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STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

Statistical process control (SPC) is the application of statistical techniques to ensure that processes meet
standards. All processes are subject to a certain degree of variability. While studying process data in the
1920s, Walter Shewhart of Bell Laboratories made the distinction between the common (natural) and
special (assignable) causes of variation. He developed a simple but powerful tool to separate the two—the
control chart. A process is said to be operating in statistical control when the only source of variation is
common (natural) causes. The process must first be brought into statistical control by detecting and
eliminating special (assignable) causes of variation. Then its performance is predictable, and its ability to
meet customer expectations can be assessed. The objective of a process control system is to provide a
statistical signal when assignable causes of variation are present. Such a signal can quicken appropriate
action to eliminate assignable causes.
Control Charts for Variables
The 𝑥𝑥̅ -chart tells us whether changes have occurred in the central tendency (the mean, in this case) of a
process. These changes might be due to such factors as tool wear, a gradual increase in temperature, a
different method used on the second shift, or new and stronger materials.
The 𝑅𝑅-chart values indicate that a gain or loss in dispersion has occurred. Such a change may be due to
worn bearings, a loose tool, an erratic flow of lubricants to a machine, or to sloppiness on the part of a
machine operator.
The Central Limit Theorem
This theorem states that regardless of the distribution of the population, the distribution of 𝑥𝑥̅ 𝑠𝑠 (each of which
is a mean of a sample drawn from the population) will tend to follow a normal curve as the number of
samples increases. Fortunately, even if each sample (𝑛𝑛) is fairly small (say, 4 or 5), the distributions of the
averages will still roughly follow a normal curve. The theorem also states that: (1) the mean of the
distribution of the 𝑥𝑥̅ 𝑠𝑠 (called 𝑥𝑥̅̅ ) will equal the mean of the overall population (called 𝜇𝜇 ); and (2) the standard
deviation of the sampling distribution, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥̅ , will be the population (process) standard deviation, divided by
the square root of the sample size, 𝑛𝑛.

In other words:
𝜎𝜎
𝑥𝑥̅̅ = 𝜇𝜇 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 =
√𝑛𝑛
�-Charts)
Setting Mean Chart Limits ( 𝒙𝒙
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈) = 𝑥𝑥̄̄ + 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿) = 𝑥𝑥̄̄ − 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥
Let:
be the mean of the sample means or a target value set for the process
𝑧𝑧 be the number of normal standard deviations (2 for 95.45% confidence, 3 for 99.73%)
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 be the standard deviation of the sample means
𝜎𝜎 be the population (process) standard deviation
𝑛𝑛 be the sample size

Example:

The weights of boxes of Oat Flakes within a large production lot are sampled each hour. Managers
want to set control limits that include 99.73% of the sample means. The population (process)
standard deviation (𝜎𝜎) is known to be one (1) ounce.

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Weight of Sample Weight of Sample Weight of Sample

Average of 9 Average of 9 Average of 9
Hour Hour Hour
boxes boxes boxes
1 16.1 5 16.5 9 16.3
2 16.8 6 16.4 10 14.8
3 15.5 7 15.2 11 14.2
4 16.5 8 16.4 12 17.3

Solution:
∑12
𝑡𝑡=1 (𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛) 192
𝑥𝑥̅̅ = = = 16 ounces.
12 12
Since the standard deviation is 99.73%, 𝒛𝒛 = 3,
1 1
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̄̄ + 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 16 + 3 � � = 16 + 3 � � = 16 + 1 = 17 ounces.
√9 3
1 1
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̄̄ − 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥̄ = 16 − 3 � � = 16 − 3 � � = 16 − 1 = 15 ounces.
√9 3
17.5

17

16.5

16

15.5

15

14.5

14
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Average of 9 boxes x UCL LCL

Figure 1. x-Chart of Oat Flakes

Note: Because the means of recent sample averages fall outside the upper and lower control limits
of 17 and 15, we can conclude that the process is becoming erratic and is not in control.

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Because process standard deviations are often not available, calculate control limits based on the
average range values rather than on standard deviations.

