NOTES ON CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Part 1 Concept of Criminological Research
Purpose of Criminological Research
Types of Criminological Research
Categories of Criminological Research
Application of Criminological Research

Part II Parts of Criminological Research

Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
References

Part III Workshop Paper

The Proposal Stage
The Completion Stage
Presentation Defense Stage

Part IV The Output

Annexes: Sample of Quantitative Research
Sample of Qualitative Research

References
 PART 1
Concept of Criminological Research

The study of criminology deals with the science of deterring and understanding
the causes of crime (criminal etiology), the promulgation of laws that
regulates the criminal behavior of the community and society (sociology of law)
and the treatment of offenders in order to restore their criminal behavior with
an end in view of making them productive members of the society.

With these precepts, the manner or approaches in knowing, deliberating,

understanding, promulgation of laws, rules and regulations as well as treatment
of these criminal behavior are the results of scientific researches. These
approaches, whether it be empirical in nature, evaluative or observatory,
experimental or modelling, we have to understand that the nature of the data
gathered varies depending on the nature, condition and situation of an event.
This makes social science research as one of the most difficult sciences since
it allows no absolute unlike natural sciences that what may be true to one may
also be true to other situation.

Criminology has been argued to whether or not it is a science or art, respected

authors have their own explanation which are served to be jurisdictional
because their discussions evolve in their respective localities. Never that we
found a proven argument that it is true to all. The issues of jurisprudence
under a common Jay concept accepts that a court decision in a similar event may
be valid as a benchmark in making decision to a similar incident Sawed
perspective since even the Supreme Court may at their aw instance revoke or
reverse their own decision so this means that it cannot in all respect and
incident be the same to other similar incident.

These scenarios make criminological research unique at its own because there
are always wide range of areas of argument which seeks to be proven. For
argument purposes, let us take a theory emanating from the Western point of
view the theory of religious because precise values are adopted so
fundamentalism which states that Fundamentalism is often strictly every
possible interpretation of (vague) original ideas will sectarian and intolerant
result in two sides who stake their entire religious outlook fact that their
interpretation is correct. So, fundamentalism is often seen as violent,
intolerant, stubbornly backwards and inhuman Such religions often try to
control ideas and restrict free speech through blasphemy laws" (Malise Ruthven
(2007), this is why there is a never-ending war wage by religion especially the
religion between Christianity and Islamic.

One of the researchable problems in relation to religion is regarding the

conflict in the definition of Terrorism: The Western countries accused the
Middle East or Islamic group to the terrorist, yet the Islam do not accept it
since they argue that they are just following the orders of Allah to fight
against the Devil where they accused the Western especially the Americans as
the head of the devil.

Criminological research will tend to explain this scenario as it will try to

gather and validate information regarding this conflict. Since this conflict
goes beyond human understanding and values that it even affords to sacrifice
lives for the sake of protecting their religious beliefs.
PURPOSE OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

On the above premises, criminological research is actually focused on the

determination and understanding why crimes are being committed and try to give
explanation to it. The society as a whole is wary and fear for their safety due
to criminality. The criminals at the same time, even they are given their own
descriptions in order to be avoided yet their cunning nature confused the
watchful public and being prone to victimization.

The study includes areas in biology, neurology, sociology psychology,

psychiatry, political science and economics regarding the process of the law,
crime and treatment. Criminology helps us gain understanding into criminal
behavior as well as explain and prevent criminal behavior and its societal
patterns.

In criminology, as in any other science, theory plays an important role as a

basis for formulating research questions and later understanding the larger
implications of one's research results Another motivation for research is one's
personal interests as volumes of researches conducted yet all the
recommendations remain in vain and this is due to the fact that not all
circumstances are exactly alike.

Criminological research lies at the heart of criminological theory, influences

social policy development, as well as informs criminal justice practice. The
ability to collect, analyze and present empirical data is a core skill every
student of criminology must learn.

TYPES OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Criminological researches are either one of the following;

A. Quantitative- Quantitative methods provide numerous ways to obtain data

that are useful to many aspects of society. The use of quantitative
methods such as survey research, field research, and evaluation research
as well as others, help criminologists to gather reliable and valid data
helpful in the field of criminology. Quantitative methods of research can
be defined as "methods such as surveys and experiments that record
variation in social life in terms of categories that vary in amount. Data
that are treated as quantitative are either numbers or attributes that
can be ordered in terms of magnitude" (Schutt 17).

This means that the research, unlike qualitative methods, is not based
upon a subjective interpretation of the observations but aims to be a
more objective and impartial analysis based on the numerical findings of
quantitative research (Dantzker and Hunter 88).

In the study of criminology, the research methods tend to be quantitative

because of the potential for bias in qualitative research. However, there
are many issues not suitable for quantitative study. Debates and personal
beliefs tend to be more influenced by emotion rather than scientific
study This makes quantitative research a difficult, but worthwhile method
of research (Dantzker and Humter 88).

B. Qualitative is an emergent, inductive, interpretive and naturalistic

approach to the study of people, cases, phenomena, social situations and
processes in their natural settings in order to reveal in descriptive
terms the meanings that people attach to their experiences of the world
(Yilmaz, 2013).

Within criminology as well as in most fields of social research, the

usage of qualitative methods is a second choice. An important reason why
quantitative methods dominate criminological research may be the
 expectations which are addressed in this type of research. Societal and
political discussions concerning crime demand first of all "brute facts"
and statistics that show how specific types of crime are distributed
among the different segments of the population.

