = 0.0077𝑅𝑒 0.4
 Empirical relations
Authors Restriction Relation
0.25
0.25
∆ℎ
Vertical plate in laminar region 𝑁𝑢 = 0.943 𝐺𝑎𝑃𝑟
𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
0.25
0.25
∆ℎ sin 𝜑∡
Nusselt Inclined plate 𝜑∡ in laminar region 𝑁𝑢 = 0.943 𝐺𝑎𝑃𝑟
𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇
0.25 0.25
0.25
∆ℎ 𝐿
Horizontal tube in laminar region 𝑁𝑢 = 0.726 𝐺𝑎𝑃𝑟
𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 𝑑