SUBJECT- VERB AGREEMENT

Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the verb or verbs in a sentence must match the number,
person, and gender of the subject; in English, the verb needs to match just the number and sometimes the
person. For example, the singular subject it and the plural subject they use different versions of the same verb:
“it goes . . . ” and “they go . . . ”

Learning the rules for subject-verb agreement can be difficult at first, but with enough practice, you’ll find they
start to make more sense. Below, we explain everything you need to tackle any subject-verb agreement
exercises you come across, including demonstrations of how they work with lots of subject-verb agreement
examples. 

What is subject-verb agreement?

Subject-verb agreement, also called “subject-verb concord,” refers to matching the subject and verb of a
sentence in tense, aspect, and mood (abbreviated as TAM), which translates to number, person, and gender. 

English doesn’t use grammatical gender (except for pronouns), and only the verb be changes based on whether
it’s first, second, or third person. That means most English subject-verb agreement is about quantity: if the
subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. 

Even this can get confusing, though, because talking in the first-person singular (“I climb the fence”) uses the
same verb format as talking in the first-person plural (“We climb the fence”). Aside from the verb be, subject-
verb agreement in English adapts verbs to the third-person singular (“It climbs the fence”). 

Usage and subject-verb agreement examples

Basically, most subjects except third-person singular use the standard form of a verb in the present tense. 

The dogs roll in the mud. 

I need to catch my breath. 

You look like a celebrity! 

However, if the subject is third-person singular, you must use the singular form of the verb when speaking in
the present tense. Most of the time, this means adding an -s to the end of the verb. 

The dog rolls in the mud. 

She needs to catch her breath. 

He looks like a celebrity!

If the verb ends in -x, –ss, –sh, –ch, –tch, or –zz, you add –es to the end to match the third-person singular. 

My snake hisses to say “I love you.” 

She only matches with creeps in online dating. 

If the verb ends in a consonant + y, remove the y and add –ies to match the third-person singular. 

Atlas carries the world on his shoulders. 

The new drone flies higher than the old one. 

However, with words that end in a vowel + y, follow the normal format and add only –s to make the third-
person singular. 

My roommate stays in his bedroom from morning to night. 

With the exception of the verb be, these guidelines apply to irregular verbs as well as regular verbs.  

Our father eats with the ferocity of a tiger. 

So why does the verb be have so many exceptions? The most common verb in English, be doesn’t just represent
a general state of existence; it’s also an auxiliary verb necessary for the continuous tenses. 

In English, be is the only verb that changes based on the person. If you’re using the verb be, alone or as part of a
continuous tense, the subject-verb agreement rules require that you match both the number and the person.
Here’s a quick reminder of how to conjugate be in the singular and plural of each person: 

Singular Plural
     First person (I) am (we) are
     Second person (you) are (you) are
     Third person (he/she/it) is (they) are

Considering how frequently be is used in English, it’s best to memorize this chart so you can apply the proper
subject-verb agreement instinctively. 

You are always welcome in our home. 

I am running a marathon tomorrow. 

It is raining even though it is sunny. 

If the subject-verb agreement rules seem complicated, there is some good news: the simple past and simple
future don’t change based on the number or person of the subject. Both singular and plural subjects use the
same form for those tenses. 

They will be here tomorrow. 

He will be here tomorrow. 

The potatoes grew overnight!

The potato grew overnight! 

The only exception is, again, the verb be, which changes between was and were based on the subject in the
simple past tense. 

I was young once.

We were young once. 

On the other hand, the perfect tenses change their auxiliary verb depending on the number of the subject.
Singular subjects use has, and plural subjects use have. 

They have not seen the movie yet, so no spoilers. 

She has not seen the movie yet, so no spoilers. 

That covers the basics for subject-verb agreement in English. Still, there are some particularly difficult areas
and more precise rules for special situations, which we explain below. 

Advanced subject-verb agreement rules

Here’s a list of some additional subject-verb agreement rules to clear up the more problematic areas. If you’re
still confused, review the subject-verb agreement examples to see how they work. 

1 When using the negative form in the present tense, only the verb do needs to match the subject. 
She does not like reading before bed. 

She likes reading before bed. 

2 Likewise, in questions that involve the word do, only do needs to match the subject. 

Do you know where the train station is? 

Does anyone know where the train station is? 

3 If the subject consists of multiple nouns joined by the conjunction and, treat the subject as plural and use the
plural form of the verb. 

Lucas and Maxine are in love!

Only Lucas is in love. 

However, some common phrases that form a single unit can act as singular. 

This bed and breakfast is delightful! 

4 If the subject consists of multiple singular nouns joined by or, treat the subject as singular. 

Penne or rigatoni works fine for the recipe. 

However, if the subject consists of multiple plural nouns joined by or, treat the subject as plural. 

Cats or dogs make good friends. 

If there’s a combination of singular and plural nouns joined by or, the verb follows the number of the final one
listed. 

The teacher or the students have to inform the principal. 

The students or the teacher has to inform the principal. 

5 If there is more than one active verb, as with compound predicates, all the verbs must agree with the subject. 

After work, I go shopping, pick up the kids, cook dinner, and then relax for the night. 

6 Mass nouns, otherwise known as “uncountable nouns” or “noncount nouns,” act as singular subjects. 

Love makes the world go around. 

7 Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on whether they act together or separately. 

[Together, singular] The team goes to practice at 4:00. 

[Separately, plural] The team go to their own homes after practice. 

8 Verbs used in alternative forms, such as gerunds, infinitives, or participles, do not need to follow subject-verb
agreement. However, the main verbs of the sentence still do. 

The coach makes running mandatory. 

The coaches make running mandatory. 

9 Unless you’re using an appositive or other descriptive phrase, do not put a comma between subjects and
verbs.

The holiday is becoming a total disaster. 

The holiday, which I was looking forward to, is becoming a total disaster. 

10 The words each and every count as singular when they’re used as the subject, even if they’re followed by
multiple nouns. 
Each window and door needs to be sealed. 

Every doctor, nurse, and technician gets free training here. 

11 Likewise, these words always act as singular subjects, even when they describe more than one thing:

 anybody

 anyone

 either

 everybody

 everyone

 neither

 no one

 nobody

 somebody

 someone

Everybody loves using correct grammar! 

Either blue or green works for the wallpaper color. 

12 If additional phrases come between the subject and the verb, the verb must still agree with the subject. These
sentences can be tricky, so be careful. 

A group consisting of Professor Lidenbrock, the Icelandic guide Hans Bjelke, and the professor’s nephew
Axel departs for the volcano. 

Be particularly careful of subjects that use the phrase “one of . . . ” The word one is singular, even when
followed by plural nouns. 

One of the world’s leading scientists still has trouble speaking in public. 

13 In the active vs. passive voice debate, the verb in the passive voice still follows whatever word acts as the
subject. 

They pay the electric bill online. 

The electric bill is paid by them online. 

14 When choosing between “there is . . . ” and “there are  . . . ,” the verb should match the number of the noun
that follows it. The same goes for sentences beginning with “here . . . ”

There is a new map in the DLC. 

There are new maps in the DLC. 

15 Similarly, words that indicate a portion, including percentages, use the number of the noun they describe.
This noun is typically the object of the phrase “of . . . ”

All of the book is ruined!

All of the books are ruined!

Some of the film is funny. 

Some of the films are funny. 

Fifty percent of the house is made of wood. 

Fifty percent of the houses are made of wood. 

16 When referring to distances, periods of time, or amounts of money—taken as a whole—use the singular
form of the verb. 

Twenty dollars is too much for IMAX! 

17 Be careful of nouns that exist only in the plural form; they sometimes act as singular. 

The news has been depressing lately. 

Politics is getting too combative. 

However, some of these nouns act as plural. 

The scissors do not work. 

If a plural noun is preceded by the word pair, treat the subject as singular because pair is singular.  

The pair of scissors does not work. 

What is subject-verb agreement?

Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the subject and verb in a sentence should use the same
number, person, and gender. With the exception of the verb be, in English subject-verb agreement is about
matching the number. 

How does subject-verb agreement work?

In English, if a subject is singular, use the singular form of the verb; if the subject is plural, use the plural form
of the verb. The only exception to this rule is the verb be, which uses different forms based on both number and
person. 

What are examples of subject-verb agreement?

Look at these two sentences: “Cats make great pets” and “A cat makes a great pet.” The plural subject cats uses
the plural form of the verb without –s at the end (make). The singular subject a cat uses the singular form of the
verb with -s at the end (makes). 

Usage - Subject-Verb Agreement

Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or plural).  Thus, if a subject is

singular, its verb must also be singular; if a subject is plural, its verb must also be plural.

In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways:  

                        nouns ADD an s to the singular form,

                                                    BUT

                        verbs REMOVE an s from the singular form.

                

Here are nine subject-verb agreement rules.

1.  A phrase or clause between subject and verb does not change the number of the subject.
                Examples:

                       

2.  Indefinite pronouns as subjects

    Singular indefinite pronoun subjects take singular verbs.

   

    Plural indefinite pronoun subjects take plural verbs.

   PLURAL:  several, few, both, many

                      

    Some indefinite pronouns may be either singular or plural: with uncountable,

use singular; with countable, use plural.

   EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL:  some, any, none, all, most

                                

                Sugar is uncountable; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb

                                
                Marbles are countable; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

3.  Compound subjects joined by and are always plural.

                    

4.  With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearer to it.

                

          In the above example, the plural verb are agrees with the nearer subject actors

                

            In this example, the singular verb is agrees with the nearer subject director.

5.  Inverted Subjects must agree with the verb.   

                

                

6.  Collective Nouns (group, jury, crowd, team, etc.) may be singular or plural, depending on meaning.

                

            In this example, the jury is acting as one unit; therefore, the verb is singular.

                

            In this example, the jury members are acting as twelve individuals; therefore, the verb is plural

7.  Titles of single entities (books, organizations, countries, etc.) are always singular.

                

      

8.  Plural form subjects

 Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a singular verb. (e.g. news, measles, mumps,

physics, etc.)

                

 Plural form subjects with singular or plural meaning take a singular or plural verb, depending on
meaning.  (e.g. politics, economics, etc.)

                

    In this example, politics is a single topic; therefore, the sentence has a singular verb.

                

    In this example, politics refers to the many aspects of the situation; therefore, the sentence has a plural verb.

 Plural form subjects with a plural meaning take a plural verb. (e.g.  scissors, trousers)

                

                                      

            Note:  In this example, the subject of the sentence is pair; therefore, the verb must agree with it. 
(Because scissors is the object of the preposition, scissors does not affect the number of the verb.)

9.  With subject and subjective complement of different number, the verb always agrees with the subject.

                
                

10-A. With one of those ________ who, use a plural verb.

     

     The above example implies that others besides Hannah like to read comic books.  Therefore, the plural verb
is the correct form to use.

10-B.  With the only one of those ________who, use a singular verb.

     The above example implies that no one else except for Hannah likes to read comic books.  Therefore, the
singular verb is the correct for to use.

11-A.  With the number of _______, use a singular verb.

                              11-
B.  With a number of _______, use a plural verb.

              

12.  With every ______ and many a ________, use a singular verb.

                   

                

 CONTEXT CLUES

In reading and listening, a context clue is a form of information (such as a definition, synonym, antonym,

or example) that appears near a word or phrase and offers direct or indirect suggestions about its meaning.

Context clues are more commonly found in nonfiction texts than in fiction, although they are sometimes found
in children's literature, often with the goal of building readers' vocabulary. Words can have multiple meanings,
so being able to infer the correct definition from context is a valuable reading comprehension skill.

Types of Context Clues

One way to learn new words is through the context of the words around them. We infer the meaning of these
words from what's going on or what has already been established in the text. Clues for deciphering a word's
meaning can be rendered in the form of anything from a subtle hint to a straight-out explanation, definition, or
illustration. Context clues can also take the form of synonyms, antonyms, word-structure clues, comparisons
(such as metaphors and similes), and contrasts. For example:

Synonym context clues offer words nearby with the same meaning:

 Synonym: The annual bazaar is scheduled for the last day of school. It's always a fun festival.
 Synonym: "That charlatan!" he cried. "That absolute fake!"

Antonym context clues offer nearby words with opposite meanings.

 Antonym: "You look pretty content about it, not like you're all bent out of shape at all," he noted.
 Antonym: "No, no, that didn't literally happen," she said. "I was speaking figuratively."

Definition context clues just spell out the meaning in a straightforward manner:

 Definition: In Britain, they call the trunk of a car the "boot."

 Definition: "The lingerie department," she directed the confused customer, "is where you'll find
the bras and panties." 

An explanation or illustration can also show the context of the word:

 Explanation: She looked at the random collection that had been thrown in the packing box at the last
minute—from toothpaste and razors to spatulas and sticky notes. "Well, that's quite a melange, isn't it?"
she remarked.
 Explanation: "No, no, that's just a crane fly, not a gigantic mosquito," he explained.

Word-structure clues are understood in two ways: a reader or listener understands a base word and a prefix (or
suffix) and infers the meaning from the combination of the two, or the reader knows a word origin and upon
hearing a word of similar origin, infers its meaning.
For instance, if you know that "anti-" means against, it's easy to infer the meaning of the word "anti-
establishment."

 Word-structure: The anti-establishment protesters picketed the town hall.

Likewise, if you're aware that a "memorial" is something in remembrance for a person who has died, you might
readily intuit the meaning of the following sentence, even if you'd never previously heard the term "in
memoriam."

 Word-structure: The book was dedicated in memoriam of his father.

Comparison context clues show the meaning of a word through similarities to other items or elements, similies
or metaphors:

 Comparison: He looked absolutely flummoxed, like a toddler staring down at his feet on the floor
who just isn't sure about this whole "walking" thing.
 Comparison: "No," she said, "I'm as carefree about it as a bird floating among the clouds."

Contrast context clues show meaning through dissimilar elements:

 Contrast: "It isn't exactly the melee that I expected from your description," he said. "The kids are
just roughhousing a little. I expected them to be bruised and bleeding."
 Contrast: I know she said she could reconstitute the dried fruit, but a soggy raisin just isn't a grape.

Limitations of Context Clues

In "The Vocabulary Book: Learning and Instruction," author Michael Graves writes:

"All in all, the descriptive research on learning from context shows that context can produce learning of word
meanings and that although the probability of learning a word from a single occurrence is low, the probability
of learning a word from context increases substantially with additional occurrences of the word. That is how we
typically learn from context. We learn a little from the first encounter with a word and then more and more
about a word's meaning as we meet it in new and different contexts."

Learning new words from context alone does have its limitations, as this method is not always definitive. Often,
context may give a reader a general idea of a word, but not a full meaning. If the sentences in which an
unknown word appears don't clearly spell out it's meaning, that meaning may be lost. For long-term retention,
readers need to see a word multiple times. The more often an inferred definition is included, the more likely the
reader will retain and understand a new word.

VERB

Want to know where all the action is? Verbs! Verbs are words that represent actions that are external
(run, jump, work) and internal (love, think, consider). Without verbs, you can’t do anything, you
can’t feel anything—you can’t even be anything.  

As the heart of sentences and clauses, verbs show what the subject is doing or feeling, even if they’re
just existing. Verbs are also the only type of word that’s absolutely necessary to make a sentence. Not
even nouns, which represent things, need to be in every sentence. 

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Because verbs are so important, they have more rules than other types of words. This can make verbs a little
confusing in English, but read on for our explanation of everything you need to know: the different types of
verbs, the different forms they take, how to conjugate them in every tense, and some expert tips on how to use
them when speaking or writing. 

What is a verb? 

Let’s start with the basics: What is a verb? Verbs are words that describe actions, whether physical or mental.
Verbs also describe a “state of being,” like the verbs be, become, or exist. 

Salah ran across the field, kicked the ball, and scored a goal. 

“I am the State.” —King Louis XIV

Some verbs also act as “helper verbs” to change the tense of another verb. Likewise, these helper verbs can
change a positive statement to a negative one with words like “not.” 

She has been jogging for a month and already feels her stamina increasing. 

“I don’t feel so good.” —Spider-Man

Every sentence needs at least one verb. If there’s no verb, it’s an incomplete sentence or a sentence fragment.
Except for imperative sentences (commands), a sentence also needs a subject, the thing doing the action. 

Subjects are important for a verb because they change how it’s conjugated, which we explain below. This is
especially true for the most common verb: be. 

Types of verbs

Dynamic (action) verbs

Most verbs describe a physical action or activity, something external that can be seen or heard. These verbs are
formally known as dynamic verbs, but can also be called action or event verbs.  

Examples: walk, laugh, swim, play, eat, drink, sing, dance, talk, say

There are a lot of actions that take place in our minds and feelings, which are not external. Verbs that describe
mental or internal actions are still dynamic verbs, but they’re not always so obvious. These include “process
verbs,” which describe actions of transition.  

Examples: consider, guess, change, grow, live, endure, succeed, fail

Stative (state-of-being) verbs

The opposite of dynamic verbs of action is stative verbs of being. Stative verbs describe a subject’s state or
feeling, including things they like and don’t like. 

Examples: want, need, prefer, love, hate, like, dislike, seem, understand, know, believe, involve, realize

One of the most important parts of stative verbs is that you can’t use them in the continuous tenses. Stative
verbs stick to the simple tenses, or occasionally use the perfect. 

The trouble is that some verbs can be dynamic or stative, depending on the specific meaning and how they’re
used. This includes the most popular verb be. Let’s take a deeper look at these.
Verbs that can be dynamic or stative

A lot of verbs have more than one meaning, so they can be used as dynamic or stative. These include perception
words: see, hear, taste, smell, feel. 

When perception verbs are used as an involuntary action, such as passive or unintentional actions, they are
stative. This applies when these verbs are used in the general sense, a state of being that’s always happening. 

I can’t see without my glasses. 

Cake still tastes great even if it’s not your birthday.

When those same verbs are used for a voluntary action—specific, deliberate, and/or temporary events—they
are dynamic. Among other things, it means they can be used in the continuous tenses. 

I haven’t been seeing well since I lost my glasses. 

We were tasting cakes for the wedding all afternoon. 

Likewise, some perception verbs have alternative meanings, especially if they’re part of expressions or phrasal
verbs. Often, this means they act as dynamic verbs. 

Romeo and Juliet had been seeing each other for just five days when they died. 

Other verbs, like think, have, and, above all be, follow the same voluntary/involuntary rules as perception
verbs. Depending on how they’re used, they can be either dynamic or stative. 

I think toads are better than frogs. 

(stative: expresses an opinion or feeling always there; involuntary)

All morning I was thinking about how toads are better than frogs. 

(dynamic: expresses the temporary action of thinking; voluntary)

I have a ten-year-old dog. 

(stative: expresses permanent ownership; involuntary)

I am having a party for my dog’s eleventh birthday. 

(dynamic: used as part of phrase; voluntary)

He is nice to everyone. 

(stative: expresses an ongoing state or personality trait; involuntary)

He was just being nice to everyone to get a promotion. 

(dynamic: expresses a temporary/intentional state; voluntary)

Auxiliary (helping) verbs

Auxiliary verbs, or “helping verbs,” are used in English to change another verb’s tense, voice, or mood. When
auxiliary verbs are used, there’s always a main verb that represents the main action. However, the auxiliary verb
must still be conjugated correctly. 

The main auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do. We explain how they’re used specifically for conjugating below,
but here are a few quick examples: 

I have eaten sushi many times before. (tense)

That piece of sushi was eaten by me. (voice)

Did you eat my sushi? (mood)

Modal auxiliary verbs

Some auxiliary verbs are added to another verb to show necessity, possibility, or capability. Like other auxiliary
verbs, modal auxiliary verbs are not the main verb, but they do change its meaning slightly. Some common
examples are can, may, could, should, would, must, ought, and might.  

I could swim across the English Channel, but should I do it? 

She must be the strongest person on the team, and might be the strongest person in the region. 

Phrasal verbs 

Phrasal verbs are phrases that act as individual verbs, often combining two or more words and changing their
meaning. The verb get, for example, becomes many different phrasal verbs when combined with different
prepositions. 

When the bus stops, passengers get out on the sidewalk. 

After losing his job, he’s getting by on savings. 

The important thing to remember about phrasal verbs is that they act as a single verb, so you can still use them
with other verbs and prepositions. However, when you conjugate a phrasal verb, you only conjugate the part of
the phrase that’s actually a verb, like get. 

>>Read More: Master These 30 Common Phrasal Verbs in English

Verb categories

Aside from the different types, verbs also come in different categories. Dynamic, stative, and auxiliary verbs all
make up the categories below. 

Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive

Transitive, intransitive, and ditransitive refer to how a verb acts with direct and indirect objects. A direct object
is the person or thing that the action happens to, while an indirect object is the person or thing that receives the
direct object. 

Lindor threw the ball to deGram. 

In this example, the subject is Lindor and the verb is threw. The direct object is the ball because that is what
was thrown—Lindor did the action to the ball. The indirect object is deGram because he received the direct
object, the ball. 

Verbs that don’t use either a direct or indirect object are called intransitive. These verbs are complete actions
by themselves. 

Examples: go, walk, run, talk, sit, sleep, work

Verbs that use a direct object, but not an indirect object, are called transitive. They don’t always need a direct
object, but they have the option. 

Examples: clean, like, love, dislike, hate, want, learn, deserve, say

Verbs that use both direct and indirect objects are called ditransitive. They don’t always need an indirect
object, but they have the option. 

Examples: throw, make, buy, sell, read, give, lend, bring

Just as a verb can be either dynamic or stative depending on the meaning, a verb can sometimes act transitive
while at other times act intransitive. These are known as ambitransitive. For example, if you ask someone if
they’re hungry, they might respond:

No, I already ate. (intransitive)

No, I already ate a sandwich. (transitive)

Active vs. passive voice

In English, the standard format where the subject performs the action is known as the active voice. However,
you can switch around your words to make the direct or indirect objects the subject of the sentence, known as
the passive voice. As explained in our guide to the passive voice, you can make a verb passive by adding a
conjugated form of be in front of its past participle. 

Stricklen threw the ball to Williams. (active)

The ball was thrown to Williams by Stricklen. (passive)

Williams was thrown the ball by Stricklen. (passive)

Linking (copular) verbs

A linking verb is any verb, dynamic or stative, that directly connects or “links” the sentence’s subject to other
words in the sentence. For example:

Garfield is a cat.  

Here, “Garfield” and “a cat” are the same thing, so “is” acts as a linking verb. 

A linking verb—also known as a copula or copular verb in formal linguistics—connects the subject not just to
other nouns and adjectives, but also to prepositional phrases and other verbs in the infinitive form. Although the
verb be is the most-used linking verb in English, other linking verbs like seem and become are also common. 

Garfield is in the kitchen. 

Garfield became fat by eating lasagnas. 

Garfield seems to hate Mondays. 

Likewise, perception verbs are often linking verbs as well, but only when they describe what is being
perceived. 

The mild sauce also tastes spicy. 

Birds look happy when the sun comes out. 

The student felt pride when they used perfect grammar. 