As Crime is constituted through the definitions of situations that are

negotiated between different parties (offender, victim, witness,
policeman, judge etc.) in processes of social interaction. These
definitions determine if an incident is noticed, if it is registered as a
case, and if the case is classified as 'criminal' on its way through the
criminal justice institutions. Files, data and statistics of officially
registered offences do not represent the 'reality of deviance'. Instead,
they are specific constructions of crime and documents/ records of the
judgmental and classification work done by the institutions of the
criminal justice system. These aspects of 'crime' are therefore
adequately inquired only with the implementation of qualitative methods."
(LÖSCHPER 2000, paragraph 3)

CATEGORIES OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Criminological researches may also be categorized dependent on its area of
study such as;

A. Behavioral science- deals and often associated with the social sciences,
behavioral science explores the activities and interactions among human
beings. Your duties might include the investigation and analysis of human
relationships through the behavioral aspects of such discipline as
biology, geography, law, psychiatry political science. Though behavioral
science is a broad field of study, you might choose to focus on a
particular group of people, distinguished by race, age, nationality or
gender.

B. Environmental Criminology- is the study of crime, criminality, and

victimization as they relate, first, to particular places, and secondly,
to the way that individuals and organizations shape their activities
spatially, and in so doing are in turn influenced by place-based or
spatial factors.

C. Biology and criminology- Numerous criminologists have noted their

dissatisfaction with the state of criminology. The need for a new
paradigm for the 21st century is clear. However, many distrust biology as
a factor in studies of criminal behavior, whether because of limited
exposure or because the orientation of criminology in general has a
propensity to see it as racist, classist, or at least illiberal. This
innovative new book by noted criminologist Anthony Walsh dispels such
fears, examining how information from the biological sciences strengthens
criminology work and both complements and improves upon traditional
theories of criminal behavior. With its reasoned case for biological
science as a fundamental tool of the criminologist, Walsh's
groundbreaking work will be required reading for all students and faculty
within the field of criminology (Anthony Walsh 2009

D. Neurology and criminology or neurocriminology- by translating

neuroscience- the study of the brain and nervous system to anti-social
behavior, neurocriminology adds to our knowledge of the factors
associated with criminality. Is is a word coined by canadian
criminologist James Hillborn and defined by Adrian Raine as "the
application of the principles and techniques of neuroscience to
understand the origin of anti-social behavior" to improve our ability to
prevent the misery and harm caused by crime (Diana Concannon 2018)
E. Sociology and criminology- Criminology: A Sociological Approach, present
the topic from a sociological standpoint, emphasizing the social
construction of crime and showing how crime relates to gender, class,
race, and age. It includes historical, feminist, and comparative
perspectives and highlights the major types of crime and victimization
process.

It focuses on four questions: "What is crime?" "How are perceptions of it

influenced by the mass media and by fear of crime? How can we measure how
much crime there is and finally, "How often does crime occur and with
what degrees of seriousness?" secondly it is a systematic guide to modern
criminological theory and its historical development and thirdly it
examines specific types of crime, including property crime, interpersonal
violence, white-collar crime, and political crime, and it concludes
comparative criminology and globalization. (Piers Beirne James W.
Messerschmidt-2014)

F. Psychology and criminology- Psychology is about people and focuses on the

study of the human mind and behavior. Criminology involves analyzing
crime and deviance exploring a wide range of issues from the nature of
criminal justice systems to the role of the media in representing and
influencing crime. (www.salford.ac.uk/ug-courses psychology-and-
criminology)

G. Psychiatry and criminology- Psychiatry and psychology can explain crime,

account for criminal behavior, and treat the criminal. Historically
psychiatry and psychology have been intertwined with the development of
law... As medical experts, psychiatrists have assisted the courts where
the insanity defense has been argued.
(www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo.../obo 9780195396607-
0170.xml)

H. Political science and criminology- The Criminology and Political Studies

combined program allows students to train in both criminology and
political science. Through criminology, students will examine criminal
activity, legal issues, policing, regulation, the criminal justice
system, and security as major factors in society (www.uwindsor.ca/
studentrecruitment/569/criminologypolitical-scienc)

I. Economics regarding the process of the law- The economic analysis of

crime points out to the link between economics and criminology. Many
researchers make a correlation between economics and criminology. Crime
is closely associated with poverty, social status in the society, and
many other economic problems, as crime produces material and non-material
costs, Researches showed that the years with economic growth were
followed by an increase in the crime rate. A growth in crime also
appeared in the years when there was an increase in the income per
capita. Basically, there are primary and secondary economic impacts of
crime. (Snezana Mojoska, Nikola Dujovski, 2017)

J. Crime and treatment of offenders or corrections- We identified specific

barriers within the prison and criminal justice system such as the lack
of adequate: staff and offender awareness of ADHD symptoms and
treatments; trained mental health staff; use of appropriate screening and
diagnostic tools; appropriate multimodal interventions; care management,
supportive services; multiagency liaison; and preparation for prison
release. Through discussion, a consensus was reached regarding prisoners'
needs, effective identification, treatment and multiagency liaison and
 considered how this may differ for age and gender. These are the words of
the authors in relation to research in crime and treatment of offenders.
(Susan Young et. Al, 2018)

APPLICATION OF CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Criminological researches may be applied on different areas such as;

a. Law enforcement- in research entitled "A Guide for Smart Policing

Initiatives: What every Police Officer Should Know about the Causes of
Crime" by Scott H. Decker, 2017, states, now the question becomes, how do
we use these to our advantage for prevention, Patrol? Partnerships? Smart
Policing? Investigations? Assigning personnel? Problem solving? Equally
important, how do we combine multiple "facts" to increase the impact of
our Smart Policing project? These are all problems seeking for answers
that can be derived from research.

