Grade 12

By: Osama Z. Almustafa

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 Acids Bases
When ants feel in danger, they emit formic acid Soap
Acidic rain (Acids dissolve in water) destroys buildings Antacid tablets for upset
stomach
Acids flavors
Acid in stomach to digest food
Household products

Properties of Acids and Bases

Acids Bases
taste sour taste bitter and feel
slippery
conductors of electricity
Physical

turn blue litmus red turn red litmus blue

Mg and Zn react with acids to produce hydrogen gas.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Chemical properties

Metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates

also react with aqueous solutions of acids
to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) gas
NaHCO3 (s) + HC2H3O2 (aq) → NaC2 H3O2 (aq)+ H2O(l) +CO2 (g)

• Geologists identify limestone because it produces bubbles of carbon dioxide when

exposed to hydrochloric acid.
• Pure water doesn't conduct electricity.

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Osama Z. Almustafa KBZ School
 Hydronium and hydroxide ions
+ –
H & OH
All water solutions contain hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH–).
• In acidic solution: [H+] < [OH-] .
• In basic solution: [H+] > [OH-].
• In neutral solution: [H+] = [OH-].

• The usual solvent for acids and bases is water—water produces equal numbers of
hydrogen and hydroxide ions in a process called self-ionization.
H2O(l) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)

• The hydronium ion is H3O+.

Simply: H2O(l) ⇌ H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

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 1. The Arrhenius Model states that:
An acid is a substance that contains hydrogen and ionizes to produce hydrogen ions in
aqueous solution
HCl ionizes to produce H+ ions. HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

A base is a substance that contains a hydroxide group and dissociates to produce a

hydroxide ion in solution.
NaOH dissociates to produce OH– ions. NaOH(s) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)

• Although the Arrhenius model is useful in explaining many acidic and basic solutions, it
has some shortcomings. For example, ammonia (NH3 ) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3
Which causes alkalinity of Natron Lake) do not contain a hydroxide group, yet both
substances produce hydroxide ions in water.

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2. The Brønsted-Lowry Model states that:
an acid is a hydrogen ion donor.
a base is a hydrogen ion acceptor.
• A conjugate acid is the species produced when a base accepts a hydrogen ion.
• A conjugate base is the species produced when an acid donates a hydrogen ion
• A conjugate acid-base pair consists of two substances related to each other by donating
and accepting a single hydrogen ion.

Examples

Water and other substances that can act as acids or bases are called amphoteric

Identify the conjugate acid-base pairs in each reaction.

NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq) ⇌ NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

HBr(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + Br-(aq)

CO32-(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ HCO3-(aq) + OH-(aq)

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Explain how the ion HCO3- can be both an acid and a base.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A conjugate acid is formed when:

A. a base accepts a hydrogen ion B. an acid accepts a hydrogen ion
C. an acid donates a hydrogen ion D. a base donates a hydrogen ion

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 Monoprotic and Polyprotic Acids

• Only ionizable hydrogen atoms can be donated is bonded to an element with more
electronegative than hydrogen. The difference in electronegativity makes the bond
between the element and hydrogen polar

Carbon atoms have about the same electronegativity as hydrogen. These bonds are
nonpolar, so benzene is not an acid.

• An acid that can donate only one hydrogen ion is a monoprotic acid.
HCl, HF, HClO4, HNO3, HBr, CH3COOH

• Acids that can donate more than one hydrogen ion are polyprotic acids.
H2SO4, H2CO3, H3PO4, H3BO3

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What is the conjugate acid in the following equation?
HCl(s) + H2O → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
A. Cl– B. H3O+ C. H2O D. HCl

Which of the following is a diprotic acid?

A. CH3COOH B. HCl C. NH 4+ D. H2SO4

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3. The Lewis Model states that:
a Lewis acid is an electron-pair acceptor
a Lewis base is an electron pair donor.

• The Lewis model includes all the substances classified as Brønsted-Lowry acids and bases
and many more.

The reaction of SO3 and MgO produces magnesium sulfate known as Epsom salt
(MgSO4·7H2O) which has many uses:
* smoothing sore muscles
* acting as a plant nutrient.
The reaction to form magnesium sulfate also has environmental applications. When
MgO is injected into the flue gases of coal-fired power plants it reacts with and removes
SO3.
If SO3 is allowed to enter the atmosphere, it can combine with water in the air to form
sulfuric acid, which falls to Earth as acid precipitation.

Anhydrides
An acid anhydride is an oxide that can combine with water to form an acid
Carbon dioxide gas form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
When the acidic rainwater reaches the ground, some sinks into the soil and reaches
limestone bedrock, where it slowly dissolves the limestone. Over thousands of years, the
dissolution of limestone creates huge underground caverns.

Other oxides combine with water to form bases. For example, calcium oxide (CaO, lime)
forms the base calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 .
In general, oxides of metallic elements form bases; oxides of nonmetals form acids.