Regular vs. irregular Verbs

Verbs have different forms to show different uses, such as an action that happened in the past, or an action that
happens continuously. Normally, these forms follow the same patterns of conjugation, so that you can use the
same rules on all verbs. Verbs that use the normal forms are regular verbs. 

Unfortunately, some verbs don’t want to play by the rules. They have their own unique forms with no patterns,
specifically for the simple past tense and past participle forms. These are the notorious irregular verbs, and
there are quite a few of them—including the most common verb be. 
To make matters worse, the only way to learn how to use irregular verbs is to study them and all their forms. On
the bright side, we explain the best ways to memorize irregular verbs. But first, you’ll want to learn the standard
verb forms of the majority regular verbs below. 

Verb forms

Before we explain how to conjugate verbs in English, you need to understand the different forms a verb takes.
This helps immeasurably when you conjugate on your own—you just need to use the right form at the right
time. Keep in mind that these forms work mostly for regular verbs; irregular verbs each have their own special
forms. 

If you want to learn more, we have a more detailed guide on verb forms here. 

3RD PERSON SIMPLE PRESENT PAST

ROOT
SINGULAR PAST PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
Dance
dances danced dancing danced
(regular)
Sing
sings sang singing sung
(irregular)

Root 

The root form is the basic form of the verb with no changes. It’s also the simple present tense for everything
except the third-person singular. 

Third-person singular present

Used with subjects like he, she, the singular they, or it, the third-person singular in the present tense just adds an
-s to the end of the root form most of the time. 

For verbs that end in a consonant and -y (try, carry), you remove the y and add -ies (tries, carries). If the verb
ends in a vowel and -y (say, buy), you just add an –s like normal (says, buys). 

Verbs that end in -ch, -sh, -x, -z, or -s add -es to the end instead of just –s. For
example, watch becomes watches and kiss becomes kisses. 

Simple past 

The past tense shows an action that already happened. In most cases it’s made by adding -ed to the end of the
root form, or just -d if the root form already ends in an e. However, be careful of irregular verbs—their rules for
the past don’t tend to be consistent. 

Present participle

The present participle is used for the continuous tenses to show ongoing or current action, and in more
advanced English can be used for participial phrases. In most cases you simply add –ing to the end of the root
form, although sometimes you have to remove an E first. 

Past participle

The past participle is used for the perfect tenses. In regular verbs, it’s the same as the simple past tense, so
there’s nothing extra to learn. However, irregular verbs often use unique past participles, so you may have to
memorize their forms. 
Infinitives and gerunds

Do you like to swim? Do you enjoy learning? If you want to use a verb as a noun, you can turn it into an
infinitive or gerund, the noun forms of verbs. 

An infinitive adds the preposition to in front of a verb’s root form. Although technically two words, an infinitive
acts as a single word, usually a noun, but sometimes also an adjective or adverb. 

To forgive is divine. (noun)

Bring a snack to eat if you get hungry. (adjective describing “snack”)

Alternatively, you can turn the verb into a gerund by adding -ing, identical to the present participle. A gerund is
strictly used as a noun, and occasionally you can use them to create gerund phrases, which act as a single unit to
modify the gerund.  

Running is too difficult. 

Studying the cosmos is not the same as understanding the cosmos. 

So what’s the difference between infinitives and gerunds? Often, they are interchangeable—both infinitives and
gerunds can act as subjects and direct objects. 

Living with a dog changes your outlook on life. (correct)

To live with a dog changes your outlook on life. (also correct)

However, only gerunds can be the object of a preposition. 

When I’m not fishing, I’m thinking about fishing. 

Moreover, some transitive verbs only use infinitives as a direct object—for example, want. 

I want to break free. (correct)

I want breaking free. (incorrect)

Although there are others, some common verbs use infinitives. They include the following: choose, decide,
hope, plan, prepare, promise, wish.

In general, use the infinitives for situations that are abstract, unreal, or haven’t happened yet. Use gerunds for
situations that are specific, real, or have already happened. 

In the mornings, I really like to exercise. (abstract; infinitive)

This morning, I really liked exercising.  (specific; gerund)

How to conjugate verbs in English

Using verbs isn’t as easy as just tossing them in a sentence. They need to represent the tense you want, as well
as match the subject (subject-verb agreement, explained below). This is called verb conjugation, or changing
the verb to fit the sentence. In English, there are four main tenses, each divided into three time periods, totalling
twelve tenses. Some other tenses exist, but these are the most common ones. 

Main tenses:

 simple

 continuous

 perfect

 perfect continuous
Time periods: 

 present

 past

 future

Below, we explain how to conjugate each of the main tenses in the present, past, and future. Keep in mind that
irregular verbs may use different forms. 

Subject-verb agreement

No matter what tense you use, your verb has to match the number of the subject. In other words, singular
subjects conjugate verbs differently than plural subjects. 

A lot of the time, you either add –s to the end of the verb or you don’t. However, more advanced tenses with
auxiliary verbs can get tricky—both be and have are irregular verbs, so you have to pay close attention to using
their right forms even when they’re not the main verb. 

How to conjugate simple tenses

The simple tenses are the most straightforward—that’s what makes them simple. They represent individual,
one-time actions. 

How to conjugate the present tense

The simple present tense is used for actions that happen regularly or things that don’t change, such as
preferences or opinions. It’s made with the root form, unless the subject is third-person singular (he, she, the
singular they, it), in which case you use the third-person singular present form. 

[ROOT] or [THIRD-PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT]

Kim feels lousy today. 

I study every night before bed. 

How to conjugate the past tense

The simple past tense describes a single action that already took place, or a habitual action that no longer
occurs. It uses the simple past form explained above. 

[SIMPLE PAST]

When I was young, I played in the backyard every day. 

They lost again, and no one was surprised. 

How to conjugate the future tense

The simple future tense describes events that have not happened yet, as in planning or preparing. It uses the root
form, but adds the word will in front. 

will + [ROOT]

You will study verbs until you understand them. 

Once again, history will repeat itself. 

How to conjugate continuous tenses

The continuous tense—also known as the progressive tense—is used for mostly ongoing events that are
temporary. 

Remember that stative verbs cannot be used in the continuous tense. Actions about feelings or states of being
that happened in the past use the simple past tense. 

How to conjugate the present continuous tense

The present continuous tense is used often, and has many different uses:

 events happening right now

 ongoing events that are temporary

 plans for the near future

It’s often confused with the present simple; situations which might seem like the simple present—such as
actions happening currently—are actually best represented by the present continuous. 

Form the present continuous by adding the conjugated simple present form of be before the present participle of
your main verb (the -ing form). 

am / is / are + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

Tony is sleeping at the moment. 

Later, we’re seeing the new zombie movie. Everyone is talking about it! 

How to conjugate the past continuous tense

The past continuous tense shows ongoing events that happened in the past, specifically ones that have a
definitive beginning and end. It can also be used to show a past event that was interrupted by another past event.
Note that the past continuous is only used for events that are completed. 

Form the past continuous by adding the conjugated simple past form of be before the present participle. Yes,
the present participle. 

was/were + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

They were eating dinner when the phone rang. 

It was raining all day, but we still had fun indoors. 

How to conjugate the future continuous tense

The future continuous tense describes ongoing events that will happen in the future, specifically if they have a
definitive beginning and end. 

It’s formed by adding the words will be before the present participle. 

will be + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

We will be skiing all day Saturday. 

After I quit, you will be begging me to come back to work. 

How to conjugate the perfect tense

As one of the most confusing tenses in English, the perfect tense takes some practice. It has very particular
usage guidelines—especially the present perfect—and it’s closely related to the simple past. 

How to conjugate the present perfect tense

The present perfect tense is used for a few special circumstances, mostly connected to past events that haven’t
yet ended: 

 actions started in the past but continue into the present

 repeated actions in the past without mentioning when 

 past actions, for more emphasis or dramatic effect

To form the present perfect tense, add the present conjugation of have before the verb’s past participle. 

has/have + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

I’ve worked here since the beginning.   

Macbeth has murdered the king! 

(Macbeth murdered the king! is also correct, but the present perfect makes it sound more dramatic.)

How to conjugate the past perfect tense

When a sentence has two past events, use the past perfect tense, also known as the pluperfect, to show which
one happened first. It’s typically used in compound or complex sentences with two clauses to show the order in
which they happened. 

For the past perfect tense by adding had before the past participle. 

had + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

I had forgotten about our date until she reminded me.

When our plane finally landed, they had already left the airport.  

How to conjugate the future perfect tense

The future perfect tense refers to an unfinished event from a future when it’s already completed. Confused? Say
you’re riding your bike on Saturday. By Sunday, you’ll be finished riding your bike. You can say, “My bike
ride will have finished by Sunday.” That’s why the future perfect tense is usually used with an expression of
time, for context. 

It’s formed by adding the words will have before the past participle. You don’t need to conjugate “have,”
because it’s the same no matter what the subject is. 

will have + [PAST PARTICIPLE]

By the time I can vote, I will have graduated already. 

We will have stayed together for twenty-five years in August. 

How to conjugate the perfect continuous tense

One of the more complicated tenses in English, the perfect continuous tense combines the perfect and
continuous tenses at the same time. It’s largely used like the perfect tense, but with ongoing or continuous
actions.
How to conjugate the present perfect continuous tense

The present perfect continuous tense describes an ongoing action started in the past that continues to the
present. If that sounds familiar, it’s because that’s one of the situations we use the normal present perfect tense,
too. 

So what’s the difference? The present perfect and the present perfect continuous can often be used
interchangeably, but the big difference is emphasis. The present perfect continuous emphasizes that the event is
ongoing, whereas the present perfect alone emphasizes completion or achievement. 

To form the present perfect continuous, add the conjugated form of have, the word been, and the present
participle. 

has/have + been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

The town has been mining gold since the 1800s. 

I’ve been locked in my closet for hours! 

How to conjugate the past perfect continuous tense

Like the past perfect, the past perfect continuous tense is used in complex and compound sentences to show
which event happened first. While the past perfect tense describes an individual action, the past perfect
continuous shows an ongoing action that is already finished. 

Form the past perfect continuous tense by adding the words had been before the present participle. 

had been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

Until the moment our picnic began, the sun had been shining all day. 

She had been waiting for a sign before she finally asked him out. 

How to conjugate the future perfect continuous tense

The future perfect continuous tense functions just like the future perfect tense, except with an ongoing action.
The major difference is that with the future perfect tense, the event will have ended, but with the future perfect
continuous, the event would still be happening by that time in the future. Both, however, are frequently used
with expressions of time. 

The future perfect continuous tense is formed by adding the words will have been before the present participle. 

will have been + [PRESENT PARTICIPLE]

In a few weeks, she will have been studying English for a whole year. 

By 6:00, we will have been stuck in this elevator for four hours. 

3 expert tips on putting verbs into action

1 Use verbs instead of other words for more powerful writing

Verbs aren’t just necessary for grammar—they’re also the most helpful words for writing. Whether you’re
writing a school essay, work email, or social media post, try to use verbs over nouns or adjectives to provide the
details. 

This may involve rewording some of your sentences, but your changes will improve your writing as a whole.
Strong writing uses as few words as possible, so a single verb sounds better than a group of words that say the
same thing. 
He is a proofreader for work. 

He proofreads for work. 

In the end, we were successful. 

In the end, we succeeded. 

2 Use the active voice whenever you can

Although the passive voice is grammatically correct, the active voice is usually preferred. It follows the same
principle mentioned above: Fewer words mean stronger writing. Not only does the active voice sound better,
but also it’s easier for your reader to understand because the subject comes first.

Whenever you notice a sentence in the passive voice, see if you can reword it to say the same thing in the active
voice. 

The homecoming game was attended by almost every student. 

Almost every student attended the homecoming game. 

It was there that they found the lost ring. 

They found the lost ring there. 

3 Use specific verbs instead of modifying general verbs

Our last tip again follows the principle that fewer words are better. Instead of modifying or describing your verb
to get across your meaning, try using another, more specific verb instead. 

There are thousands of verbs in the English language; instead of adding words to describe the verb you have,
use another more precise verb to take its place. 

run fast → sprint

talk quietly → whisper

bump into each other → collide

Of course, knowing the right word in every circumstance is not easy, especially if English isn’t your primary
language. Don’t be afraid to use the Grammarly writing assistant. In addition to catching all spelling and
grammar mistakes while you write, Grammarly can also suggest better word choice. Grammarly’s writing
feedback can recommend better, stronger verbs with the meaning you’re looking for, as well as suggest
alternatives to words you use over and over again. Try it and see how your writing improves! 

NOUN

What is a noun?

A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence, nouns can play the
role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive, or adjective.

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing shines? Grammarly can check your spelling and save you
from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
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Grammarly helps you communicate confidently
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Types of nouns

Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide variety of types. Nouns can name
a person:

Albert Einstein
the president
my mother
a girl
Nouns can also name a place:

Mount Vesuvius
Disneyland
my bedroom
Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things, such as concepts, activities,
or processes. Some might even be hypothetical or imaginary things.

shoe
faucet
freedom
The Elder Wand
basketball

Proper nouns vs. common nouns

One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a common noun. A proper noun is a
specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized.

Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person.

I would like to visit Old Faithful.

Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.

The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic noun. A common noun is the
generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a
sentence or in a title.

The girl crossed the river.

Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this sentence, though we know the
action she takes. River is also a common noun in this sentence.

Types of common nouns

Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and
collective nouns. A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or
real.

I heard the doorbell.

My keyboard is sticky.
Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.
Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.

We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other way, but we know it exists.

A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

That pack of lies is disgraceful.

Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb as if they are one entity – in
this case, the singular verb is.

A pride of lions roamed the savanna.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Nouns as subjects

Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The subject of a sentence is the
person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in that sentence.

Maria is happy.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of to be (is).

Nouns as objects

Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct object (a noun that receives
the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a direct object).

Give the books to her.

Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object (who the books are being given to).

Nouns as subject and object complements

Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the noun teacher is used as a subject
complement.

Mary is a teacher.
Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or seem. A teacher is what Mary is.

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

I now pronounce you husband and wife.

Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence. Verbs that denote making, naming, or
creating are often followed by object complements.

Appositive nouns and nouns as modifiers

An appositive noun is a noun that immediately follows another noun in order to further define or identify it.

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence, my brother.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

He is a speed demon.
Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.

Plural nouns

Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural nouns can be formed by adding
-s or -es to the singular form, although there are many exceptions.

cat—cats
These two cats are both black.
Note the plural verb are.

tax—taxes
house—houses

Countable nouns vs. uncountable nouns

Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high (like
counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a few, and many.

Here is a cat.
Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.
Uncountable nouns, or mass nouns,  are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count;
liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered to be singular,
and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so homework is an uncountable
noun.

Possessive nouns

Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have something. You can identify a possessive
noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an s.

The cat’s toy was missing.

The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of ’s at the end of cat.

When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies. This is a matter of style, however,
and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.

I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.

Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.
Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.

My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.

Nouns FAQs

What are nouns?

Nouns refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. They make up the subjects, direct objects, and indirect objects in a
sentence, along with other roles. 

What are examples of nouns?

Nouns can be living things (Keanu Reeves or cat), places (beach or Detroit), things (ruler or PlayStation 5), or
ideas (nihilism or the theory of evolution). 

What are the different types of nouns?

Common nouns refer to general things (like parks), and proper nouns refer to a specific thing (like Yellowstone
National Park). Nouns can also be plural or singular, depending on how many there are, and countable or
uncountable, depending on how their plural form is used. 

How do you identify a noun in a sentence?

Nouns usually have articles (the, a, or an) before them in a sentence, but not always. Sometimes you’ll see
adjectives or words like “some” or “this” before nouns. Aside from the first word in a sentence, if a word is
capitalized then it’s a noun, such as a person’s name. 

PRONOUN

You use pronouns every day. In fact, even if you don’t know what pronouns are, you use them—and in this
sentence alone, we’ve now used pronouns four times. 

Pronouns are the words you substitute for other nouns when your reader or listener already knows which nouns
you’re referring to. For example, you might say, “I have a dog. He’s brown and white.” There’s no need to
clarify that you’re describing your dog in the second sentence because you already mentioned him in the first.
But following up “I have a dog” with “brown and white” is grammatically incorrect . . . so with the pronoun
“he’s,” you turn the phrase “brown and white” into a full sentence: He’s brown and white. 

Here’s a tip: Want to make sure your writing shines? Grammarly can check your spelling and save you
from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
you write.
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Pronouns do a whole lot more than turn phrases into sentences. They provide context, make your sentences’
meanings clearer, and shape how we perceive people and things. Read on to learn about the different ways we
use pronouns and how to use them to construct sentences. 

Table of contents

 What is a pronoun?

 Personal pronouns

 Antecedents

 Relative pronouns
  Who vs. whom—subject and object pronouns

 Demonstrative pronouns

 Indefinite pronouns

 Reflexive pronouns

 Intensive pronouns

 Possessive pronouns

 Interrogative pronouns

 Reciprocal pronouns

 Distributive pronouns

 Pronoun examples

 Pronouns and gender identity

 Gender-neutral and gender-inclusive pronouns

 Grammarly helps you write better

What is a pronoun?

Pronouns are short words we swap in for other nouns to make our writing and speech faster and more varied.
They’re words like:

 They

 I 

 You

 Who

 Themselves

 Each other

Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is that they can
be substituted for other nouns. For instance, if you’re telling a story about your sister Sarah, the story will begin
to sound repetitive if you keep repeating “Sarah” over and over again. For example: 

 Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.

You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to Sarah as “my sister,” but then it sounds like you’re
referring to two different people:

 Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.

Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to Sarah:

 Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she wants to go to fashion school.

Pronouns can replace both proper and common nouns. Certain pronouns have specific rules about when they
can be used, such as how it should never be used to refer to a human being. We explain all of the different types
and their associated rules below.
Personal pronouns

When you think of pronouns, you most likely think of personal pronouns. Personal pronouns are pronouns that
refer to specific individuals and groups. Personal pronouns include:

 I/me

 She/her

 He/him

 They/them

 We/us

 You

Here are a few examples of personal pronouns in italics, with the nouns they’re referring to bolded:

 The new student will arrive today. They will need a seating assignment and a name tag. 

 My family loves nachos. We make them every Friday for movie night.

In the second example sentence, notice that nachos (a noun) and them (a pronoun) aren’t emphasized. That’s
because in this sentence, them isn’t a personal pronoun because it isn’t replacing a proper noun, but
rather we is.  

Antecedents

Remember how we mentioned that in order to use a pronoun, you need to introduce the noun first? That noun
has a name: an antecedent. 

Antecedents are necessary because pronouns are versatile. Think about it—“it” can refer to a bike, a tree, a car,
or a city, and we just used it to refer to something else entirely: pronouns’ versatility. Take a look at these
examples to see how antecedents and pronouns work together:

 My family tests my patience, but I love them. 

 The sign was too far away for Jorge to read it. 

 Danita said she is almost finished with the application.

Antecedents aren’t necessary when the reader/listener knows who or what you’re discussing. Generally, you
don’t need an antecedent for pronouns like I, you, we, our, and me. But because there are no absolutes in
grammar, sometimes you do need an antecedent in this kind of situation—like when you’re giving a speech
where you introduce yourself and your credentials before discussing your achievements. 

There are also circumstances where you might not introduce the noun first and instead reveal it after using only
pronouns to refer to your subject. You might do this for dramatic or poetic effect in a piece of creative writing. 

Relative pronouns

Relative pronouns are another class of pronouns. They connect relative clauses to independent clauses. Often,
they introduce additional information about something mentioned in the sentence. Relative pronouns include
these words: 

 that 

 what 
  which 

 who 

 whom 

Traditionally, who refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or things. Here are a few examples of

relative pronouns at work:

 The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. 

 All the dogs that got adopted today will be loved. 

 My car, which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.

Who vs. whom—subject and object pronouns

Knowing when to use who and when to use whom trips a lot of writers up. The difference is actually pretty
simple: Who is for the subject of a sentence, and whom is for the object of a verb or preposition. Here’s a quick
example: 

 Who mailed this package?

 To whom was this package sent?

See the difference? Who is a subject pronoun. It’s in the same category as I, he, she, they, and we. Whom is an
object pronoun, which puts it in the same category as me, him, her, them, and us. An easy way to determine
whether you should use who or whom in a sentence is to answer the sentence’s question by substituting another
pronoun. With the new pronoun in place, determine if the sentence still makes sense. For example: 

 He mailed this package.

 The package was sent to him. 

Figuring out when to use whom can be more difficult than knowing when to use who because it typically
comes before the sentence’s verb—notice how the example object pronoun sentence changed more dramatically
than the subject pronoun sentence.  

Demonstrative pronouns

That, this, these, and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place of a noun or noun phrase that has
already been mentioned or is clear through context, either in written or verbal communication.

This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is used for multiple items that are nearby. The distance can
be physical or metaphorical. Take a look at these examples:

 Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have sent this? 

 What a fantastic idea! This is the best thing I’ve heard all day. 

 If you think gardenias smell nice, try smelling these.

That is used for singular items that are far away. Those is used for multiple items that are far away. Again, the
distance can be physical or metaphorical. Here are a few examples of these pronouns in action:

 A house like that would be a nice place to live. 

 Some new flavors of soda came in last week. Why don’t you try some of those? 

 Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.

Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be specifically
identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody, everybody, and no one. 

Here are a few examples of indefinite pronouns in sentences:

 Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. 

 It matters more to some than others. 

 Nobody knows the trouble I’ve seen.

When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a sentence or clause, they usually take singular verbs.

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: 

 Myself 

 Yourself 

 Himself

 Herself 

 Itself

 Oneself

 Ourselves

 Yourselves 

 Themselves

Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and object of a verb refer to the same person or thing. Here are a
few examples:

 She checked herself out of the hotel thirty minutes before check-out time.

 Take care of yourselves.

Using myself when you mean me is a common mistake writers and speakers make. Reflexive pronouns are only
correct when the subject and object of a sentence are the same. 

Intensive pronouns

Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns, but their purpose is different. Intensive pronouns add
emphasis. Conceptualizing the difference between them and reflexive pronouns can be challenging because the
emphasis isn’t always obvious. Take a look at these examples of intensive pronouns and examine how they’re
different from the examples in the previous section:

 I told them I could do it myself.

 We asked ourselves, is this business really worth saving?

If you can remove a pronoun from a sentence and it loses emphasis but its meaning stays the same, it’s most
likely an intensive pronoun. Compare these two sentences:
  I built this house. 

 I built this house myself.

See how the second one emphasizes that the builder had no outside help? Intensive pronouns can help you
express pride, shock, disbelief, credulousness (or incredulousness), or any other strong emotion. Here are a few
more examples:

 They hiked the entire Appalachian Trail themselves?

 Did you, yourself, see Loretta spill the coffee?

Possessive pronouns

Possessive pronouns are pronouns that show possession. They include the following:

 My 

 Your

 Our

 Their

 His

 Her

 Its

These can also be called possessive adjectives if they modify a noun in a sentence. Take a look at these
examples of possessive adjectives in action:

 I crashed my bike into a telephone pole.

 Your house is always decorated so nicely. 