These are questions that police can work in partnership with researchers
to answer. And they are consistent with the principles of Smart Policing
that build on evidence to ground their interventions, constantly assess
progress and integrate innovation into routine practices.

b. Legal practice- "Studying criminology gives you a deep understanding of

crime and criminal justice in the real world. It complements and
contextualizes legal study, and is useful for those looking to practice
criminal law or work in the criminal justice system. The knowledge and
professional skills you'll gain on this course are highly valued by
employers. They also provide a solid foundation for a variety of careers.
This degree combination leads naturally to a career in criminal law. But
depending on your specialism, you could pursue a career as a solicitor,
barrister, legal adviser or paralegal, or as a teacher, social worker,
counsellor or charity worker. There are also opportunities with the
police, prison and court services, as well as the legal sector". This is
what research can bring to you.

c. Medical practice- the practice of Criminology is very significant partner

of medicine especially in the field of forensic science where both
medicine and criminology work together to establish the causes,
motivations as well as the intent of a criminal element in the
perpetration of a criminal act. Research can give a significant role in
this area of professional endeavor as "Forensic medicine, investigative
technique, and criminology play an increasingly important role in the
everyday work of both judges and prosecutors. The discipline pursues the
goal of catching up on these subjects by showing both the possibilities
and limitations of forensic medicine, and also by demonstrating modern
investigative technique as well as special methods in the field of
criminology. This are researchable areas to open opportunities and
possibilities.

d. Psychological Criminology- Psychology is about people and focuses on the

study of the human mind and behavior. Criminology involves analyzing
crime and deviance, exploring a wide range of issues from the nature of
criminal justice systems to the role of the media in representing and
influencing crime. Make your interest in this area and you will found out
that criminology research is indeed difficult but challenging, it is
worth it after you have accomplished one.
 Part II
Parts of Criminological Research

The commonly accepted part of researches comes in at least four chapters.

However, its sub-part differs institutionally where different institutions
adopted their own formatting. Nevertheless, whatever format it may adopt, what
is important is that its objectives are met by the results.
The common parts of researches whether social science or technical research:

Chapter 1-consists of the following

A. Introduction- an introduction may be presented in two ways, background
or rationale. The main function of this part is to catch the interest
of the readers. It provides the background information to make the
readers understand the study. This section also explains the reason for
conducting the study or the justification why the study is important as
viewed on its usefulness to the community. It should spell out the
problem by pointing out the information gaps based on literatures or
reports of recognized agencies.

a. Background as an introduction- this reflects similar events or

incidents as reference to the present study. It is a background in
the sense that it provides the views or necessary information's that
drives the researcher to conduct the same.

b. Rationale as an introduction- in every problem that seeks an answer

is followed by a reason. With this type of introduction, the
researcher may introduce his simple, specific, and narrow enough to
permit objective measurement under reasonable condition.

B. Theoretical or conceptual framework- the theoretical framework is a set

of interrelated concepts that guides a researcher on the things that he
wants to measure and the statistical relationships he is looking for.
Generally, used in the social science, the conceptual framework is
equivalent to research design in the other sciences. It shows how the
problem is viewed and how the proposed interventions will lead to the
solutions of the problem under study. The review of related literature
will guide the researcher in contextualizing the problem and
identifying the variables to look into. Usually illustrated using a
diagram and accompanied by a textual explanation, the framework
contains both the dependent and independent variables and how these
variables are related or interrelated. It guides the researcher on how
to analyze the data and the methodology to be used. Note, however, that
not all researches need conceptual framework. (note further, dependent
on institutional format.

C. Objectives of the study or Statement of the problem- the research

objectives state what the research expects to achieve and why it should
be undertaken. Many proposals suggests that the articulation of the
objectives should use the SMART guide. By SMART, we refer to the
proposed objectives to be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant,
result oriented and time bound.

Where the research has many related studies all of which leads to a
common goal, it is preferable to have a general objectives which is a
statement of the general purpose of the research. The specific
objectives are crafted from the general objectives to address the
problem areas as stated in the significance of the research.
 The research objectives should be clear enough as to what the proposal
intends to accomplish or achieve and must be attainable within the
timeframe and the required resources, not what the researcher intends
to do. They are very simple, specific, and narrow enough to permit
objective measurement under reasonable condition.

D. Hypothesis (when the study is of quantitative nature)- this refers to a

statement that requires proof of its truthfulness. Usually it is
written in its null statement form. Hypothesis testing requires that
the population represented by the samples are normally distributed, the
samples are randomly taken from the population (there is a degree of
independence) and the population represented by the samples have a
common variance.

E. Scope and delimitation of the study- this part presents what is covered
by the study that directly gives answer to the objectives. It is not
limited to the area where the study is to be conducted but includes
items such as respondents as well as problems under consideration.

Chapter II- Review of Related Literature: this chapter is often institutional

in format (for example in iMRAD form it is condensed within the introduction)

The review of related literature briefly synthesizes past and current research
findings and the recommendations on the problem being investigated. It
generally presents and discusses what has been done about the problem. The
literature reviews to be presented in a research proposal may at least be
within the five to ten years recentness from which the research proposal will
take off.

The literature review proposal likewise ensures that there will be no

duplication of research works and guarantees that all the researchable areas
shall be covered. A minimum of up-to-date literatures shall be cited in support
to the current proposal.