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Which type of acid accepts an electron pair?
A. Arrhenius B. Brønsted-Lowry C. Lewis D. Dalton

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Section2: Strengths of Acids
• strong acids are acids that ionize completely.

The 0.10M HCl solution conducts electricity better than the 0.10M HC2H3O2 solution.
Why is this true if the concentrations of the two acids are both 0.10M?
because HCl produce hydrogen ions more than HC2H3O2.
Because ions carry electric current through the solution and all the HCl molecules
contained in the solution are ionized completely into hydronium ions and chloride ions.
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
• strong acids are good conductors of electricity because they produce the maximum
number of hydrogen ions.
weak acids are acids that ionize only partially in dilute aqueous solutions.
Weak acids produce fewer ions and thus cannot conduct electricity as well as strong acids.
HC2H3O2 (aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + C2H3O2-(aq)

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• With a strong acid, the conjugate base is a weak base.

HX: a strong acid so its conjugate base is weak.

HX is nearly 100% ionized because H2O is a stronger base than the conjugate base X-.
The ionization equilibrium lies almost completely to the right because the base H2O has a
much greater attraction for the H+ ion than does the base X-.
In the case of all strong acids, water is the stronger base. Notice that the
equation is shown with a single arrow to the right.

The ionization equilibrium for a weak acid lies far to the left because the conjugate base Y-
has a greater attraction for the H+ ion than does the base H2O. The conjugate base Y- is
stronger than the base

• The acid ionization constant is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the
ionization of a weak acid, Ka.
• Ka: indicates whether products or reactants are favored at equilibrium
: provides a quantitative measure of the degree of ionization of an acid.
For weak acids, the products tend to be smaller compared to the un-ionized
molecules (reactant).
• Weaker acids have a smaller Ka.

For weak acids, the concentrations of the ions (products) in the numerator tend to be small
compared to the concentration of un-ionized molecules (reactant) in the denominator.

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The weakest acids have the smallest Ka values because their solutions have the lowest
concentrations of ions and the highest concentrations of un-ionized acid molecules.

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Osama Z. Almustafa KBZ School
Osama Z. Almustafa KBZ School
 Strength of Bases
• strong base is a base that dissociates
completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions

Some metallic hydroxides, such as calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2 have low solubility and thus are poor sources
of OH- ions.
Ksp is small, indicating that few OH- ions are present in
a saturated solution.
Ca(OH)2 (s) ⇌ Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)
Ksp = 6.5 × 1 0-6
calcium hydroxide is considered strong bases because all of the compound
that dissolves is completely dissociated.

• A weak base ionizes only partially in dilute aqueous solution.

The base ionization constant, Kb, is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the
ionization of a base.

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 Hydrogen ion and Product Constant for Water
H2O(l) ↔ H+(aq) + OH–(aq)
• Pure water contains equal concentrations of H+ and OH– ions.
• The ion production of water, Kw = [H+][OH–].
• The ion product constant for water is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for
the self-ionization of water.

• With pure water at 298 K, both [H+] and [OH–] are equal to 1.0 × 10–7M.

Kw= 1.0 × 10–14

• Kw and LeChâtelier’s Principle proves [H+] × [OH–] must equal 1.0 × 10–14 at 298 K, and as
[H+] goes up, [OH–] must go down.

Example: At 298 K, the H+ ion concentration in a cup of coffee is 1.0 × 10-5M.

What is the OH- ion concentration in the coffee? Is the coffee acidic, basic, or neutral?

For each solution, calculate [H+] or [OH-] At 298 K. State whether the solution is acidic,
basic, or neutral.
a. [H+] = 1.0 × 10-13M

b. [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-7M

c. [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-3M

d. [H+] = 4.0 × 10-5M

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 pH and pOH
• Concentrations of H+ ions are often small numbers expressed in
exponential notation.

• pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration of

a solution.
pH = –log [H+]
a change of one pH unit represents a tenfold change in ion
concentration.
A solution having a pH of 3.0 has ten times the hydrogen ion
concentration of a solution with a pH of 4.0.

• pOH of a solution is the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion

concentration.
• pOH = –log [OH–]
• pH + pOH = 14.