This category also includes independent versions of possessive pronouns. These include:

 Mine

 Yours

 Ours

 His

 Hers

 Theirs 

 Its

When you use an independent possessive pronoun, you drop the noun it’s referring to. Here are a few
examples: 

 She forgot her jacket, so I gave her mine.

 I had no idea whose bid won the auction, then my cousins told me theirs did. 

Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, what, which, and whose. Here
are a few examples of interrogative pronouns at play:

 Who wants a bag of jelly beans? 

 What is your name? 

 Which movie do you want to watch? 

 Whose jacket is this?

Reciprocal pronouns

There are only two reciprocal pronouns:

 Each other

 One another

These pronouns refer to two or more people who are both the subject of the sentence. Take a look at these
examples:

 Javier and Priya, the two top salespeople on our team, are competing with each other for Salesperson of
the Year. 

 All my siblings are blaming one another for letting the boa constrictor out last Thanksgiving. 

Distributive pronouns

Distributive pronouns refer to people, animals, and objects as individuals within larger groups. They enable you
to single out individuals while acknowledging that they’re part of a larger group. Distributive pronouns include
the following:

 Either

 Each

 Neither

 Any 

 None

Here are a few examples of distributive pronouns in sentences:

 All of my friends entered the costume contest and none of them won.

 Cookies and muffins are available for dessert. Neither is appealing to me. 

Pronoun examples

As you can see, pronouns do a lot. And there are a lot of them. And to make them even more complicated,
many pronouns change forms when they’re used in different positions within a sentence or different tenses. 

Take a look at the different types of pronouns and their forms at a glance:

 
 Type Pronouns in this category Example sentences

 I brought all the

snacks.
I/me, they/them, he/him,
Personal  We weren’t
she/her, it, we/us, you
planning on staying
over.

 My car, which is
twenty years old,
doesn’t connect to
That, what, which, who, Bluetooth.
Relative whom
 The professor who
ran the meeting
ended it promptly

 You’ve seen clear

quartz and smoky
quartz, but have you
seen these stones?
Demonstrative That, this, these, those
 I ordered Hawaiian
pizza. I like that a
lot.

 We need cashiers up
front. Anybody
who’s available,
please report to the
One, other, some, none, front end.
Indefinite everybody, anybody, no one,
nobody, both  “Why can’t we fix
this?” I asked
nobody in
particular.

 The car began to

Myself, yourself/yourselves, swerve, then
themself/themselves, herself, corrected itself.
Reflexive himself, oneself, itself,
ourselves  He made himself a
sandwich.

 You did all of this

Myself, yourself/yourselves, yourself?
themself/themselves, herself,
Intensive himself, oneself, itself,  She did the entire
ourselves group project by
herself.

 We’re lounging out

My, your, his, her, their, our, by our pool.
Possessive its, whose
 His car is green.

Interrogative Who, what, which, whose  Whose bike is this?

  What is the answer?

 We ran into each

other on the
subway.
Reciprocal Each other, one another
 They’ve been
fighting with one
another for decades.

 Peanut butter or
chocolate? I’m good
with either.
Either, each, neither, any,
Distributive none  There were four
cats, and none had
long hair.

Pronouns and gender identity

You might have noticed pronouns listed in some of your colleagues’ and friends’ email signatures or social
media profiles. You might have even been prompted to list your pronouns in your own. While traditionally the
personal pronouns he/him/his and she/her/hers were used for individuals based strictly on their sex, pronoun
usage is broader and more descriptive today.

Many people use gender-neutral language like they/them/theirs and zie/hir/hirs because they feel these pronouns

express their gender identity more accurately than she or he. The most common gender-neutral pronoun is the
singular they. Today, it’s not uncommon to see the singular they as the default neutral pronoun. It’s what we use
on the Grammarly blog, and for writers across the internet, it’s a concise catch-all pronoun that can fit just about
any sentence. However, language is constantly evolving, and new types of singular third-person pronouns have
emerged that refer to people entirely without reference to gender, such as noun-self pronouns.   

>>Read More: A Guide to Personal Pronouns and How They’ve Evolved

Gender-neutral and gender-inclusive pronouns

When somebody tells you their pronouns, using their pronouns is an act of respect. Think of it like spelling or
pronouncing that person’s name correctly—they’re the authority on who they are and how they express
themselves, and referring to them the way they’ve asked you to refer to them affirms this. 

For some gender-neutral and gender-inclusive pronouns, the different forms to use are obvious. For others, they
aren’t. Take a look at this table including some of the most common gender-neutral and inclusive pronouns:

Possessive Possessive
Subject Object Reflexive
Determiner Pronoun

ey em eir eirs emself

he him his his himself

ney nem nir nirs nemself

she her her hers herself

they them their theirs themself

ve ver vis vis verself

xe xem xyr xyrs xemself

ze hir hir hirs hirself

ze zir zir zirs zirself

zie hir hir hirs hirself

zie zir zir zirs zirself

If you ever aren’t sure of the correct pronouns to use when referring to somebody, just ask them! And if you
accidentally use the wrong pronoun, simply apologize for doing so and make an effort to use the correct
pronoun in future conversations. 

ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow,
fun, fast. They can also describe the quantity of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven.

Adjectives modify nouns

Most students learn that adjectives are words that modify (describe) nouns. Adjectives do not
modify verbs or adverbs or other adjectives.

Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.

Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
My cake should have sixteen candles.
The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
In the sentences above, the adjectives are easy to spot because they come immediately before the nouns they
modify.

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But adjectives can do more than just modify nouns. They can also act as a complement to linking verbs or the
verb to be. A linking verb is a verb like to feel, to seem, or to taste that describes a state of being or a sensory
experience.

That cow sure is happy.

It smells gross in the locker room.
Driving is faster than walking.
The technical term for an adjective used this way is predicate adjective.
Uses of adjectives

Adjectives tell the reader how much—or how many—of something you’re talking about, which thing you want
passed to you, or which kind of something you want.

Please use three white flowers in the arrangement.

Three and white are modifying flowers.

Often, when adjectives are used together, you should separate them with a comma or conjunction. See
“Coordinate Adjectives” below for more detail.

I’m looking for a small, good-tempered dog to keep as a pet.

My new dog is small and good-tempered.

Degrees of comparison

Adjectives come in three forms: absolute, comparative, and superlative.

Absolute adjectives describe something in its own right.

A cool guy
A messy desk
A mischievous cat
Garrulous squirrels
Comparative adjectives, unsurprisingly, make a comparison between two or more things. For most one-syllable
adjectives, the comparative is formed by adding the suffix -er (or just -r if the adjective already ends with an e).
For two-syllable adjectives ending in -y, replace -y with -ier. For multi-syllable adjectives, add the word more.

A cooler guy
A messier desk
A more mischievous cat
More garrulous squirrels
Superlative adjectives indicate that something has the highest degree of the quality in question. One-syllable
adjectives become superlatives by adding the suffix -est (or just -st for adjectives that already end in e). Two-
syllable adjectives ending in -y replace -y with -iest. Multi-syllable adjectives add the word most. When you use
an article with a superlative adjective, it will almost always be the definite article (the) rather than a or an.
Using a superlative inherently indicates that you are talking about a specific item or items.

The coolest guy
The messiest desk
The most mischievous cat
The most garrulous squirrels

Coordinate adjectives

Coordinate adjectives should be separated by a comma or the word and. Adjectives are said to be coordinate if
they modify the same noun in a sentence.

This is going to be a long, cold winter.

Isobel’s dedicated and tireless efforts made all the difference.
But just the fact that two adjectives appear next to each other doesn’t automatically mean they are coordinate.
Sometimes, an adjective and a noun form a single semantic unit, which is then modified by another adjective. In
this case, the adjectives are not coordinate and should not be separated by a comma.

My cat, Goober, loves sleeping on this tattered woolen sweater.

No one could open the old silver locket.
In some cases, it’s pretty hard to decide whether two adjectives are coordinate or not. But there are a couple of
ways you can test them. Try inserting the word and between the adjectives to see if the phrase still seems
natural. In the first sentence, “this tattered and woolen sweater” doesn’t sound right because you really aren’t
talking about a sweater that is both tattered and woolen. It’s a woolen sweater that is tattered. Woolen
sweater forms a unit of meaning that is modified by tattered.

Another way to test for coordinate adjectives is to try switching the order of the adjectives and seeing if the
phrase still works. In the second sentence, you wouldn’t say “No one could open the silver old locket.” You
can’t reverse the order of the adjectives because silver locket is a unit that is modified by old.

Adjectives vs. adverbs

As mentioned above, many of us learned in school that adjectives modify nouns and that adverbs modify verbs.
But as we’ve seen, adjectives can also act as complements for linking verbs. This leads to a common type of
error: incorrectly substituting an adverb in place of a predicate adjective. An example you’ve probably heard
before is:

I feel badly about what happened.

Because “feel” is a verb, it seems to call for an adverb rather than an adjective. But “feel” isn’t just any verb;
it’s a linking verb. An adverb would describe how you perform the action of feeling—an adjective
describes what you feel. “I feel badly” means that you are bad at feeling things. If you’re trying to read Braille
through thick leather gloves, then it might make sense for you to say “I feel badly.” But if you’re trying to say
that you are experiencing negative emotions, “I feel bad” is the phrase you want.

It’s easier to see this distinction with a different linking verb. Consider the difference between these two
sentences:

Goober smells badly.

Goober smells bad.
“Goober smells badly” means that Goober, the poor thing, has a weak sense of smell. “Goober smells bad”
means Goober stinks—poor us.

When nouns become adjectives and adjectives become nouns

One more thing you should know about adjectives is that, sometimes, a word that is normally used as a noun
can function as an adjective, depending on its placement. For example:

Never try to pet someone’s guide dog without asking permission first.

Guide is a noun. But in this sentence, it modifies dog. It works the other way, too. Some words that are
normally adjectives can function as nouns:

Candice is working on a fundraiser to help the homeless.

In the context of this sentence, homeless is functioning as a noun. It can be hard to wrap your head around this if
you think of adjectives and nouns only as particular classes of words. But the terms “adjective” and “noun”
aren’t just about a word’s form—they’re also about its function.

Adjective usage advice

We’ll end with a few words about adjectives and style. It’s one thing to know how to use an adjective; it’s
another to know when using one is a good idea. Good writing is precise and concise. Sometimes, you need an
adjective to convey exactly what you mean. It’s hard to describe a red sports car without the word “red.” But,
often, choosing the right noun eliminates the need to tack on an adjective. Is it a big house, or is it a mansion? A
large crowd, or a throng? A mixed-breed dog, or a mutt? A dark night, or just . . . night? Always remember to
make every word count in your writing. If you need an adjective, use it. But if it’s not pulling its weight, delete
it.

Adjective FAQs

What is an adjective?

An adjective is a word that describes the traits, qualities, or number of a noun.

What are examples of adjectives?

Descriptive words like “beautiful,” “smooth,” or “heavy” are all adjectives, as are numbers ( “twelve eggs”). 

What is the difference between adjectives and adverbs?

Adjectives modify nouns, while adverbs modify adjectives and other adverbs. For example, in the phrase “very
funny movie,” funny is an adjective describing the noun movie, and very is an adverb describing the
adjective funny. 

Can adjectives modify adverbs?

Adjectives can only modify nouns, not adverbs. Only adverbs can modify other adverbs. 

ADVERB

An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (he sings loudly), an adjective (very tall), another adverb
(ended too quickly), or even a whole sentence (Fortunately, I had brought an umbrella). Adverbs often end in –
ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the same as their adjective counterparts.

Tom Longboat did not run badly.

Tom is very tall.
The race finished too quickly.
Fortunately, Lucy recorded Tom’s win.
It’s easy to identify adverbs in these sentences.

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you write.

Adverbs and verbs

Adverbs often modify verbs. This means that they describe the way an action is happening.

Phillip sings loudly in the shower.

My cat waits impatiently for his food.
I will seriously consider your suggestion.
The adverbs in each of the sentences above answer the question in what manner? How does Phillip sing?
Loudly. How does my cat wait? Impatiently. How will I consider your suggestion? Seriously. Adverbs can
answer other types of questions about how an action was performed. They can also tell you when (We
arrived early) and where (Turn here).

However, there is one type of verb that doesn’t mix well with adverbs. Linking verbs, such as feel, smell,
sound, seem, and appear, typically need adjectives, not adverbs. A very common example of this type of mixup
is

I feel badly about what happened.

I feel bad about what happened.
Because “feel” is a verb, it seems to call for an adverb rather than an adjective. But “feel” isn’t just any verb;
it’s a linking verb. An adverb would describe how you perform the action of feeling—an adjective
describes what you feel. “I feel badly” means that you are bad at feeling things. If you’re trying to read Braille
through thick leather gloves, then it might make sense for you to say “I feel badly.” But if you’re trying to say
that you are experiencing negative emotions, “I feel bad” is the phrase you want.

Adverbs and adjectives

Adverbs can also modify adjectives and other adverbs. Often, the purpose of the adverb is to add a degree of
intensity to the adjective.

The woman is quite pretty.

This book is more interesting than the last one.
The weather report is almost always right.
The adverb almost is modifying the adverb always, and they’re both modifying right.

“Is my singing too loud?” asked Phillip.

My cat is incredibly happy to have his dinner.
We will be slightly late to the meeting.
This bridesmaid dress is a very unflattering shade of puce.

Adverbs and other adverbs

You can use an adverb to describe another adverb. In fact, if you wanted to, you could use several.

Phillip sings rather enormously too loudly.

The problem is that it often produces weak and clunky sentences like the one above, so be careful not to overdo
it.

Adverbs and sentences

Some adverbs can modify entire sentences—unsurprisingly, these are called sentence adverbs. Common ones
include generally, fortunately, interestingly, and accordingly. Sentence adverbs don’t describe one particular
thing in the sentence—instead, they describe a general feeling about all of the information in the sentence.

Fortunately, we got there in time.

Interestingly, no one at the auction seemed interested in bidding on the antique spoon collection.
At one time, the use of the word hopefully as a sentence adverb (e.g., Hopefully, I’ll get this job) was
condemned. People continued to use it though, and many style guides and dictionaries now accept it. There are
still plenty of readers out there who hate it though, so it’s a good idea to avoid using it in formal writing.

Degrees of comparison
Like adjectives, adverbs can show degrees of comparison, although it’s slightly less common to use them this
way. With certain “flat adverbs” (adverbs that look exactly the same as their adjective counterparts), the
comparative and superlative forms look the same as the adjective comparative and superlative forms. It’s
usually better to use stronger adverbs (or stronger adjectives and verbs) rather than relying on comparative and
superlative adverbs.

An absolute adverb describes something in its own right:

He smiled warmly
A hastily written note
To make the comparative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the word more:

He smiled more warmly than the others.

The more hastily written note contained the clue.
To make the superlative form of an adverb that ends in -ly, add the word most:

He smiled most warmly of them all.

The most hastily written note on the desk was overlooked.

Placement of adverbs

Place adverbs as close as possible to the words they are supposed to modify. Putting the adverb in the wrong
spot can produce an awkward sentence at best and completely change the meaning at worst. Be especially
careful about the word only, which is one of the most often misplaced modifiers. Consider the difference
between these two sentences:

Phillip only fed the cat.

Phillip fed only the cat.
The first sentence means that all Phillip did was feed the cat. He didn’t pet the cat or pick it up or anything else.
The second sentence means that Phillip fed the cat, but he didn’t feed the dog, the bird, or anyone else who
might have been around.

When an adverb is modifying a verb phrase, the most natural place for the adverb is usually the middle of the
phrase.

We are quickly approaching the deadline.

Phillip has always loved singing.
I will happily assist you.

When to avoid adverbs

Ernest Hemingway is often held up as an example of a great writer who detested adverbs and advised other
writers to avoid them. In reality, it’s impossible to avoid adverbs altogether. Sometimes we need them, and all
writers (even Hemingway) use them occasionally. The trick is to avoid unnecessary adverbs. When your verb or
adjective doesn’t seem powerful or precise enough, instead of reaching for an adverb to add more color, try
reaching for a stronger verb or adjective instead. Most of the time, you’ll come up with a better word and your
writing will be stronger for it.

ARTICLES

What are articles?

Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific. Consider the following examples:
After the long day, the cup of tea tasted particularly good.
By using the article the, we’ve shown that it was one specific day that was long and one specific cup of tea that
tasted good.

After a long day, a cup of tea tastes particularly good.

By using the article a, we’ve created a general statement, implying that any cup of tea would taste good after
any long day.

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The definite article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular thing. For example, your
friend might ask, “Are you going to the party this weekend?” The definite article tells you that your friend is
referring to a specific party that both of you know about. The definite article can be used with singular, plural,
or uncountable nouns. Below are some examples of the definite article the used in context:

Please give me the hammer.

Please give me the red hammer; the blue one is too small.
Please give me the nail.
Please give me the large nail; it’s the only one strong enough to hold this painting.
Please give me the hammer and the nail.

The indefinite article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that begins with a consonant. It’s
the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers
to a general idea rather than a particular thing. For example, you might ask your friend, “Should I bring a gift to
the party?” Your friend will understand that you are not asking about a specific type of gift or a specific item. “I
am going to bring an apple pie,” your friend tells you. Again, the indefinite article indicates that she is not
talking about a specific apple pie. Your friend probably doesn’t even have any pie yet. The indefinite article
only appears with singular nouns. Consider the following examples of indefinite articles used in context:

Please hand me a book; any book will do.

Please hand me an autobiography; any autobiography will do.

Exceptions: choosing a or an

There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with consonants and an before
words that begin with vowels. The first letter of the word honor, for example, is a consonant, but it’s
unpronounced. In spite of its spelling, the word honor begins with a vowel sound. Therefore, we use an.
Consider the example sentence below for an illustration of this concept.

My mother is a honest woman.

My mother is an honest woman.
Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, use a, as in the
sample sentence below:

She is an United States senator.

She is a United States senator.
This holds true with acronyms and initialisms, too: an LCD display, a UK-based company, an HR
department, a URL.

Article before an adjective

Sometimes an article modifies a noun that is also modified by an adjective. The usual word order is article +
adjective + noun. If the article is indefinite, choose a or an based on the word that immediately follows it.
Consider the following examples for reference:

Eliza will bring a small gift to Sophie’s party.

I heard an interesting story yesterday.

Indefinite articles with uncountable nouns

Uncountable nouns are nouns that are either difficult or impossible to count. Uncountable nouns include
intangible things (e.g., information, air), liquids (e.g., milk, wine), and things that are too large or numerous to
count (e.g., equipment, sand, wood). Because these things can’t be counted, you should never use a or an with
them—remember, the indefinite article is only for singular nouns. Uncountable nouns can be modified by words
like some, however. Consider the examples below for reference:

Please give me a water.

Water is an uncountable noun and should not be used with the indefinite article.

Please give me some water.

However, if you describe the water in terms of countable units (like bottles), you can use the indefinite article.

Please give me a bottle of water.

Please give me an ice.
Please give me an ice cube.
Please give me some ice .
Note that depending on the context, some nouns can be countable or uncountable (e.g., hair, noise, time):

We need a light in this room.

We need some light in this room.

Using articles with pronouns

Possessive pronouns can help identify whether you’re talking about specific or nonspecific items. As we’ve
seen, articles also indicate specificity. But if you use both a possessive pronoun and an article at the same time,
readers will become confused. Possessive pronouns are words like his, my, our, its, her, and their. Articles
should not be used with pronouns. Consider the examples below.

Why are you reading the my book?

The and my should not be used together since they are both meant to modify the same noun. Instead, you should
use one or the other, depending on the intended meaning:

Why are you reading the book?

Why are you reading my book?

Omission of articles
Occasionally, articles are omitted altogether before certain nouns. In these cases, the article is implied but not
actually present. This implied article is sometimes called a “zero article.” Often, the article is omitted before
nouns that refer to abstract ideas. Look at the following examples:

Let’s go out for a dinner tonight.

Let’s go out for dinner tonight.
The creativity is a valuable quality in children.
Creativity is a valuable quality in children.
Many languages and nationalities are not preceded by an article. Consider the example below:

I studied the French in high school for four years.

I studied French in high school for four years.
Sports and academic subjects do not require articles. See the sentences below for reference:

I like to play the baseball.

I like to play baseball .
My sister was always good at the math .
My sister was always good at math .

Article FAQs

What is an article?

An article is a word that comes before a noun to show if it’s specific or general. Specific nouns use the
article the and general nouns use the article a (or an if the next word starts with a vowel sound). 

What is an example of an article in grammar?

“The hammer” refers to only one hammer, but “a hammer” refers to any hammer. 

When should we not use articles?

You don’t use articles with uncountable nouns or possessive pronouns. Certain nouns such as nationalities,
school subjects, and sports don’t need articles, especially if they refer to abstract ideas. 

What are definite and indefinite articles?

Definite and indefinite articles refer to whether they describe something specific or general. “The” is the
definite article and “a” and “an” are indefinite articles. 

PREPOSITION

 Prepositions indicate relationships between other words in a sentence.

 Many prepositions tell you where something is or when something happened.

 Most prepositions have several definitions, so the meaning changes quite a bit in different contexts.

 Ending a sentence with a preposition is not a grammatical error.

Confused about prepositions?

Grammarly provides suggestions, wherever you write.

What is a preposition?
“Vampires! Zombies! Werewolves!”

“Where?!”

“Behind you!”

Thank goodness for prepositions. Imagine not knowing where the danger lay….

Prepositions tell us where or when something is in relation to something else. When monsters are approaching,
it’s good to have these special words to tell us where those monsters are. Are they behind us or in front of us?
Will they be arriving in three seconds or at midnight?

Prepositions often tell us where one noun is in relation to another (e.g., The coffee is on the table beside you).
But they can also indicate more abstract ideas, such as purpose or contrast (e.g., We went for a walk despite the
rain).

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from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
you write.

Types of prepositions

Prepositions indicate direction, time, location, and spatial relationships, as well as other abstract types of
relationships.

Direction: Look to the left and you’ll see our destination.

Time: We’ve been working since this morning.

Location: We saw a movie at the theater.

Space: The dog hid under the table.

Preposition examples

Unfortunately, there’s no reliable formula for determining which preposition to use with a particular
combination of words. The best way to learn which prepositions go with which words is to read as much high-
quality writing as you can and pay attention to which combinations sound right. Here are a few examples of the
most common prepositions used in sentences.

I should rewrite the introduction of my essay.

Sam left his jacket in the car.
Did you send that letter to your mother?
We’re cooking for ten guests tonight.
Dan ate lunch with his boss.
You can also use tools like Google Ngrams to see which prepositions most commonly occur with particular
words—but remember, this tool can’t explain the difference in meaning between different prepositional
phrases like “pay for” (to purchase) and “pay off” (to bribe). For that, you may want to refer to a list of
prepositions that includes the meanings of common combinations.

Ending a sentence with a preposition

The old claim that it’s wrong to end a sentence with a preposition has been utterly debunked. It’s not true and it
never was true. Writers who always insist that a preposition can’t end a sentence often end up with stilted and
unnatural sentences:
There’s no one else to hide behind . (Grammatically correct and natural)
There’s no one else behind whom to hide. (Grammatically correct, but unnatural)
Where did you come from ? (Grammatically correct and natural)
From where did you come? (Grammatically correct, but unnatural)
That said, it is sometimes more elegant to move a preposition to an earlier spot in a sentence, especially in very
serious and formal writing. But if you do move the preposition, remember to delete it from the end.