Worthy to note is that the review of related literature is a series of

references that will strengthen the position of the researcher in his research
work. Hence, only those reviews that will substantially strengthen the research
position of the researcher should be included in the review.
Chapter III- Methodology - the methodology generally describes the way the
research work is carried and the equipment (tools) and materials to be used in
the process. It is geared towards providing answers to the research questions
as stated in the significance of the research and the objectives as set. The
measurement of the expected outputs that the research will produce, the set of
indicators, and expected values should also be included in the methodology.
This specifies the approach adopted by the researcher in his research which
often consist of the following:

a. Locale of the study (similar to the scope and delimitation but only in
locale, it is concentrated on the area where the study is conducted)
this determines the area where the study is to be conducted, it may be
presented in a Map or description of the place which includes total
area, total population and all other pertinent information regarding
the area.

b. Research design- this is referred to the approach used in the study:

Example; "this study uses the descriptive and correlation research
design since it measures the extent of enforcement of the Land
Transportation and Traffic Rules by the traffic enforcers and drivers".
You observed that the design is "descriptive and correlation" this is
the requirement by the nature of the study.

c. Sampling procedure- this consist of measuring portions of a population

and from the measured sampling units, obtaining estimates that are
considered representatives of the percent of the population. While a
complete enumeration is desirable, sampling is done to save time and
resources.

One of the fundamental concept in sampling that a researcher should

consider is the sampling intensity which is the ratio of the sampling
units for a given probability and allowable sampling error to the
population to which estimates are obtained.

Depending on the degree of homogeneity or heterogeneity of the

population and the degree of required accuracy, the sample size is the
determined using either simple random sampling, stratified random
sampling or simply, systematic or purposive sampling. The researcher
should be able to find the relative strength of the most appropriate
sampling techniques to be used in the research.

d. Respondents/informant/participants of the study- these terms are a

matter of nomenclature, it rest on what you want to use. These include
the subjects for the investigation where pertinent information as
required by the research problems. The whole population is the subject
where the sample size is being determined by way of sampling in
consideration of what is appropriate in the research.

e. Instrumentation or tools used in the study- refers to those instruments

used in the gathering of data, may it be in the form of questionnaire
or in any other form. In whatever form the tool must have been
validated or relevant to the subject of the research. It should have
been framed in a manner that it directly answers the issues required in
the objectives.
f. Data gathering procedures- this provides answers to the nature and
extent of data to be collected, how the researcher proposes to collect
them and how the data should be processed to provide necessary
information for analysis. Note that the information to be generated for
analysis should be limited but large enough to enable the proponent to
be confident that the data collected is trustworthy and serves the
needs of the research. They may be obtained from primary to secondary
sources by actually gathering them from the field in terms of
experiments of through the use of personal interviews, interview
schedules or questionnaires in instance of social research.

g. Data analysis or statistical treatment (if it requires statistics

example, quantitative research)- this is the process of transforming
the collected data into useful information. Data analysis involves
three major steps: data preparation, descriptive statistics and
inferential statistics.
1. Data preparation- involves the checking of the collected data for
accuracy, data encoding or data entry into an appropriate
computer, transforming the data into desired structure, and
developing a database that integrates the various data into a
usable form.

2. Descriptive statistics-refers to the description of the basic

features of the data for the study. Describing what the data is all
about, descriptive statistics generally provides simple summaries
about the collected data and includes tables, graphs, charts,
photographs, diagrams generally called figures. These figures are
essential as they give inordinate deal of information more easily
seen than text and therefore readily understandable by the reader
especially when they are visually attractive. Diagrams shows the
most relevant or important information.

3. Inferential statistics- in many researches, the analysis extends

beyond descriptive statistics especially when testing hypothesis or
in modelling. Through inferential statistics, the researcher tries
to infer from a given sample data what the population really is or
make probability declarations on the differences between groups as a
dependable judgement or had simply happened by chance. Hence,
inferential statistics is used to make inferences about the data to
the general conditions and these are linked to specific research
questions or hypothesis that were formulated in significance of the
project.
Chapter IV-Presentation, Findings Conclusion and Recommendations

a. Presentation of data- usually a discussion based on the significance of

the information gathered which are tabulated or enumerated. Sometimes
this is referred to as table discussion, in it, the presentation does not
mean narrating the content of the table or repeating the data being
narrated by the respondent.

b. Analysis or findings- this is the most critical portion where the data
are analyzed as to its relationships with the research objectives of
statement of the problem. How the researcher connect the data and come up
with its meaning whether or not it directly answers the problem or object
to the problem it cannot be modified to suit the biases of the researcher
it should be presented as it is.

c. Conclusion- this reflects the end result of the study, it answers the
question "what have you found out or learn from the entire data
collected". Commonly stated in one brief paragraph form or either in
bullet form provided it reveals the synthesis of the whole gamut of the
study.

d. Recommendation - whether the findings are favorable or not there should

be an objective recommendation. The nature of the recommendation must be
developmental which is beyond what is already existing or practiced.
Developmental in the sense that it suggest improvement of a system,
process or introduction of an innovation.

References or Literature Cited - this part is recommended to adopt the American

Psychological Association Format:

APA Format-6th Edition

OVERVIEW - The American Psychological Association (APA) style is widely

accepted in the social sciences and other fields, such as education, business,
and nursing. The APA citation format requires parenthetical citations within
the text rather than endnotes or footnotes. Citations in the text provide brief
information, usually the name of the author and the date of publication, to
lead the reader to the source of information in the reference list at the end
of the paper.

NOTE: Although the examples in this guide are shown in single space, APA style
requires double spacing throughout (e.g. text, references, etc.)

APA RULES FOR THE REFERENCES PAGE - The following sections show some of the
more commonly used APA citation rules.

NOTE: All citations must be in the Hanging Indent Format with the first line
flush to the left margin and all other lines indented.
JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS IN PRINT FORMAT

General Form

Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article. Title
of Journal, xx, xxx-xxx.