• Litmus paper and a pH meter with electrodes can determine the pH of a

solution.
Acidic solution Neutral solution Basic solution
[H3O+] > [OH−] [OH−]= [H3O+] =1×10−7M [H3O+] < [OH−]
[H3O+] > 1X10-7 pH =7 [OH−] > 1X10-7
PH < 7 pOH =7 PH > 7
POH > 7 POH < 7
POH > PH PH > POH

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Calculate the pH of solutions having the following ion concentrations at 298 K.

a. [H+] = 1.0 × 10-2M b. [H+] = 3.0 × 10-6M

c. [H+] = 0.0055M

e. [OH-] = 4.0 × 10-3M d. [OH-] = 8.2 × 10-6M

Calculate the pH and pOH of the following aqueous solutions at 298 K.

a. [OH-] = 1.0 × 10-6M b. [OH-] = 6.5 × 10-4M

c. [H+] = 3.6 × 10–9M d. [H+] = 2.5 × 10–2M

Calculate [H+] and [OH-] in each of the following solutions.

a. Milk, pH = 6.50. b. Milk of magnesia, pH = 10.50

c. Lemon juice, pH = 2.37 d. pOH = 5.60.

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 1.60

12.40

2.00

10.81

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Molarity and the pH of strong acids
• For all strong monoprotic acids, the concentration of the acid is the concentration of H+
ions.
example:
HCl(g) → H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
What’s the meaning 0.1M HCl ?
0.1 mol of H+ ion per liter and 0.1 mol of Cl- ions per liter because HCl is essentially 100% in
the form ions in solution
Find [H+] and PH in of 3.2 × 1 0-4M solution of HCl

• For all strong bases, the concentration of the OH– ions available is the concentration of
OH–.
Find [OH-] in a 7.5 × 1 0-4M solution of Ca(OH)2

• Weak acids and weak bases only partially ionize and Ka and Kb values must be used.
The pH of a 0.100M solution of formic acid (HCOOH) is 2.38.
What is Ka for HCOOH?

Calculate the Ka
a. 0.220M solution of H3AsO4, pH = 1.50
b. 0.0400M solution of HClO2, pH = 1.80
c. 0.00330M solution of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH), pOH = 10.70
d. 0.100M solution of cyanic acid (HCNO), pOH = 11.00
e. 0.150M solution of butanoic acid (C3H7COOH), pOH = 11.18

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Kinds of indicators
a- Acid – base indicators
✓ a litmus paper which used in the lunch lap is an example of a kind of PH paper
✓ phenolphthalein
b- - a strip of PH paper the color of the paper changes if it is dipped into acidic or a basic
solution
✓ to determine the PH , the new color of the paper is compared with standard PH
colors on a chart
c- the PH meter : provides a more accurate measure of PH
✓ when electrodes are placed in a solution
✓ the meter gives a direct analog or digital read out of PH

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 A conjugate acid is formed when: The strength of a weak acid is measured by:
A. a base accepts a hydrogen ion A. ion product constant
B. an acid accepts a hydrogen ion B. base ionization constant
C. an acid donates a hydrogen ion C. pOH
D. a base donates a hydrogen ion D. acid ionization constant
Which type of acid accepts an electron pair? What is the pOH of 0.250M HBr, a strong acid?
A. Arrhenius B. Brønsted-Lowry A. 0.60 B. 0.80
C. Lewis D. Dalton C. 13.4 D. 13.2
What is the conjugate of a weak acid? Which of the following is a diprotic acid?
A. strong acid B. strong base A. CH3COOH B. HCl
C. weak acid D. weak base C. NH4+ D. H2SO4
In a solution with a pH of 4.0, which of the What is the conjugate acid in the following
following is true? equation?
A. [H+] > [OH–] B. [H+] < [OH–] HCl(s) + H2O → H3O+(aq) + Cl–(aq)
C. [H+] = [OH–] D. none of the above A. Cl– B. H3O+
C. H2O D. HCl
What is the pH of a neutral solution such as pure A solution with a small Kb is a ____.
water? A. weak acid B. weak base
A. 0 B. 7 C. strong acid D. strong base
C. 14 D. 1.0 × 10–14
Where is the equilibrium point in the ionization In dilute aqueous solution, as [H+] increases:
equation for a strong acid? A. pH decreases B. pOH increases
A. far right B. far left C. [OH–] decreases D. all of the above
C. slightly right D. slightly left

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 Neutralization
Reactions Between Acids and Bases
when the antacid; magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2 milk of magnesia, reacts with
hydrochloric acid solution ( H+ and Cl-) produced by the stomach, a neutralization reaction
occurs and you relieve your discomfort from heartburn or indigestion
A neutralization reaction is a reaction in which an acid and a base in an aqueous solution
react to produce a salt and water.
A salt is an ionic compound made up of a cation from a base and an anion from an acid.
Neutralization is a double-replacement reaction.
Write neutralization equations
Mg(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Base + Acid → Salt + Water
Note: the cation from the base (Mg2+) is combined with the anion from the acid (Cl-) in the
salt MgCl2.
Write the formula equation and complete ionic equation for the reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) →
Because HCl is a strong acid, NaOH a strong base, and NaCl a soluble salt, all three
compounds exist as ions in an aqueous solution.
complete ionic equation:

Spectator ions:
net ionic equation:

A hydronium ion transfers a hydrogen ion to

a hydroxide ion. The loss of the hydrogen ion
by H3O+ results in a water molecule. The gain
of a hydrogen ion by OH- also results in a
water molecule.

write the complete ionic equation and the net ionic equation for the neutralization of HNO 3
by KOH.