This is something we must meditate on .

This is something on which we must meditate.
This is something on which we must meditate on .

Unnecessary prepositions

One of the most common preposition mistakes is adding an unnecessary at to the end of a question.

Where is your brother at ?

Although this is common in some English dialects, it’s considered an error in writing. You can fix the problem
by simply deleting the at.

Where is your brother?

On the bright side, if you’re not sure which preposition to use, sometimes you can just get rid of it altogether. In
fact, you should always get rid of unnecessary prepositional phrases. Too many prepositions can be a sign of
flabby writing. Look at how many prepositions appear in the sentence below:

For many people, the reality of an entry into a new area of employment is cause for a host of anxieties.

Getting rid of the prepositions forces you to tighten up the sentence. The result is shorter, more direct, and
easier to understand:

Changing careers makes many people anxious.

Here’s another example:

Alex hit the baseball up over the fence.

Get rid of the up. You don’t need it:

Alex hit the baseball over the fence.

CONJUNCTION

Without conjunctions, you’d be forced to express every complex idea in a series of short, simplistic sentences: I
like cooking. I like eating. I don’t like washing dishes afterward.

How do conjunctions work?

Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.

I like cooking and eating, but I don’t like washing dishes afterward.

Sophie is clearly exhausted, yet she insists on dancing till dawn.
Conjunctions allow you to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the choppiness of multiple short
sentences. Make sure that the phrases joined by conjunctions are parallel (share the same structure).

I work quickly and careful.

I work quickly and carefully.
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from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
you write.
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Coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions allow you to join words, phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical rank in a
sentence. The most common coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so; you can
remember them by using the mnemonic device FANBOYS.

I’d like pizza or a salad for lunch.

We needed a place to concentrate, so we packed up our things and went to the library.
Jesse didn’t have much money, but she got by.
Notice the use of the comma when a coordinating conjunction is joining two independent clauses.

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that work together. Some examples

are either/or, neither/nor, and not only/but also.

Not only am I finished studying for English, but I’m also finished writing my history essay.
I am finished with both my English essay and my history essay.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions join independent and dependent clauses. A subordinating conjunction can signal a
cause-and-effect relationship, a contrast, or some other kind of relationship between the clauses. Common
subordinating conjunctions are because, since, as, although, though, while, and whereas. Sometimes an
adverb, such as until, after, or before can function as a conjunction.

I can stay out until the clock strikes twelve.

Here, the adverb until functions as a subordinating conjunction to connect two ideas: I can stay out (the
independent clause) and the clock strikes twelve (the dependent clause). The independent clause could stand
alone as a sentence; the dependent clause depends on the independent clause to make sense.

The subordinating conjunction doesn’t need to go in the middle of the sentence. It has to be part of the
dependent clause, but the dependent clause can come before the independent clause.

Before he leaves, make sure his room is clean.

If the dependent clause comes first, use a comma before the independent clause.

I drank a glass of water because I was thirsty.

Because I was thirsty, I drank a glass of water.

Starting a sentence with a conjunction

Many of us were taught in school that it is an error to begin a sentence with a conjunction, but that rule is a
myth. As mentioned above, a subordinating conjunction can begin a sentence if the dependent clause comes
before the independent clause. It’s also correct to begin a sentence with a coordinating conjunction. Often, it’s a
good way to add emphasis. Beginning too many sentences with conjunctions will cause the device to lose its
force, however, so use this technique sparingly.

Have a safe trip. And don’t forget to call when you get home.
Gertie flung open the door. But there was no one on the other side.

List of conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

Correlative conjunctions

both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but, whether/or

Subordinating conjunctions

after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though, because, before, by the time, even if, even
though, if, in order that, in case, in the event that, lest , now that, once, only, only if, provided that, since, so,
supposing, that, than, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, whether or not,
while

INTERJECTIONS

Ouch! Oh my! Wow! Yikes!

If you’ve ever uttered any of the words above, you’ve used an interjection, whether you knew it at the time or
not. The word interjection comes from the Latin words inter (between) and jacĕre (to throw). So,
an interjection is a word that you throw in between sentences or thoughts to express a sudden feeling.

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from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
you write.

Standalone interjections

Because interjections usually express sudden feelings, you’ll often see them used to convey surprise (both good
surprises and bad ones) or excitement.

Yikes! There’s a snake in the garage!

You planned this party just for me? Wow!
Ouch! That wasp just stung me!
Yahoo!
Oops.
Terrific! Jordan will send you the contract this afternoon.
There’s no strict rule about where an interjection must go in relation to other sentences. You can use an
interjection before or after a sentence that explains what’s going on. You can also use an interjection alone,
although it may not make sense if you haven’t adequately described the situation that caused you to use the
interjection. Interjections often use exclamation points, but they don’t necessarily have to.
Interjections in a sentence

It’s possible to use an interjection within a sentence. When you do, treat the interjection as a parenthetical
element that’s separate from the rest of the sentence. You can put the interjection inside parentheses or set it off
with commas.

I may not succeed, but, hey, at least I tried.

The project was delayed because the logistics team made a few (ahem) miscalculations.
It will take only thirty minutes (Wow!) to reach the city on the new train.
The important thing to remember is that the interjection should be set off somehow. Don’t just drop it in with
nothing to mark it as separate from the rest of the sentence.

I forgot to do the homework assignment oops but my teacher gave me an extra day to finish it.
I forgot to do the homework assignment (oops), but my teacher gave me an extra day to finish it.
Gee I hadn’t thought of that.
Gee, I hadn’t thought of that.

When to use interjections

Because interjections are usually separate from other sentences, it’s hard to use them incorrectly. The bigger
concern is whether it’s appropriate to use an interjection in your writing. Interjections are fine to use in casual
and informal writing. It’s okay to use them in speech, too. But avoid using interjections in formal writing
because it may appear that you’re not treating the topic seriously.

And now, you’re ready to go out and use interjections. Hooray!

8 PARTS OF SPEECH

Every word is a part of speech. The term “part of speech” refers to the role a word plays in a sentence. And like
any workplace or TV show with an ensemble cast, these roles were designed to work together. 

Read on to learn about the different parts of speech that the words we use every day fall into, and how we use
them together to communicate ideas clearly.

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from grammar and punctuation mistakes. It even proofreads your text, so your work is extra polished wherever
you write.

The 8 parts of speech

1 Nouns

A noun is a word that names person, place, concept, or object. Basically, anything that names a “thing” is a
noun, whether you’re talking about a basketball court, San Francisco, Cleopatra, or self-preservation. 

Nouns fall into two categories: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are general names for things,
like planet and game show. Proper nouns are specific names for individual things,
like Jupiter and Jeopardy!

>>Read more about nouns

2 Pronouns

Pronouns are the words you substitute for specific nouns when the reader or listener knows which specific noun
you’re referring to. 

You might say “Jennifer was supposed to be here at eight,” then follow it with “she’s always late; next time I’ll
tell her to be here a half-hour earlier.” 

Instead of saying Jennifer’s name three times in a row, you substituted she and her and your sentences
remained grammatically correct. Pronouns are divided into a range of categories, and we cover them all in our
guide to pronouns: 

>>Read more about pronouns

3 Adjectives

Adjectives are the words that describe nouns. Think about your favorite movie. How would you describe it to a
friend who’s never seen it?

You might say the movie was funny, engaging, well-written, or suspenseful. When you’re describing the
movie with these words, you’re using adjectives. An adjective can go right before the noun it’s describing (I
have a black dog), but it doesn’t have to. Sometimes, adjectives are at the end of a sentence (my dog is black).

>>Read more about adjectives

4 Verbs

Go! Be amazing! Run as fast as you can! Win the race! Congratulate every participant who put in the work

and competed!

These bolded words are verbs. Verbs are words that describe specific actions, like running, winning,
and being amazing. 

Not all verbs refer to literal actions, though. Verbs that refer to feelings or states of being, like to love and to be,
are known as nonaction verbs. Conversely, the verbs that do refer to literal actions are known as action verbs.

>>Read more about verbs

5 Adverbs

An adverb is a word that describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb. Take a look at these examples:

Here’s an example: I entered the room quietly. Quietly is describing how you entered (verb) the room.

Here’s another example: A cheetah is always faster than a lion. Always is describing how frequently a cheetah
is faster (adjective) than a lion.

>>Read more about adverbs

6 Prepositions

Prepositions tell you the relationship between the other words in a sentence. 

Here’s an example: I left my bike leaning against the garage. In this sentence, against is the preposition because
it tells us where I left my bike. 

Here’s another example: She put the pizza in the oven. Without the preposition in, we don’t know where the
pizza is. 

>>Read more about prepositions

7 Conjunctions

Conjunctions make it possible to build complex sentences that express multiple ideas. 

I like marinara sauce. I like alfredo sauce. I don’t like puttanesca sauce. Each of these three sentences expresses
a clear idea. There’s nothing wrong with listing your preferences like this, but it’s not the most efficient way to
do it. 

Consider instead: I like marinara sauce and alfredo sauce, but I don’t like puttanesca sauce. 

In this sentence, and and but are the two conjunctions that link your ideas together. 

>>Read more about conjunctions

8 Articles

A pear. The brick house. An exciting experience. These bolded words are known as articles. 

Like nouns, articles come in two flavors: definite articles and indefinite articles. And just like the two types of
nouns, the type of article you use depends on how specific you need to be about the thing you’re discussing. 

A definite article describes one specific noun, like the and this. Example: Did you buy the car?

Now swap in an indefinite article: Did you buy a car?

See how the implication is gone and you’re asking a much more general question?

>>Read more about articles

Figuring out parts of speech

Sometimes, it’s not easy to tell which part of speech a word is. Here are a few easy “hacks” to quickly figure
out what part of speech you’re dealing with: 

 If it’s an adjective plus the ending “-ly,” it’s an adverb. Examples: commonly, quickly.

 If you can swap it out for a noun and the sentence still makes sense, it’s a pronoun. Example: We
played basketball. / Steve and I played basketball. 

 If it’s something you do, and you can modify the sentence to include the word do, it’s a verb. Examples:
I have an umbrella. / I do have an umbrella. 

 If you can remove the word and the sentence still makes sense, but you lose a detail, the word is most
likely an adjective. Example: She drives a red van. / She drives a van. 

 If you can remove the word and the sentence doesn’t make sense, it’s likely a preposition. Example: I
left my notebook on the desk. / I left my notebook the desk.

And if you’re ever really stumped, just look the word up. Dictionaries typically list the part of speech a word
fits in its entry, and if it fits more than one part of speech, both are listed with examples.

That brings us to another common issue that can confuse writers and language learners:

When a word is two different kinds of speech

Just like y is sometimes a vowel but sometimes a consonant, there are words that are sometimes one part of
speech and other times another. Here are a few examples:

 Work 
 o I went to work (noun). 

o I work in the garden (verb).

 Well

o She paints very well (adverb).

o He’s well-liked in his community (adjective).

o I dropped a penny in the well (noun).

 But

o I cooked breakfast and lunch, but Steve cooked dinner (conjunction).

o I brought everything but the pens you asked for (preposition).

And sometimes, words evolve to fit into new parts of speech. One recent example is the word “adult.” Before
the 2010s, adult was primarily a noun that referred to a fully grown person. It could also be used as an adjective
to refer to specific types of media, like adult contemporary music. But then, at right about the turn of the 2010s,
the word adulting, a brand-new verb, appeared in the internet lexicon. As a verb, adulting is the act of doing
tasks like paying bills and grocery shopping. 

Open and closed word classes

The parts of speech fall into two word classes: open and closed. 

Open word classes are parts of speech that regularly acquire new words. Language evolves, and usually,
evolution happens in these parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and verbs. In 2020, new words added
to the Merriam-Webster dictionary included deepfake, truthiness, and contactless. 

Closed word classes are the parts of speech that don’t regularly add new words. These parts of speech are more
“set in stone” and include pronouns, conjunctions, articles, and prepositions. 

10 Common Grammar Mistakes Writers Should Avoid

If you had a dollar for all the grammar mistakes you’ve made (or have yet to make) in your life, you’d be rich
by now. Unfortunately, you don’t get paid for making grammar mistakes, and making too many errors could
cost you time and money at work or in school.

1 Overuse of adverbs

The boy ran really fast to catch the runaway ball.

The boy sprinted to catch the runaway ball.
Adverbs—those words that often end in -ly—modify verbs. They’re okay once in a while, but in excess they’re
an indicator of weak verb choices. In our example, the adverb “really fast” modifies the verb “ran.” But does
“really fast” paint a more vivid word-picture for the reader? Use a juicier verb like “sprinted” instead.

2 Too many prepositional phrases

The caravan came over the top of the hill.

The caravan crested the hill.
Prepositions are those words that often come before nouns and pronouns to show direction, location, or time. In
the first sentence we have two prepositional phrases—“over the top” and “of the hill.” Excessive prepositional
phrases render your writing wordy. Whenever possible, simplify.

3 Ambiguous (“Squinting”) modifiers

Listening to loud music slowly gives me a headache.

When I listen to loud music, I slowly develop a headache.
A squinting modifier is a misplaced modifier that, because of its location in a sentence, could modify either the
phrase that precedes it or the one that follows it. (In the example sentence, is the subject listening to music
slowly or slowly getting a headache?) To correct a squinting modifier, move its position in the sentence to make
it clear to the reader which word you intend to modify.

4 Misuse of lie/lay

He was laying on the couch.

He was lying on the couch.
If you plan to place or put an object somewhere, such as a plate on a table, you should use “lay.” If you intend
to stretch out on a bed for a nap, you should use “lie.” The verb “lie” is an intransitive verb, which means it
does not need an object. The transitive verb “lay” requires an object.

It may take some getting used to this “lay” or “lie” business; after all, misuse of these verbs is common. But if
you remember to lay down your fork before you’re full, then you won’t have to lie down later from overeating.

5 Ambiguous pronoun references

John had a card for Helga, but couldn’t deliver it because he was in her way.
John had a card for Helga, but couldn’t deliver it because Tim was in Helga’s way.
When you use the pronouns “her” or “him,” readers need to know to whom those pronouns refer. A pronoun
without a clear antecedent is ambiguous.

In our example sentence demonstrating an ambiguous pronoun, the reader is unsure who the second “he” is.
Was John in the way, or was there another “he” involved? As noted in the corrected example, the pronoun “he”
refers to Tim, who is card-blocking Helga. Always be sure your pronouns refer to a specific antecedent.

6 Comma splices

He was very hungry, he ate a whole pizza.

He was very hungry. He ate a whole pizza.
He was very hungry, so he ate a whole pizza.
To splice means to connect or join. When a writer joins two independent sentences with a comma instead of
separating them with a period or a coordinating conjunction, that’s a comma splice.

The comma has its own jobs to do, but connecting two independent sentences isn’t one of those jobs. Besides,
the period gets testy when his sister, the comma, steals his thunder. Periods have their jobs, and so do commas,
but never the twain shall meet—unless it’s in the form of a semicolon. Semicolons can also take the place of a
coordinating conjunction, such as “and,” “but,” or “so,” among others.
7 Run-on sentences

Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night however she prefers roses.
Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night; however, she prefers roses.
Run-on sentences, also known as fused sentences, occur when two complete sentences are squashed together
without using a coordinating conjunction or proper punctuation, such as a period or a semicolon. Run-on
sentences can be short or long. A long sentence isn’t necessarily a run-on sentence.

To avoid run-on sentences, see if there is more than one idea communicated by two or more independent
clauses. In our examples, there are two complete sentences:

Lily enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night.
She prefers roses.
Both sentences are complete ideas by themselves; therefore, use a semicolon or a period to indicate that they are
separate independent clauses.

8 Wordiness (inflated sentences)

It has come to our attention that your tax returns are overdue and we urge you to file them at your earliest
convenience.
Your tax returns are overdue. Please file them now.
If you have something to say to readers, spit it out (figuratively, not literally). Inflating sentences with
unnecessary words or pointless filler only muddles what you mean to say. Wordy sentences also frustrate
readers, so get to the point. Streamline your sentences by using strong verbs and nouns instead of trite adjectives
and adverbs.

William Shakespeare once wrote that brevity is the soul of wit. Follow the Bard’s lead by never using ten
sentences when two will suffice. Don’t overuse words such as “that,” “just,” and “very.” Proofread your work
to keep your prose tightened and toned!

9 Using “could of” instead of “could have”

Sam could of received an A on his essay, but he made too many grammatical mistakes.
Sam could have received an A on his essay, but he made too many grammatical mistakes.
“Could have” is always correct; “could of” never is. Writers probably make this grammar gaffe because, when
we speak, the contraction “could’ve” sounds an awful lot like “could of.”

10 Tautologies

Jack made a water pail with his own hands for Jill.
Jack made a water pail for Jill.
Tautologies express the same thing twice with different words. In our example, the word “made” implies that
Jack used his own two hands to create the pail. The prepositional phrase “with his own hands” creates a
redundancy. Once you know what they are, it’s fun to discover tautologies: dilapidated ruins, close proximity,
added bonus, large crowd . . . The list goes on and on!

Verb Tenses Explained, With Examples

Verb tenses are changes or additions to verbs to show when the action took place: in the past, present, or future.
The phrase verb tense is also used for grammatical aspects, which add more details about the duration or time
an action takes. When you combine the four grammatical aspects with the past, present and future, you end up
with twelve main verb tenses in English. 

Verb tenses are essential for speaking English correctly, but with all the different forms and functions, they can
get confusing. In this guide, we give a quick overview of the English tenses, including when to use them and
how to make them, and give plenty of verb tense examples. 

What is a verb tense? 

Verb tenses show when an action took place, as well as how long it occurred. The main verb tenses are the past,
present, and future. 

There are also additional aspects that give extra details, such as the length of time the action occurred, which
actions happened first, or whether a past action has an impact on the present. These grammatical aspects are the
simple tense, perfect tense, continuous tense, and perfect continuous tense. 

Verb tenses list: How many tenses are there in English?

The standard tense in English is the present tense, which is usually just the root form of the verb. The past and
future tenses often require changes or additions to the root form, such as the suffix –ed for the past tense and
the modal verb will for the future. 

However, for each of the past, present, and future tenses, there are four different aspects that add additional
details. For example, the continuous tense shows that an action is ongoing. It can be used in the present (she is
sleeping), past (she was sleeping), or future (she will be sleeping). 

Past, present, and future tenses

The past, present, and future are the central divisions of time in English. The present represents actions
happening now, while the past represents actions that happened earlier, and the future describes actions that will
happen later. 

Simple tense

The simple tense is a grammatical aspect that refers to the normal forms of the past, present, and future tenses—
nothing fancy! Unlike the other aspects, it doesn’t add any new information. True to its name, simple tenses are
the easiest to form and have the fewest rules. 

Perfect tense

The definition of the perfect tense is a little more complicated. It’s used for actions that relate to other points in
time, either completed or ongoing. 

For example, in the sentence I have played soccer since I was a child, the perfect tense indicates that the action
occurred continuously in the past and still happens in the present. By contrast, in the sentence I played soccer
when I was a child, the simple past tense indicates that the action occurred only in the past, and has no relation
to the present. 

The perfect tenses use a conjugation of the auxiliary verb have with the past participle of the main verb. 
Continuous tense 

We use the continuous tenses (also known as the progressive tenses) for ongoing actions or actions that happen
a while before completion. For example, They are studying all night means the studying lasts many hours
before it’s finished. 

Please note that you usually do not use the continuous tense with stative verbs like want, love, have,
and need. 

The continuous tenses use a conjugation of the auxiliary verb be along with the main verb’s present participle,
or –ing form. 

Perfect continuous tense

When you combine the perfect and continuous tenses, you get the perfect continuous tense. It’s typically used
just like the perfect tense, except it describes ongoing actions that happen over a period of time. 

The construction of the perfect continuous tense uses a conjugation of the auxiliary verb have, the auxiliary
verb been (the past participle of be), and the present participle of the main verb. 

English tenses examples: verb tenses chart

Past Present Future

I help my neighbor every I will help my neighbor
Simple I helped my neighbor yesterday.
day. tomorrow.
I have helped my I will have helped my neighbor
I had helped my neighbor clean
Perfect neighbor too much this a hundred times by the end of
his attic before I fixed his car.
week. the month.
I am helping my neighbor
I was helping my neighbor when I will be helping my neighbor
Continuous while he fixes up his
he brought me iced tea. next month when he moves.
house.
I had been helping my neighbor I have been helping my
Perfect I will have been helping my
for a year before he finally neighbor since I moved
continuous neighbor for a year next month.
thanked me. in.

Past tenses

Simple past

We use the simple past to show actions completed in the past, with no extra emphasis. 

For regular verbs, you form the simple past tense by adding the suffix –ed to the end of the verb (or just –d if
the past tense verb already ends in an e). 

Be careful of irregular past tense verbs, however. These don’t follow the normal rules and use their own unique
forms for the past tense. For example, the past tense of the irregular verb go is went. 

Regular verbs: I picked up the glass, but it dropped from my hand. 

Irregular verbs: This morning I went to the store, but I forgot the milk. 

Past perfect

[had] + [past participle]

What if you’re talking about two different actions in the past and want to show that one happened before the
other? The past perfect, also known as the pluperfect, shows that one past action happened earlier than another
one. 

She had arrived at the office before she realized it was Sunday. 

I ran to my car when I noticed my wife had left already. 

Past continuous

[was/were] + [present participle]

Use the past continuous to show an ongoing action in the past, especially if the action was interrupted by
another action. It’s also used for habitual actions that occurred in the past but not in the present. It’s usually
used with adverbs like always or adverb phrases like all the time. 

My dog was whimpering in his sleep when the TV woke him up. 

As kids, my friends and I were always getting into trouble. 

Past perfect continuous

[had] + [been] + [present participle]

The past perfect continuous tense is used just like the past perfect tense, except it describes ongoing actions that
happened in the past instead of a one-time occurance. It’s often used with the words when, until, and before to
connect it to another past action. 

Before he got his first job as a writer, he had been working as a proofreader. 

I had been living on my friend’s couch for a year until they kicked me out. 

Present tenses 

Simple present

The simple present is the most basic of the English tenses. It’s used for individual actions or habitual actions in
the present. 

Often the simple present is just the root verb with no changes or additions. The main exception to this is when
the subject is third person and singular. In this case you add the suffix –s. If the verb ends
in o, ch, sh, th, ss, gh, or z, you add –es. If the verb ends in a consonant and y (and the subject is third-person
singular), drop the y and add –ies. 

Today I feel like a million bucks! 

My brother carries the groceries while my sister stays on the couch. 

Present perfect

[have/has] + [past participle]

Although it’s quite common, the present perfect is one of the most difficult English verb tenses. It is used to
describe a few different types of actions, including: 
  an ongoing action started in the past that is not yet completed

 the same action completed multiple times in the past and likely to be completed again

 an action completed very recently (usually with just or now)

 an uncompleted action that is expected to be finished (in the negative)

Additionally, the present perfect can be used to emphasize the significance of a completed action, especially one
that happened over time. 