NOTE: The journal title and the volume number are in italics. Issue numbers are
not required if the journal is continuously paged. If paged individually, the
issue number is required and is in regular type in parentheses adjacent to the
volume number.

One Author
Williams, J. H. (2008). Employee engagement: Improving participation in safety.
Professional Safety, 53(12), 40-45.

Two to Seven Authors [List all authors]

Keller, T. E., Cusick, G. R., & Courtney, M. E. (2007). Approaching the
transition to adulthood: Distinctive profiles of adolescents aging out of
the child welfare system. Social Services Review, 81, 453-484.
Eight or More Authors [List the first six authors, ... and the last
author]Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J.-Y.,
Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L.,...Griffin, W. A. (2000). An experimental
evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children
of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843-856.

Magazine Article
Mathews, J., Berrett, D., & Brillman, D. (2005, May 16). Other winning
equations. Newsweek, 145(20), 58-59.

Newspaper Article with No Author and Discontinuous Pages

Generic Prozac debuts. (2001, August 3). The Washington Post, pp. E1, E4.

BOOKS, CHAPTERS IN BOOKS, REPORTS, ETC.

General Form
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Location: Publisher. One Author

Alexie, S. (1992). The business of fancydancing: Stories and poems.

Brooklyn, NY: Hang Loose Press.

Corporate Author with an Edition and Published by the Corporate Author

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of

mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC Author.

Anonymous Author
Dorland's illustrated medical dictionary (31st ed.). (2007).
Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.

Chapter in a Book
Booth-LaForce, C., & Kerns, K. A. (2009). Child-parent attachment
relationships, peer relationships, and peer-group functioning. In K. H.
Rubin, W. M. Bukowski, & B. Laursen (Eds.), Handbook of peer
interactions, relationships, and groups (pp. 490-507). New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
ERIC Document
Shyyan, V., Thurlow, M., & Liu, K. (2005). Student perceptions of instructional
strategies: Voices of English language learners with disabilities. Minneapolis,
MN: National Center on Educational Outcomes, University of Minnesota. Retrieved
from the ERIC database.(ED495903)

ONLINE JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, NEWSPAPERS

General Format - Databases
Author, A. A., Author, B. B., & Author, C. C. (Year). Title of article.
Name of Journal, xx, xxx-xxx. doi:xxxxxxxxxx

Article Retrieved from an Online Database

NOTE: Use the article's DOI (Digital Object Identifier), the unique code given
by the publisher to a specific article.

Senior, B., & Swailes, S. (2007). Inside management teams: Developing a

teamwork survey instrument. British Journal of Management, 18, 138-153.
doi:10.1111/j.1467 8551.2006.00507.x

NOTE: Use the journal's home page URL (or web address) if there is no DOI
This may require a web search to locate the journal's home page. There is no
period at the end of web address. Break a long URL before the punctuation.

This may require a web search to locate the journal’s home page. There is no
period at the end of the web address. Break a long URL before punctuation.

Koo, D. J. Chitwoode. D. D., & Sanchez, J. (2008). Violent victimization and

the routine activities/lifestyle of active drug users. Journal of Drug
Issues, 38, 1105-1137. Retrieved from http://www2.criminology.fsu.edu/-
jdi/Article from an Online Magazine

Lodewijkx. H. F. M. (2001, May 23). Individual-group continuity in cooperation

and competition under varying communication conditions. Current Issues in
Social Psychology, 6(12), 166 182. Retrieved from http://www.uiowa.edu/-
grpproc/ crisp/crisp.6.12.htm

OTHER ONLINE RESOURCES

General Form
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of work. Retrieved from web address Online Report
from a Nongovernmental Organization

Kenney, G. M., Cook, A., & Pelletier, J. (2009), Prospects for reducing
uninsured rates among children: How much can premium assistance programs
help? Retrieved from Urban Institute
website: http://www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411823

Online Report with No Author Identified and No Date

GVU's 10th WWW user survey. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.cc.gatech.edu/user_surveys/survey-1998-10/

Web Sites in Parenthetical Citations: To cite an entire Web site (but not a
specific document within the site), it is sufficient to give the URL of the
site in the text. No entry in the reference list is needed.

Example:
Kidpsych is an excellent website for young children (http://www. kidpsych.org).

REFERENCE CITATIONS IN TEXT-APA utilizes a system of brief referencing in the

text of a paper, whether one is paraphrasing or providing a direct quotation
from another author's work. Citations in the text usually consist of the name
of the author(s) and the year of publication. The page number is added when
utilizing a direct quotation.

Indirect Quotation with Parenthetical Citation

Libraries historically highly value intellectual freedom and patron
confidentiality (LaRue, 2007).

Indirect Quotation with Author as Part of the Narrative

LaRue (2007) identified intellectual freedom and patron confidentiality as two
key values held historically by libraries.

Direct Quotation with Parenthetical Citation

Darwin used the metaphor of the tree of life "to express the other form of
interconnectedness-genealogical rather than ecological" (Gould & Brown, 1991,
p. 14).

Direct Quotation with Author as Part of the Narrative

Gould and Brown (1991) explained that Darwin used the metaphor of the tree of
life "to express the other form of interconnectedness genealogical rather than
ecological" (p. 14).

CITING SECONDARY SOURCES - When citing in the text a work discussed in a

secondary source, give both the primary and the secondary sources. In the
example below, the study by Seidenberg and McClelland was mentioned in an
article by Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, & Haller.

Seidenberg and McClelland's study (as cited in Coltheart, Curtis, Atkins, &
Haller, 1993) provided a glimpse into the world

In the references page, you would cite the secondary source you read not the
original study.

Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading
aloud: Dual-route and parallel-distributed processing approaches.
Psychological Review, 100, 589-608.

Source: d.schaeffer 091409

 PART III

WORKSHOP PROPER

In this part, after having discussed the different parts of a research, the
concept of research and other requirements you are now ready to prepare your
proposal. Select what type of research you want to prepare either Quantitative
of Qualitative. There is no complication here, all you have to do is define
under your methodology the type of research approach you use, connect it with
your objectives or statement of the problem whatever your institution is using.

You can still adopt with your institutional format to avoid any argument any
way the requirements are all the same.

During your proposal preparation you only limit to the following parts; the
title, objectives and methodology other part of the proposal differ based on
institutional format.

My advice is that just be guided on the herein below guideline in the

preparation of your proposal. Let us start now, find your researchable problem.

A PROPOSAL STAGE

1. Finding or developing of research problems (research title)- per

experience, no matter how the classroom instruction was done when the
submission of research problems comes, almost all students look up to the
ceiling. One student said, I cannot come up with a problem, oh! That is
amazing, a person who has no problem or cannot recognize a problem yet
full of complaint.
In reality, it just because the instructions given are somewhat vague,
there is no clear delineation as to common problems and a researchable
problem coupled with how to write a title based on the problem. Here are
tips on how to compose a research problem.

Selecting a Topic

The ability to develop a good research topic is an important skill. An

instructor may assign you a specific topic, but most often instructors require
you to select your own topic of interest. When deciding on a topic, there are a
few things that you will need to do:

 brainstorm for ideas

 choose a topic that will enable you to read and understand the literature

 ensure that the topic is manageable and that material is available

 make a list of key words

 be flexible

 define your topic as a focused research question

 research and read more about your topic

  formulate a thesis statement

Be aware that selecting a good topic may not be easy. It must be narrow and
focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate
information. Before selecting your topic, make sure you know what your final
project should look like. Each class or instructor will likely require a
different format or style of research project.

Use the steps below to guide you through the process of selecting a research
topic.

Step 1: Brainstorm for ideas

Choose a topic that interests you. Use the following questions to help
generate topic ideas.

✓ Do you have a strong opinion on a current social or political

controversy

✓ Did you read or see a news story recently that has piqued your
interest or made you angry or anxious?

✓ Do you have a personal issue, problem or interest that you would

like to know more about?

✓ Do you have a research paper due for a class this semester?

✓ Is there an aspect of a class that you are interested in learning

more about?

Look at some of the following topically oriented websites and research sites
for ideas.

1) Are you interested in current events, government, politics or the social

sciences?
- Try GMA File

2) Are you interested in health or medicine.

- Look in Healthfinder.gov, Health & Wellness Resource Center or the
National Library of Medicine

3) Are you interested in the Humanities; art, literature, music?

- Browse links from the National Endowment for the Humanities

4) For other subject areas try:

- the Scout Report or the New York Times/ College Web site

5) Write down any key words or concepts that may be of interest to you.
Could these terms help be used to form a more focused research topic?

Be aware of overused ideas when deciding a topic. You may wish to avoid topics
such as, abortion, gun control, teen pregnancy, or suicide unless you feel you
have a unique approach to the topic. Ask the instructor for ideas if you feel
you are stuck or need additional guidance.

Step 2: Read General Background Information

Read a general encyclopedia article on the top two or three topics you are
considering. Reading a broad summary enables you to get an overview of the
topic and see how your idea relates to broader, narrower, and related issues.
It also provides a great source for finding words commonly used to describe the
topic. These keywords may be very useful to your later research. If you can't
find an article on your topic, try using broader terms and ask for help from a
librarian.

For example, the Encyclopedia Britannica Online (or the printed version of this
encyclopedia, in Thompson Library's Reference Collection on Reference Table 1)
may not have an article on Social and Political Implications of Jackie
Robinsons Breaking of the Color Barrier in Major League Baseball but there will
be articles on baseball history and on Jackie Robinson.

Browse the Encyclopedia Americana for information on your topic ideas. Notice
that both online encyclopedias provide links to magazine articles and Web
sites. These are listed in the left or the right margins.

Use periodical indexes to scan current magazine, journal or newspaper articles

on your topic. Ask a librarian if they can help you to browse articles on your
topics of interest. Use Web search engines. Google and Bing are currently
considered to be two of the best search engines to find web sites on the topic.

Step 3: Focus on Your Topic

1. Keep it manageable

A topic will be very difficult to research if it is too broad or narrow. One

way to narrow a broad topic such as "the environment" is to limit your topic.
Some common ways to limit a topic are:

✓ by geographical area

Example: What environmental issues are most important in the Philippines?

✓by culture

Example: How does the environment fit into the Navajo world view?

✓by time frame:

Example: What are the most prominent environmental issues of the last 10 years?

✓by discipline

Example: How does environmental awareness effect business practices today?

✓by population group

Example: What are the effects of air pollution on senior citizens?

Remember that a topic may be too difficult to research if it is too:

✓ Locally confined - Topics this specific may only be covered in these

(local) newspapers, if at all.

Example: What sources of pollution affect the Genesee County

water supply? Recent - If a topic is quite recent, books or journal articles

may not be available, but newspaper or magazine articles may. Also, Web sites
related to the topic may or may not be available.

✓Broadly interdisciplinary - You could be overwhelmed with superficial

information.

Example: How can the environment contribute to the culture, politics and
society of the Western states?

✓ Popular-You will only find very popular articles about some topics such
as sports figures and high-profile celebrities and musicians.