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Acid-base titration
In the antacid reaction: 1 mol of Mg(OH)2 neutralizes 2 mol of HCl.
In the reaction of sodium hydroxide and hydrogen chloride: 1 mol of NaOH neutralizes 1mol
of HCl.
Titration is a method for determining the concentration of a solution by reacting a known
volume of that solution with a solution of known concentration.
To find the concentration of an acid solution, you would titrate the acid solution with a
solution of a base of known concentration and vice versa
In this procedure a pH meter is used to monitor the change in the pH as the titration
progresses.
Titration procedure:
1. measure a volume of an acidic or basic solution of unknown concentration then place it
in a beaker. Immerse the electrodes of a pH meter in this solution, and read and record the
initial pH of the solution.

2. Fill a buret is with the titrating solution of known concentration which is called the
standard solution, or titrant.

3. Add Measured volumes of the standard solution slowly and mixed into the solution in the
beaker. The pH is read and recorded after each addition. This process continues until the
reaction reaches the equivalence point, which is the point at which moles of H+ ion from
the acid equal moles of OH- ion from the base.

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Change of pH of the solution during the titration of 50.0 mL of 0.100M HCl, a strong acid,
with 0.100M NaOH, a strong base:
The initial pH of the 0.100M HCl is 1.00.
As NaOH is added, the acid is neutralized and
the solution’s pH increases gradually.
However, when nearly all of the H+ ions from
the acid have been used up, the pH increases
dramatically with the addition of an exceedingly
small volume of NaOH.
This abrupt increase in pH occurs at the
equivalence point of the titration. Beyond the
equivalence point, the addition of more NaOH
again results in a gradual increase in pH

Not all titrations must have an equivalence point at pH

7 because of reactions between the newly formed salts
and water.

The equivalence point for the titration of methanoic

acid (a weak acid) with sodium hydroxide (a strong
base) lies between pH8 and pH 9.

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Acid-base indicators Chemists often use a chemical dye rather than a pH meter to detect
the equivalence point of an acid-base titration. Chemical dyes whose colors are affected by
acidic and basic solutions are called acid-base indicators.

Adding lemon juice in tea turn the brown color of tea to

lighter.
Tea contains compounds called polyphenols
that have slightly ionizable hydrogen atoms and therefore
are weak acids. Adding acid in the form of lemon juice to a
cup of tea depresses the ionization according to Le
Châtelier’s principle, and the color of the un-ionized polyphenols becomes more apaprent.

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The indicator must change color at the equivalence point of the titration which is not always
at pH 7.
Bromothymol blue is a good choice for a titration of a strong acid with a strong base,
Phenolphthalein changes color at the equivalence point of a titration of a weak acid with a
strong base.

Indicators and titration end point:

Many indicators used for titration are weak acids. Each has its own particular pH or pH
ranges over which it changes color.
The point at which the indicator used in a titration changes color is called the end point of
the titration. It is important to choose an indicator for a titration that will change color at
the equivalence point of the titration.

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Osama Z. Almustafa KBZ School
The titration of an unknown solution of methanoic acid (HCOOH) with 0.1000M NaOH

Strategy of Calculating Molarity

Balance the equation:
Sulfuric acid is titrated with sodium hydroxide according to this equation.
H2SO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
1. Calculate the moles of NaOH in the standard from the titration data:
molarity of the base (MB) and the volume of the base (VB).
(MB) (VB) = (mol/L)(L) = mol NaOH in standard
2. From the equation, note that the mole ratio of NaOH to H2SO4 is 2:1.
Two moles of NaOH are required to neutralize 1 mol of H2SO4.
molH2SO4 titrated = mol NaOH in standard × 1 molH2SO4
2 mol NaOH
3. MA: the molarity of the acid and VA: the volume of the acid in liters.
MA = molH2SO4 titrated
VA
A volume of 18.28 mL of a standard solution of 0.1000M NaOH was required to neutralize
25.00 mL of a solution of methanoic acid (HCOOH). What is the molarity of the methanoic
acid solution?

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What is the molarity of a nitric acid solution if 43.33 mL of 0.1000M KOH solution is needed
to neutralize 20.00 mL of the acid solution?

What is the concentration of a household ammonia cleaning solution if 49.90 mL of

0.5900M HCl is required to neutralize 25.00 mL of the solution?

Challenge How many milliliters of 0.500M NaOH would neutralize 25.00 mL of 0.100M
H3PO4?

Calculate the molarity of a solution of hydrobromic acid (HBr) if 30.35 mL of 0.1000M NaOH
is required to titrate 25.00 mL of the acid to the equivalence point.

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