We have tricked him every April Fool’s Day since we were kids. 

My niece has grown so much this year! 

Present continuous

[am/is/are] + [present participle]

Use the present continuous to show an action happening right now or in the near future. 

I am reading The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy for the fifth time! 

We are eating pizza tonight. 

Present perfect continuous

[have/has] + [been] + [present participle]

The present perfect continuous shows an ongoing action in the present that was started in the past. It is often
used to emphasize the length of time. 

We have been waiting for over an hour! 

The team has been practicing nonstop for the tournament. 

Future tenses

Simple future

Use the simple future for actions that have not happened yet but will later. To form the simple future, just place
the modal verb will before the root form of the main verb. (Note that if the action will happen in the near
future, you can use the present continuous instead.) 

She will be president one day. 

I will not go to the wedding without a date! 

Future perfect

[will] + [have] + [past participle]

The future perfect shows an action that will be completed in the future by a specified time. Because it depends
on another time, the future perfect is often used with words like by, before, at, or when. 

By the time you read this, I will have already left. 

She will have eaten lunch before her sister even wakes up. 

Future continuous

[will] + [be] + [present participle]

Use the future continuous tense for future actions happening over a period of time, especially when a specific
time is mentioned. The future continuous tense also shows more certainty and likelihood than the simple future. 

By this time tomorrow, I will be drinking margaritas on the beach. 

We will be attending a meeting from noon until 3 p.m. 

Future perfect continuous

[will] + [have] + [been] + [present participle]

The future perfect continuous depicts future ongoing actions that continue up until a certain point. Like the
future perfect and future continuous, it’s used with a specified time. 

In ten minutes, my parents will have been waiting in traffic for four hours. 

I will have been eating healthy for a whole year by September.

Verb tense FAQs

What are verb tenses?

Verb tenses are changes or additions to verbs to show when the action took place: in the past, present, or future.
The phrase verb tense is also used for grammatical aspects, which show how long an action occurs. 

What are the different types of verb tenses?

The three main verb tenses are the past, present, and future, but there are also four grammatical aspects: simple,
continuous, perfect, and perfect continuous. When you combine the three time periods with the four aspects,
you get twelve unique verb tenses. 

What are some examples of the different verb tenses? 

The simple tenses show actions happening at different times, while the perfect tenses show completed actions
that relate to different time periods. The continuous tenses are for ongoing actions that take a while to complete.
The perfect continuous tenses combine the perfect and continuous tenses to describe ongoing actions that
happen over a period of time.

What Is Subject-Verb Agreement?

Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the verb or verbs in a sentence must match the number,
person, and gender of the subject; in English, the verb needs to match just the number and sometimes the
person. For example, the singular subject it and the plural subject they use different versions of the same verb:
“it goes . . . ” and “they go . . . ”

Learning the rules for subject-verb agreement can be difficult at first, but with enough practice, you’ll find they
start to make more sense. Below, we explain everything you need to tackle any subject-verb agreement
exercises you come across, including demonstrations of how they work with lots of subject-verb agreement
examples. 
What is subject-verb agreement?

Subject-verb agreement, also called “subject-verb concord,” refers to matching the subject and verb of a
sentence in tense, aspect, and mood (abbreviated as TAM), which translates to number, person, and gender. 

English doesn’t use grammatical gender (except for pronouns), and only the verb be changes based on whether
it’s first, second, or third person. That means most English subject-verb agreement is about quantity: if the
subject is singular, the verb must be singular; if the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. 

Even this can get confusing, though, because talking in the first-person singular (“I climb the fence”) uses the
same verb format as talking in the first-person plural (“We climb the fence”). Aside from the verb be, subject-
verb agreement in English adapts verbs to the third-person singular (“It climbs the fence”). 

Usage and subject-verb agreement examples

Basically, most subjects except third-person singular use the standard form of a verb in the present tense. 

The dogs roll in the mud. 

I need to catch my breath. 

You look like a celebrity! 

However, if the subject is third-person singular, you must use the singular form of the verb when speaking in
the present tense. Most of the time, this means adding an -s to the end of the verb. 

The dog rolls in the mud. 

She needs to catch her breath. 

He looks like a celebrity!

If the verb ends in -x, –ss, –sh, –ch, –tch, or –zz, you add –es to the end to match the third-person singular. 

My snake hisses to say “I love you.” 

She only matches with creeps in online dating. 

If the verb ends in a consonant + y, remove the y and add –ies to match the third-person singular. 

Atlas carries the world on his shoulders. 

The new drone flies higher than the old one. 

However, with words that end in a vowel + y, follow the normal format and add only –s to make the third-
person singular. 

My roommate stays in his bedroom from morning to night. 

With the exception of the verb be, these guidelines apply to irregular verbs as well as regular verbs.  

Our father eats with the ferocity of a tiger. 

So why does the verb be have so many exceptions? The most common verb in English, be doesn’t just represent
a general state of existence; it’s also an auxiliary verb necessary for the continuous tenses. 

In English, be is the only verb that changes based on the person. If you’re using the verb be, alone or as part of a
continuous tense, the subject-verb agreement rules require that you match both the number and the person.
Here’s a quick reminder of how to conjugate be in the singular and plural of each person: 

Singular Plural
     First person (I) am (we) are
 Singular Plural

     Second person (you) are (you) are

     Third person (he/she/it) is (they) are
 

Considering how frequently be is used in English, it’s best to memorize this chart so you can apply the proper
subject-verb agreement instinctively. 

You are always welcome in our home. 

I am running a marathon tomorrow. 

It is raining even though it is sunny. 

If the subject-verb agreement rules seem complicated, there is some good news: the simple past and simple
future don’t change based on the number or person of the subject. Both singular and plural subjects use the
same form for those tenses. 

They will be here tomorrow. 

He will be here tomorrow. 

The potatoes grew overnight!

The potato grew overnight! 

The only exception is, again, the verb be, which changes between was and were based on the subject in the
simple past tense. 

I was young once.

We were young once. 

On the other hand, the perfect tenses change their auxiliary verb depending on the number of the subject.
Singular subjects use has, and plural subjects use have. 

They have not seen the movie yet, so no spoilers. 

She has not seen the movie yet, so no spoilers. 

That covers the basics for subject-verb agreement in English. Still, there are some particularly difficult areas
and more precise rules for special situations, which we explain below. 

Advanced subject-verb agreement rules

Here’s a list of some additional subject-verb agreement rules to clear up the more problematic areas. If you’re
still confused, review the subject-verb agreement examples to see how they work. 

1 When using the negative form in the present tense, only the verb do needs to match the subject. 

She does not like reading before bed. 

She likes reading before bed. 

2 Likewise, in questions that involve the word do, only do needs to match the subject. 

Do you know where the train station is? 

Does anyone know where the train station is? 

3 If the subject consists of multiple nouns joined by the conjunction and, treat the subject as plural and use the
plural form of the verb. 

Lucas and Maxine are in love!

Only Lucas is in love. 

However, some common phrases that form a single unit can act as singular. 

This bed and breakfast is delightful! 

4 If the subject consists of multiple singular nouns joined by or, treat the subject as singular. 

Penne or rigatoni works fine for the recipe. 

However, if the subject consists of multiple plural nouns joined by or, treat the subject as plural. 

Cats or dogs make good friends. 

If there’s a combination of singular and plural nouns joined by or, the verb follows the number of the final one
listed. 

The teacher or the students have to inform the principal. 

The students or the teacher has to inform the principal. 

5 If there is more than one active verb, as with compound predicates, all the verbs must agree with the subject. 

After work, I go shopping, pick up the kids, cook dinner, and then relax for the night. 

6 Mass nouns, otherwise known as “uncountable nouns” or “noncount nouns,” act as singular subjects. 

Love makes the world go around. 

7 Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on whether they act together or separately. 

[Together, singular] The team goes to practice at 4:00. 

[Separately, plural] The team go to their own homes after practice. 

8 Verbs used in alternative forms, such as gerunds, infinitives, or participles, do not need to follow subject-verb
agreement. However, the main verbs of the sentence still do. 

The coach makes running mandatory. 

The coaches make running mandatory. 

9 Unless you’re using an appositive or other descriptive phrase, do not put a comma between subjects and
verbs.

The holiday is becoming a total disaster. 

The holiday, which I was looking forward to, is becoming a total disaster. 

10 The words each and every count as singular when they’re used as the subject, even if they’re followed by
multiple nouns. 

Each window and door needs to be sealed. 

Every doctor, nurse, and technician gets free training here. 

11 Likewise, these words always act as singular subjects, even when they describe more than one thing:

 anybody

 anyone
  either

 everybody

 everyone

 neither

 no one

 nobody

 somebody

 someone

Everybody loves using correct grammar! 

Either blue or green works for the wallpaper color. 

12 If additional phrases come between the subject and the verb, the verb must still agree with the subject. These
sentences can be tricky, so be careful. 

A group consisting of Professor Lidenbrock, the Icelandic guide Hans Bjelke, and the professor’s nephew
Axel departs for the volcano. 

Be particularly careful of subjects that use the phrase “one of . . . ” The word one is singular, even when
followed by plural nouns. 

One of the world’s leading scientists still has trouble speaking in public. 

13 In the active vs. passive voice debate, the verb in the passive voice still follows whatever word acts as the
subject. 

They pay the electric bill online. 

The electric bill is paid by them online. 

14 When choosing between “there is . . . ” and “there are . . . ,” the verb should match the number of the noun
that follows it. The same goes for sentences beginning with “here . . . ”

There is a new map in the DLC. 

There are new maps in the DLC. 

15 Similarly, words that indicate a portion, including percentages, use the number of the noun they describe.
This noun is typically the object of the phrase “of . . . ”

All of the book is ruined!

All of the books are ruined!

Some of the film is funny. 

Some of the films are funny. 

Fifty percent of the house is made of wood. 

Fifty percent of the houses are made of wood. 

16 When referring to distances, periods of time, or amounts of money—taken as a whole—use the singular
form of the verb. 

Twenty dollars is too much for IMAX! 

17 Be careful of nouns that exist only in the plural form; they sometimes act as singular. 
The news has been depressing lately. 

Politics is getting too combative. 

However, some of these nouns act as plural. 

The scissors do not work. 

If a plural noun is preceded by the word pair, treat the subject as singular because pair is singular.  

The pair of scissors does not work. 

Subject-verb agreement FAQs

What is subject-verb agreement?

Subject-verb agreement is the grammatical rule that the subject and verb in a sentence should use the same
number, person, and gender. With the exception of the verb be, in English subject-verb agreement is about
matching the number. 

How does subject-verb agreement work?

In English, if a subject is singular, use the singular form of the verb; if the subject is plural, use the plural form
of the verb. The only exception to this rule is the verb be, which uses different forms based on both number and
person. 

What are examples of subject-verb agreement?

Look at these two sentences: “Cats make great pets” and “A cat makes a great pet.” The plural subject cats uses
the plural form of the verb without –s at the end (make). The singular subject a cat uses the singular
form of the verb with -s at the end (makes). 

Direct Objects in English (with Examples)

In English grammar, a direct object is a word or phrase that receives the action of the verb. In the sentence The
students eat cake, the direct object is cake; the word eat is the verb and cake is what’s being eaten. 

Direct objects can get tricky, especially when used with indirect objects. In this quick guide, we’ll explain
everything you need to know about how to use them correctly, including an explanation of direct vs. indirect
objects, and we’ll also include plenty of direct object examples. 

What is a direct object?

A direct object is a noun that receives the action of the verb. Don’t get the direct object confused with the
subject—the noun that performs the actions—or the verb itself. 

Direct objects usually answer the questions “what?” or “whom?” Let’s take another look at the direct object
example above.  

The students eat cake. 

Ask yourself, “What did the students eat?” The answer is the direct object, which in this case is   “cake.” Let’s
try a new direct object example: 

The family hugged their dog. 

What’s the direct object? Ask yourself, “Whom did the family hug?” The answer, of course, is “dog.”

Transitive vs. intransitive verbs

Not all verbs use a direct object. Some verbs, like laugh and sit, can’t use direct objects because it doesn’t make
sense—you can’t laugh something or sit someone; that’s gibberish. 

Verbs that take a direct object are called transitive verbs, and those that do not are called intransitive verbs.
It’s often difficult to tell the two types apart; sometimes intransitive verbs are followed by a prepositional
phrase or adverbial phrase, which are different from direct objects.  

We all laugh at Anania Williams. 

In this sentence, Anania Williams may seem like the direct object, but the preposition at shows that it’s really a
prepositional phrase. Because laugh is intransitive, the sentence “We laugh Anania Williams” is incorrect. We
need a prepositional phrase to explain whom we’re laughing at. 

However, it is correct to say, “We enjoy Anania Williams.” In this case, the verb enjoy is transitive, so we can
make Anania Williams a direct object, no preposition needed. 

Sometimes a verb can be both transitive and intransitive, depending on the usage. If a verb has more than one
meaning, some uses could be transitive while others are intransitive. 

We drove to the mall. (intransitive)

My sister drove us to the mall. (transitive)

The best way to tell the difference is by experience, but if you’re unsure whether a verb is transitive or
intransitive, be sure to check a dictionary. If you’re in a pinch, try asking “what?” or “whom?” after the verb—
if you get an answer, then it’s transitive, and if you don’t get an answer then it’s intransitive. This is particularly
useful for words that can be both transitive and intransitive, like play: 

She played drums in a heavy metal band. 

She played what? She played drums. Here, “play” is transitive. 

The band played last night. 

The band played what? Because there’s no answer, it means here “play” is intransitive.

Direct object phrases and clauses

Direct objects aren’t always just one word; sometimes they are entire phrases or even clauses. These phrases
always act collectively as nouns, so aside from standard noun phrases, they’re often relative clauses (clauses
that begin with a relative pronoun like “what”) or gerund phrases (noun phrases that start with gerunds). 

The foul ball hit a car parked outside. 

Don’t forget what your mother said. 

English professors love naming every tiny word in a sentence. 

You can sometimes use the infinitive form of verbs as a direct object, but be careful you don’t confuse the  to in
an infinitive with the to in a prepositional phrase. 

Everyone wants to eat later.

Direct object pronouns

English uses two different pronouns to refer to the same person, depending on whether the pronoun is used as a
subject or an object. For example, if you were talking about yourself as the subject of a sentence, you would
use I, but if you were talking about yourself as the object, you would use me. 

With direct objects, always use the object pronoun. If you’re unfamiliar with the differences, you can
review subject and object pronouns here, but there’s a quick chart as a reminder below. 

SUBJECT OBJECT
PRONOUN PRONOUN

I me

you you

he/she/they/it him/her/them/it

we us

you (plural) you (plural)

they them

Direct objects vs. indirect objects

One of the most confusing topics in English is understanding the difference between direct objects vs. indirect
objects. While direct objects answer the questions “what?” or “whom?” about the action of the verb, indirect
objects answer questions like “to whom?” or “for what?”

My brother loaned me five dollars. 

In this sentence, loaned is the verb and my brother is the subject (because he’s doing the loaning). The direct
object is five dollars because it answers “what is being loaned?” The indirect object is me because it answers “to
whom are the five dollars being loaned?”

Just like direct objects, indirect objects are only used with transitive verbs. (Intransitive verbs never take an
object, either direct or indirect.) While direct objects are necessary for transitive verbs, indirect objects are
optional. 

Direct objects and linking verbs

One last rule about direct objects involves linking verbs like be, seem, and feel. Linking verbs seem to use direct
objects, but the word following the linking verb is really called a complement, which is something a little
different. A complement is often an adjective, but when it’s a noun, it’s easy to confuse it for a direct object. 

They are an expert at procrastination.

In this example, “an expert” may seem like a direct object, but it’s really a complement, as it explains more
about the subject, in this case, “they.” The verb are, a conjugation of be, is a linking verb, not a transitive verb. 

Direct object examples

Let’s look at some direct object examples from literature and pop culture, so you can see how they work. The
direct objects are underlined. 

“If you cannot do great things, do small things in a great way.”

—Napoleon Hill

“‘Let me check my calendar’ is the adult version of ‘let me ask my mom.’” 

—Noelle Chatham

“You miss 100% of the shots you don’t take.” 

—Wayne Gretzky

“Everything has beauty, but not everyone sees it.” 

—Confucius

“A bank is a place that will lend you money if you can prove that you don’t need it.” 
—Bob Hope

“Let us sacrifice our today so that our children can have a better tomorrow.” 
—A. P. J. Abdul Kalam

“I always wanted to be somebody, but now I realize [that] I should have been more specific.” 
—Lily Tomlin

“In three words I can sum up everything I’ve learned about life: It goes on.”
—Robert Frost

“Nobody expects the Spanish Inquisition.” 

—Monty Python

Indirect Objects in English, With Examples

In English grammar, an indirect object is the word or phrase that receives the direct object. In the sentence The
teacher gave the students cake, the indirect object is the students. The direct object is cake, and the students are
the ones who eat it. 
If you’re confused about what an indirect object is, you’re not alone! Indirect objects are particularly difficult to
understand because they’re so closely related to direct objects. This guide clears everything up, with a lot of
indirect object examples so you can see how they work. 

What is an indirect object?

Indirect objects are easier to understand if you know what direct objects are. A direct object is the  noun that
receives the action of the verb. The indirect object, however, is the noun that receives the direct object itself. 
Embiid passed Simmons the ball. 
In this sentence, passed is the verb and Embiid is the subject because he’s the one doing the passing. The direct
object is the ball because it is the thing being passed. Simmons is the indirect object because he receives the
ball, the direct object. 
Indirect objects can only be used in sentences with direct objects. However, a sentence can have a direct object
without an indirect object (an example of this is simply saying Embiid passed the ball). 
Because they rely on direct objects, indirect objects can only be used with transitive verbs. To make things more
confusing, not all transitive verbs can use indirect objects—only a special type called ditransitive verbs can
use indirect objects. 
How do you know if a verb uses an indirect object? Below are some of the most common ditransitive verb
examples. Remember, ditransitive verbs don’t need an indirect object, and you can still use them alone or with
just a direct object. 

 ask
 bring
 buy
 get
 give
 hand
 introduce
  loan
 owe
 pass
 promise
 read
 sell
 send
 show
 sing
 teach
 tell
 throw

How to find an indirect object

You can find an indirect object by asking yourself “who or what is receiving the direct object?” In the example
sentence above, who is receiving the ball? Simmons gets the ball in the pass, so Simmons is the indirect object. 
Indirect objects can only be placed directly after the verb and before the direct object. 
It’s easy to get indirect objects confused with the objects of prepositions, especially when they both answer the
question “who or what is receiving the direct object?” We could rewrite our example sentence above in this
way: 
Embiid passed the ball to Simmons. 
This is grammatically correct and has the same meaning as the original sentence. Technically speaking,
though, Simmons is not an indirect object, but the object of an independent preposition. Same meaning, different
mechanics. 
The choice between using a proper indirect object or using a prepositional phrase depends on your writing style.
Using indirect objects is more direct and efficient (it uses fewer words), recommended for fast-paced and
minimalist writing styles. Using prepositional phrases, though, puts more emphasis on the object and lets you
control where in the sentence it appears. This can help build suspense by placing the object at the end of the
sentence. 

Indirect object phrases

Indirect objects can be either an individual noun or a noun phrase. 

I loaned him some money. 
In this example, him is the indirect object because he receives the money (the direct object). But what if we got
a little more descriptive . . . 
I loaned my tall, bald friend of ten years some money. 
In this case, the indirect object is the entire phrase my tall, bald friend of ten years. 

Indirect object pronouns

Ever wonder about the difference between the words I and me? English uses two different sets of
pronouns: subject and object pronouns. Like direct objects, indirect objects always use object pronouns. 
In case you’re unfamiliar with subject and object pronouns, here’s a quick rundown: 

Subject Pronoun Object Pronoun

I me

you you

he/she/they/it him/her/them/it

we us
you (plural) you (plural)

they them

 
Moreover, if the subject and the indirect object are the same, it’s best to use a reflexive
pronoun (myself, yourself, themselves, etc.) as the indirect object. In this way, the subject can transfer a direct
object back to themselves. 
I asked myself, “Why am I here?”
He promised himself [that] he wouldn’t cry. 

Indirect objects vs. direct objects

The difference between indirect objects and direct objects is notoriously difficult, especially for those whose
primary language isn’t English. The two types of words are so similar after all, not to mention that they’re
placed next to each other in a sentence. 
It helps to remember that indirect objects need direct objects, but direct objects don’t need indirect objects. So
aside from prepositions, if there is only one object in a sentence, it’s a direct object. 
If there are two objects, ask yourself, “which is receiving the action of the verb and which is receiving the other
object?” The direct object receives the verb’s action, while the indirect object receives the actual direct object.
If you can identify one, it’s easy to spot the other! 

Indirect object examples 

To understand indirect objects, it helps to see them used in real life. Here are some indirect object examples
from literature and pop culture. The indirect objects are underlined and the direct objects are in bold. 
“Anyone who ever gave you confidence, you owe them a lot.” 
—Truman Capote, Breakfast at Tiffany’s
“Ask me no questions, I’ll tell you no lies.”
—Oliver Goldsmith, She Stoops to Conquer
“Don’t ever tell anybody anything. If you do, you start missing everybody.”
—J. D. Salinger, Catcher in the Rye 
“Sing us a song, you’re the piano man.” 
—Billy Joel, “Piano Man”
“Give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. Teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime.” 
—Lao Tzu, Tao Te Ching
“She generally gave herself very good advice, (though she very seldom followed it).” 
—Lewis Carroll, Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland

What Is Syntax? Learn the Meaning and Rules, With Examples

Syntax in English is the arrangement of words and phrases in a specific order. If you change the position of
even one word, it’s possible to change the meaning of the entire sentence. All languages have specific rules
about which words go where, and skilled writers can manipulate these rules to make sentences sound more
poignant or poetic. 

When it comes to language, syntax is an advanced topic, which can make it difficult to understand. In this
guide, we discuss the basic rules and types of syntax so you can communicate effectively, including some
syntax examples. First, let’s start with a more thorough syntax definition. 

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What is syntax in linguistics?

Not to be confused with syntax in programming, syntax in linguistics refers to the arrangement of words and
phrases. Syntax covers topics like word order and grammar rules, such as subject-verb agreement or the correct
placement of direct and indirect objects. 

Syntax is essential to understanding constituency, the term for multiple words acting as a single unit. In long
and complex sentences, constituency is necessary to determine the hierarchy within the sentence, particularly
with sentence diagramming. 

Just how important is syntax in English? Changing the placement of a word often changes the meaning of the
sentence. Sometimes the change is minor, useful for writers who like nuance and subtext, but sometimes the
change is more significant, giving the entire sentence a whole new interpretation. 

To see for yourself, look at the syntax examples below. Notice how moving the word only changes the meaning
of the entire sentence. Keep in mind that only can be an adjective or an adverb; adjectives modify the nouns that
come after them, and adverbs modify the verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs that come after them.   

Only Batman fights crime. 