If you have any difficulties or questions with focusing your topic, discuss the
topic with your instructor, or with a librarian

Step 4: Make a List of Useful Keywords

Keep track of the words that are used to describe your topic.

 Look for words that best describe your topic

 Look for them in when reading encyclopedia articles and background and
general information

 Find broader and narrower terms, synonyms, key concepts for key words to
widen your search capabilities

 Make note of these words and use them later when searching databases and
catalogs

Step 5: Be Flexible

It is common to modify your topic during the research process. You can never be
sure of what you may find. You may find too much and need to narrow your focus,
or too little and need to broaden your focus. This is a normal part of the
research process. When researching, you may not wish to change your topic, but
you may decide that some other aspect of the topic is more interesting or
manageable.

Keep in mind the assigned length of the research paper, project, bibliography
or other research assignment. Be aware of the depth of coverage needed and the
due date. These important factors may help you decide how much and when you
will modify your topic You instructor will probably provide specific
requirements, if not the table below may provide a rough guide:
Assigned Length of Research Paper or Project

Suggested guidelines for approximate number and types of sources needed

✓ 1-2 page paper

✓ 2-3 magazine articles or websites

✓ 3-5 page paper

✓ 4-8 items, including book, articles (scholarly and/or popular) and Web
sites

Annotated Bibliography

✓6-15 items including books, scholarly articles, websites and other items

✓ 10-15 page research paper

✓ 12-20 items, including books, scholarly articles, web sites and other
items

Step 6: Define Your Topic as a Focused Research Question

You will often begin with a word, develop a more focused interest in an aspect
of something relating to that word, and then begin to have questions about the
topic.

For example:

✓ Ideas = Pedro Penduco or modern architecture

✓ Research Question = How has Pedro Penduco influenced modern

architecture?

✓ Focused Research Question = What design principles used by Pedro

Penduco are common in contemporary homes?

Step 7: Research and Read More About Your Topic

Use the key words you have gathered to research in the catalog, article
databases, and Internet search engines. Find more information to help you
answer your research question.

You will need to do some research and reading before you select your final
topic. Can you find enough information to answer your research question?
Remember, selecting a topic is an important and complex part of the research
process.
Step 8: Formulate a Thesis Statement

Write your topic as a thesis statement. This may be the answer to your research
question and/or a way to clearly state the purpose of your research. Your
thesis statement will usually be one or two sentences that states precisely
what is to be answered, proven, or what you will inform your audience about
your topic.

The development of a thesis assumes there is sufficient evidence to support the

thesis statement.

For example, a thesis statement could be: Pedro Penduco's design principles,
including his use of ornamental detail and his sense of space and texture
opened a new era of Philippine architecture. His work has influenced
contemporary residential design.

The title of your paper may not be exactly the same as your research question
or your thesis statement, but the title should clearly convey the focus,
purpose and meaning of your research.

For example, a title could be: Pedro Penduco: Key Principles of Design For the
Modern Home

Remember to follow any specific instructions from your instructor.

Practical Exercises to Extend Your Learning

Identify three narrower aspects of the following broad topics. In other words,
what are three areas you could investigate that fit into these very broad
topics?

 People

 Pollution

 Politics

Identify a broader topic that would cover the following narrow topics. In other
words, how could you expand these topics to find more information?

 Philippine tribes and culture

 Urban planning and development

 Infrastructure and loss of agriculture

Imagine that you have been assigned the following topics. Think of 5 keywords
you might use to look for information on each.

 How does air quality affect our health?

 What are the barriers to peace in the Middle East? > Should
snowmobiling be allowed in wilderness areas?

 How can welfare reform help poor children?

Sources: https://www.umflint.edu/library/how-select-research topic

2. Development of research objectives

How to write my research objectives

Objectives must always be set after having formulated a good research question.
After all, they are to explain the way in which such question is going to be
answered. Objectives are usually headed by infinitive verbs such as:

 To identify

 To establish

 To describe

 To determine

 To estimate

 To develop

 To compare

 To analyze

 To collect

Let us consider these two research questions posed:

 What has been the unemployment rate in Philippines over the last decade?
and

 Why did our country registered a lower unemployment rate than other Asian
countries?

The objectives could be as follow:

 To compare the unemployment rate among all European countries.

 To analyze the unemployment rate evolution from 2002 to 2012.

 To identify the factors associated with high unemployment rates.

 To develop an explanatory theory that associates unemployment rate with
other indicators such as Growth Domestic Product (GDP).

Source: https://xaperezsindin.com/.../how-to-turn-your research-question-into-

your-research-o.

3. Designing research methodology

Research design is a plan to answer your research question. A research method

is a strategy used to implement that plan. Research design and methods are
different but closely related, because good research design ensures that the
data you obtain will help you answer your research question more effectively.
Choosing research methodology

Once you are well into your literature review, it is time to start thinking
about the study you will design to answer the gap you identified. Which
methodology will you use to gather the data for your research? Will you use a
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods methodology? You will choose a
research method that best aligns with your research question.

To evaluate which type of methodology will be most appropriate, you will work
closely with your Dissertation/Thesis Chair. However, as you are reading the
literature, take a look at past studies that focus on your topic, or a similar
topic. What kind of research methodology do you see being used most often? Once
you have an idea about the general methodology type that would suit your
research, consult with your Dissertation/Thesis Chair on the possibility of
using that methodology.

Finding a research design strategy is similar to the research process as a

whole: first, locate general information on research design and methodologies,
then gain background knowledge on the methodology you feel would most
appropriately address the type of data you will be collecting, and finally
choose a methodology and test/measurement to use in your research. The
following techniques outline how to locate information about research
methodology from reference books, scholarly articles and research.