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̅̅ + 𝐴𝐴2 𝑅𝑅� 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̅̅ − 𝐴𝐴2 𝑅𝑅�

Let:
𝑅𝑅� be the average range of all the samples
𝐴𝐴2 be the values from Table 1 (Page 12)
𝑥𝑥̅̅ be the mean of the sample means
𝑘𝑘 be the total number of samples

Example:

Super Cola’s bottled soft drinks are labeled “net weight 12 ounces.” Indeed, it has been found that
there is an overall process average of 12 ounces by taking 10 samples, in which each sample
contained five (5) bottles. The OM team wants to determine the upper and lower control limits for
averages in this process.
Weight of lightest Weight of heaviest Range (𝑹𝑹𝒊𝒊 ) =
Sample bottle in sample of bottle in sample of Average difference between
𝒏𝒏=5 𝒏𝒏=5 these two
1 11.50 11.72 11.61 0.22
2 11.97 12.00 11.99 0.03
3 11.55 12.05 11.80 0.50
4 12.00 12.20 12.10 0.20
5 11.95 12.00 11.98 0.05
6 10.55 10.75 10.65 0.20
7 12.50 12.75 12.63 0.25
8 11.00 11.25 11.13 0.25
9 10.60 11.00 10.80 0.40
10 11.70 12.10 11.90 0.40
Total 𝑅𝑅𝑖𝑖 = 2.50

Solution:
2.50
𝑅𝑅� = = 0.25 ounces.
10 samples
Values from Table 1 shows that 𝐴𝐴2 with a sample size of 5 is 0.577. Therefore,
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̅̅ + 𝐴𝐴2 𝑅𝑅� = 12 + 0.577(0.25) = 12 + 0.144 = 12.144 ounces.
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥̅ = 𝑥𝑥̅̅ − 𝐴𝐴2 𝑅𝑅� = 12 − 0.577(0.25) = 12 − 0.144 = 11.856 ounces.

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13

12.5

12

11.5

11

10.5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Figure 2. x-Chart of Super Cola

Setting Range Chart Limits (𝑹𝑹-Charts)

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 = 𝐷𝐷4 𝑅𝑅� 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅 = 𝐷𝐷3 𝑅𝑅�

Where:
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅 is the upper control limit for the range
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅 is the lower control limit for the range
𝐷𝐷4 , 𝐷𝐷3 are the values from Table 1 (Page 12)

Case:

Roy Clinton’s mail-ordering business wants to measure the response time of its operators in taking
customer orders over the phone. Clinton lists below the time recorded (in minutes) from five different
samples of the ordering process with four customer orders per sample. He wants to determine the upper
and lower range control chart limits.

Find the 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅 and 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑅𝑅 values with a sample size of 4.

Sample Observations (minutes) Sample Range (𝑹𝑹𝒊𝒊 )
1 5, 3, 6, 10 10 − 3 = 7
2 7, 5, 3, 5 7−3=4
3 1, 8, 3, 12 12 − 1 = 11
4 7, 6, 2, 1 7−1=6
5 3, 15, 6, 12 15 − 3 = 12
𝚺𝚺𝑹𝑹𝒊𝒊 = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒

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Solution:
40
�=
𝑹𝑹 =8
5
Values from Table 1 shows that 𝐷𝐷4 with a sample size of 4 is 2.282. Therefore,
𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑳𝑳𝑹𝑹 = 𝐷𝐷4 𝑅𝑅� = 2.282(8) = 18.256.

Values from Table 1 shows that 𝐷𝐷3 with a sample size of 4 is 0. Therefore,
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑹𝑹 = 𝐷𝐷3 𝑅𝑅� = 0(8) = 0.

18

16

14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5

Sample Range UCL LCL R

Figure 3. R-Chart for Roy Clinton’s Business

Note: Since there was no sample plotted out of the control limits, the process is in control.