Meaning: Batman is the only person who fights crime. No one except Batman fights crime, not even Superman. 

Batman only fights crime. 

Meaning: Fighting crime is the only thing Batman does. He doesn’t work, he doesn’t shower—fighting crime is
all he does. 

Batman fights only crime. 

Meaning: Batman doesn’t fight anything except crime. He doesn’t fight Alfred or Robin; he doesn’t fight the
dry cleaner if they accidentally stain his shirt. Crime is the only thing he fights. 

The basic rules of syntax in English

If you want to get technical with the English language, there are dozens of rules about syntax you can study.
However, these can get confusing, and some require an expert understanding of English, so below we list only
the five basic rules of syntax in English, which are enough for constructing simple sentences correctly. 

1 All sentences require a subject and a verb. However, imperative sentences (commands) do not need to include
their subject because it’s assumed to be the person the sentence is directed at. 

2 A single sentence should include one main idea. If a sentence includes two or more ideas, it’s best to break it
up into multiple sentences.

3 The subject comes first, and the verb comes second. If the sentence has objects, they come third, after the
verb.

4 Subordinate clauses (dependent clauses) also require a subject and verb. Below we explain more about how to
use subordinate clauses in sentence structure.

5 Adjectives and adverbs go in front of the words they describe. If there are multiple adjectives describing the
same noun, use the proper adjective order, known as the “Royal Order.” 

Learning these fundamentals is the first step in understanding syntax. After that, you’ll be able to tackle more
advanced topics, like the types of syntax. 

Types of syntax: 7 syntactic patterns with syntax examples

Before we get into sentence structures, let’s discuss syntactic patterns. In English, syntactic patterns are the
acceptable word orders within sentences and clauses. Depending on what kinds of words you want to use, such
as indirect objects or prepositional phrases, there is a specific order in which to place them all. 

We’ve already talked about subjects and verbs, as well as direct objects and indirect objects, on our blog, but
before we get to the syntactic patterns, we first need to explain complements and adverbials. 

Complements are words or phrases that describe other words in a sentence or clause. The difference between
complements and other modifiers is that complements are necessary for the meaning of a sentence and
cannot be removed. 

There are three types of complements: subject complements, object complements, and adverbial complements.
Subject complements describe the subject (That test was hard.), object complements describe the object (That
test made me angry.), and adverbial complements describe the verb (That test took longer than usual.)

Adverbials aren’t always complements, however. While adverbial complements are necessary for a sentence’s
meaning, another kind of adverbial, modifier adverbials, can be removed without changing the meaning.
Adverbials are usually composed of single adverbs (We ran quickly.), prepositional phrases (We ran in the
park.), or noun phrases that relate to time (We ran this morning.).

Be careful not to confuse adverbials with adverbial clauses, which are more involved and include their own
subjects and verbs. 

Now let’s look at the seven types of syntactic patterns so you can make proper sentences and clauses with
whatever words you want. 

1 Subject → verb

The dog barked. 

This is the standard syntactic pattern, including the minimum requirements of just a subject and verb. The
subject always comes first. 

2 Subject → verb → direct object

The dog carried the ball. 

If the verb is transitive and uses a direct object, the direct object always goes after the verb. 

3 Subject → verb → subject complement

The dog is playful. 

The subject complement comes after the verb. Subject complements always use linking verbs, like be or seem. 

4 Subject → verb → adverbial complement

The dog ate hungrily. 

Like subject complements, adverbial complements come after the verb (if there are no objects). Be careful,
because single adverbs can sometimes come before the verb; however, these are not complements. If you’re not
sure whether an adverb is a complement or not, try removing it from the sentence to see if the meaning changes.
If you find that removing it does change the meaning, it’s an adverbial complement.

5 Subject → verb → indirect object → direct object

The dog gave me the ball. 

Some sentences have both a direct object and an indirect object. In this case, the indirect object comes right
after the verb, and the direct object comes after the indirect object. Keep in mind that objects of prepositions
do not follow this pattern; for example, you can say, The dog gave the ball to me.

6 Subject → verb → direct object → object complement

The dog made the ball dirty. 

Object complements come after the direct object, similar to other complements. 

7 Subject → verb → direct object → adverbial complement

The dog perked its ears up. 

When the sentence uses both a direct object and an adverbial complement, the direct object comes first,
followed by the adverbial complement. In this syntax example, up is the adverbial complement because it
describes how the dog perked its ears. 

Types of syntax: 4 sentence structures with syntax examples

The syntactic patterns above can be used to form stand-alone sentences and individual clauses within a
sentence. Both independent and subordinate clauses can be mixed and matched to form advanced sentences,
which is ideal if you want to learn how to write better sentences. 

There are only four types of sentence structures, which represent different combinations of independent and
subordinate clauses. 

1 Simple: Includes the minimum requirements for a sentence, with just a single independent clause. 

We go to the beach in summer. 

2 Complex: An independent clause combined with one or more subordinate clauses.

We go to the beach in summer when school is finished. 

3 Compound: Two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or a semicolon.

We go to the beach in summer, but my cat stays home.

4 Compound-complex: Two independent clauses combined with one or more subordinate clauses. 

We go to the beach in summer, but my cat stays home because he doesn’t own a swimsuit. 

We recommend using a variety of sentence structures to improve your paragraph structure. Using the same
sentence structure over and over in a paragraph is technically acceptable, but it can be a little boring for the
reader. For this reason, it’s a good idea to consider syntax early on, even when writing an outline. 

What’s the difference between syntax and diction?

Syntax is often confused with another aspect of language called diction. While the two have some things in
common, they are distinct concepts. 

Diction refers to word choice. For example, you might describe a room as “clean,” or you might call it
“spotless.” Both words have similar meanings, but with a tiny difference that can affect the reader’s
understanding of that room. 

Syntax, on the other hand, is about the arrangement or order of the words. There’s less choice involved, and
there are more restrictions based on grammar rules. 
Diction is a writing tool that directly affects writing style. For example, the author Mark Twain is famous for
using simple, everyday words, while the author James Joyce is known for using longer, more sophisticated
words. 

Syntax also affects style, in particular, sentence structure and sentence length. Just like some authors are known
for using simple or elaborate words, some authors are known for using simple or elaborate sentences.
Furthermore, in sentences with multiple clauses, authors can choose which clauses come first and which come
last, influencing how the reader interprets them. 

However, because syntax has more grammar rules to follow, it tends to be more uniform among writers
compared to diction. 

Syntax in literature

In the hands of a skilled writer, syntax can make the difference between a bland sentence and a legendary quote.
Combining syntax with certain literary devices, like antithesis, chiasmus, or paradox, can help anyone make
their writing stand out. Just look at these famous syntax examples from literature. 

“It is a far, far better thing that I do, than I have ever done; it is a far, far better rest that I go to than I have ever
known.”

—Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

In this famous passage, Dickens matches the syntax in multiple clauses to establish a connective comparison
between events past, present, and future. 

“Rather than love, than money, than fame, give me truth.”

—Henry David Thoreau, Walden 

The syntax in Thoreau’s excerpt may be peculiar, but it’s written this way to emphasize just how
important truth is. Consider how the sentiment would have less impact if it were reversed: “Give me truth rather
than love, than money, than fame.” 

“People generally see what they look for, and hear what they listen for.”

—Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird

One of the best applications of syntax for writers is parallelism, or using the same structure for different
phrases. As this passage from Lee shows, parallelism allows for direct comparisons and also sounds poetic. 

“The fool doth think he is wise, but the wise man knows himself to be a fool.” 

—William Shakespeare, As You Like It

Shakespeare here uses antithesis in his syntax to emphasize the difference between a wise man and a fool. 

“I may not have gone where I intended to go, but I think I have ended up where I needed to be.”

—Douglas Adams, The Long, Dark Tea-Time of the Soul

As long as you deliberately choose which clauses come in what order, syntax can be used to subvert
expectations and surprise readers with an unpredictable meaning.

Syntax FAQ

What is syntax in linguistics?

In linguistics, syntax is the arrangement or order of words, determined by both the writer’s style and grammar
rules. 
How does syntax work?

Most languages have a predetermined order for the types of words in a sentence, but there is still enough
freedom for creativity and the writer’s own unique style. 

What are the different rules of syntax?

Syntax in English sets forth a specific order for grammatical elements like subjects, verbs, direct and indirect
objects, etc. For example, if a sentence has a verb, direct object, and subject, the proper order is subject → verb
→ direct object.

What are the different types of syntax? 

While there are specific rules for word order within a clause or sentence, the writer is still free to choose
different types of syntax to order the words and clauses. For example, one could write a compound sentence
containing two independent clauses or two simple sentences containing one independent clause each. 

The Basics of Clauses in English

A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb that have a relationship. This relationship is
crucial; a clause conveys information about what that subject is or is doing, rather than simply being a random
grouping of words. Because a clause expresses an action or a state of being, a clause can often—but not always
—function as an independent sentence.  

A sentence can have just one clause or it can have multiple clauses. The only defining characteristic of a clause
is that it must contain a related subject and verb. Clauses play a variety of roles in English and because of this,
there are numerous ways to structure and combine them. 

Although you use clauses in your speech and writing every day, it can be easy to overlook the intricacies of
clauses in English. Read on to learn how clauses are classified, the roles clauses play in sentences, how to
combine clauses to express your thoughts, and the difference between independent and dependent clauses. 

Classifying clauses in English

When it comes to expressing a complete thought, a clause falls between a phrase and a sentence. In many cases,
a clause can function as its own sentence. A phrase, in contrast, can’t. Here’s a quick look at the difference
between a phrase and a clause: 

 Phrase: Meows so loudly

 Clause: That cat meows so loudly

In this example, the clause can be an independent sentence. It can also be part of a complex sentence. For
example:

 That cat meows so loudly when she wants to eat.

How do clauses in English work?

Clauses can perform three distinct functions: They can operate as adverbs, adjectives, or nouns. 

Here’s an example of a noun clause:

  She completely understood everything he said.

In this example, everything he said is a dependent clause that acts as a noun because it communicates the
specific “thing” that she, the subject of the sentence, understands. Everything he said can be replaced with his
explanation and the sentence still makes perfect sense:

 She completely understood his explanation.

To test whether a clause is a noun clause, try swapping it out for a noun. If your sentence still makes sense,
you’ve got a noun clause. Here are two more examples of noun clauses illustrated through swapped-in nouns:

 They remembered what the keynote speaker covered.

o They remembered the keynote speaker’s presentation.

 I don’t know how the company handles onboarding.

o I don’t know their onboarding process.

Just like a noun clause is a clause taking on a noun’s role, an adverbial clause is a clause acting as an adverb.
For example: 

 She fixed the sink without facing difficulty.

o She fixed the sink easily.  

 They spent four years living outside the United States.

o They spent four years living abroad.

 The pool was installed after they built the deck.

o The pool was installed later.

Based on the other two categories, we bet you can guess how an adjective clause works. In case you can’t, here
it is: An adjective clause acts as an adjective in its sentence. Here are a few examples with adjectives swapped
in to illustrate them: 

 My friend who rides a motorcycle said it’s a great weekend to ride.

o My motorcyclist friend said it’s a great weekend to ride.

 No matter what time of day we visit, we always run into the dog that barks.

o No matter what time of day we visit, we always run into the loud dog.

Types of clauses

Independent clauses

An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own as a distinct sentence. Take a look at these
examples:

 I love eating cookies.

 My dog barks a lot. 

 The kids ate lunch.

 His truck is green. 

As you can see, independent clauses aren’t long or complex sentences. They can certainly be part of complex
sentences, but by definition, they are known as simple sentences. Other types of sentences include complex
sentences, compound sentences, and compound-complex sentences. Each type of sentence is created by a
unique combination of independent and dependent clauses. We’ll get into the ways to combine clauses to create
different kinds of sentences shortly.

Dependent clauses

In contrast, a dependent clause is not a complete sentence. Dependent clauses are sometimes known
as subordinate clauses. As their name implies, these clauses depend on independent clauses to clearly express
ideas. Here are a few examples of dependent clauses:

 When I grow up

 Although he sings well

 The mouse that was hiding

To turn these dependent clauses into full sentences, you need to combine them with independent clauses:

 When I grow up, I want to be a doctor.

 Although he sings well, he hates karaoke.

 I searched through the basement and found the mouse that was hiding.

Take a look at these three sentences and see if you can pick out the differences between the first two and the last
one.  

In the first two examples, the dependent clause comes before the independent clause and the two clauses are
separated by commas. Keep this in mind when you’re writing: Whenever the dependent clause comes first in
a complex sentence, it’s followed by a comma. 

How to combine clauses

When you want to write a sentence that’s more than one independent clause, you need to combine
clauses. Every sentence you write includes at least one independent clause. The other clauses in your
sentence determine how you can combine them with your independent clause. 

A sentence that includes two or more independent clauses is known as a compound sentence. In a compound

sentence, the clauses are joined by a comma paired with a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, or a colon.
This kind of combination is known as coordination. Take a look at these examples of compound sentences:

 I love drinking soda, but I know it’s bad for my teeth.

 Maria loved hosting dinner parties; her friends enjoyed her cooking.

 We danced until the band finished playing: they played until midnight.

When all of your clauses are independent clauses, you can combine them using a coordinating conjunction. In
English, the coordinating conjunctions are: 

 for

 and 

 nor

 but

 or
  yet

 so 

If you need to combine a dependent clause with an independent clause, you need a subordinating conjunction.
There are a lot more subordinating conjunctions than there are coordinating conjunctions, and they can be
divided into categories according to their function. 

A sentence that includes an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is known as a complex
sentence, and a sentence that includes two or more independent clauses and at least one dependent clause is
known as a compound-complex sentence. In either of these kinds of sentences, the subordinating conjunction
signifies the beginning of the dependent clause. Here are a few examples:

 The fun can begin now that the clown is here.

 While we slept, the plane reached its destination.

 Before you leave, remember to take a goodie bag!

 The pool is open daily until the temperature drops.

As you can see in these examples, when the dependent clause comes first, it needs to be followed by a comma. 

Subordinating conjunctions aren’t the only way to add a dependent clause to a sentence. Dependent clauses can
also start with relative pronouns or relative adverbs. 

Relative pronouns include that, whose, whom, who, and which. Take a look at how these dependent clauses

that begin with relative pronouns work in sentences:

 The guy who shouted all night made it impossible to fall asleep.

 Pac’s, that restaurant with the arcade, is the best restaurant in town.

Relative adverbs include where, when, how, and why. Here are a few relative adverb-led dependent clauses at
work: 

 The traffic jam is the reason why we were late. 

 I have no idea when my hose stopped working.

Go beyond the basics of clauses

How can you tell if you’re creating and combining clauses effectively? Give your written work a run-through
with Grammarly. Our writing suggestions catch syntax mistakes, awkward phrasing, and even whether your
tone is working for the kind of writing you’re doing.

You don’t have to guess whether you’re using certain words correctly or breaking grammar rules in your
writing. Just copy and paste your writing to check your grammar and get instant feedback on grammar, spelling,
punctuation, and other mistakes you might have missed.

How to Fix a Sentence Fragment, With Examples

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence used in place of a complete sentence. Usually, a sentence
fragment lacks either the subject or predicate necessary to make it an independent clause. They can be fixed by
adding the missing part to make it whole. 

Sentence fragments are common in casual conversations, and you can even find them in literature. However,
when it comes to formal writing like school papers or business reports, it’s best to avoid them. Below, we
explain what makes a sentence complete and provide a lot of sentence fragment examples to show you how they
work (or don’t work). 
What is a sentence fragment?

A sentence fragment is simply an incomplete sentence; it’s missing some of what makes a sentence whole. For
example: 

Bacon and eggs. 

This group of words has a period at the end and the first letter capitalized, but it’s not a complete sentence. It
seems like the rest of the sentence has broken off, which is another way to say “fragmented.” To make it
complete, you need to add the parts that are missing. 

I’d like a serving of bacon and eggs. 

To fully answer the question, “What is a sentence fragment?” we first have to answer “What’s a complete
sentence?” When you know the necessary parts of a complete sentence, you can identify sentence fragments
more easily by recognizing what they’re missing. 

What is a complete sentence?

If you ask most people for a definition of a complete sentence, they’ll say that a sentence represents a complete
thought. That’s true, but there are also technical requirements. A sentence requires two parts to make it
complete: 

 Predicate: an action; predicates always have at least one verb.

 Subject: the person or thing that does the action of the predicate. 

These are the minimum requirements for all four types of sentences. Consider this simple sentence: 

They wait. 

This sentence may be short, but it’s still complete. It has a predicate, the verb wait, and a subject, they, who
does the waiting. A complete sentence is not about length; it’s about meeting these two basic requirements. 

Imperative sentences, or commands, also follow this rule but have one big difference. In imperative sentences,
the subject is not mentioned because it is assumed. For example, look at this imperative sentence: 

Stop! 

You can see the predicate, the verb stop, but not the subject. That’s because the subject is assumed to be
whomever the speaker is talking to. It does not need to be written because it’s assumed, but it’s still there in
essence. 

[You] stop! 

Assumed subjects apply only to commands. All other sentences require you to mention the subject. 

Sentence fragments with subjects and predicates

Sometimes, a group of words can have both a subject and a predicate but still be a sentence fragment. Having
these parts is the minimum requirement, but it’s not the only requirement. 

Here are two occasions when a sentence fragment can include a subject and a predicate without being complete:

 Transitive verbs without a direct object

 Subordinate clauses without an independent clause

Transitive verbs without a direct object

A transitive verb is a verb that requires a direct object, which is a noun that receives the action. For example, in
the sentence . . .  

She sent the package. 

. . . the verb sent is transitive and the package is the direct object. If you ask, “What is sent?” the answer is “the
package”—the package receives the action of sending, so it’s the direct object. 

If you take away the direct object from a transitive verb, the sentence becomes a sentence fragment. 

She sent. 
Therefore, using a transitive verb without a direct object creates a sentence fragment, even if it still has a
subject and predicate. 

Subordinate clauses without an independent clause

A clause is any group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. There are two types: the subordinate
clause (also known as the dependent clause) and the independent clause. 

Independent clauses can stand alone as complete sentences. In fact, simple sentences are just independent
clauses with no extra words added. 

Subordinate clauses are different. In a complex sentence, a subordinate clause needs to be combined with an
independent clause to be complete. Let’s look at an example of a complex sentence: 

I will find that unicorn, wherever it is. 

In the sentence above, the independent clause is I will find that unicorn. This alone is a complete sentence. 

The subordinate clause is wherever it is. There’s a subject (it) and a predicate (is), but this alone is not a
complete sentence because it only makes sense with the independent clause. In other words, subordinate clauses
used alone are sentence fragments. 

Wherever it is. 
You can identify subordinate clauses because they always begin with a special type of word or phrase
called subordinate conjunctions, such as because, as long as, even though, or, like our
example, wherever and whenever. 

When should you avoid using sentence fragments?

In general, it’s important to avoid sentence fragments in formal writing like business correspondence, academic

papers, and other documents where grammar is a top priority. 

However, in more casual conversations and writing, sentence fragments are more acceptable. One of the most
common examples is in answering questions. 

“What do you want for breakfast?”

“Bacon and eggs, please.” 

Moreover, creative writing can use sentence fragments for dramatic effect. These are known as rhetorical
fragments, and they’re used by some of the most celebrated English-language writers in history. 

“Then there is the loneliness that roams. No rocking can hold it down. It is alive. On its own.”

— Toni Morrison, Beloved
Not every writer can pull off sentence fragments. If you’re not careful, they can look like unintentional mistakes
rather than dramatic devices. However, when used sparingly and in the right context, they can make certain
passages stand out and break up the monotony of too many similarly structured sentences in a row. 

Sentence fragment examples: Common mistakes

Essentially, there are three types of sentence fragments:

 Missing a subject or predicate (or both)

 Transitive verb without a direct object

 Subordinate clause without an independent clause

Let’s look at them individually, with some sentence fragment examples. 

Missing a subject or predicate or both

With the exception of imperative sentences (commands), if a sentence is missing a subject then it is a fragment. 

Leaving now. 

Does not play well with others. 

Thought about it. 

Likewise, if a sentence has a subject but no action—no verb, no predicate—then it is also a fragment. 

The best candidate for mayor. 

Everyone in the world. 

A time of great uncertainty.

It’s even possible for a sentence fragment to have neither subject nor predicate. In this case, the sentence
fragment is just a random phrase without the information to make it a complete thought. These include generic
exclamations and prepositional phrases without context. 

For all time. 

Not enough. 

Oh, my goodness.

Transitive verb without a direct object

As mentioned above, transitive verbs always need a direct object. Some words, such as cook, have both
transitive and intransitive meanings (known as ambitransitive), but if you’re using them in the transitive sense,
they require that direct object. 

They brought. 

We give. 

I made. 
Subordinate clause without an independent clause

Subordinate clauses are easy to identify because they all start with a subordinating conjunction, such as “when
sentences” or “when clauses” that start with the subordinating conjunction when. If you can remember all the
subordinating conjunctions, you can recognize sentence fragments by the subordinating clause being alone
without an independent clause. 

When I was young. 

As much as I like pizza. 

Before we begin. 

How to fix a sentence fragment

1 Add what’s missing

The easiest way to fix a sentence fragment is to add what’s missing, whether a subject, predicate, direct object,
independent clause, or any combination of those. After you identify what kind of sentence fragment you have
from the list above, you can then add the necessary part. 

You OK? 
Are you OK? 
In case you didn’t receive my first email. 
I’m rewriting you in case you didn’t receive my first email. 
Everyone please bring to the party. 
Everyone please bring a dish to the party. 

2 Recast the sentence

Sometimes it’s better to rethink the sentence so that it’s naturally more complete. This could mean scrapping the
entire fragment and starting over from scratch, or it could involve something minor such as adding a
punctuation mark. 

I love visiting my friend. Because he has the cutest puppy. 

I love visiting my friend because he has the cutest puppy. 
I love visiting my friend. He has the cutest puppy. 

3 Use a grammar tool

Some sentence fragments are easy to identify . . . but not all of them. If you’re confused about whether you have
a sentence fragment or a complete sentence, try using Grammarly’s grammar checker, which will identify
mistakes and suggest corrections. 

Sentence fragment FAQs

What is a sentence fragment?

A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence used in place of a complete sentence. Sentence fragments are
common in casual speech conversations or informal writing like text conversations, but they’re a big no-no in
formal writing like school papers or business reports. 
How do you fix a sentence fragment?

The easiest way to fix a sentence fragment is to add the missing part. This could be the sentence’s subject, verb,
direct object, or an entire independent clause—or sometimes a combination of these. 

What are some common sentence fragment errors?

Every complete sentence needs both a subject and a verb, so make sure your sentences have both. Other
common mistakes include using a subordinate clause without an independent clause and using a transitive verb
without a direct object. 

When should you avoid using sentence fragments? 

Sentence fragments are common in informal conversations or writing, but when it comes to formal
communication, it’s best to write in whole, complete sentences. 

Run-on Sentences

What is a run-on sentence?