Other recommended sources of research Methods

The SAGE Research Methods database may be used to locate information about
research design and methodology. It includes over 175,000 pages of content from
the following sources: encyclopedias, dictionaries, books, journal articles,
videos, and major works-resources that bring together the seminal articles
about that particular methodology. For a complete list of titles in SAGE
Research Methods, click here.

On the SAGE Research Methods home page, you may also click on the Advanced
Search option to search for resources by method, as shown below. Make sure to
select Method from the drop-down field. Your search results page includes a
brief definition of the method searched, followed by the rest of your search
results.

Source: https://guides.lib.vt.edu/researchmethods/design method

B- COMPLETION STAGE

After you have presented your proposal you are now ready to gather your needed
data. The instrument you will use in your data gathering must part of the
proposal that you have defended and if the panel approves it then it is now
considered as valid.
The gathering of your data is again dependent on your methodology whether
survey (quantitative) or interview or observation(empirical, ethnographical
qualitative) you are always guided by an instrument. For example; in
quantitative, there are measures (usually Likert scale) or an open ended
question (qualitative) it should have known by your adviser so that during your
final defense your adviser will know how to assist you.

After having consolidated your data, tabulated or in any other way, you are now
ready to write your findings based on your analysis of the consolidated data.

1) Writing the results and findings

The results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY
the findings of your study. The findings include: data presented in
tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be placed among research
text or on a separate page) A contextual analysis of this data explaining
its meaning in sentence form.

Writing the Results Section for a Research Paper

What is the Results section and what does it do?

The Results section of a scientific research paper represents the core findings
of a study derived from the methods applied to gather and analyze information.
It presents these findings in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation
from the author, setting up the reader for later interpretation and evaluation
in the Discussion section. A major purpose of the Results section is to break
down the data into sentences that show its significance to the research
question(s).

The Results section appears third in the section sequence in most scientific
papers. It follows the presentation of the Methods and Materials and is
presented before the Discussion section-although the Results and Discussion are
presented together in many journals. This section answers the basic question
"What did you find in your research?"

What is included in the Results?

The Results section should include the findings of your study and ONLY the
findings of your study. The findings include:

 Data presented in tables, charts, graphs, and other figures (may be

placed among research text or on a separate page)
 A contextual analysis of this data explaining its meaning in sentence
form.
 Report on data collection, recruitment, and/or participants
 Data that corresponds to the central research question(s)
 Secondary findings (secondary outcomes, subgroup analyses, etc.)

If the scope of the study is broad or has many variables, or if the methodology
used yields a wide range of different results, the author should state only
those results that are most relevant to the research question stated in the
Introduction section.
As a general rule, any information that does not present the direct findings or
outcome of the study should be left out of this section. Unless the author is
requested by the journal or advisor to included Results and Discussions
together, explanations and interpretations of these results should be omitted
from the Results.

How are the results organized?

The best way to organize your Results section is "logically." One logical and
clear method of organizing the results is to provide them alongside the
research questions-within each research question, present the type of data that
addresses that research question.

Let's look at an example. Your research question is based on a survey:

✓ "What do hospital patients over age 55 think about postoperative care?"

This can actually be represented as a heading within your paper, though it

might be presented as a statement rather than a question:

1: Attitudes towards postoperative care in patients over the age of 55."

Postoperative care: Likert items and other data points can be included in
figures, charts, and graphs to clarify information.

PICTURE

Present the results that address this specific research question first. In this
case, perhaps a table illustrating data from a survey. Likert Items are
included in this example. Other tables might include standard deviations,
probability, matrices, etc.
Following this present a content analysis of one end of the spectrum of the
survey or data table. In our example case, start with the POSITIVE survey
responses regarding postoperative care, using descriptive phrases

For example: "65% of patients over 55 responded positively to the question "Are
you satisfied with your hospital's postoperative care?

Include other data such as frequency counts, subcategories, and rich quotes for
each category. The amount of textual description used will depend on how much
interpretation of the figures is necessary and how many examples the reader
needs to read in order to understand the significance of these findings.

Next, present a content analysis of another part of the spectrum of the same
research question, perhaps the NEGATIVE or NEUTRAL responses to the survey.

For instance: as shown, 15 out of 60 patients in Group A responded negatively

to Question 2."

After you have assessed the data in one figure and explained it sufficiently,
move onto your next research question.

PICTURE

For example:

"How does patient satisfaction correspond to in-hospital improvements made to

postoperative care?"

Data presented through a paired T-test table

This kind of data may be presented through a figure or set of figures (for
instance, a paired T-test table).
Explain this data in this table with a concise content analysis:

PICTURE

"The p-value between the before and after sets of patients was .03% (Fig. 2).
The greater the dissatisfaction of patients, the more frequent the improvements
to post operative care."

Let's examine another example of a Results section from an experiment. In the

Introduction section, the aims of the study are presented as "determining the
physiological and morphological responses of Allium cepta L. towards increased
cadmium toxicity" and "evaluating its potential to accumulate the metal and its
associated environmental consequences." The Results section presents data
showing how these aims are achieved in both tables and content analysis,
beginning with an overview of the findings:

"Cadmium caused inhibition of roots and leaves elongation particularly with

increasing effects at higher exposure doses (Fig. la-c)."

The figure containing this data is cited in parentheses. Note that this author
has included three graphs in one single figure. Separating the data into
separate graphs makes it easier for the reader to assess the findings, and
consolidating this information into one figure saves space and makes it easy to
locate all of the most relevant results.

35 Pages