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Control Charts for Attributes (p-Charts and c-Charts)

P-Charts
Using p-charts is the chief way to control attributes. Although attributes that are either good or bad
follow the binomial distribution, the normal distribution can be used to calculate p-chart limits when
sample sizes are large. The procedure resembles the 𝑥𝑥̅ -chart approach, which is also based in the
central limit theorem.
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝̅ + 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑝𝑝 = 𝑝𝑝̅ − 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝
Let:
𝑝𝑝̅ be the mean fraction (percent) defective in the samples
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑝𝑝̅ =
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠

𝑧𝑧 be the number of standard deviations (𝑧𝑧 = 2 for 95.45% limits; 𝑧𝑧 = 3 for 99.73% limits)
𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝 be the standard deviation of the sampling distribution

𝑝𝑝̅ (1 − 𝑝𝑝̅ )
𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝 = �
𝑛𝑛

Case:

Clerks at Mosier Data Systems key in thousands of insurance records each day for a variety of client
firms. CEO Donna Mosier wants to set control limits to include 99.73% of the random variation in the
data entry process when it is in control.

Samples of the work of 20 clerks are gathered. Mosier carefully examines 100 records entered by each
clerk and counts the number of errors.

Sample Number of Fraction Sample Number of Fraction

Number Errors Defective Number Errors Defective
1 6 .06 11 6 .06
2 5 .05 12 1 .01
3 0 .00 13 8 .08
4 1 .01 14 7 .07
5 4 .04 15 5 .05
6 2 .02 16 4 .04
7 5 .05 17 11 .11
8 3 .03 18 3 .03
9 3 .03 19 0 .00
10 2 .02 20 4 .04

Solution:
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 80
�=
𝒑𝒑 = = .04
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 × 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 100(20)
𝑝𝑝̅ (1 − 𝑝𝑝̅ ) . 04(1 − .04)
� 𝑝𝑝 = �
𝝈𝝈 =� = .02
𝑛𝑛 100

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Since the standard deviation is 99.73%, 𝒛𝒛 = 3,

𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑳𝑳𝒑𝒑 = 𝑝𝑝̅ + 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝 = .04 + 3(. 02) = 0.10.
𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝒑𝒑 = 𝑝𝑝̅ − 𝑧𝑧𝜎𝜎𝑝𝑝 = .04 − 3(. 02) = −0.2.

0.12

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Fraction Defective p UCL LCL

Figure 4. p-Chart for Mosier Data Systems

Note: Only one (1) data-entry clerk (number 17) is out of control.

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C-Charts
C-Charts are used to control the number of defects per unit of output. Control charts for defects are
helpful for monitoring processes in which a large number of potential errors can occur, but the actual
number that does occur is relatively small. Defects may be errors in newspaper words, bad circuits
in a microchip, blemishes on a table, or missing pickles on a fast-food hamburger.
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 = 𝑐𝑐̅ ± 3√𝑐𝑐̅

Case: Setting Control Limits for Number of Defects

Red Top Cab Company receives several complaints per day about the behavior of its drivers. Over a
nine-day period (where days are the units of measure), the owner, Gordon Hoft, received the following
numbers of calls from irate passengers: 3, 0, 8, 9, 6, 7, 4, 9, 8, for a total of 54 complaints. Hoft wants
to compute 99.73% control limits.

Solution:
54
𝑐𝑐̅ = = 6 complaints per day
9

From the equation above,

𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐̅ + 3√𝑐𝑐̅ = 6 + 3√6 = 6 + 3(2.45) = 13.35, 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 13
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 = 𝑐𝑐̅ − 3√𝑐𝑐̅ = 6 − 3√6 = 6 − 3(2.45) = 0

Note: 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐 is zero (0) because the results cannot be negative.

14

12

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Irate UCL LCL c

Figure 5. c-Chart for Red Top Cab Company

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Managerial Issues and Control Charts

Managers must make three (3) major decisions regarding control charts:
First: Managers must select the points in their process that need SPC. They may ask “Which parts of the
job are critical to success?” or “Which parts of the job have a tendency to become out of control?”
Second: Managers need to decide if variable charts (i.e., 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑅𝑅) or attribute charts (i.e., 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑐𝑐) are
appropriate. Variable charts monitor weights or dimensions. Attribute charts are more of a “yes–no” or
“go–no go” gauge and tend to be less costly to implement.
Third: The company must set clear and specific SPC policies for employees to follow. For example,
should the data-entry process be halted if a trend is appearing in percent defective records being keyed?
Should an assembly line be stopped if the average length of five (5) successive samples is above the
centerline?

Patterns to Look for on Control Charts

Figure 6. Control Chart Patterns

Source: Operations Management: Sustainability and Supply Chain Management (12th ed.), 2017. p.259.

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Process Capability
Process capability is the ability of the process to meet or exceed the technical specifications obtained
from customers. A process that is not capable of meeting specifications means that defective outputs are
being produced (Schroeder & Goldstein, 2018).

Process Capability Ratio (𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑 )

For a process to be capable, its values must fall within upper and lower specifications. This typically
means the process capability is within ±3 standard deviations from the process mean. Because this
range of values is 6 standard deviations, a capable process tolerance, which is the difference between
the upper and lower specifications, must be greater than or equal to 6.
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑 =
6𝜎𝜎

Case:

In a GE insurance claims process, 𝑥𝑥̅ = 210.0 minutes, and 𝜎𝜎 = .516 minutes

The design specification to meet customer expectations is 210 ± 3 minutes. So the Upper
Specification is 213 minutes and the lower specification is 207 minutes. The OM manager wants
to compute the process capability ratio.

Solution:
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 213 − 207
𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑 = = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗
6𝜎𝜎 6(.516)

Process Capability Index (𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 )

The process capability index, 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 , measures the difference between the desired and actual dimensions
of goods or services produced.
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 − 𝑥𝑥̄ 𝑥𝑥̄ − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � , �
3𝜎𝜎 3𝜎𝜎
Let:
𝑋𝑋� be the Process mean
𝜎𝜎 be the standard deviation of the process population

Case:

You are the process improvement manager and have developed a new machine to cut insoles for
the company’s top-of-the-line running shoes. You are excited because the company’s goal is no
more than 3.4 defects per million, and this machine may be the innovation you need. The insoles
cannot be more than ±.001 of an inch from the required thickness of .250”. You want to know if you
should replace the existing machine, which has a 𝐶𝐶𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 of 1.0.

Mean of the new process 𝑋𝑋� = .250 inches.

Standard deviation of the new process = 𝜎𝜎 = .0005 inches.

Solution:
𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼𝑼 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 0.250 + 0.001 = .251 inches.

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𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳𝑳 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 = 0.250 − 0.001 = .249 inches.

0.251 − 0.250 0.250 − 0.249
𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 � , �
3(0.0005) 3(0.0005)
.001
Note: Both calculations result in: = 0.67
.0015
Because the new machine has a 𝑪𝑪𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 of only 0.67, the new machine should not replace the
existing machine.

REFERENCES
Heizer, J., Render, B., & Munson, C. (2017). Operations management: Sustainability and supply chain
management (12th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education Inc.
Schroeder, R. & Goldstein, S. M. (2018). Operations management in the supply chain: Decisions and cases
(7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

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Control Chart Constants

Sample Size, 𝒏𝒏 Mean Factor, 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 Upper Range, 𝑫𝑫𝟒𝟒 Lower Range, 𝑫𝑫𝟑𝟑
2 1.880 3.268 0
3 1.023 2.574 0
4 0.729 2.282 0
5 0.577 2.115 0
6 0.483 2.004 0
7 0.419 1.924 0.076
8 0.373 1.864 0.136
9 0.337 1.816 0.184
10 0.308 1.777 0.223
11 0.285 1.744 0.256
12 0.266 1.716 0.284
13 0.249 1.693 0.307
14 0.235 1.672 0.328
15 0.223 1.653 0.347
16 0.212 1.637 0.363
17 0.203 1.622 0.378
18 0.194 1.608 0.391
19 0.187 1.597 0.403
20 0.180 1.585 0.415
21 0.173 1.575 0.425
22 0.167 1.566 0.434
23 0.162 1.557 0.443
24 0.157 1.548 0.451
25 0.153 1.541 0.459
Table 1. Table for Constants

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