Run-on sentences, also known as fused sentences, occur when two complete sentences are squashed together
without using a coordinating conjunction or proper punctuation, such as a period or a semicolon. 

Run-on sentences can be short or long. A long sentence isn’t necessarily a run-on sentence.

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Run-on sentence examples

Below is an example of two independent clauses that are structured as a run-on sentence. It fuses two complete
thoughts into one sentence without proper punctuation.

Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night however she prefers roses.
Now, here is an example of how to write these two independent clauses correctly. A semicolon is placed
between the two clauses to separate each thought. It also includes a comma after the conjunctive
adverb, however, as a transition into the second clause.

Lila enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night; however, she prefers roses.
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Fixing and correcting run-on sentences 

To avoid run-on sentences, see if there is more than one idea communicated by two or more independent
clauses. In our examples, there are two complete sentences:

Lily enjoyed the bouquet of tulips John gave her on prom night.
She prefers roses.
Both sentences are complete ideas by themselves; therefore, use a semicolon or a period to indicate that they are
separate independent clauses.

Never miss a run-on sentence mistake

Writing with Grammarly helps you avoid run-on sentences. Our writing suggestions look for grammatical
mistakes as well as the clarity of your writing, flagging when sentences are too long and therefore not as
readable and understood by your audience. Grammarly offers suggestions on how to run-on sentences, helping
you learn how to improve your writing over time.

What Are Contractions in Writing?

Contractions are a unique type of word that combines two or more other words in a shortened form, usually
with an apostrophe. Contractions take words that usually go together, like can not or I have, and then remove
certain letters to shorten them and make other words, like can’t or I’ve.

Contractions are an incredibly useful way to save time in both writing and speech, but there are a lot of rules
about when and how to use them (for example, in formal writing they’re considered inappropriate). We’ll clear
up the confusion and explain everything you need to know about contractions and provide a contraction word
list below.  

What are contractions in writing?

Contractions are a kind of abbreviation that combines two or more words by removing certain letters and
usually adding an apostrophe. Only certain words can be contracted: typically small and common words
(not, is/are), especially pronouns (I, he/she/it, they), and modal
verbs (can, will, might, must, should, would, could). 

Even though they represent multiple words, contractions act as a single word. Moreover, contractions all have a
definite spelling, which means you can’t just combine words however you like. Be careful, though, because two
different contractions can be spelled the same, such as I would and I had, which are both contracted as I’d. 

In sentence structure, contractions act in the same way as the words that make them. 

I do not understand how to use contractions. 

I don’t understand how to use contractions. 

The point of contractions is simply to save time. By cutting out letters and combining multiple words into one,
your writing (and speech) becomes more compact and therefore more potent. Contractions are common in
casual conversations like emails, text messages, or social media posts but not in formal writing like academic
papers. 

Only certain word combinations have contractions, so you shouldn’t try to make up your own. We’ve provided
a contraction word list below so you can review which contractions are acceptable. 

Contractions grammar: How are contractions used?

Here’s a quick list of the grammar rules for contractions. 

1 Don’t use contractions in formal writing.

Contractions are considered informal language—they’re most common in speech and casual written
conversations. That makes them out of place in formal writing like academic papers or research reports. You
can review formal vs. informal writing here to see whether or not you should use contractions. 

2 Negative contractions are typically used with tag questions. 

Tag questions are declarative statements with a question “tagged on” the end that asks if someone agrees. 

The weather is hot today, isn’t it? 

If the declarative part of the sentence is a positive statement, then the question part is phrased as a negative and
vice versa. When the tag question is negative, use a contraction. If the main verb is be, then the verb in the
tag question should match (like in the example above, which uses is and isn’t). If the declarative statement uses
a main verb other than be, the tag question uses a negative contraction formed with do and not. 

She loves you more than me, doesn’t she? 

3 Some contractions are colloquial.

You may have heard some people use contractions like amn’t or ain’t, but these are not common. Like slang,
some contractions are popular only in certain geographical regions or cultures. These are known as
colloquialisms, and colloquial contractions may not be understood by everyone because they’re technically not
proper English. 

Specifically, the contraction amn’t is used mostly in Scottish and Irish English, while the
contractions ain’t and y’all are used mostly in regional American English. 

4 Don’t confuse contractions with possessives.

Apostrophes are common in both contractions and possessive nouns, which can get confusing. To make matters
worse, possessive nouns in English use ’s, just like many contractions. If you’re confusing contractions and
possessives, it can help to take a look at their context. 

The university’s recruited archaeologists to help with the dig. 

[The university has recruited . . .]

The university’s archaeologists help with the dig. 

[The archeologists of the university help . . .]

Another potentially confusing area is possessive pronouns, which can sound the same as some contractions. In
these cases, just remember that possessive pronouns do not use an apostrophe, so if you see what looks like a
possessive pronoun with an apostrophe, it’s actually a contraction. 

it’s -> it is

its -> possessive of it

they’re -> they are

their -> possessive of they

who’s -> who is

whose -> possessive of who

she’s -> she is

her -> possessive of she

5 In American English, don’t use contractions with has/have to express possession. 

Have and has are two of the most common words in contractions, whether they’re preceded by subjects
(we’ve, it’s) or phrased as negatives (haven’t, hasn’t). However, have and has can be used as contractions
only when they’re modal verbs, another name for helper verbs. When have or has is used as a main verb with
the meaning “to own, possess, or hold,” they cannot be used as contractions. 

I’ve a dog at home.

I’ve owned dogs since I was a kid.

6 In American English, avoid subject contractions in the negative present perfect tense.

There’s another rule about contractions, again particular to American English, related to subject contractions in
the present perfect tense (used for past actions that are related to or continue into the present). When the present
perfect tense is used in the negative, it’s incorrect to use a subject contraction like she’s or I’ve. Instead you
should use the subject followed by the contractions haven’t or hasn’t.

I’ve not even gotten dressed yet! 

I haven’t even gotten dressed yet!

7  Contractions with nouns are less common in writing than in speech. 

While contractions with pronouns are typical in both speech and informal writing, contractions with other nouns
are more exclusive to speech than to writing. 

When speaking directly to someone, you might say something like, “My friend’ll be here soon” or “Jonah’s on
his way,” but in writing these are considered too informal (unless they’re part of dialogue). It’s best to avoid
contractions like these in all forms of writing. 

8 It’s best to avoid double contractions in writing. 

Another type of contraction that’s fine in speech but not in writing is the double contraction, such as I’d’ve for I
would have or mustn’t’ve for must not have. While these are technically acceptable in casual conversations, they
look awkward and should be avoided in all forms of writing (again, unless they’re part of dialogue). 

Contraction word list: examples of contractions

Common contraction word list

Contraction Meaning
could’ve could have
he’d he had, he would
he’ll he will
he’s he has, he is
here’s here is
how’d how did, how would
how’ll how will
how’re how are
how’s how has, how is
I’d I had, I would
I’ll I will
I’m I am
I’ve I have
it’d it had, it would
it’ll it will
it’s it has, it is
let’s let us
might’ve might have
must’ve must have
she’d she had, she would
she’ll she will
she’s she has, she is
should’ve should have
somebody’s somebody has, somebody is
someone’s someone has, someone is
something’s something has, something is
that’d that would
that’ll that will
that’s that has, that is
there’s there has, there is
there’re there are
these’ll these will
these’re these are
they’d they had, they would
they’ll they will
they’re they are
they’ve they have
this’ll this will
this’s this has, this is
those’ll those will
we’d we had, we would
we’ll we will
we’re we are
we’ve we have
what’d what did
what’ll what will
what’re what are
what’s what has, what is
what’ve what have
when’d when did
when’s when has, when is
where’d where did
where’ll where will
where’re where are
where’s where has, where is
where’ve where have
which’s which has, which is
who’d who did, who had, who would
who’ll who will
who’re who are
who’s who has, who is
who’ve who have
why’d why did
why’re why are
why’s why has, why is
would’ve would have
you’d you had, you would
you’ll you will
you’re you are
you’ve you have

Negative contraction word list

aren’t are not

can’t can not
couldn’t could not
didn’t did not
doesn’t does not
don’t do not
hadn’t had not
hasn’t has not
haven’t have not
isn’t is not
mustn’t must not
shouldn’t should not
wasn’t was not
weren’t were not
won’t will not
wouldn’t would not

Contractions FAQs

What are contractions?

Contractions are two or more words that are combined and shortened to save time. Typically, you can identify a
contraction by the apostrophe, as with isn’t or they’ve—but don’t confuse contractions with possessive nouns,
which also use apostrophes. 

How do contractions work?

Contractions replace the words they represent and take their place in a sentence. Typically, certain letters are
removed, which are noted by the apostrophe. 

When should you use contractions? 

Contractions are considered informal, so they should not be used in formal writing like academic papers. 

What are some examples of contractions?

Some of the most common contractions in English include can’t, it’s, they’ve, what’s, and would’ve. 

IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS

List of Common English Idioms:

Idiom Meaning

Hard to swallow Difficult to believe

Digging around Looking for

He’s a really bright spark He’s an intelligent person

He’s kicked the bucket He’s died

She’s hitting the books She’s studying hard

Break a leg! Good luck!

Set out on a new career Start a new career

Saunter through life Live in a relaxed way

Idiom Meaning

Follow in someone’s footsteps Do something the way another person did it before

One step at a time Do something slowly and carefully

Career path The sequence of jobs someone takes that create their career

Milestones Important events in a person’s life or career

Dead end job A job that offers no opportunity for advancement

When someone is at a point in life where their decisions will have long
To be at a crossroads
term consequences

He’s on the straight and narrow He’s living in a morally proper way

To walk someone through

To show someone how to do something
something

We need to come up with a road

We need to make a plan
map

I wouldn’t go down that road if I

I wouldn’t do that if I were you!
were you!

Don’t run before you can walk Don’t try to do something difficult before mastering the basics

Inching forward When progress on something is being made in small increments

To move at a snail’s pace To move slowly

To get good mileage out of

To get a lot of benefits from something
something

To have your whole life in front of

To be young and have a lot of years to live
you

To get on with your life To make progress in life goals after a difficulty

To behave or speak carefully to avoid offending or causing problems

To tread carefully
with someone or something

To be a minefield When something presents many possible dangers

We’ll cross that bridge when we

To wait to worry about one problem at a time
come to it

Information superhighway The internet

Time is money Time is a valuable resource

A tasty (or juicy) bit of gossip Very interesting or sensational gossip

To devour someone or something To consume something very quickly

To add a pinch of salt to something To acknowledge that someone exaggerates

To chew something over To think about something before making a decision

To not swallow something To not accept something as fact

To bite off more than you can chew When someone makes a commitment that they cannot keep

To eat your wods When someone has to admit they were wrong
Idiom Meaning

A warm welcome A friendly welcome

The cold shoulder An unfriendly welcome

When things heat up between

When a relationship becomes romantic
people

To be cold-hearted To be dispassionate or uncaring

A 24-hour hotline A phone line that is always active

A very frosty reception To receive a greeting that makes someone feel unwelcome

The Cold War War without active fighting between nations

A warm smile and the warm

A welcoming smile and handshake
handshake

People who call phones, usually for sales, who don’t have previous
Cold callers
contact with the person they’re calling

We took the temperature of the Checked the overall opinion of a person or group of people about
group something

Most people were quite warm about

People have a positive reaction to the idea
the idea

You’ll reap the rewards later To collect the benefits of your work

To prune out To clear, clean or groom something

Separate the wheat from the chaff Separate what is useful or valuable from what is worthless

Rooted in Based on something or connected to a source/cause

To cutback something To reduce something, usually related to the amount of money spent

To use a lot of your physical, mental or financial resources to achieve

To dig deep
something

Great growth A positive change in the production of goods or services

Root and branch Completely/utter

Seed money Money that is used to start a small business or other activity

Bright shoot Start something new, a new chapter

Plough its own furrow To follow a plan or course of action independently

Green fingers Have an ability to make plants grow, to be good at gardening

To argue that something is the best thing to do, to explain and give
Build/make a good case
reasons why something should be done

A fabrication To tell lies about something, completely made-up/invented

To be confident about the topic you are dealing with, or because you are
To be on solid ground
in a safe situation

Build on To use something as a base or foundation to develop something else

Shattered To break something into a smaller form or into many pieces

Idiom Meaning

Undermine your position Behave in a way that makes you less likely to succeed

To break down someone’s argument to an extent that it is no longer

Demolish your arguments
accurate or correct

Constructive criticism Criticism that is useful because they can help improve something

A reason for you to be dismissed from your job, often due to your
Grounds for dismissal
(negative) behavior

Completely groundless Not based on any good reason

Grounded in fact Something that is based on facts

Come to light To be revealed

Unearthed To find something that was lost or forgotten

Someone or something that can provide you with a lot of information

A mine of information/gossip/data
etc.

Get to the bottom of Find an explanation, often to a mystery

Digging into To methodically reveal information

To bury the memory To try to hide something, such as a memory, the truth etc.

Emerge Something that is brought to attention

Out in the open In public view or knowledge, everybody knows

An alternative culture, different from the mainstream of society and

Underground scene
culture

Transparency Something that can be seen by everyone/the public

Crystal clear Perfectly easy to understand

Put your head in the sand To ignore or hide from the obvious signs of danger

Bright spark Someone that is highly intelligent

Enlightenment To understand something completely

Throw light on something To reveal something about someone/something, to clarify something

Dull Something that lacks imagination, boring

Brilliant Shining brightly, stands out, illustrious

In the dark A state of ignorance, to not have knowledge about something

Dim-witted Something/someone that thinks slowly, lacks intelligence

When something was not understood, a time when knowledge was

Dark ages
limited

Illuminating To make something more understandable

A part of a political group that consists of people who support

Right-wing
conservative or traditional ideas

Look down upon To view someone or something as unworthy

 Idiom Meaning

Side of the fence Refers to either side of opposing views or ideas

Political landscape The current state of things and how they are looking in the future

Look at life How you observe things that happen, your opinion on daily matters

Behind you all the way To fully support someone’s actions

Point of view An opinion on something

A clearer view of something, a more thorough understanding of a

Better perspective
situation

Take someone’s side To support one person’s side of an argument

Where I stand Your opinion, point of view

Look up to To respect someone as a role model

The status of being respected, a position of being ‘more’ moral than

Moral high ground
others

Sitting on the fence Undecided on a decision, avoid making a decision on something

Examples of idiomatic expressions about life:

 He’s put his criminal past behind him – He’s on the straight and narrow now!
 It’s a difficult system to get used to, so let me just walk you through the first few steps.
 We need to come up with a road map to go forward with these negotiations.
 Being selected for the national team was the first major milestone in my career.
 So you want to invest in his business? I wouldn’t go down that road if I were you!
 I feel like I’m at a crossroads in my career and I’m not sure which way to turn.
 I have tried to follow in Dad’s footsteps and to do the right things.
 I suppose I’ve gone down quite a winding career path – I’ve never done things the easy way!
 Holmes had crossed paths with Moriarty several times before and it had never gone well.
 I know I said you should read a bit more, but War and Peace? Don’t run before you can walk!

Please note that we use the imperial system, rather than the modern metric system, to refer to distances in
idioms:

 We are just inching forward with this project at a snail’s pace.

 I think I can get good mileage out of this idea.

Notice the way that prepositions are used to imply movement or direction in life:

 He envied his grandchildren having their whole lives in front of them.

 I always try and put failures behind me and get on with my life.

Also, if we are traveling along a road or pathway, we might expect to find obstacles to our progress and have to
handle them in some way:

 We need to tread carefully here because ethnic tensions in the area can be a minefield.
 I don’t know yet what we’ll do if they reject our offer – but we’ll cross that bridge when we come to
it.

And please note that idioms involving roads can refer to other things:

 The information superhighway has changed the way we think about the world.

English Expressions About Money:

When Benjamin Franklyn wrote that ‘time is money’ in his Advice to a Young Tradesman in 1746, he meant
that time was a commodity which can be treated the same way that we treat money or any other resource. He
was right too, from a linguistic perspective anyway, as we have long had this attitude towards time within the
English language.

Like money, time is something that we save, waste or spend. We praise good time management, we complain
that we don’t have enough time, and we wonder how long our time will last. Let’s look at the way the English
language treats the concepts of time and money.

Examples of English Expressions About Money:

Look at these sentences and decide if you can substitute the word ‘time’ for the word ‘money’ (you may have to
make a few extra changes):

 We will have to go soon – we are getting short of money.

 I have wasted a lot of time on this project.
 We made some changes at work to save money.
 He is determined to make it work – he’s invested so much time in the business already.
 He worked my shift at work for me – so I guess I owe him some time in return.
 I would like to devote more time to keeping the garden in shape.
 This problem has cost us too much money already!
 We are living on borrowed time.
 I thought I gave him enough money – but he seems to have squandered it all!
 She’s always had better money-management skills than me.

In most of the sentences above you can substitute ‘time’ for ‘money’ without a problem. The context may
change, but the sentences themselves still look fine.

Please note that we can replace the actual word ‘time’ with an amount of time – and we can do this with
‘money’ too:

 We spent three weeks there.

 I spent $50 on it.
 It takes half an hour to get there.
 It took $100 to convince him!

English Expressions About Knowledge:

What is the basic unit of knowledge – a fact, a truth, a maxim or a law? Well, from a computing point of view it
is called a ‘byte’. In 1956 Werner Buchholz, a computer scientist working at IBM, wanted a term he could use
to describe the eight binary digits (bits) needed to encode a single letter, number or symbol on a computer.

He chose the word ‘byte’ – a deliberate misspelling of the word ‘bite’ – and this term now refers to the basic
unit of all the information held on all computers, everywhere. When he chose this word, Buchholz was (perhaps
unknowingly) using a very common, basic and important idiom in the English language; knowledge (or
information) is food.

If you think about it, this idiom is quite easy to understand; information exists in the outside world and must
somehow comes inside us so that we can learn and understand it.

This process of bringing information into ourselves can be thought of as eating. So we might hear a tasty bit of
gossip or devour a newspaper, we may need to add a pinch of salt to unlikely stories, chew over a difficult
subject, or digest information – we may even need to spit information out if required!

Examples of English Expressions about Knowledge:

 He absolutely devours newspapers – he gets about three every morning!

 You have a great appetite for knowledge, and I respect that.
 I won’t give you an answer yet – Let me chew it over for a while.
 Who broke the school window? Come on lad – spit it out!
 I got my dad a subscription to The Reader’s Digest.
 She always exaggerates so if I were you I’d take what she says with a pinch of salt.
  Don’t give them too much information at the start of the course – just bite-sized chunks for now.
 We sat with a bottle by the river ruminating on the meaning of life.
 The exam system is terrible – you just have to regurgitate the textbook, basically.
 Information is food? – I’m not swallowing that!

Please note that idiomatic expressions involving food or eating can express other meanings in English, for
example if you bite off more than you can chew, you try to do too much or more than you are able to do; or if
you eat your own words, you retract what you said earlier:

 He bit off more than he could chew when he agreed to paint the house by himself.
 He’s going to regret saying that – I’m going to make him eat his own words!

Don’t try making a literal translation of those! And choices, for example, have taste:

 I can offer you a couple of tasty options from our new winter collection.
 The delegates are being forced to choose between two unpalatable candidates.

English Expressions About Relationships:

Here is a party game that I used to play with friends and family when I was young (a long time ago!) It involves
somebody hiding something, and somebody else searching for it.

Firstly, I would close my eyes or leave the room. Then someone would hide something, some keys perhaps, in
some part of the room. After this I would be allowed to look for them and the rest of the players could offer
encouragement by saying; ‘You’re getting warmer,’ when I approached the hidden object, or; ‘You’re getting
colder,’ when I went in the wrong direction.

When I got really close to the hidden keys, some of the younger children would be shouting ‘You’re really hot
now – boiling!’ And finally I would find the keys under a magazine on the coffee table!

The idea that you get warmer when you are closer to something is quite common in English and is particularly
strong when applied to our relationships with each other. Heat is a metaphor for how close we feel to someone
else, and how well we think they are treating us.

Close relationships are ‘warm’, and unfriendly relationships are ‘cold’. This means that if I say that the
receptionist at the hotel greeted me very warmly, you can be sure that she was very friendly and welcoming.
Equally, if I tell you that the audience gave me a frosty reception, you will know that my lecture was not a
great success!

So we can say that our relationships and feelings have some sort of ‘linguistic temperature!’

Examples of English Idioms about relationships:

 Hello – and a very warm welcome to the show!

 I tried to explain to her but she just gave me the cold shoulder.
 Perhaps you should cool things off with him for a while.
 I think things are heating up between Dave and Mary!
 She was a very cold-hearted mother who never gave us hugs or praise.
 We have set up a 24-hour hotline for anyone who wants more information.
 Well, that was a very frosty reception – I don’t think we’re very welcome here!
 The cold war was a low point in East-West relations in Europe.
 She liked him immediately; it was the warm smile and the warm handshake.
 I can’t stand these cold callers trying to sell me things I don’t want!

Notice that heat can also describe our relationship to ideas:

 We took the temperature of the group as to whether John would be a suitable replacement for Mark
and found that most people were quite warm to the idea.

English Expressions About Economics

In Hal Ashby’s excellent 1979 comedy ‘Being There’, Peter Sellers plays the part of a simple-minded gardener
who accidentally becomes a top financial adviser in Washington DC.

One of the running jokes in the film is the way that Sellers’ character misunderstands questions about the
economy to be questions about his garden – and how businessmen and television presenters mistake his answers
and comments about gardening to be sound financial advice!

How can this be? Well, in the English language there are many words and expressions that we use in agriculture
and gardening that can also be used to describe the world of economics and business. After all, if a gardener and
an economist meet at a party, we can be sure they’ll agree with each other that encouraging growth is a good
idea!

Examples of English Expressions About Economics:

 If you work hard now, you’ll reap the rewards later.

 We needed to prune out the deadwood to make the company more competitive.
 The first stage of the interview process is really just to separate the wheat from the chaff – to discount
the applicants who are definitely unsuitable.
 Our main business is rooted in this sector.
 There have been sharp staff cutbacks since they lost the contract.
 We will have to dig deep if we want this project to succeed.
 There has been great growth over the second quarter.
 The company was in a terrible state – we needed to make root and branch reform.
 We have invested a lot of seed money in this project.
 After the recession we can now see the first bright shoots of recovery, with several new businesses
opening around town.

Please note that many of the above phrases can be used in other contexts; for example, ‘dig deep’ simply means
‘try harder’ and can be used in any situation where more effort is required;

 Liverpool are going to have to dig deep here if they are going to win this match.

Also, some agricultural idioms can be used in non-business contexts:

 The entire university should act as one on this issue, rather than each department trying to plough its
own furrow.

And some gardening idioms don’t seem to transfer to other contexts:

 I’ve killed every plant I’ve ever owned. But she has got really green fingers, you should see her garden
– it’s beautiful!

Ok, that should really help you with business English.

English Expressions About Opinions

‘The wise man builds his house on the rock,’ – so goes the traditional saying (it’s loosely based on Matthew
7:24-27 in the Bible), but while it is certainly wise to build a house on solid ground, and with the proper
materials, this saying is generally taken to be about the foundations of our beliefs.

In fact there has always been a close link between buildings and beliefs; for example, the word ‘church’
originally referred to a group of people who worshipped together (now more commonly called a
‘congregation’), the teachings and philosophy they followed, and the physical building that they used.

Keeping this mind (and checking your dictionary for details) it won’t be surprising for you to find that the word
‘edifice’ refers to an important or imposing building (like a church), ‘edification’ means ‘moral improvement’
and ‘edified’ means ‘educated’ or ‘informed’.

This idiom now has a wider use in the English language so that an idiomatic phrase mentioning construction or
foundation can refer to knowledge and ideas generally. So ideas and theories should be grounded in fact or
based on truth, an argument should have a clear structure; we can deconstruct a complex idea in order to
explain it, or even demolish ideas which we strongly disagree with.

English Expressions About Knowledge:

 With so much supporting evidence, the police can build a good case for conviction.
 He is such an unreliable witness – his entire testimony was a fabrication of lies and half-truths.
 I feel like I am on pretty solid ground when I’m talking about my thesis.
 Our products are strong on reliability and we can build on this foundation in the future.
 His essay was terrible – there was no structure to the argument.
 His reputation has been completely shattered by these baseless accusations.
 If she is taking bribes, it completely undermines her position on corruption.
 She won the debate easily – she just demolished their arguments!
 I welcome any constructive criticisms of my work.

‘Ground’ is the most commonly used word in this context:

 Being rude to customers is grounds for dismissal.

 These allegations are completely groundless and are just intended to disrupt our preparations for the
Games.
 Is any of this grounded in fact?

English Expressions About Truth:

In Steven Spielberg’s excellent 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark, Indiana Jones must find the Ark of the
Covenant.

This was a kind of box which was supposed to contain the 10 commandments that were given to Moses. There’s
something symbolic in this – if you consider that the commandments represent some kind of universal truth or
wisdom, then perhaps you can see the search for the covenant as a search for truth.

I used to work as an archaeologist and watching this excellent movie was more or less compulsory for us
‘diggers’ at the time – we used to joke that Indy was searching for truth itself and that an archaeologist was the
ideal person to choose for a search for truth and wisdom!

But you don’t need to get your hands dirty to unearth interesting information, because in the English
language, any kind of discovery can be made under the ground.

It often seems that an investigation is an excavation: information may be hidden from us, perhaps buried deep
somewhere; it needs to be dug around for, and finally brought to light.

English Expressions About Truth:

 I want you to dig deep into your memories and think about your first day at school.
 The Police have reopened the case after new evidence came to light.
 I’ve been working in the archives for the last few months and have unearthed some interesting stories
about him.
 Ask Mary – she’s a mine of information on the subject!
 They have started an investigation and hope to get to the bottom of the problem soon.
 I don’t want the newspapers digging into my private life.
 She had tried to bury the memory of it for years.
 New developments in the scandal emerged over the weekend.
 I think we need to get things out in the open and talk about them honestly.
 The city is home to a vibrant underground music scene.

When a meaning is obvious and easy to understand we use a reversal of the idiom:

 We need new financial transparency regulations.

 I understand you – your message is crystal clear.

Interestingly, if we have an exam to prepare for or a bill to pay, many of us adopt a very interesting strategy –
often called the ‘Ostrich method!‘
  This is no way to run a company – whenever there’s a problem you just put your head in the sand and
hope it will go away!

English Expressions About Intelligence

Imagine that you are in a college lecture and that your teacher is trying to explain something that the class have
been having difficulty with. Maybe a tough equation, a difficult moral problem or a poem that nobody
understands.

Finally the teacher shows, proves or says something that finally makes everybody understand; everything now
makes sense! Around the room, people nod in agreement; some raise their eyebrows and smile; the mood in the
room lifts – as if some new bright light is now shining.

This is called a ‘light-bulb moment’ and it’s the moment when we conceive or understand a (usually good)
idea for the first time. It’s quite a common idiomatic expression; The Oxford Dictionary defines it as ‘A
moment of sudden realization, enlightenment, or inspiration’ and it is a powerful image.

For example, we often see cartoon characters with light-bulbs above their heads when they have a new idea, or
come to understand something.

The idea that understanding (and, as we will see, intelligence) can be expressed as light is very common in
English; people have bright, ideas, become brilliant scholars, shine a light on things when they explain them,
and achieve enlightenment.

This idiom also works in reverse; in English, darkness often refers to different types of ignorance. We get kept
in the dark when people don’t tell us a secret; we make dim-witted mistakes, and we walk out of dull movies.

Examples of English Expressions about Intelligence:

 John came top of his class in all of his tests again – he’s a real bright spark!
 People come from all over the world to find enlightenment at the meditation centre.
 The recent discovery of King Richard’s body has thrown light on his actual cause of death.
 This film is really dull – when is something interesting going to happen?
 He was always a brilliant student and it was no surprise when he won the scholarship.
 New evidence has recently come to light that could lead to further charges in the case.
 Let’s keep Sarah in the dark about it for now – she loves a good surprise.
 I think that his political supporters are pretty dim-witted, they don’t seem to know much about the
world.
 These kinds of injuries were more common back in the Dark Ages of NFL concussion awareness.
 Well that was a very illuminating lecture – I think I really get it now!

English Expressions About Opinions

What is a political map and why might we need one? In some countries there seem to be so many different
political parties and points of view that things can become rather confusing for voters at election time – so
maybe some kind of map would be useful.

But why a map – why not a list, or a diagram?

Perhaps the reason is that we imagine a political landscape where people stand in particular places that indicate
their opinions on particular issues. For example, in most democratic parliaments the political parties sit together
in particular parts of the room that they meet in.

The prime minister sits in a seat at the front of his grouping with his supporters behind him and with the
opposition politicians sitting opposite. The minor parties usually sit according to whether they support the
government or not – which side they are on. This is why we can talk about right – or left-wing politics, and how
we can take a position on an issue, stand behind someone we agree with, or change sides in an argument.
Interestingly, if I express my opinion by standing in a particular location then this will effect what I can see,
what my view of the world is. So I can see things differently from other people, have a positive outlook, look
up to – or down on people, or describe my point of view of a situation or issue.

Examples of English Expressions About Opinions:

 I don’t want him to come to dinner – he has very right-wing views.

 I think the royal family look down on us all.
 How are things on your side of the political fence?
 There has always been a complex political landscape in the country.
 Artists and musicians often look at life in new and interesting ways.
 We’ll give you all the support you need – we’re behind you all the way.
 From my point of view, I think that it’s a very good deal.
 We need more information to give us a better perspective of this situation.
 It’s not fair – whenever there’s an argument you always take his side!

What is a homonym?
So, for starters, what is a homonym?

Homonyms are two or more words with the same spelling or pronunciation, but with different meanings. These
words can sometimes be confusing, especially for children learning to spell them.

The word 'homonym' comes from the Greek word 'homonymos' which means 'having the same name'. The
prefix 'homo' means the same, and the suffix 'nym' means name. Therefore, homonyms are two words that look
and/or sound exactly alike!

One of the most common homonyms examples in English is the word 'bat'. 'Bat' can mean a piece of equipment
you use in some sports, and it's also the name of an animal. However, they both sound exactly the same when
you say them out loud, and they're spelt exactly the same way, too.

To understand which word is said, you have to understand context clues, rather than just relying on the
pronunciation or spelling of the word itself. For instance, if someone is talking about cricket or baseball and
says ‘bat’, they’re clearly talking about the object rather than the animal!

What's the difference between homonyms, homographs, and homophones?

By now, we’ve answered the question of ‘what is a homonym?’. But before we go on to look at some
homonyms examples, it’s important for us to know that homonyms can be separated into two
groups: homographs and homophones. Let’s examine the difference between these two similar-sounding terms
so we’re less likely to get them mixed up.

Homographs

While homonyms can have different spellings, homographs are words that share the same spelling but don't
share the same pronunciation. The word 'graph' in homograph means written, which means these kinds of words
are written in the same way. For example, the homographs 'bow', 'tear', 'record', and 'bark' all have at least two
different meanings. The words are all still spelt the same, regardless of the meaning and how you pronounce
them.

Homophones

Homophones are words that sound the same or share the name pronunciation, regardless of their spelling. The
word 'phone' in homophone means sound. Examples of homophones include the words 'write' and 'right',
'knight' and 'night', and the words 'see' and 'sea'.

Even though they're spelt differently, when you say them out loud, you say them in the same way. Children
often mix up homophones because they usually use sounds to determine the spelling of words, but that's not
possible with these words. When writing it down, you have to use the context surrounding the word to
determine its correct spelling.

Both a homograph and a homophone

There are also homonyms, which are both homographs and homophones. These words are both spelt the same
and have the same pronunciation. The only difference between these words is their meaning, and the only way
we can understand which one is meant is by reading the rest of the text or listening more to gain some context
clues.

What are some homonyms examples?

The English language contains several homonyms. Here’s a useful list containing some of the most common
homonym words. You’ll also be able to see whether these homonyms examples are homographs, homophones
or both!

Homonyms examples

Homograph or
Homonym Meanings
Homophone

current both A flow of water / Up to date

kind both A type of something / Caring

ring both To call someone on the phone / A band on a finger

right both Correct / Opposite of left

rose both To have got up / A type of flower

spring both A season / Coiled metal

bright both Smart or intelligent / Filled with light

match both A game of sport / Small wooden stick used for lighting fires

It went positively / A structure made to access water

well both
underground

fly both An insect / To hover and move above the ground

pray/prey homophone To worship / An animal hunted by a predator

hi/high homophone A greeting / At a great height

idle/idol homophone Lazy / Someone you admire

know/no homophone To have knowledge / Opposite of yes

lessen/lesson homophone To reduce / A period of learning

waste/waist homophone Use excessively / Part of the human body

stare/stair homophone To look at something / Structure designed to go up a level

meet/meat homophone Greet someone for the first time / Flesh from an animal

weak/week homophone Not strong / The duration of Monday - Sunday

pair/pear homophone Two of something / A type of fruit

bow homograph Polite gesture of bending the waist (b-ow) / A hair accessory
 (boh)

close homograph To make shut (klohz) / To be nearby (klohs)

Movement of air (wind) / To wrap around something (wine

wind homograph
d)

wound homograph An injury (woo und) / Past tense of 'wind' (wownd)

bass homograph A species of fish (bas) / A type of guitar (base)

dove homograph A white bird (duv) / Past tense of 'dive' (dohve)

A piece of evidence about the past (rec ord) / To film

record homograph
something with a camera (re cord)

A rip in something (tare) / Droplets that fall when you cry

tear homograph
(teer)

does homograph Female deer (dohs) / To do something (duhz)

sow homograph Female pig (sow) / To plant a seed (sohw)

List of words that sound the same

Now that we’ve seen a few homonyms examples, here are just a couple of other words in English that sound the
same:

 bare and bear

Bare (adjective): If something is described as bare, it is basic or uncovered.

Bear (noun): A large mammal.

 cell and sell

Cell (noun): A cell is a small room that is usually found in a prison. Another meaning of cell is the smallest unit
that can live on its own and that makes up all living organisms and the tissues of the body.

To sell (verb): 'To sell' is a verb meaning to exchange either a product or service for money.

 dew, do, and due

Dew (noun): Dew is the small water droplets that gather on plants and other objects outside during the night.

To do (verb): 'To do' is a verb used to indicate an action.

Due (adjective): This word is often used when discussing deadlines or when something is scheduled to happen.

Homonyms in the national curriculum

We’ve learned all about homonyms and read some homonyms examples, but where do these words fall into the
national curriculum for England?

According to the national curriculum, pupils should be able to spell some common homophones by year 2, and
should be able to tell if words are homophones or near homophones.

As they progress into years 3 and 4, pupils should be able to spell a greater number of homophones. They are
also likely to come across homonyms and become familiar with the term.

How can I teach children about Homonyms in KS2?

At Twinkl, we have an extensive range of resources to help you teach your pupils or your child about
homonyms. They're quick and easy to use, and you can use them in the classroom or at home.

List of Homonyms Display Poster

This display poster is a fantastic visual aid to use when you're teaching children about homonyms. It includes a
definition for homonyms, as well as a list of examples. You could hang this up in your classroom and children
can use it as a reference for this topic.

Homonym Double Meanings Worksheet

Children can apply their knowledge with this handy worksheet. It includes a word bank of homonyms at the top,
and children have to write two sentences per homonym. This tests their knowledge of the meanings of each
word and solidifies their understanding of homonyms.
Homonyms Word Mat

Word mats are a brilliant tool for learning. This one has been specifically designed for the teaching of
homonyms. You can keep it on hand as a visual aid when discussing homonyms, or even use it as a prompt. For
example, you could point to a homonym and ask the child to say two different meanings for that particular
word.

Homophones To Two Too Worksheet

To, two, and too are some of the most commonly confused homonyms in the English language. You can help
children to master these words by using this worksheet. They have to fill in the blanks with the correct
homophone, looking at the examples provided. For an extra challenge, you could hide the examples and test
their knowledge even further.

What is a homonym?

The definition of a homonym is “one of two or more words spelled and pronounced alike but different in

meaning.” Just to confuse things a little more, homonyms can be broken down into two

categories: homophones and homographs.

The name comes from the Greek homōnymon (the neuter of homōnymos), which means “having the same

name.” The Greek prefix homo- means “same,” while the suffix –nym means “name.” Understanding these

roots also gives us insight into the subcategories homophone (homo means “same”; phone means “voice or

sound”), and homograph (graph from grapho, which means “write”). More on those differences next.

What are the differences between homonyms, homophones, and homographs?

Homonyms, homophones, and homographs, oh my! The three terms are closely related but don’t mean the same

thing (are you beginning to see a pattern here?).

Homonyms

Homonym is the umbrella term for words with any combination of the same spelling or sound but with different

meanings. Whether a word is a homophone, homograph, or both, it is always a homonym. That one’s easy.

Homophones 

These are words that sound the same but have different meanings. For example, the most common homophones

taught in school are: there/their/they’re and to/too/two. These sets of words have the same pronunciation but

different meanings and uses. Other examples of homophones are: rows/rose, one/won, and build/billed.

Homographs 

Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings.

For example, the word lead (meaning “to be in charge of”; rhymes with bead) and lead (meaning “a toxic

metal”; rhymes with bed) look the same but are pronounced differently and have different meanings.

Some words have the same spelling and pronunciation, like the word bear. Bear as a verb means “to carry,”

while bear as a noun means “a furry, lumbering mammal.” Words like this can be considered both

homophones and homographs—at which point, it’s probably easier to just call them homonyms.

How to use homonyms in writing

Be clear about context: Homonyms rely on context to make sense. It’s unlikely that a reader will be unclear

about the meaning of the word spring if you’ve just described the pleasant temperature and the first few flowers

starting to bloom. But if the scene is about jumping on a trampoline during this delightful shoulder season, then

the use of spring might need some clarification. Use context to clarify confusing words for your reader.

Use homonyms playfully: Writers can harness the fun of homonyms to create wordplay and puns. Alice’s

Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll, is full of purposely misunderstood homonyms. In fact, homonyms

make up the majority of the story’s humor. Homonyms also make great double entendres, which is the

deliberate use of a word with multiple meanings.

Don’t forget the apostrophe: Many commonly used contractions are homonyms. They’re, you’re, and it’s are

homonyms of their, your, and its. If you understand the rules of apostrophes, then you don’t have to worry

about using the wrong word. A similar thing happens with possessive words, which become homonyms with

their plurals. For example, cats means “multiple felines,” while cat’s means “something that belongs to a single

cat.”

Homonyms can be confusing, especially when you’re just getting started writing. If you’re unsure about which

word fits, you can always check with Grammarly!

Homonym examples

Homonyms are related either by sound (homophones) or by spelling (homographs). Below are examples of

homophones and homographs, but keep in mind that all of these are examples of homonyms.

Homophone examples

Mercutio: Nay, gentle Romeo, we must have you dance.

Romeo: Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes. With nimble soles; I have a soul of lead. So stakes me to

the ground I cannot move . . .

—Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare

I always told you, Gwendolen, my name was Ernest, didn’t I? Well, it is Ernest after all. I mean it naturally

is Ernest.

On the contrary, Aunt Augusta, I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of

Being Earnest [. . . ]

—The Importance of Being Earnest, Oscar Wilde

“I beg your pardon,” said Alice very humbly: “you had got to the fifth bend, I think?”  

“I had not!” cried the Mouse, sharply and very angrily. 

“A knot!” said Alice, always ready to make herself useful, and looking anxiously about her. “Oh, do let me

help to undo it!”

—Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland, Lewis Carroll

Homograph examples

Inside, the blinds were drawn, but the furniture was real.

—Private Eye, Spike Milligan

Ask for me tomorrow, and you will find me a grave man.

—Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare

What is a homonym?

A homonym is a word in a set of words that are spelled or sound the same but have different meanings.

What’s the difference between homonyms, homographs, and homophones?

Homographs are words that have the same spelling but different meanings. Homophones are words with the

same pronunciation but with different meanings. Homonyms are any words that are spelled or sound the same

with different meanings; homonym is an umbrella term for both homographs and homophones.

What are some examples of homonyms?

 Bat (flying mammal / baseball equipment)

 Bow (knot tied with two loops / weapon to shoot arrows / bend at the hips / front end of a ship)

 Ring (a circle / a circular piece of jewelry / a sound)

 Wind (blowing air / to tire out / to move in along a nonlinear course / to turn)

 Letter (a character representing a sound / a piece of written correspondence)

 Nail (a small metal spike / a hard covering at the end of a finger)

 Rose (a type of flower / a pink color / to move in an upward direction)

 Park (a public green area / putting a vehicle in a position where the wheels no longer move)

 Palm (a type of tree / the center of the inner surface of a hand / to conceal)

 Bear/bare

 Your/you’re

 There/their/they’re
  To/too/two

Transitional Words and Phrases

One of your primary goals as a writer is to present ideas in a clear and understandable way. To help readers
move through your complex ideas, you want to be intentional about how you structure your paper as a whole as
well as how you form the individual paragraphs that comprise it. In order to think through the challenges of
presenting your ideas articulately, logically, and in ways that seem natural to your readers, check out some of
these resources: Developing a Thesis Statement, Paragraphing, and Developing Strategic Transitions: Writing
that Establishes Relationships and Connections Between Ideas.

While clear writing is mostly achieved through the deliberate sequencing of your ideas across your entire paper,
you can guide readers through the connections you’re making by using transitional words in individual
sentences. Transitional words and phrases can create powerful links between your ideas and can help your
reader understand your paper’s logic.

In what follows, we’ve included a list of frequently used transitional words and phrases that can help you
establish how your various ideas relate to each other. We’ve divided these words and phrases into categories
based on the common kinds of relationships writers establish between ideas.

Two recommendations:
Use these transitions strategically by making sure that the word or phrase you’re choosing matches the logic of
the relationship you’re emphasizing or the connection you’re making. All of these words and phrases have
different meanings, nuances, and connotations, so before using a particular transitional word in your paper, be
sure you understand its meaning and usage completely, and be sure that it’s the right match for your paper’s
logic.
Use these transitional words and phrases sparingly because if you use too many of them, your readers might
feel like you are overexplaining connections that are already clear.

Categories of Transition Words and Phrases

Causation
Chronology
Combinations
Contrast
Example
Importance
Location
Similarity
Clarification
Concession
Conclusion
Intensification
Purpose
Summary
Transitions to help establish some of the most common kinds of relationships
Causation–Connecting instigator(s) to consequence(s).

accordingly
as a result
and so
because

consequently
for that reason
hence
on account of

since
therefore
thus

Chronology–Connecting what issues in regard to when they occur.

after
afterwards
always
at length
during
earlier
following
immediately
in the meantime

later
never
next
now
once
simultaneously
so far
sometimes

soon
subsequently
then
this time
until now
when
whenever
while

Combinations
Lists–Connecting numerous events.
Part/Whole–Connecting numerous elements that make up something bigger.

additionally
again
also
and, or, not
as a result
besides
even more

finally
first, firstly
further
furthermore
in addition
in the first place
in the second place

last, lastly
moreover
next
second, secondly, etc.
too

Contrast–Connecting two things by focusing on their differences.

after all
although
and yet
at the same time
but
despite
however
in contrast
nevertheless
nonetheless
notwithstanding

on the contrary
on the other hand
otherwise
though
yet

Example–Connecting a general idea to a particular instance of this idea.

as an illustration
e.g., (from a Latin abbreviation for “for example”)

for example
for instance
specifically
that is

to demonstrate
to illustrate

Importance–Connecting what is critical to what is more inconsequential.

chiefly
critically

foundationally
most importantly

of less importance
primarily

Location–Connecting elements according to where they are placed in relationship to each other.

above
adjacent to
below
beyond

centrally
here
nearby
neighboring on

opposite to
peripherally
there
wherever

Similarity–Connecting to things by suggesting that they are in some way alike.

by the same token

in like manner

in similar fashion
here
in the same way
likewise
wherever

Other kinds of transitional words and phrases

Clarification

i.e., (from a Latin abbreviation for “that is”)

in other words

that is
that is to say
to clarify
to explain

to put it another way

to rephrase it

Concession

granted
it is true

naturally
of course

to be sure

Conclusion

finally
lastly

in conclusion
in the end

to conclude

Intensification

in fact
indeed
no

of course
surely
to repeat

undoubtedly
without doubt
yes

Purpose

for this purpose

in order that

so that
to that end

to this end

Summary
in brief
in sum

in summary
in short

to sum up
to summarize

Transitional Words and Phrases

Updated lists by Joanna Taraba
(printable version here)

This page only provides a list of transitional words; be certain you understand their meanings before you use
them. Often, there exists a slight, but significant, difference between two apparently similar words. Also
remember that while transitions describe relationships between ideas, they do not automatically create
relationships between ideas for your reader. Use transitions with enough context in a sentence or paragraph to
make the relationships clear.

Example of unclear transition:

The characters in Book A face a moral dilemma. In the same way, the characters in Book B face a similar
problem.

Improved transition:

The characters in Book A face a moral dilemma, a contested inheritance. Although the inheritance in Book B
consists of an old house and not a pile of money, the nature of the problem is quite similar.

Examples of Transitions:

Illustration

Thus, for example, for instance, namely, to illustrate, in other words, in particular, specifically, such as.

Contrast

On the contrary, contrarily, notwithstanding, but, however, nevertheless, in spite of, in contrast, yet, on one
hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor, conversely, at the same time, while this may be true.

Addition

And, in addition to, furthermore, moreover, besides, than, too, also, both-and, another, equally important, first,
second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewise,
similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently, in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore,
otherwise.

Time

After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely,
usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning,
day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently,
previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently, simultaneously.

Space

At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above,
over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside,
behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight,
across, under, nearer, adjacent, in the background.

Concession
Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of
course.

Similarity or Comparison

Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to.

Emphasis

Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in
addition.

Details

Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, in detail, namely, including.

Examples

For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.

Consequence or Result

So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since,
due to, as a result, in other words, then.

Summary

Therefore, finally, consequently, thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly.

Suggestion

For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore.