Curriculum Development and Implementation

Unit: 1 Re-conceptualization of Curriculum.

What is a traditional curriculum?

As its name, a traditional curriculum consists of techniques that are in line with the old ways of
teaching. It is what most of us had experienced during our education where we sit inside a
classroom and feed off from what a teacher communicates. Lectures, use of educational
materials, recitations, and homework are part of the standard systems.

Teachers are also an authoritative figure on a traditional curriculum and where most of the
discovery come from. Students are expected to be more passive and there are limited chances of
learning things on their own. Still, this proves to be a very effective approach as evident from
humanity’s progress when it comes to science, medicine, technology, literature, and more.
Traditional curriculum is still widely utilized in America due to its tried-and-tested framework
and cultural norm. The Philippines also follows suit while also completely refurbishing the
curriculum to a new program called the K-12.

What is a progressive curriculum?

A progressive curriculum, on the other hand, enforces students to learn things by themselves
with the teacher only acting as an active participant rather than an intervening individual. Playing
outdoors, engaging with the real things instead of just reading about them in books, and mostly
the non-existence of written exams and memorizations are the factors found within a progressive
curriculum. The ability to discover and solve through experiments and actual dealing with the
problem are the main teaching methods here.
Perhaps one of the prime examples of schools using a progressive curriculum are the
kindergarten institutions found in Japan. The country is known as a progressive nation itself and
it is not a surprising feat for them to start applying a progressive curriculum to their educational
system. Fuji Kindergarten which was designed by Takaharu Tezuka is a kindergarten that uses
expansive architecture and team building activities to enrich a student’s body and mind.

Differences of curriculums

Both curriculums have their strengths and weaknesses. Now, you might be thinking that
progressive curriculum is the best thing for your child as it paves way for a more dynamic
manner of learning the ways of the world but traditional curriculum also offers something more
substantially academic that might be the one for your child.
Here is a quick rundown of the differences of the curriculum to know which one is more of an
advantage or disadvantage for you:

Traditional curriculum:
 Teachers are a more influential figure
 Students are less proactive
 Parents are outside of the learning field
 There are uses of worksheets, lectures, and visual aids
 Test results matter and are often the passing criteria of a program
 Traditional curriculum is easily accessible and a quicker option
Progressive curriculum:
 Teachers are active participants
 There are more room for collaboration
 Students are encouraged to use their skills
 More exposure to the outside world
 Play, interaction, and experience are the focus
 Progressive curriculum is still relatively unknown with most parents frowning at the idea
Simply put, traditional curriculum is a more linear approach to learning while progressive
curriculum provides more hands-on research, sudden program detours, and a chance to learn
things in the field. Traditional curriculum also instills that school prepares you for life and
learning is bound inside the school grounds only while progressive curriculum teaches that
school is just another part of the life and that your community and your family are parts of the
actual “schooling”.

Elements of Curriculum Development

There are five key elements of curriculum development.
1. Situational analysis
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content, scope and sequence
4. Activities, strategies and method of teaching
5. Evaluation

1. Situational Analysis

Situational analysis means the analysis of different conditions such as emotional, political,
cultural, religious and geographical condition of a country. This will help the curriculum
planners in the selection of objectives, selection of organization of learning materials and in
suggesting appropriate evaluation procedure.

2. Formulation of Objectives
There are four main factors for formulating the objectives of education. These are 
1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process
All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the educational
objectives.

3. Selection of Content

One of the important elements is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of subject
matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:
1. Available sources and resource
2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
 7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture
11.
4. Strategies and Method of Teaching

These are strategies and methods of teaching adopted by the teachers during instruction and
learning experiences. This will certainly not fair to ask a teacher for achieving certain objectives
without giving any guidelines. In most of the countries curriculum development is a centralized
process. Teachers are not directly involved in this phase. Most of the teachers do not know the
process of achieving desired goals. After determining the goals and objectives the next problem
is the selection of strategies and methods of teachers. What we should give to our students.
Should a curriculum be fixed or flexible, constant, common or differentiated?

5. Evaluation

Evaluation is one of the dynamic process, which needs a continuous research and evaluation for
its betterment in order to cope with the variable demands of the society and bring about desirable
changes. Curriculum evaluation is not a student evaluation. It is a broader term being used to
make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of it.  With the help of evaluation phase
experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about desirable changes.

The CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODEL on the next page (Figure 1) shows how

these components relate to each other and to the curriculum development process. It begins when
an issue, concern, or problem needs to be addressed. If education or training a segment of the
population will help solve the problem, then curriculum to support an educational effort becomes
a priority with human and financial resources allocated.
The next step is to form a curriculum develop-ment team. The team makes systematic decisions
about the target audience (learner characteristics), intended out-comes (objectives), content,
methods, and evaluation strategies. With input from the curriculum development team, draft
curriculum products are developed, tested, evaluated, and redesigned -if necessary. When the
final product is produced, volunteer training is conducted. The model shows a circular process
where volunteer training provides feedback for new materials or revisions to the existing
curriculum.
An Example: 1n the case of population education, a need rural out-of-school youth with
information on how population relates to the total environment as well as their personal
lives.
 
(Insert Curriculum Development Model here)
 
Figure 1
 

Figure 2
PHASES AND STEPS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT (See Figure 2 on the previous
page) further illustrates how the 12 essential steps progress from one to the next. It also shows
the interaction and relationships of the four essential phases of the curriculum development
process: ( I) Planning, (II) Content and Methods, (III) Implementation, and (IV) Evaluation
and Reporting. It is important to acknowledge that things do not always work exactly as
depicted in a model!
Each phase has several steps or tasks to complete in logical sequence. These steps are not always
separate and distinct, but may overlap and occur concurrently. For example, the curriculum
development team is involved in all of the steps. Evaluations should occur in most of the steps to
assess progress. The team learns what works and what does not and determines the impact of the
curriculum on learners after it is implemented. Each step logically follows the previous. It would
make no sense to design learning activities before learner outcomes and content are described
and identified. Similarly, content cannot be determined before learner outcomes are described.
In the experience of the author, and confirmed by other curriculum specialists, the following
curriculum development steps are frequently omitted or slighted. These steps are essential to
successful curriculum development and need to be emphasized.
Essential Curriculum Development Steps Needing Emphasis
1. Needs  assessment: if not conducted, wonderful curriculum could be
developed, but the appropriate needs of the target audience may not be met.
2. Involving youth: the target audience and volunteers (or staff) who will be
the implementors of the curriculum must be involved (i.e., they participate as
full members of the curriculum development team).
3. Recruiting and training volunteer facilitators: competent and skilled
curriculum implementors are critical (the printed word
cannot teach experiential group process, it doesn't provide feedback).
4. Evaluating and reporting on the impact of the curriculum: is critical for
securing human and financial support from key policy decision makers and for
assessing whether the curriculum has achieved the intended outcome.
 
Two types of evaluation are included in the Phases and Steps
illustration: (1) Formative provides feedback during the process of developing the curriculum,
and (2) Summative answers questions about changes (impact) that have occurred in learners
because of their learning experiences. Summative evaluation provides evidence for what works,
what does not work, and what needs to be improved.
In every step of the curriculum development process, the most important task is to keep the
learner (in this case, youth) in mind and involve them in process. For example, the curriculum
team members, who have direct knowledge of the target audience, should be involved in con-
ducting the needs assessment. From the needs assessment process, the problem areas are iden-
tified, gaps between what youth know and what they need to know are identified, and the scope
of the problem is clarified and defined. The results may prompt decision makers to allocate
resources for a curriculum development team to prepare curriculum materials.
A brief description of each of the curriculum development steps is described below. After
reviewing these descriptions, you should have a very clear idea of how the steps occur in each of
the phases and what each step includes.
PHASE I: PLANNING
"Nobody plans to fail but failure results from a failure to plan."
The planning phase lays the foundation for all of the curriculum development steps. The steps in
this phase include:

(1)  Identify Issue/Problem/Need

↪(2) Form Curriculum Development Team
↪(3) Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis
 

(1)   Identify Issue/Problem/Need
The need for curriculum development usually emerges from a concern about a major issue or
problem of one or more target audience. This section explores some of the questions that need to
be addressed to define the issue and to develop a statement that will guide the selection of the
members of a curriculum development team. The issue statement also serves to broadly identify,
the scope (what will be included) of the curriculum content.
(2)   Form Curriculum Development Team
Once the nature and scope of the issue has been broadly defined, the members of the curriculum
development team can be selected. Topics covered in this section include: (1) the roles and
functions of team members, (2) a process for selecting members of the curriculum development
team, and (3) principles of collaboration and teamwork. The goal is to obtain expertise for the
areas included in the scope of the curriculum content among the team members and develop an
effective team.
(3)   Conduct Needs Assessment and Analysis
There are two phases in the needs assessment process. The first is procedures for conducting a
needs assessment. A number of techniques are aimed toward learning what is needed and
by whom relative to the identified issue. Techniques covered in this section include: KAP -
Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice Survey; focus groups; and environmental scanning.
Analysis, the second part of this needs assessment step, describes techniques on how to use the
data and the results of the information gathered. Included are: ways to identify gaps between
knowledge and practice; trends emerging from the data; a process to prioritize needs; and
identification of the characteristics of the target audience.
"As the twig is bent, so grows the tree"
PHASE II: CONTENT AND METHODS
Phase II determines intended outcomes (what learners will be able to do after participation in
curriculum activities), the content (what will be taught), and the methods (how it will be taught).
Steps include:
(4) State Intended Outcomes
↪ (5) Select Content                                                              
    ↪(6) Design Experiential Methods
 
(4) State Intended Outcomes
Once the issue is defined, the curriculum team is formed, the needs assessed, analyzed and
prioritized, the next step is to refine and restate the issue, if needed, and develop the intended
outcomes or educational objectives. An intended outcome states what the learner will be able
to do as a result of participating in the curriculum activities.
This section includes: (1) a definition of intended outcomes, (2) the components of intended
outcomes (condition, performance, and standards), (3) examples of intended outcomes, and (4)
an overview of learning behaviors. A more complete explanation of the types and levels of
learning behaviors is included in the Addendum  as well as intended outcome examples from
FAO population education materials.
(5)   Select Content
The next challenge in the curriculum development process is selecting content that will make a
real difference in the lives of the learner and ultimately society as a whole. At this point, the
primary questions are: "If the intended outcome is to be attained, what will the learner need to
know? What knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors will need to be acquired and practiced?"
The scope (breadth of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors) and the sequence (order) of
the content are also discussed. Intended outcomes of population education with content topics is
provided in the Addendum section as an example and application of how intended outcomes are
linked with content.
(6)   Design Experiential Methods
After the content is selected, the next step is to design activities (learning experiences) to help
the learner achieve appropriate intended outcomes. An experiential learning model and it's
components (i.e., experience, share, process, generalize, and apply) are discussed in this
section.
Additional topics include:
1. learning styles and activities appropriate for each style;
2. a list of types of activities (with descriptions);
3. an activity design worksheet for facilitators; and
4. brief discussions on learning environments and delivery modes.
Ten population education sample activity sheets along with tips for facilitators working with
youth and dealing with sensitive topics are included in the Addendum.
PHASE III:IMPLEMENTATION
(7) Produce Curriculum Product
↪(8) Test and Revise Curriculum
↪(9) Recruit and Train Facilitators
↪(10) Implement Curriculum
 
(7)   Produce Curriculum Product
Once the content and experiential methods have been agreed upon, the actual production of
curriculum materials begins. This section includes: 1) suggestions for finding and evaluating
existing materials; 2) evaluation criteria; and 3) suggestions for producing curriculum materials.
(8)   Test and Revise Curriculum
This step includes suggestions to select test sites and conduct a formative evaluation of
curriculum materials during the production phase. A sample evaluation form is provided.
(9)   Recruit and Train Facilitators
It is a waste of resources to develop curriculum materials if adequate training is not provided for
facilitators to implement it. Suggestions for recruiting appropriate facilitators are provided with a
sample three-day training program.
(10)    Implement Curriculum
Effective implementation of newly developed curriculum products is unlikely to occur without
planning. Strategies to promote and use the curriculum are discussed in this step.
PHASE IV: EVALUATION AND REPORTING
(11) Design Evaluation Strategies
               ↪(12) Reporting and Securing Resources
 
(11)    Design Evaluation Strategies
Evaluation is a phase in the curriculum development model as well as a specific step. Two types
of evaluation, formative and summative, are used during curriculum development. Formative
evaluations are used during the needs assessment, product development, and testing steps.
Summative evaluations are undertaken to measure and report on the outcomes of the curriculum.
This step reviews evaluation strategies and suggests simple procedures to produce valid and
reliable information. A series of questions are posed to guide the summative evaluation process
and a sample evaluation format is suggested.
(12)    Reporting and Securing Resources
The final element in an evaluation strategy is "delivering the payoff (i.e., getting the results into
the hands of people who can use them). In this step, suggestions for what and how to report to
key shareholders, especially funding and policy decision makers, are provided and a brief
discussion on how to secure resources for additional programming.
Role Of Hidden Curriculum In Education

What is the role of the “hidden curriculum” in the education system? In what ways is the concept
of a “hidden curriculum” similar to the concept of “cultural capital”? How are the two concepts
different?
Education serves many purposes in life. It teaches how to be better person and prepare for life. It
also teaches the knowledge in many ways, by looking at the life in different angles. Schools around
the world depend on set lesson plans and learning objectives which are usually written down to
guide teaching and ensure that all students come away with the same basic knowledge.

Hidden curriculum teaches morality and to be involved in socialization process and public life. It

defines and maintains social relationships. Just like children learn good manners from family

members, the students learn society expected norms and values from school. The values taught in

schools shapes social control as they allow people to work together. The hidden curriculum

permeates all spheres of school and prevail the concept of …show more content…

Similarly, with the rapid the changes in technology, the formal curriculum play rather insignificant

role to adapt students to the fast changing societies. As Bourdieu have argued the students from the

dominant class have learnt the hidden curriculum through cultural capital they have acquired from

their families. Moreover, what the student learns in the school via hidden curriculum dictates their

cultural capital as the years passes. For the lower class, the hidden curriculum taught in school

somewhat raises the social capital as it inculcates virtues such as patience, cooperation and

punctuality. However, for higher achievements in school and advance in education system, the
individuals need to have knowledge of the dominant class. Moreover, teachers perceive those with

higher cultural capital or those from high social class perform better in school (Smith, 2013). So,

Cultural capital not only plays vital role to maintain control but also gives the upper class the

advantage of knowing how to address and act in certain situations. These etiquettes work for the

benefit of the higher class in various occasions including in job interviews and career

advancements.
Unit: 2
Role of educational ideologies in curriculum development
The study of the curriculum and educational knowledge is a study of ideology. The curriculum is
never neutral. It always reflects or embodies ideological positions. Ideologies present within the
curriculum are negotiated and formulated through multilayered processes of strategic
compromise, assent, and resistance. And as such, the curriculum ideologies become
operationalized in both overt and hidden means—constructing subjects and objects of knowledge
in active as well as passive ways. Teaching is always a political act, and discussions and debates
over curriculum ideologies have a long history within the field of curriculum studies. In terms of
its function related to the organization and valuing of knowledge, it remains important to
recognize not only the contested nature of the curriculum but also how such contestations have
ideological dimensions in the framing of the curriculum.

Curriculum ideologies manifest in terms of what might be thought of as values, visions of the
future, and venues or forms. This is to say, the curriculum is imbued with processes for valuing
assumed choices related to its design, development, and implementation. These choices draw
from ideologically based assumptions about the curriculum’s basis in political, economic,
historical, sociocultural, psychological, and other realities—whether they be discursive or
material in effect. Additionally, these curriculum choices also pertain to the means by which the
curriculum achieves these goals or objectives through the formulation of designed experiences,
activities, or other forms of learning opportunities.

The curriculum—in certain regards as finding principle in the conveying of knowledge through a
system of organization related to an outset purpose—has, as a central component to some degree,
a vision of a future. The curriculum is something simultaneously constructed and enacted in the
present, with often the expressed purpose of having implications and ramifications for the future.
The curriculum’s role and purpose in constructing both tested and untested or imagined
feasibilities again has to do with some type of vision of learning inflected by ideology. This may
even take the form of envisioning a future that is actually a vision of the past in some form, or
perhaps a returning to a remembered time that may have existed for some but not others, or by
extension a similarly romanticized remembering of a mythic past, for instance. Ultimately, the
curriculum, whether translated into practice or in being developed conceptually, is in all
likelihood never exclusively one of these, but instead is in all probability an amalgamation of
such to differing degrees wherein a multitude of possibilities and combinations exist.

Among the key questions of curriculum studies that remain central in terms of both analyzing
and theorizing the curriculum are: Whose knowledge counts and what is worthwhile? These
questions help to raise to a level of concern the ideological underpinnings of all curricula in ways
that through sustained critical dialog might work to collectively build a more sustainably just and
equitable world.

2.2 Role of school leadership

What is a curriculum leader? A second grade teacher can serve as a curriculum leader. Principals
and assistant principals should also be viewed as curriculum leaders. A central office staff
member may have the title of chief academic officer or curriculum director, but that does not
mean they are the only curriculum leader in the school district. Once teachers begin
communicating with teachers in the same grade level and make connections with the next level
(i.e., middle school and high school transition), students will benefit from increased clarity on the
essential learning outcomes.

Curriculum leadership involves working with multiple people to ensure that the curriculum is
aligned both horizontally and vertically. “Curriculum development is the essential function of
school leadership. Whether the role is carried out by a principal, an assistant principal for
curriculum, a team leader, a department head, or by leading classroom teachers, the curriculum
defines all other roles in a school” (Wiles, 2009, p.2). This article addresses ten leadership truths
that apply to first year teachers as well as veteran curriculum directors at the central office level.

Curriculum leadership involves working with multiple people to ensure that the curriculum is
aligned both horizontally and vertically. “Curriculum development is the essential function of
school leadership. Whether the role is carried out by a principal, an assistant principal for
curriculum, a team leader, a department head, or by leading classroom teachers, the curriculum
defines all other roles in a school” (Wiles, 2009, p.2). This article addresses ten leadership truths
that apply to first year teachers as well as veteran curriculum directors at the central office level.

1. Priorities Matter…You Revisit Them Daily

“All learners benefit from and should receive instruction that reflects clarity about purposes and
priorities of content” (Tomlinson & McTighe, 2006, p. 6).

2. Curriculum Development Is A Process, Not A Product

Curriculum mapping is an ongoing process which asks teachers to develop curriculum goals,
identify essential content, skills and concepts, and reflect on the taught curriculum. Some school
districts make the mistake of diving into curriculum mapping and attempting to complete a
product. When teacher teams become satisfied with the product, then the process is at risk.
Curriculum development is “an ongoing process that asks teachers and administrators to think,
act, and meet differently to improve their students’ learning” (Hale, 2008, p. 8).

3. Communication Matters

Curriculum gaps create a barrier for student learning and have a detrimental effect on students’
opportunity to learn. Gaps are created by a lack of communication among educators, varying
implementation practices, available resources, and decisions about pacing. According to English
(2000), “Curriculum design and delivery face one fundamental problem in schools. When the
door is shut and nobody else is around, the classroom teacher can select and teach just about any
curriculum he or she decides is appropriate”(p. 1).

4. It’s Lonely At The Top

John Maxwell (2008) wrote the statement, “It’s lonely at the top was never made by a great
leader. If you are leading others and you’re lonely, then you’re not doing it right. What kind of
leader would leave everyone behind and take the journey alone? A selfish one. Taking people to
the top is what good leaders do.” Empowering others is one of the main roles of curriculum
leaders. If you are feeling lonely, take a moment to reflect on why no one seems to be following.

5. What Gets Measured Gets Done

Developing curriculum is essential for any school district. However, educators need to know if
the curriculum is meeting its intended outcomes. Teachers may indicate that they value 21st
century learning skills, but if the district’s benchmark exams and the high-stakes state exam
measure lower-order thinking skills and do not measure 21st century skills, then there will be a
temptation to teach to the test. Curriculum leaders understand that curriculum alignment consists
of curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Without a method of measurement, then it is highly
unlikely that the curriculum will be implemented across classrooms.

6. Alignment is Critical

Curriculum Developers can spend so much time developing curriculum documents that they
forget to take time to analyze alignment and have conversations with multiple groups. “Poorly
aligned curriculum results in our underestimating the effect of instruction on learning. Simply
stated, teachers may be “teaching up a storm,” but if what they are teaching is neither aligned
with the state standards or the state assessments, then their teaching is in vain” (Anderson, 2002,
p. 260). If alignment is important for your vehicle, it is even more critical when dealing with
children’s lives and their future aspirations.

7. Gaps Exist In Every School District…Seek Solutions

Jacobs (1997) wrote, “If there are gaps among teachers within buildings, there are virtual Grand
Canyons among buildings in a district” (p. 3). Curriculum Leaders can conduct a Gap Analysis.
Another method is to have ongoing conversations with teams of teachers to analyze common
student misunderstandings. Data analysis has become more prominent in public schools over the
past ten years. The use of quality data can help schools identify gaps. Curriculum gaps create a
disjointed curriculum. In Toward a Coherent Curriculum: The 1985 ASCD Yearbook, Stellar
wrote, “The curriculum in numerous schools lacks clarity and, more important, coherence.
Students move from teacher to teacher and subject to subject along a curriculum continuum that
may or may not exhibit planned articulation” (p. v).

8. Curriculum Development Is Never Neutral

If you have ever worked with a team of teachers to develop curriculum maps, align the school
district’s curriculum, or evaluate curriculum, you understand that curriculum development is a
political act. Fenwick English (2000) wrote, “Knowledge is never neutral. The selection of
knowledge is fundamentally a political act of deciding who benefits from selecting what in the
school’s curriculum and who is excluded or diminished” (p. 30).

“Curriculum is always a means to somebody’s end…..No selection of curriculum content can be

considered politically neutral” (English, 2000, p. 53). If you are asked to review curriculum or
develop curriculum, then you should be careful to avoid bias. What is good for your own child
may not be good for every child. Politics are unavoidable when it comes to curriculum
development, but educators can improve the curriculum development process by seeking
multiple perspectives.

9. Leadership Is Not A Title

This statement has been made in business leadership books and it holds true in any organization.
You may be the chief academic officer or the department chair, but titles don’t matter. People
matter. Maxwell (1995) wrote, “If you really want to be a successful leader, you must develop
other leaders around you. You must establish a team” (p. 2). If curriculum development becomes
a matter of pleasing the person with the title, there will be little buy-in and that will have a
negative impact on students. “A good leader has the ability to instill within his people confidence
in himself. A great leader has the ability to instill within his people confidence in themselves”
(Maxwell, 1995, p. 55).

10. The Ultimate Goal Is Student Achievement

According to Wiggins and McTighe (2007), “The job is not to hope that optimal learning will
occur, based on our curriculum and initial teaching. The job is to ensure that learning occurs, and
when it doesn’t, to intervene in altering the syllabus and instruction decisively, quickly, and
often” (p. 55). School districts must confront the brutal facts of their current reality in order to
improve (Collins, 2001).

2.3 Role of information technology in curriculum

IT is a combination of communication, reservation, processing and multimedia capabilities. The
main role that is played by communication networks is called information and communication
technology (ICT) or also called information technology and communication. Today, information
and communication technology (ICT) is of first rate using in education systems. ICT has an
important prominent role in knowledge due to its changeable ability and its capability to making
relationship among students. If the curricula (or syllabus) is according to real need or real require
of the learner, it increases their interest for incremental learning and IT, because of its verity and
being benefited from a great deal of information has a property or characteristic to meet different
needs of the learner and caused them interested in contents of the curricula. This research paper
looks at the role of ICT in curriculum designing and teacher development. The paper emphasizes
computer technology and television media because of their availability in our colleges and their
great impact on teaching and learning processes. The objectives of this paper are to discuss the
importance of ICT in education and their implication to the world of work and highlight the role
of the teacher in the use of ICT in Indian classroom setting.
Technological development and the changing competencies required in the present scenario for
both students and their teachers, it is necessary to design a state-of the- art curriculum and
appropriate teacher development. Teachers need to be adequately prepared to implement a state-
of-the-art ICT curriculum. Indeed, introducing any new curriculum calls for careful preparation,
management, resourcing, and continuing support. In the case of an ICT curriculum, even more
concerns have to be considered. Educational research studies show that programs of professional
development for teachers are most effective if directed to the stage of ICT development reached
by professional students. The implications of these research findings are that teacher
development is best conceived as an ongoing process, with many professional development
activities conducted in professional colleges. In any educational system, the level of available
resources places a restriction on the degree to which any new subject can be introduced into the
college curriculum, especially where only the most basic facilities have so far been provided. But
ICT is of such importance to the future industrial and commercial health of a country that
investment in the equipment, teacher education, and support services necessary for the effective
delivery of an ICT-based curriculum should rank high in any set of government priorities. The
curriculum proposed takes account of these resource issues and specifies minimum requirements
for effective delivery in different circumstances. Information and communication technology, or
ICT, is defined as the combination of informatics technology with other, related technologies,
specifically communication technology.

Unit: 3 Foundations of Curriculum

Foundations of curriculum are the considerations of educational programs and policies in the
light of an interdisciplinary endeavor involving philosophical, psychological, sociological, and
historical, understandings.

The foundations of curriculum set the external boundaries of the knowledge of curriculum and
define what constitutes valid sources from which to derive the field’s theories, principles, and
ideas. Curriculum’s commonly accepted foundations are philosophical, psychological, social and
historical areas that are explained as under;

3.2 Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Curriculum decisions involve a wide range of considerations that anchor on several issues in
education. These issues include the purpose of learning, sources of the subject matter, the nature
of teaching/learning process, characteristics of the leaner, among others (Ekanem, & Ekefre,
2014). These decisions are based or anchored on certain fundamental beliefs that spring from
one’s philosophy of education. This is what made it possible for philosophy to be viewed or
taken as one of the foundations of curriculum. The various philosophical thoughts that influence
curriculum are Idealism, Realism, Existentialism, Pragmatism, Essentialism, perennialism and
Deconstructionism.
Alistair (2000) argues that there is no curriculum that does not draw inspiration from these
philosophical schools of thoughts. Philosophy helps us to handle our own personal system of
beliefs and values, that is, the way and manner that we perceive the world around us and how we
actually define what is important to us. Since philosophical issues have always influenced
society and our institutions of learning, the study and understanding of philosophy of education
in relation to curriculum development becomes vital and imperative.

Basically, philosophy of education does influence, and to a greater extent determines our
educational decisions and alternatives. This is because; those that are responsible for
curricular decisions need be clear about what the belief or their belief system is. This is
based on the fact that unclear or confused beliefs will definitely lead to unclear and
confusing curriculum (Ekanem, 2013). One vital step in developing a personal philosophy of
education is to understand the several alternatives that others have developed over the years.

3.3 Historical Foundations of Curriculum

History is the creation resulting from human activities through participating in different events.
In order to be certain with what will happen in the future, one has to trace back of what
transpired in the past. Hence, historical foundation of curriculum addresses different phases of
human development. Students recognize that events in culture and personal issues take place
continually. The number of events and issues we face is so overwhelming at times that we often
don’t know how to make sense out of what is taking place.

The study of history can help students gain perspective on events and issues they face. The
ability to break down and analyze events is an important step in critical thinking. From historical
foundation of curriculum therefore, a study on politics, economics, geography, agriculture,
religion and sociocultural practices are expounded to be certain with the past and predetermine
the future for the well-being of the society. Curriculum developers always ensure the historical
perspective is well reflected when designing curriculum in order to capture not only the local
flavor but also global historical views.

3.4 Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Educational Psychology as a discipline is concerned with the question of how people learn
(Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998). Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human
life so as to be able to understand and predict behavior (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992).
Educational Psychology as a discipline advances principles of teaching and learning that
influence teacher-student behavior within the context of the curriculum. This is because
psychology is the unifying element in the learning process. For example John Dewey, a
renowned educationist acknowledges that psychology is the
understanding of how the individual learner interacts with objects and persons in the
environment. The quality of this interaction determines the amount and type of learning.
Psychology in general and educational psychology in particular contributes to appropriate
decision making in curriculum regarding selection and organization of appropriate objectives,
learning experiences and methods of evaluation as well as decisions regarding the scope of the
curriculum. According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1998) psychology serves as the impetus for
many curriculum decisions. Psychological influences of curriculum can best be understood
through theories of learning. These theories of learning are classified into three broad categories
as follows: Behavioral learning, cognitive and developmental learning and humanistic learning
theories.

3.5 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Schools are part and parcel of society and exist for society. Society influences society through its
curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and
mold society and society in turn can impact the curriculum. There is rarely a curriculum
that is developed without reflecting society. Thus, to understand how the content of schooling is
shaped in any society, we must understand the relationship between education and other
institutions in society. In other words, to understand what is taught, how it is taught and why it is
taught, we need to look at the social forces that shape the curriculum.

Knowing the social foundations of curriculum is crucial in making decisions about what
should be included in the curriculum and eventually what happens in the classroom. A
curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. In other
words, a curriculum should address the wants and needs of learners by responding to social
conditions locally, nationally and globally

3.6 Economic foundation

Economic foundation of education refers to those factors of individual and collective economic
development which are considered during the formulation of a system of education for a nation.
A struggle for the fulfillment of material needs of the individuals is the fundamental subject of
economics. Education develops the potentials and abilities of the individuals for the fulfillment
of these needs. It can be clearly seen that there is a close relationship between education and
economies. This relationship is explained in the flowing lines :-

 Education paves the way to the fulfillment of the economic needs of the individual and
society. This close relationship between education and economic needs has been
acknowledged by the leading educational economists of the world.
 Education trains the individuals of the society and. prepares them participate in the
economic-oriented activities in the society. This training provides necessary skillful
manpower.
 A trained and skillful society is, basically a economically stable society. Thus, economic
stability had deep concerns with the educated society.
 Research in education has brought about many new theories of economic development.
These theories have opened new vistas of economic growth.
 Education uplifts the standard of living of the individuals. This increase in standard of
living leads to the increase in grant national incomes.
 Economic prosperity leads to the social stability. All these changes are the product of
education.
 A financially satisfied person performs his social role effectively and efficiently. This
financial satisfaction brings about social agreeableness.
Unit : 4

Curriculum theory and practice.

The organization of schooling and further education has long been associated with the idea of a
curriculum.  But what actually is curriculum, and how might it be conceptualized? We explore
curriculum theory and practice and its relation to informal education.

Contents: introduction · curriculum as transmission · curriculum as product · curriculum as

process · curriculum as praxis · curriculum and context · curriculum and informal
education · further reading · links · how to cite this article
The idea of curriculum is hardly new – but the way we understand and theorize it has altered
over the years – and there remains considerable dispute as to meaning. It has its origins in the
running/chariot tracks of Greece. It was, literally, a course. In Latin curriculum was a racing
chariot; currere was to run. A useful starting point for us here might be the definition offered by
John Kerr and taken up by Vic Kelly in a standard work on the subject. Kerr defines curriculum
as, ‘All the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups
or individually, inside or outside the school. (quoted in Kelly 1983: 10; see also, Kelly 1999).
This gives us some basis to move on – and for the moment all we need to do is highlight two of
the key features:
Learning is planned and guided. We have to specify in advance what we are seeking to
achieve and how we are to go about it.
The definition refers to schooling. We should recognize that our current appreciation of
curriculum theory and practice emerged in the school and in relation to other schooling ideas
such as subject and lesson.

In what follows we are going to look at four ways of approaching curriculum theory and
practice:

1. Curriculum as a body of knowledge to be transmitted.

2. Curriculum as an attempt to achieve certain ends in students – product.

3. Curriculum as process.

4. Curriculum as praxis.
It is helpful to consider these ways of approaching curriculum theory and practice in the light
of Aristotle’s influential categorization of knowledge into three disciplines: the theoretical, the
productive and the practical.
Here we can see some clear links – the body of knowledge to be transmitted in the first is that
classically valued as ‘the canon’; the process and praxis models come close to practical
deliberation; and the technical concerns of the outcome or product model mirror elements of
Aristotle’s characterization of the productive. More this will be revealed as we examine the
theory underpinning individual models.

4.2 Objective model

 It is based on Specific objectives.

 Objectives should specify the desired learning outcomes.
 This model comprises four main steps
 Agreeing on broad aims which are analyzed into objectives,
 Constructing a curriculum to achieve these objectives,
 Refining the curriculum in practice by testing its capacity to achieve its objectives, and
 Communicating the curriculum to the teachers through the conceptual framework of the
objectives.
In this model:

 Evaluation is done at each stage of the curriculum design.

 Content, materials and methodology are derived from the objectives.
The Process Model

 The Process Model Unlike the objectives model, this model does not consider objectives
to be important. Using this model presupposes that:
 Content has its own value. Therefore, it should not be selected on the basis of the
achievement of objectives.
 Content involves procedures, concepts and criteria that can be used to appraise the
curriculum.
 Translating content into objectives may result in knowledge being distorted.
 Learning activities have their own value and can be measured in terms of their own
standard. For this reason, learning activities can stand on their own.
In the process model:

 Content and methodology are derived from the goals. Each of them has outcomes that
can be evaluated.
 The evaluation results from the outcome are fed into the goals, which will later influence
the content and methodologies. Unlike the objectives model, there is no direct evaluation
of the content and methodologies

4.5 Integrated VS Differentiated Curriculum

Here we keenly discuss the differentiated and integrated curriculum and first of all we discuss
differentiated curriculum
Differentiated Curriculum
Adapting the curriculum to meet the unique needs of gifted learners by making modifications in
complexity, depth, or pacing. It may include selecting rather than covering all elements of a
curriculum, depending on the individual needs of students.
Differentiation is not a recipe for teaching.   It is not an instructional strategy.  It is not what a
teacher does when he or she has time.  It is a way about teaching and learning.  It is a philosophy.
As such, it is based on the following set of beliefs.
 Students who are the same age differ in their readiness to learn, their interests, their styles of
learning, their experiences, and their life circumstances. 
The differences in students are significant enough to make a major impact on what students need
to learn, the pace at which they need to learn, and the support they need from teachers and others
to learn it well.
Students will learn best when supportive adults push them slightly beyond where they can work
without assistance. 
Students will learn best when they can make a connection between the curriculum and their
interests and life experiences.
Students will learn best when learning opportunities are natural.
Students are more effective learners when classrooms and schools create a sense of community
in which students feel significant and respected.
Differentiation must be a refinement of, not a substitute for high quality curriculum and
instruction.  Expert or distinguished teaching focuses on the understanding and skills of a
discipline, causes students to wrestle with profound ideas, help students organize and make sense
of ideas and information, and aids students in connecting the classroom with a wider world.
Principles of a differentiated curriculum for high-ability learners include some or all of the
following:
·         Presenting content that is related to broad-based issues, themes or problems.
·         Integrating multiple disciplines into the area of study.
·         Presenting comprehensive, related and mutually reinforcing experience within an area of
study.
·         Allowing for in-depth learning of a self-selected topic within the area of study.
·         Develop independent or self-directed study skills.
·         Developing productive, complex, abstract and/or higher level thinking skills.
·         Focusing on open ended tasks.
·         Developing research skills and methods.
·         Integrating basic skills and higher-level thinking into the curriculum.
·         Encouraging the development of products that challenge existing ideas and produce "new"
ideas.
·         Encourage the development of products that use new techniques, materials and forms.
·         Encourage the development of self understanding.
·         Evaluating student outcomes by using appropriate and specific criteria through self-appraisal,
criterion-referenced and or standardized instruments. 
A general education teacher should differentiate curriculum in response to the learner's needs,
guided by the following general principles of differentiation.
Respectful Tasks:  A classroom teacher ensures that students' learning is respected.  The teacher
does this by assessing the readiness level of each student by evaluating competency in the skills
and concepts included in the local curriculum standards, expecting and supporting continual
growth in all students by providing challenging curriculum, offering all students the opportunity
to explore skills and understanding at appropriate degrees of difficulty, offering all students tasks
that are equally interesting, important and engaging.
Flexible Grouping: Teachers link learners with essential understandings and skills at
appropriate levels of challenge and interest.  This could mean that students are working in
groups on a variety of tasks at the appropriate depth, complexity, and speed for those involved.

Integrated curriculum

An integrated curriculum is one that is past the boundaries that are imposed by traditional subject
boundaries. It includes the integration of content with skills and processes. The integrated
curriculum seeks to provide a context for learning processes and skills.

It is important to understand that curriculum integration is an idea that has a strong historical
background. Disciplines were created in an attempt to organize the world around them;
sometimes this was motivated by political means Educational reform has roots dating as far back
as the progressive era. The philosophy behind educational reform during the progressive era
centered around an emphasis on student creativity, applicable outcomes, "natural" learning, and
student experience This belief system has been the fundamental base for integrated curriculum.
Supporters of the progressive educational reform believed that the different disciplines prevented
students from making connections between the different subjects. Therefore, the relevance of the
material decreased.
Components of Integrated Curriculum
 Focuses on basic skills, content and higher level thinking
 Encourages lifelong learning
 Structures learning around themes, big ideas and meaningful concepts
 Provides connections among various curricular disciplines
 Provides learners opportunities to apply skills they have learned
 Encourages active participation in relevant real-life experiences
 Captivates, motivates, and challenges learners
 Provides a deeper understanding of content
 Offers opportunities for more small group and industrialized instruction
  Accommodates a variety of learning styles/theories (i.e., social learning theory,
cooperative learning, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy) and multiple intelligences

Curriculum Integration
Curriculum Integration connects academics across disciplines and often with technical/career
content, incorporating standards, real world problems and applications, and the individual
student needs and interests.
Other terms used include interdisciplinary teaching, thematic teaching, and synergistic teaching.
All these terms…refer to an educational approach that prepares children for lifelong learning.
There is a strong belief among those who support curriculum integration that schools must look
at education as a process for developing abilities required by life in the twenty-first century,
rather than discrete, departmentalized subject matter. In general, all of the definitions of
integrated curriculum or interdisciplinary curriculum include:
·         a combination of subjects
·         an emphasis on projects
·         sources that go beyond textbooks
·         relationships among concepts
·         thematic units as organizing principles
·         flexible schedules
·         flexible student grouping
Four steps for Designing Integrated Curriculum Units include:
1. Mapping Learning Goals
2. Brainstorm Generative Theme
3. Create Activities, Web Diagram, and Time Line
4. Evaluate the Integrated Curriculum Unit

4.6 Teacher vs. student curriculum

These might be some of the first questions Knowledge Works coaches would ask to get
educators to start envisioning what a learner-centered classroom might look like and why it is
needed in personalized learning.

Although a foundational shift from a traditional classroom, a learner-centered approach does not
eliminate the teacher. A learner-centered environment facilitates a more collaborative way for
students to learn. The teacher models instructions and acts as a facilitator, providing feedback
and answering questions when needed. It’s the student that chooses how they want to learn, why
they want to learn that way and with who. Students answer each others’ questions and give each
other feedback, using the instructor as a resource when needed.

This process is designed so that students can learn how they learn best. Taking into consideration
what works for one may not work for another and at the end of the day it’s not about what was
taught but what was learned.

A Look at the Differences Between Teacher-Centered and Learner-Centered

Learning

Teacher-Centered Learner-Centered

Focus is on instructor Focus is on both students and instructor

Focus is on language forms and structures Focus is on language use in typical

(what the instructor knows about the situations (how students will use the
language) language)

Instructor models; students interact with

Instructor talks; students listen
instructor and one another

Students work in pairs, in groups, or alone

Students work alone
depending on the purpose of the activity

Students talk without constant instructor

Instructor monitors and corrects every student
monitoring; instructor provides
utterance
feedback/correction when questions arise

Instructor answers students’ questions about Students answer each other’s questions,
language using instructor as an information resource

Instructor chooses topics Students have some choice of topics

Students evaluate their own learning;

Instructor evaluates student learning
instructor also evaluates

Classroom is quiet Classroom is often noisy and busy

Unit: 5
5.1 Teacher vs. bottom-up curriculum practices

Teacher training models where component skills and content are acquired and then passed on
encourage us to think “bottom-up” as educators. There are many benefits to what might be
termed bottom-up teaching: the inductive practice of introducing specific skills in sequence and
with abundant, success-oriented practice. A teacher leading her students on this journey often
finds it helpful to set a clear goal, an objective on the horizon identified as the purpose for
learning the material at hand. 
Students expect learning to be useful. A pragmatic goal is a key motivator so that they stay on
course for the remainder of the unit. Thinking about organizing such a teaching approach
resembles assembling something: identifying parts and tools needed to work with those parts,
practicing the application of this knowledge, and eventually producing a product, perhaps a
complete sentence, a multiparagraph essay, the answer to a math problem, the successful
completion of a science experiment, or a unit test in social studies.

But what if this approach was varied with one that took a top-down or deductive approach? In
this ‘reverse-engineered’ lesson, a teacher might consider jumping to the finished model, taking
a giant leap of faith toward that once distant goal and making that the starting point for a journey
of analysis to see how and why it evolved.

In fact, considering both bottom-up and top-down approaches are valuable perspectives when
taking into account the age, learning style, history, and special needs of our students, as well as
the curriculum goals for our class. For students who are younger or more distractible, or who are
confronting a new subject, teaching inductively from the bottom up is likely to be the best fit.
The introduction of single micro-units of content with abundant practice in increasingly familiar
contexts makes sense for language arts and math learners just being exposed to basic operations
with text and numbers. Effective bottom up teaching is hierarchical, carefully sequenced, and
structured to provide a success experience. Teachers naturally gravitate toward leading this
forward journey of discovery, and mastery can be overlearned as basics are applied repeatedly in
a variety of contexts, modalities, and venues. 

Consider the act of teaching, and the following scales of possibilities:

This is a partial list of determining factors that might inform a bottom up vs. top down teaching
structure. Add to this the spectrum of learning styles evident in any class grouping, including the
preference of some students for auditory, visual, or haptic approaches, and we’re presented with
compelling reasons to vary our overall presentation style.  
As we consider this host of variables, each approach may prove more or less matched to the
context of the moment. As an example,  a teacher presenting content to younger students in a
class where capturing attention and external motivating tools are key strategies may well
gravitate to a recipe-for-learning, bottom up approach. Contrastingly, a teacher whose students
have had a fair amount of previous exposure to the subject, whose attention levels are more
regulated due to developmental profiles or internal motivation, and who are preparing for
transition to the more collaborative style of a team approach may choose a top down model; one
where the finished product is examined and reverse engineered to see what the components of an
excellent outcome are, and how they were generated and integrated.
Questioning our initial assumptions about the approach to a unit may lead to interesting choices
for activities and style. Some approaches seem like a natural fit: literacy skills may need to be
bottom up to start; anatomy (dissections) in science are likely top down. Less obvious: Rather
than a chronological march from past to present, a top down lesson in Social Studies might well
start with an event, some legislation, or a sociological trend and look for the historical and
cultural underpinnings that led to the moment in time. Consider also what bottom up teaching
would look like for the older learner?  And what top down might look like for the younger
learner? 
Varying bottom up and top down approaches has the added benefit of reminding us to
differentiate our classroom as we individualize for a variety of learners. Analyzing learners’
readiness for each approach can lead to useful insights and a variety of teaching styles more
likely to match the needs of our students.
5.2 Contemporary issues of curriculum theorization and practices.

Contemporary issues of curriculum theorization and practices refer to current challenges and
debates surrounding the design, development, implementation, and evaluation of curriculum in
education. Some of the key contemporary issues in curriculum theorization and practices
include:

1. Relevance and Authenticity: There is a growing concern about the relevance and
authenticity of curriculum in today's rapidly changing world. Many educators and
stakeholders argue that curriculum should reflect real-world problems, contexts, and
skills that students need to thrive in the 21st century. This includes incorporating
interdisciplinary, global, and culturally responsive content, as well as promoting critical
thinking, creativity, problem-solving, and digital literacy.

2. Diversity and Inclusion: Another contemporary issue is the need for curriculum to be
inclusive and reflect the diversity of students' backgrounds, experiences, and identities.
This includes addressing issues of equity, social justice, and inclusivity in curriculum
design and implementation. It involves incorporating diverse perspectives, voices, and
narratives that represent different cultures, races, genders, religions, and abilities to
promote a more inclusive and equitable educational experience for all students.

3. Technology Integration: With the rapid advancement of technology, there is a growing

emphasis on integrating technology effectively into curriculum and instruction. This
includes incorporating digital resources, tools, and platforms to enhance teaching and
learning, and preparing students for the digital age. It also involves addressing issues
related to digital citizenship, online safety, privacy, and ethics in the use of technology in
education.

4. Assessment and Accountability: Assessment and accountability are ongoing

contemporary issues in curriculum practices. There is a focus on developing appropriate
and meaningful assessment practices that align with curriculum goals and outcomes, and
provide accurate feedback on student learning. This includes addressing issues related to
standardized testing, formative and summative assessment, authentic assessment, and
using assessment data for instructional decision-making and accountability purposes.

5. Flexibility and Adaptability: As the educational landscape continues to evolve, there is a

need for curriculum to be flexible and adaptable to meet the changing needs of students,
teachers, and society. This includes considering different learning styles, abilities, and
preferences, as well as incorporating flexible learning pathways, personalized learning,
and competency-based education approaches. It also involves addressing issues related to
curriculum implementation challenges, such as time constraints, resource limitations, and
changing societal demands.
 6. Teacher Professional Development: Teacher professional development is a critical
contemporary issue in curriculum practices. It involves providing ongoing support and
training for teachers to effectively implement curriculum, integrate new pedagogical
approaches, and address diverse student needs. This includes promoting collaborative
professional learning communities, mentoring and coaching, and providing opportunities
for continuous professional growth and reflection.
These are just some of the contemporary issues in curriculum theorization and practices. The
field of curriculum development and implementation is dynamic and constantly evolving,
requiring educators and stakeholders to critically examine and address these issues to ensure that
curriculum remains relevant, inclusive, and effective in preparing students for the challenges of
the modern world.

5.3 curriculum reforms in Pakistan

1. Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan • Review of Curriculum Reforms in Pakistan in line

with the National Education policies.

2. What is curriculum?  According to Johnson; (1967)  Curriculum is a structured

series of intended learning outcomes.  According to J.F Kerr; (1968)  All the activities
which are planned and guided by the schools whether carried on in groups or
individually, inside and outside the school.  Curriculum may be defined as:  The
document that provides the detailed objectives and contents for each paper in a particular
course is termed as the curriculum.

3. Education system in Pakistan  In Pakistan we have Education system divided into the
following levels.  Primary: 1st to 5th class  Middle: 6th to 8th class  Secondary: 9th
to 10th  Higher Secondary: 11th to 12th  Tertiary (University): 13 Onward.  Various
Policies have been drafted to improve curriculum at different levels.  Here is a Review
Of The Curriculum Reforms recommended by different National Educational Policies.

4. Sharif Commission Report: 1959  As the curricula at secondary and post secondary
level was theoretical and it was not adequately catered for all the talents of the pupils, so
this commission recommended some basic reforms which are as follows.  It was urged
that scientific knowledge must be included up to 10 to 12 years of education.  General
Education also needs to be included up to age of 17.  It was also urged that those who
terminate their education earlier must be in position to take up a career.

5. Recommendations of 1959 Policy:  The Education Commission 1959 recommended

the following Reforms; ◦ First the Compulsory subjects must provide adequate
information ◦ Secondly the additional subjects will be included in such a way that it could
prepare the students for a definite career. ◦ The curriculum should be flexible so that it
could be changed according to the social needs and interest. ◦ The curriculum should be
designed according to the mental abilities and interest of the students. ◦ Religious
subjects should be made compulsory throughout the primary stage. ◦ Due emphasis
should be placed on teaching of the national language. ◦ Ministry of Education set up a
text book board.  Text Book Board  A small autonomous body comprising of the
representatives from the provinces, working with text book committees operating within
the sphere of each education authority.  Responsibilities:  To frame the syllabus
according to the recommendation made in this report.  To lay down policy for the
preparation, printing, and publication of text books.

6. Reforms of the National Education Policy: (1978)  Enough content on Islam and
Islamic Ideology will be included to ensure it is protected and maintained so that to
promote national cohesion and integration.  At the primary level more importance will
be given to practical and creative activities so that children could gain desired attitudes
and skills.  The text book board will be reorganized to improve their efficiency.
Effective liaison (link)will be established between the national book foundation and the
text book boards.  The process of curriculum development will be improved by proper
emphasis on research. Field testing will be given more importance.  Supplementary
reading materials; guides/manuals for children and for teachers will be prepared for
enrichment the experience of students and teachers.

7. Reforms:….. (1978)  The revised curricula will be implemented in phased manner. 

National/ Provincial curriculum development agencies will work in close collaboration
with adequate number of students and teachers.  To make teaching and learning more
effective, laboratory equipment and instructional aids/kits will be provided  A standing
committee for the National Education Counsel on curriculum and textbooks will be
considered to review the existing curricula and textbooks for improving and identifying
textbooks which can be prescribed throughout the country.

8. Reforms of National Education Policy: (1992)  A new cycle of curriculum

development will be initiated and major effort will be directed towards improving the
imparting of the education  The curricula shall encourage enquiry, creativity, and
progressive thinking through project oriented education.  The linkages among
curriculum, textbook writing, teacher training, and examination will be reinforced. 
Science curricula will be revised and made compatible with demands of new knowledge.
 The weightage of mathematics and science shall be increased. Specially mathematics
will be progressively included as a compulsory subject up to F.Sc level.

9. Reforms:…..(1992)  Crash programs will be announced with the help of different

universities for the training of science and mathematics teachers.  A special
mathematics course shall be introduced for the social science students.  The teaching of
languages will be improved in order to enhance communication skills.  The teaching of
social sciences will be improved in content quality.

10. Reforms of National Education Policy (1998-2010)  Uniform curricula for all the
public and private sectors shall be adopted gradually  All curricula (1-12) shall be re-
vamped , making it a systematic whole and linking it to teacher training and textbook
reforms.  Emerging key issues such as computer literacy, population and environmental
education, health education, AIDS, education and value education etc, shall be introduced
and integrated in curricula.  Kachi class shall be institutionalized in the primary cycle
gradually and progressively.  The span of primary/lower elementary education
including kachi class shall be of six years.

11. Reforms :……(1998-2010)  Curriculum at secondary stage will be based on two

principals 1. Compulsory subjects  The knowledge that is useful for a developing
society 2. Additional subjects  To prepare the students for a definite career  Revision
of intended learning outcomes e.g.  Developing insight (Problem solving ability) 
Independent thinking  Introducing innovative design in textbooks  Integration of
technical Education into General Education  Developing the quality of instructions
(Teacher Education)

12. Curriculum Reforms 2000-2009 – Milestones Achieved & Planned  2000 - review

of Basic Science Subjects under Education Sector Reforms Action Plan 2001-06 and
production of textbooks  2002 - review of Social Science Subjects under ESR and
production of textbooks  2005 - comprehensive review of all subjects  2006/7-
completion of review National Curriculum 2006/7 and its publication  2007 - National
Textbook and Learning Materials Policy and Plan of Action – 2007-  2010
Implementation of National Curriculum 2006/7  2007-9 - Development of textbooks in
phases. Phase I = Grades I, VI, IX & XI  2010- (April) New Textbooks Planned to be in
Schools

13. Curriculum Authorities:  The Federal Government has nominated two authorities for
curriculum development ; (Notification: 1976) ◦ Curriculum Wing Grades Early
Childhood Education to XII ◦ Higher Education Commission Grades XII - Onwards  In
each province the following institutions are in direct link with the Ministry of Education
for inputs to curriculum reforms: 1. Bureau of Curriculum 2. Textbook Boards 3. Teacher
Training Institutions (in-service and pre-service) 4. Boards of Intermediate & Secondary
Education ( BISE) X & XII 5. National Education Assessment System (IV & VIII) and
provincial education assessment centers (PEAC) 6. Punjab Examination Commission
(PEC) (V & VIII) restricted to the province of Punjab.  The first five institutions are
present in each province of Pakistan. Punjab is the only province which has launched its
own examination commission for grades V and VIII.

14. Higher Education Commission  Higher Education Commission has been appointed

as the Competent Authority for Curriculum Revision Work beyond Class XII.  HEC has
also been entrusted to maintain the standards of education in keeping with the nation’s
changing social and economic needs which are compatible with the basic national
ideology.  The Curriculum Section guides all Degree colleges, Universities and other
Institutions of higher learning in designing curricula that provides appropriate content
regarding Basic Sciences, Social Sciences, Humanities along with Engineering and
Technology.  According to the decision of the 44th Vice-Chancellors’ Committee in
2001. ◦ Curriculum of a subject must be reviewed after every 3 years..  Educational
programs are thus designed not only to meet the needs of the employment market but to
promote the study of Basic and Applied Sciences in every field of national and
international importance.
 15. General Recommendations for Curriculum development process:  Curriculum
should be based on the native research not on the basis of opinions and experts.  Some
of the enthusiast working teachers should be involved in curriculum development.  The
objectives must be spelt out in specific behavioral terms.  While setting the objectives
equal weight age must be given to all the domains such as cognitive, effective and
psychomotor.  Curriculum should be future oriented to meet the needs of 21st century
which is expected to be scientific and technological.  There should be a vertical and
horizontal articulation among different concepts.  Curriculum should be activity based.
 Curriculum must provide a higher level of understanding, inductive reasoning and
application of knowledge in life situation.

16. General Recommendations:  Instead of product based instruction, there should be

emphasis on processes of learning.  Curriculum should be according to the social,
cultural and economic conditions of the country.  Teachers should be highly trained to
provide quality instructions.  Curriculum planners must suggest a proper criterion for
evaluation.  The test items must possess a high content validity.  The test items must
help in the achievement of desired goals.  The test items should be objective valid and
reliable.  curriculum must be career oriented and must be economical.  Curriculum
should provide materials for career counseling, so as to enable the students to advance in
a particular field of their interest.

5.3 Curriculum change/ Curriculum Change Process / Issues in Curriculum Change

Curriculum Change Concept of Change is a constant law nature. It always brings

improvement. It always occurs continuously. Technological advancement and explosion
of knowledge is the basic reason of varying style of change.

Change is an ongoing almost unconscious process that involves reworking familiar

elements into new relationship. Curriculum change or Revision Curriculum revision
means making the curriculum different in some way, to give it a new position or
direction.
This often means alteration to its philosophy by way of its aims and objectives, reviewing
the content included, revising its methods and re-thinking its evaluator procedures.
Forces Driving Changes:  Community  Technology  Political Conditions 
Economical Condition  Global transformation  Complexity: competing demands of
governments and interest groups  Local need  Staff dissatisfaction  Parental
Demands  Student demands – are all students achieving /participating  Standards –
can they be maintained in view of the challenges of new courses?  Leadership -
meaningful change and curriculum evolution  Demands of the culture, the society, and
the expectations of the population being served.  Environmental Drivers for curriculum
change: National Imposition Local Need Staff Dissatisfaction Parental Demands
2. Curriculum Design and Development by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF) pg. 2
Student Demand-are all students achieving/participating. Standards-can they have
maintained in a view of the challenges of new courses? Leadership-Meaningful change
and curriculum evaluation. Factors influencing the Change in Curriculum ▪ Population
growth ▪ Population pattern ▪ Move towards urbanization ▪ Consumption of natural
resources ▪ Increasing in Government control in health care ▪ Increasing need for health
professional to work with other professionals as well as the client system ▪ Increasing the
professionalization of health workers ▪ Increasing socialization of health field ▪
Increasing supply of the health workers perhaps resulting in more supply ▪ Rapid
obsolescence of practice, skills and knowledge level Need to Change the Curriculum 1.
To restructure the curriculum according to the needs, interests or abilities of the learner.
2. To eliminate unnecessary units, teaching methods and contents. 3. To introduce latest
and update methods of teaching and content, new knowledge and practices. 4. To add or
delete number of clinical hours of instruction. 5. To correlate between the student’s
theory courses and clinical learning practices. 6. To select clinical learning experiences
base on the objectives rather than on the service needs of the hospital. 7. The students
themselves receive little or no experience in assuming responsibilities or in making
choices, everything is decided for them by the teacher or the administrator.

Major Types of Curriculum Change

1- Empirical Rational: Stress is laid on the need for change and competences to
implement. These changes do not occur at school level as they are not capable of bringing
such change.

2- Normative-re-educative Strategies: It is based on the rationality and intelligence of

humans. This kind of change can occur by approaching human convincing them that
there is a need to change their values, attitudes, understanding and skill.

3. Curriculum Design and Development by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF) pg. 3 3-
Power Strategies:
Changes should meet the power expectations of the superiors who are in a higher power
such core strategies are used often in school. According to John Mchnil there are
following types of curriculum change: Substitution: In the type of change one elements is
substituted by the other i.e. one course paper/one unit is replaced with other. Mostly this
kind of change is easily implemented. 1. Alternation: If some material, content item or
procedure is introduced into the existing material and is adopted. It is considered
alternation. 2. Perturbation: Some changes when introduced disturb the program for some
time and then later they get adjusted or adopted into the program. 3. Restructuring: These
changes lead to modification of the system itself. For instance, team teaching, project
method or competency-based teaching and evaluation. This change is like restructuring.
4. Value-Oriented Change: This change basically brings a shift from one’s philosophy or
basic ideology towards a prescription or orientation. Most of them resist should adjust
with the changes and accept the same. The teacher who cannot adjust their values to such
changes may not be retained for long.

4. Curriculum Design and Development by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF) pg. 4
Process of Curriculum change Ideally, according to Lachiver & Tardif (2002), curriculum
change is managed in a logical five-step process: Stage of curriculum change Process
Step 1. An analysis of the current offerings and context; Step 2. the expression of key
program aims in a mission statement; Step 3. prioritization of resources and development
strategies; Step 4. the implementation of the targeted curricula change; Step 5. the
establishment of monitoring tools and processes. congruence of the separate system of
values held by the person or persons seeking to create change and by the person or
persons who are the targets or human subjects of the purposed change 3. congruence In
which of sentiment on behalf of change is being communicated. 2. legitimating In which
ideas for change are launched and decisions are made regarding the nature, direction and
extent of change. 1. Initiation

5. Curriculum Design and Development by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF) pg. 5
Various issues in Curriculum change 1) POLITICAL ISSUES All aspects of curriculum
depend on local, state and national political standards. Both private and public
educational institutions rely on political body for funding and decision making for hiring
personnel, building and maintaining facilities and equipment.

2) THE SOCIETAL ISSUES Society has its own expectations about the aims and
objectives that should be considered when changing curriculum. It also has a perception
of what the product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary for
curriculum designers to take in to account societal considerations.

3) ECONOMICAL ISSUES Economic status of the people and the state play an
important role in the curriculum change. The aspirations of people, their demands and
expectations from courses or curricular inclusion at various stages of education, all
depend on the economic status. Without financial help(budget) and resources, curriculum
wings can’t perform and implement new researches in education

4) TECHNOLOGY The advancement in technology make the world a global village, the
technology of the 21st century require technical skills (problem solving, critical thinking,
cooperation, creative skills). To cope with current and future technology (artificial
intelligence and robots) curriculum need to be change at every level of learning 
Technology make learning, easy, interesting, and interactive
5) SOCIAL DIVERSITY Social diversity including religion, culture and social groupings
affects curriculum development because these characteristics influence the types of topics
and methods for teaching information. Developing relevant curriculum considers
society's expectations accommodating group traditions and promoting equality. 6)
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES World awareness and action toward reversing and ending
pollution continues affecting curriculum development. Typical elementary classrooms
teach recycling and healthy environmental practices. 7) OTHER ISSUES • Institutional
issues in implementation o Infrastructure

6. Curriculum Design and Development by Hina Jalal (PhD Scholar GCUF) pg. 6 o
Faculty development o Faculty apprehensions • Programmatic issues in implementation o
Organization and coordination o Financial support o Political commitment o Effect on
health system of the country o Need and usefulness of COME curriculum o Faculty
readiness and knowledge of the program • Curricular issues in implementation o
Community based learning o Problem-based learning o Participation of students in
curriculum planning and development o Student assessment o Resource
Unit: 6
6.1 Problems and issues in curriculum development and factors affecting curriculum
development in Pakistan

Problems and Issues in curriculum Development

2. What is Education? • Tanner & Tanner (2007:121) offers the following definition,
derived from Dewey’s definition of education; • “That reconstruction of knowledge and
experience that enables the learner to grow in exercising intelligent control of subsequent
knowledge and experience • • “Dewey viewed education as a generative process – that is,
a process through which the learner extends and deepens the capability of exercising
intelligent control over changing conditions in life.
3. What is curriculum? • John Franklin Bobbitt said that curriculum, as an idea, has its
roots in the Latin word for race-course, explaining the curriculum as the course of deeds
and experiences through which children become the adults they should be, for success in
adult society.

4. Curriculum • Curriculum is the set of ideals followed by the institutions philosophical

views. It speaks about courses, and their content, which is generally offered at a school or
university (Pinal, Reynolds et.al).

5. “Problem", • The word "problem" is connected with the word "solution". A problem
is something negative that needs to be solved. Some bad things that happen can't be
called "problems" because they're unsolvable. • . A problem is something that has a clear
answer

6. "Issue" • "Issue" is associated with difficult decisions and disagreements. A issue is

something that causes debate and divides people.

7. Problems and Issues • They are similar because both problems and issues cause
debate, concern, and conflict. Some issues can be broken into smaller problems that can
be solved by asking questions that can be answered easily. Problems typically can be
solved by asking, how can something be solved. If it can be answered then the problem is
solved. If the problem cannot be answered easily and people are divided over the problem
then it becomes an issue.
8. Curriculum development • Problems of planning an effective and integrated
curriculum are not simple. A good curriculum involves out of hard dedicated and
intelligent work conducted on continuous bases.

9. Curriculum development • A curriculum development is continuous work. It must have

philosophical psychological, social and economic basis. The curriculum planners have to
investigate carefully and thoroughly the nature and qualification of those for which
curriculum is to be planned. • Fundamental principle of curriculum planning is “student
must either be selected to fit the planned curriculum or curriculum must be planned to fit
the level of the students enrolled”(Kelly jr.,1971p.115)
10. Curriculum development • Developing or revising a curriculum one is faced a number
of problems and issues. The curriculum is planned set of activities. • The process of
curriculum is a web of moral and intellectual purposes and beliefs which ultimately
define the political economic and social arrangements of any society. .

11. Curriculum development • If the society is relatively stable, the planner can answer of
many crucial questions underlying the curriculum It simple to shape the personality and
character of an individual. • Straight hair and wan face that had seemingly never known
cosmetics.

12. Curriculum development • In highly dynamic societies curriculum problems are more

complex. • Decisions about aims, goals objectives, selection of major areas of curriculum
choosing learning experiences and evaluation procedures are reached after input of
various groups.

13. Curriculum development • The people concerned in curriculum planning gathering

without conflicting points on foundations. They may be able to work faster. If personals
involved have no agreement on these. This would create confusions. • Societal and
ideological problems facing curriculum have broadened the cultural and philosophical
dilemma. These may have indirect but powerful relevance with curriculum.

14. Societal and ideological problems facing by curriculum • Authority • Poverty • In-

equality • Indoctrination • Ill health • Suppression of inquiry and expression •
Regionalism • Provincialism • Nationalism

15. Societal and ideological problems facing by curriculum • Dissolution of family •

Ecological imbalance • Prejudices • Alienation • Threat • Fear • Control • Coercion • War
and greed
16. Institutional and Instructional problems • Apathy • Discipline • Individual
differences • Science and high technology • Basic standards • Jobs • Instructional
packages • Teacher effectiveness • Life skills • Drug abuse Education

17. Institutional and Instructional problems • Death Education • Family life • Sex

Education • Consumers Education • Accountability • Global Education • Mind and body
study • Feminist studies (Schubert 1986. pp 344,345-62)

18. Issues to Consider • globalization is a constant • In a world of ever-increasing

complexity, what are our obligations to teach “how the world works”? • How does
faculty adapt or change educational paradigms to be more responsive to an increasingly
interconnected world and far- reaching economic, social, political and technological
changes resulting from globalization?

19. Issues to Consider • Looking at demographic trends, how can you meet educational
needs, demands & expectations of its stakeholders? • Educational challenges: anticipating
the knowledge, skills, critical thinking abilities & wisdom needed for the globalized
future • Goal today: to begin working on a curricular scaffold for faculty to work
collaboratively in shaping the future of education at your institution.
20. Factor Effecting Curriculum Development in Pakistan

21. Factor Effecting Curriculum Development in Pakistan 1. Lack of Sequence 2.

Economic Problems 3. Political Interference 4. Inadequate Evaluation 5. Disapproval of
society 6. Curriculum more Urbanized 7. Lack of Teaching Material 8. Lack of In-
services Training Teacher Reluctant to Accept Change 9. Lack of commitment of
National Philosophy

22. Lack of Sequence • There is a little coordination among the committees working for
curriculum development at various stages. When a student completes his studies at a
particular stage enters the next stage, he finds himself helpless. The concepts being taught
at this stage are quite strange. It needed that learning experiences selected and organized
for every stage should follow the pervious one and should be sequential in form.

23. Economic Problems • Change in curriculum, needs financial support. • New teaching

materials are required. • Teachers are needed to be provided with in- services training and
equipped with new teaching materials textbooks are to be revised to fulfill the changing
needs of the society. • Supportive personal are required to assist the teachers for effective
implementation of new curriculum designs.
24. Political Interference • It would be tempting, to argue that education should be taken
out of politics. An educational will expect political parties to clarify their general
educational aims and policies, which concern broad social issues. • Every person coming
into power brings with him his vested interests and few educational plans for the nation,
in such atmosphere educationist is likely to suffer from frustration

25. Inadequate Evaluation • If evaluation is to be of any education worth, it cannot be

regarded, as it is in Pakistani schools, evaluation must become an integral part of the total
learning process and not an appendage to it. • The general practice in Pakistanis that
curriculum reshaped but the evaluation system helps the teacher to concentrate on
teaching the student, the examination tricks rather that on bringing a desirable change in
student’s behavior.

26. Disapproval of society • The school curriculum according to Lawton is essentially a

selection from the culture of society. Certain aspect of our ways of life, certain kinds of
“knowledge”, certain values and attitude are regarded as so important that their
transmission to the next generation is very necessary. • Pakistan inherited its curriculum
patterns from the colonial rulers. The same pattern is being social need it is often
disapproved by the society. The school to public members of the society should have
much to say about the curriculum.

27. Curriculum more Urbanized • Uniformity has always been misinterpreted in

Pakistan. • About seventy percent of the total population is settled in rural areas. But the
same coursed are being offered in rural and urban schools, when urban children come
with a certain background of language, particularly Urdu with either subject such as
social studies, general science etc. The need is to design a separate curriculum for rural
areas.
 28. Lack of Teaching Material • Many of the educational programmers are fain due to
lack of teaching materials. The semester system was introduced in the institution of
higher education. • It faced many problems due to lack of textbooks and other teaching
material. Though teacher too, takes a little interest but major factor for its failure is
shortage of instructional materials.

29. Lack of In-services Training • When new curriculum was design are brought into
practice the teacher are not properly introduced to new learning actives and teaching
strategies. • If teacher are to be mobilized in support of curriculum change, both initial
and in-service teacher education must convince them for their crucial role in promoting
innovation. • It provide a place where teacher could find solutions to practice they have
encountered in the classroom.

30. Teacher Reluctant to Accept Change • It is universal phenomena that teacher are

considered to be conservative. • They have reasons for beings unwilling to change their
approaches, not least because they have an investment in knowledge and skills, which
lend to be devalued by the passage of time; they face the natural human temptation to
resist any change which may render their stock in trade obstacle. Secondary always
opposed new curriculum as they are supposed to pay more attention to new concepts and
ideas

31. Lack of commitment of National Philosophy • When Pakistan came into being it

was stressed hat our educational system will be reshaped according to the teaching of
Islam. Islamic way of life will be the focus of our political, social and economic thinking.
But soon after the death of Quaid-e-Azam, this motto was set aside. • A workable
educational policy is always based on a philosophy. Every nation has a philosophical way
of life. Due to lack of philosophy we are unable to derive consistent educational
objectives.

6.2 Curriculum development process in Pakistan

Curriculum Development process in Pakistan Introduction Education plays a vital role in nation
building. Federal Ministry of Education is responsible for the national cohesion, integration and
preservation of the ideological foundation of the states. Responsibilities Federal Ministry of
Education is responsible in making of: Curriculum Syllabus Planning Policy Education standards
National Bureau of Curriculum and Textbooks (NBTC) Also known as curriculum wing.
Supervise curriculum and textbooks. Approves and maintain curriculum standards from the
primary to the higher secondary levels Provincial curriculum Centre Every province has a
provincial curriculum centre To ensure provincial collaboration. Involve in all activities falling
within the purview of the federation. Each Province has its own Provincial Textbook Board
(PTTB) PTTBs are responsible for: Preparing Publishing Stocking Distributing Marketing school
textbooks Curriculum Design and Development Process Curriculum Design and Development
Evolution of curriculum objectives.

Development of scheme of studies. Development of syllabus of each subject. Development of

textbook, instructional material. Approval of textual material. Teacher training. Developing
Objectives are derived from Recommendation of the National Education Policy National Level
Seminars Forums of research studies Inter Board Committee of Chairmen NBCT prepares the
draft of objectives. Circulated in provincial institutions responsible for curriculum development.
Objectives are finalized. Translated to the specific teaching objectives Factors considered in
finalizing the objectives Be precise Assist in the selection of teaching strategy Produce a
designated behavior pattern Enables teachers to evaluate the quality and effectiveness of
learning. The studies scheme It is based on three key factors: The national education policy
Market demand Global issues Task work in this area is undertaken with the participation of:
Provincial government Research organizations and experts Feedback of the IBCC Development
of syllabi It is based on objectives and scheme of study. Subject specific syllabi is prepared in
consultation with:
revision recommendations.

Teacher Training Teacher training for curriculum implementation is the responsibility of the
provincial government. It is now stressed that each textbook must have a teacher's guide. In some
cases assistance in the training of the masters trainers is provided to provincial government.
Curriculum Development Pitfalls There are several obstacles affecting the quality and
effectiveness of curriculum development process in Pakistan. Lack of subject area expert.
Textbook often do not reflect the curriculum Lack of follow-up of actual curriculum
implementation in classroom practice.. Procedure to Review/ Revise Curriculum In 45th meeting
of Vice-Chancellor’s Committee it’s recommended that the UGC should review the curriculum
of a particular discipline after every three years. HEC adopted a procedure to review/ revise
curriculum In ensure the quality of the updated curricula.

The first draft prepared is circulated among the universities, institutions and organization and is
viewed for its further improvement. The view/recommendations collected on the draft
curriculum were deliberated upon to design and finalize the curriculum of specific subject of
study in a final meeting. Step – V NCRC meeting-II: Finalization of draft The second meeting of
the NCRC is held to finalize the draft of the revised curriculum in the light of
comments/suggestions/recommendations received from the college and university teachers and
institutions all over the country. The meeting would again take 3 days to finalize a curriculum.
The draft so finalized support expertise of all faculty members of the subject under
consideration, who are directly or indirectly involved in this process. Step VI Approval of the
revised curricula by the Vice-Chancellors’ Committee: The final draft curriculum is submitted to
the Vice-Chancellors’ Committee for approval. Implementation The curricula designed is printed
and sent to universities/institutions for its adoption/implementation after the approval of the
Competent Authority.

education is to understand the various alternatives that others have developed over the years.
Here we shall look into the following four major philosophical positions that have, hitherto,
influenced curriculum development.
i ) Idealism ii) Realism iii) Pragmatism iv) Existentialism
i ) Idealism The doctrine of idealism suggests that matter is an illusion and that reality is that
which exists mentally. It emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as the chief explanation of the
world and considers moral values absolute, timeless and universal. If we apply this view to
education what would be the implications for the role of teachers and curriculum in education?
Obviously, teachers would act as role models of enduring values.
ii) Realism What kind of philosophy will that be? 'Realists' consider Education a matter of
reality rather than speculation. Application, The paramount responsibility of the teacher, then, is
to impart to learners the knowledge about the world they live in. What scholars of various
disciplines have discovered about the world constitutes this knowledge. However, like the
idealists, the realists too stress that education should reflect permanent and enduring values that
have been handed down through generations, but only to the extent that they do not interfere
with the study of particular disciplines.
iii) Pragmatism In contrast to the traditional philosophies, i.e., idealism and realism, Pragmatism
gives importance to change, processes and relativity, as it suggests that the value of an idea lies
in its actual consequences. and opportunities to understand these experiences.
iv) Existentialism This doctrine emphasizes that there are no values outside human beings, and
thus, suggests that human beings should have the freedom to make choices and then be
responsible for the consequences of those choices. According to this philosophy, learners should
be put into a number of choice-making situations, i.e., learners should be given freedom to
choose what to study. Educational philosophies: Although aspects of educational philosophy can
be derived from the roots of idealism, realism, pragmatism and existentialism, a common
approach is to provide a pattern of educational philosophies which derives from the major
schools of philosophy some of which have been touched upon above.
Here, we shall be looking into the following four educational philosophies for their implications
in the area of curriculum development.
i) Perennialism ii) Progressivism iii) Essentialism, and iv) Reconstructionism

Let us discuss each one of these in this very order.

i) Perennialism It advocates the permanency of knowledge that has stood the test of time and
values that have moral and spiritual bases. The underlying idea is that education is constant,
absolute and universal. Obviously, "perennialism" in education is born of "idealism" in general
philosophy. The curriculum of the perennialist is subject-centered. It draws heavily on defined
disciplines or logically organised bodies of content, but it emphasizes teaching leaming of
languages, literature, sciences and arts. The teacher is viewed as an authority in a particular
discipline and teaching is considered an art of imparting inforrnation knowledge and stimulating
discussion.
ii) Progressivism This emerged as a protest against perennialist thinking in education. It was
considered a contemporary reformist movement in educational, social and political affairs during
the 1920's and 30's. According to progressivist thought, the skills and tools of learning include
problem solving methods and scientific inquiry. In addition, learning experiences should include
cooperative behaviour and self- discipline, both of which are important for democratic living.
The curriculum, thus, was interdisciplinary in nature and the teacher was seen as a guide for
students in their problem-solving and scientific projects.
iii) Essentialism This philosophy, rooted partly in idealism and partly in realism, evolved mainly
as a critique of progressive thought in education. Yet, the proponents of essentialism do not
totally reject progressive methods as they do believe that education should prepare the learner to
adjust to a changing society. Thus, in essentialism learning should consist in mastering the
subject matter that reflects currently available knowledge in various disciplines. Teachers play a
highly directive role by disseminating information to students.
iv) Reconstructionism It views education as a means of reconstructing society. The
reconstructionists believe that as school/college is attended by virtually all youth, it must be used
as a means to shape the attitudes and values of each generation. As a result, when the youth
become adults they will share certain common values, and thus the society will have reshaped
itself. As for the curriculum, it must promote new social, economic and political education. The
subject matter is to be used as a vehicle for studying social problems which must serve as the
focus of the curriculum.

Importance of Evaluation
Evaluation provides a systematic method to study a program, practice, intervention, or initiative
to understand how well it achieves its goals. Evaluations help determine what works well and
what could be improved in a program or initiative. Program evaluations can be used to:
 Demonstrate impact to funders
 Suggest improvements for continued efforts
 Seek support for continuing the program
 Gather information on the approach that can be shared with others
 Help determine if an approach would be appropriate to replicate in other locations with
similar needs
Curriculum Evaluation Process
Evaluation is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its value or worth with
the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject, or revise the programme (Oluoch, 2006). This
article briefly explores various components of curriculum evaluation. These include preparation,
designing of data collection instruments, conducting analysis, reporting and using information. 
Preparation of a curriculum
The preparation of a curriculum to be evaluated undergoes through various processes. These
processes include specifications, resource mobilization, and operationalization
 
Specifications –
The first preparation of a curriculum evaluation process is to clarify the aspect of the curriculum
to be evaluated. It also entails the specification of whom the curriculum is targeting, who is
going to carry out the evaluation and the main objectives of the curriculum to be evaluated. Once
the specifications have been put in place then the curriculum has a certain base for it to be
evaluated.
 
Resources –
During the preparation of a curriculum evaluation it is considerable to look at the resources that
are available for the evaluation process. This entails how many and what kind of people are
available for the evaluation, when and for how long they will be available and whether there is
enough financial resources to facilitate the expenditures to be incurred during the evaluation
processes. It is also important to look at the curriculum to be evaluated in terms of if it fits to
take place within the allocated resources. If it does not fit then the scope of the evaluation may
be reduced so as to fit the allocated resources.
 
Operationalization –
It is during the preparation process that one gets to see how operational a curriculum is. This in
terms of how the curriculum can be measured. This process of preparation helps in choosing the
type of instrument to be used to measure curriculum evaluation process thus the process is vital
in evaluation (Hawes, 1979). It is important because evaluation is based on measurements and
not all things or phenomena are in a state in which they can be directly measured. Those that
cannot be directly measured can therefore be operationalized in order to be measured and the
outcome of the measurement used in evaluating the phenomenon.
 
Designing of Instruments
Identify the information to be collected and the tools for collecting the data which may involve
interviews, giving of questionnaires, tests, collection of documents and so forth. The evaluator
also identifies the people from whom data is to be collected.
 
Conducting Analysis
The data collected is analyzed and presented in the form of tables and graphs. Statistical tools are
often used to compare significant differences and to establish correlation or relationship between
variables.

 
Reporting and using Information
Reports are written describing the findings and interpretation of the data. Based on the findings,
conclusions are made on the effectiveness of curriculum implementation efforts.
Recommendations are made to reconsider certain aspects of the curriculum.

What is a Monitoring and Evaluation Plan?

A monitoring and evaluation (M&E) plan is a document that helps to track and assess the results
of the interventions throughout the life of a program. It is a living document that should be
referred to and updated on a regular basis. While the specifics of each program’s M&E plan will
look different, they should all follow the same basic structure and include the same key elements.
An M&E plan will include some documents that may have been created during the program
planning process, and some that will need to be created new. For example, elements such as
the logic model/logical framework, theory of change, and monitoring indicators may have
already been developed with input from key stakeholders and/or the program donor. The M&E
plan takes those documents and develops a further plan for their implementation.

Why develop a Monitoring and Evaluation Plan?

It is important to develop an M&E plan before beginning any monitoring activities so that there
is a clear plan for what questions about the program need to be answered. It will help program
staff decide how they are going to collect data to track indicators, how monitoring data will be
analyzed, and how the results of data collection will be disseminated both to the donor and
internally among staff members for program improvement. Remember, M&E data alone is not
useful until someone puts it to use! An M&E plan will help make sure data is being use

Unit: 7

What is a performance-based assessment?

The definition of performance-based assessments varies greatly depending on author,
disciple, publication, and intended audience (Palm, 2008). In general, a performance-
based assessment measures students' ability to apply the skills and knowledge learned
from a unit or units of study. Typically, the task challenges students to use their
higher-order thinking skills to create a product or complete a process (Chun, 2010).
Tasks can range from a simple constructed response (e.g., short answer) to a complex
design proposal of a sustainable neighborhood. Arguably, the most genuine
assessments require students to complete a task that closely mirrors the
responsibilities of a professional, e.g., artist, engineer, laboratory technician, financial
analyst, or consumer advocate
.
What are the essential components of a performance-based assessment?

Although performance-based assessments vary, the majority of them share key

characteristics. First and foremost, the assessment accurately measures one or more
specific course standards. Additionally, it is:
1. Complex
2. Authentic
3. Process/product-oriented
4. Open-ended
5. Time-bound
Normally, students are presented with an open-ended question that may produce
several different correct answers (Chun, 2010; McTighe, 2015). In the higher-level
tasks, there is a sense of urgency for the product to be developed or the process to be
determined, as in most real-world situations.
How can teachers create performance-based assessments for their students?
Most recently, I worked with a high school math teacher to create a performance-
based assessment for a unit on probability. Below is a simplified version of our
planning, loosely based on the backward design process:

1. Identify goals of the performance-based assessment.

In this instance, the teacher wanted to challenge her students to use critical thinking
and problem-solving skills. She also wanted them to exhibit less codependence and
more individuality while completing this assessment. The teacher did not want
students to rely on her direction about how to complete each step of the assessment.

7.1 Current trend in assessment

Current trends in assessment in curriculum development and implementation refer to the latest
approaches, methods, and practices that are being used to assess student learning and
performance within the context of curriculum development and implementation. Some of the
current trends in assessment in curriculum development and implementation include:
1. Authentic Assessment: Authentic assessment involves evaluating students' knowledge,
skills, and abilities in real-world, meaningful contexts that align with the curriculum
being implemented. This may include performance-based tasks, projects, simulations, or
other assessments that mirror real-world situations and require students to apply their
learning in authentic ways.

2. Alignment with Curriculum Standards: Assessment practices are increasingly being

aligned with curriculum standards, which are guidelines that outline the knowledge,
skills, and abilities that students are expected to achieve at each grade level. Assessments
are designed to measure student progress towards these standards, ensuring that the
curriculum is being implemented effectively and students are meeting the desired
learning outcomes.

3. Formative Assessment: Formative assessment is an ongoing, continuous process of

gathering feedback and information about students' learning progress to inform
curriculum development and instructional decision-making. It involves using various
strategies, such as quizzes, observations, self-assessments, peer assessments, and
feedback, to help teachers and curriculum developers identify areas of strength and areas
that need improvement in real-time.

4. Digital Assessment: Digital assessment is becoming more prevalent in curriculum

development and implementation, as technology is increasingly integrated into education.
This may involve using digital tools and platforms for administering assessments,
collecting data, and analyzing results. Digital assessments can be interactive, adaptive,
and provide immediate feedback, allowing for personalized and efficient assessment
practices.
5. Competency-based Assessment: Competency-based assessment focuses on evaluating
students' mastery of specific knowledge, skills, and abilities, known as competencies,
which are aligned with the curriculum being implemented. It involves setting clear
learning goals, aligning assessments with these goals, and measuring students' progress
towards achieving these competencies. Competency-based assessment is often used in
competency-based education models, where students progress at their own pace based on
demonstrated mastery of competencies.
6. Performance-based Assessment: Performance-based assessment involves evaluating
students' abilities to apply their learning in practical, real-world situations. This may
include tasks such as projects, presentations, demonstrations, or other performance-based
assessments that require students to demonstrate their skills and abilities in authentic
ways, in line with the curriculum being implemented.
7. Multimodal Assessment: Multimodal assessment recognizes that students may have
different ways of expressing their learning and abilities beyond traditional written
assessments. It involves incorporating multiple modes of assessment, such as oral
presentations, visual representations, multimedia projects, or other creative means, to
allow students to showcase their learning in different ways and accommodate diverse
learning styles.
 8. Equity-focused Assessment: Equity-focused assessment aims to ensure that assessments
are fair, unbiased, and free from discrimination. It involves critically examining
assessment practices for potential biases based on factors such as race, gender, language,
culture, or socio-economic status, and taking steps to minimize these biases to promote
equitable assessment practices in the curriculum development and implementation
process.

These are some of the current trends in assessment in curriculum development and
implementation. It's important for educators, curriculum developers, and stakeholders to stay
informed about these trends and consider their implications for improving assessment practices
and enhancing student learning outcomes within the context of curriculum development and
implementation.

7.2 Traditional and Progressive Notions of Assessment

Assessment is a crucial component of the education process, allowing educators to evaluate

students' knowledge, skills, and understanding of a subject or topic. Over the years, there have
been different approaches to assessment, including traditional and progressive notions. Let's
explore the differences between these two approaches.

Traditional Notion of Assessment:

The traditional notion of assessment is based on the idea of testing and evaluating students'
ability to memorize and reproduce information. It focuses on measuring students' performance
based on predetermined standards and criteria. In the traditional approach, assessments are often
characterized by:
1. Standardized tests: Traditional assessments often involve standardized tests that have a
set format and structure, and students are required to answer questions based on a
predetermined curriculum. These tests typically measure knowledge and recall of facts,
and may not necessarily assess critical thinking, creativity, or problem-solving skills.
2. Grades and rankings: The traditional approach often assigns grades and ranks to
students based on their performance in assessments. These grades and rankings are often
used to compare and rank students against each other, creating a competitive
environment.
3. Teacher-centric: In the traditional approach, the teacher plays a central role in
designing, administering, and evaluating assessments. The focus is on the teacher's
evaluation of the students' performance, and students may have limited involvement in
the assessment process.

Progressive Notion of Assessment:

The progressive notion of assessment, on the other hand, focuses on a more holistic and learner-
centric approach. It emphasizes understanding students' strengths, weaknesses, and individual
learning needs. Some characteristics of the progressive approach to assessment include:
1. Authentic assessments: Progressive assessments are designed to be authentic and
relevant to real-world situations. They may involve projects, presentations, portfolios, or
performance-based assessments that allow students to demonstrate their understanding
and application of knowledge and skills in meaningful ways.
 2. Formative assessment: Progressive assessment often includes formative assessment,
which involves ongoing feedback and assessment throughout the learning process. This
allows students to reflect on their progress, receive feedback, and make improvements to
their learning strategies.

3. Student involvement: The progressive approach encourages students to be actively

involved in the assessment process. They may have opportunities to self-assess, set goals,
and reflect on their learning journey, fostering metacognition and self-regulated learning
skills.

4. Differentiated assessment: Progressive assessment takes into account the diverse needs
and abilities of students, and may involve differentiated assessment methods to
accommodate different learning styles, interests, and abilities.

5. Focus on skills and competencies: In the progressive approach, assessments may focus
not only on content knowledge but also on skills and competencies such as critical
thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration, which are important for
success in the 21st century.

In conclusion, while the traditional notion of assessment tends to emphasize standardized testing
and grades, the progressive notion of assessment takes a more learner-centric and holistic
approach, focusing on authentic assessments, formative assessment, student involvement,
differentiated assessment, and the development of skills and competencies. Both approaches
have their strengths and limitations, and educators may choose to adopt a combination of
traditional and progressive assessment methods to effectively evaluate students' learning
outcomes.

7.3 The Relationship Between Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment

Curriculum, instruction, and assessment are interconnected elements of the education process
that work together to facilitate effective teaching and learning. They are interrelated and
mutually dependent, with each element influencing the others. Let's explore the relationship
between curriculum, instruction, and assessment in more detail.

Curriculum:
Curriculum refers to the planned and organized set of learning objectives, content, and
experiences that students are expected to encounter in an educational program. It encompasses
the knowledge, skills, and values that students are intended to acquire within a specific
educational context. Curriculum is typically developed by educational institutions or educational
authorities, and it serves as a roadmap for teachers to guide their instruction.

Instruction:
Instruction refers to the methods, strategies, and techniques that teachers use to facilitate learning
in the classroom. It involves the delivery of the curriculum to students, including the selection of
appropriate instructional materials, design of lesson plans, implementation of teaching strategies,
and facilitation of learning activities. Effective instruction takes into consideration students'
individual needs, interests, and learning styles, and it aims to promote active engagement, critical
thinking, and meaningful learning.

Assessment:
Assessment is the process of gathering evidence and making judgments about students' learning
outcomes. It involves measuring what students have learned, evaluating their performance, and
providing feedback on their progress. Assessment can take various forms, such as tests, exams,
projects, presentations, and observations. It serves multiple purposes, including determining
students' mastery of the curriculum, informing instruction, identifying areas for improvement,
and providing feedback for students, parents, and teachers.

Relationship between Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment:

Curriculum, instruction, and assessment are closely interconnected and mutually dependent.
They work in tandem to support effective teaching and learning:

1. Alignment: Curriculum, instruction, and assessment should be aligned to ensure that

what is taught (curriculum) is effectively delivered (instruction) and accurately assessed
(assessment). Alignment ensures that the learning objectives, content, and assessments
are congruent and reinforce each other, promoting coherent and meaningful learning
experiences for students.

2. Informing Instruction: Assessment results can provide feedback to teachers about the
effectiveness of their instruction. By analyzing assessment data, teachers can identify
areas where students may be struggling and adjust their instructional strategies
accordingly. This iterative process helps teachers tailor their instruction to better meet the
needs of their students and improve learning outcomes.

3. Measuring Learning Outcomes: Assessment serves as a tool for measuring the extent to
which students have achieved the learning outcomes specified in the curriculum. It
provides evidence of students' mastery of the curriculum and helps determine whether the
instructional goals have been met.

4. Feedback Loop: Assessment provides feedback to students on their progress and

performance, helping them understand their strengths and areas for improvement. This
feedback can guide students in self-assessment and self-regulated learning, enabling them
to take ownership of their learning and make informed decisions about their next steps.

5. Curriculum Review and Revision: Assessment data can also inform curriculum review
and revision. By analysing assessment results, educators can identify areas where the
curriculum may need to be adjusted or updated to better meet students' learning needs,
ensuring that the curriculum remains relevant and effective.

In summary, curriculum, instruction, and assessment are interconnected elements of the

education process that work together to support effective teaching and learning. They should be
aligned, inform each other, and be used to provide feedback and improve educational practices,
ultimately leading to improved learning outcomes for students.

Unit: 8
8.1 Authentic Assessment and Its Implications
Authentic assessment is an approach to evaluating student learning that emphasizes real-world,
meaningful tasks that are relevant and aligned with the skills and knowledge students need to
succeed in their future careers and lives. Unlike traditional assessments, which often rely on
standardized tests or exams, authentic assessment focuses on assessing students' abilities to apply
their knowledge and skills in authentic, contextualized settings.
Let's explore the implications of authentic assessment in education.

1. Real-world relevance: Authentic assessment provides students with opportunities to

apply their learning in real-world contexts, such as solving authentic problems,
completing projects, or engaging in simulations. This helps students develop skills that
are transferable to real-life situations, preparing them for success in their future careers
and lives.

2. Higher-order thinking skills: Authentic assessment promotes higher-order thinking

skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, analysis, and synthesis. Instead of
simply recalling facts, students are required to think critically, analyze information, and
apply their knowledge to complex tasks, fostering deep understanding and higher levels
of cognitive engagement.

3. Authentic feedback: Authentic assessment provides meaningful feedback to students on

their performance, helping them understand their strengths and areas for improvement.
This feedback can be used by students to reflect on their learning, set goals, and make
revisions, promoting metacognition and self-directed learning.

4. Student engagement: Authentic assessment promotes student engagement and

motivation by providing students with opportunities to explore their interests, make
choices, and take ownership of their learning. It fosters active, hands-on learning
experiences that are relevant and meaningful to students, which can lead to increased
motivation and improved learning outcomes.

5. Assessment of diverse skills: Authentic assessment allows for the assessment of a wide
range of skills beyond traditional content knowledge, including critical thinking,
problem-solving, communication, collaboration, creativity, and digital literacy. This
aligns with the needs of the 21st-century workforce, which requires students to develop a
diverse set of skills beyond memorization of facts.

6. Equity and inclusivity: Authentic assessment can be designed to be inclusive and

equitable, allowing for diverse students' backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives to be
 taken into account. It can accommodate different learning styles, cultural backgrounds,
and abilities, providing a more equitable and inclusive assessment experience for all
students.
7. Teacher professional development: Authentic assessment requires teachers to design
and implement assessments that align with authentic tasks and real-world contexts. This
may require professional development opportunities for teachers to enhance their
assessment literacy, pedagogical strategies, and curriculum design skills, promoting
ongoing professional growth and development.

8. Assessment validity and reliability: Authentic assessment may require careful

consideration of validity and reliability, as the assessments are often context-specific and
may not be easily standardized. Educators need to ensure that authentic assessments are
valid, measuring what they are intended to measure, and reliable, producing consistent
results.
In conclusion, authentic assessment has several implications for education, including promoting
real-world relevance, higher-order thinking skills, authentic feedback, student engagement,
assessment of diverse skills, equity and inclusivity, teacher professional development, and
assessment validity and reliability. By incorporating authentic assessment practices into the
educational process, educators can enhance student learning, prepare students for success in the
real world, and promote meaningful and relevant educational experiences.

8.2 Performance-Based Assessment and Its Implications

Performance-based assessment is an approach to evaluating student learning that focuses on

students' ability to demonstrate their knowledge, skills, and abilities through real-world
performance tasks. This type of assessment requires students to actively engage in authentic
tasks that mirror real-world situations and demonstrate their competence in applying their
knowledge and skills. Let's explore the implications of performance-based assessment in
education.
1. Authentic assessment: Performance-based assessment provides students with
opportunities to apply their learning in authentic, real-world contexts. This allows
students to demonstrate their abilities in practical, relevant ways that are meaningful and
applicable to their future careers and lives.
2. Application of knowledge and skills: Performance-based assessment requires students
to apply their knowledge and skills to solve problems, complete projects, or engage in
other performance-based tasks. This promotes higher-order thinking skills, such as
critical thinking, problem-solving, analysis, synthesis, and creativity, as students are
required to use their knowledge in meaningful and practical ways.
3. Holistic assessment: Performance-based assessment allows for a holistic assessment of
students' abilities, as it considers their performance across multiple dimensions, such as
content knowledge, skills, processes, and attitudes. This provides a more comprehensive
picture of students' abilities, strengths, and areas for improvement, allowing for a more
well-rounded evaluation of their learning.
4. Authentic feedback: Performance-based assessment provides authentic and timely
feedback to students on their performance, allowing them to understand their strengths
and areas for improvement. This feedback can be used by students to reflect on their
learning, set goals, and make revisions, promoting metacognition and self-directed
learning.
 5. Student engagement: Performance-based assessment promotes student engagement and
motivation, as it requires students to actively participate in meaningful tasks that are
relevant and applicable to their lives. This fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility
for their own learning, leading to increased motivation and improved learning outcomes.

6. Assessment of diverse skills: Performance-based assessment allows for the assessment

of a wide range of skills beyond traditional content knowledge, including critical
thinking, problem-solving, communication, collaboration, creativity, and practical skills.
This aligns with the needs of the 21st-century workforce, which requires students to
develop a diverse set of skills beyond memorization of facts.

7. Equity and inclusivity: Performance-based assessment can be designed to be inclusive

and equitable, allowing for diverse students' backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives
to be taken into account. It can accommodate different learning styles, cultural
backgrounds, and abilities, providing a more equitable and inclusive assessment
experience for all students.

8. Authenticity and relevance: Performance-based assessment emphasizes the importance

of authenticity and relevance in evaluating student learning. This helps students see the
real-world applicability of their learning and promotes the development of skills that are
transferable to their future careers and lives.
9. Teacher professional development: Performance-based assessment requires teachers to
design and implement assessments that align with authentic performance tasks. This may
require professional development opportunities for teachers to enhance their assessment
literacy, pedagogical strategies, and curriculum design skills, promoting ongoing
professional growth and development.
10. Preparation for real-world success: Performance-based assessment prepares students
for success in the real world by providing them with opportunities to develop and
demonstrate the skills and abilities needed for their future careers and lives. It helps
bridge the gap between classroom learning and real-world application, preparing students
for the challenges and opportunities they will encounter beyond their educational journey.

In conclusion, performance-based assessment has several implications for education, including

promoting authentic assessment, application of knowledge and skills, holistic assessment,
authentic feedback, student engagement, assessment of diverse skills, equity and inclusivity,
authenticity and relevance, teacher professional development, and preparation for real-world
success. By incorporating performance-based assessment practices into the educational process,
educators can enhance student learning, promote meaningful and relevant educational
experiences,

8.3 Criterion referenced assessment and implications

Criterion-referenced assessment is an approach to evaluating student learning that focuses on
measuring students' performance against predefined criteria or standards. This type of assessment
assesses students' mastery of specific learning objectives or standards, rather than comparing
their performance to that of their peers. Let's explore the implications of criterion-referenced
assessment in education.
 1. Clear learning objectives: Criterion-referenced assessment requires clear and well-
defined learning objectives or standards. This promotes clarity and transparency in the
assessment process, as students and teachers know exactly what is expected of them in
terms of the learning outcomes.
2. Alignment with curriculum: Criterion-referenced assessment is closely aligned with the
curriculum, as it assesses students' mastery of specific learning objectives or standards.
This ensures that the assessment is directly linked to the curriculum, and that students are
assessed on what they are expected to learn, promoting alignment and coherence in the
educational process.
3. Individual student performance: Criterion-referenced assessment focuses on individual
student performance, rather than comparing students to their peers. This promotes a
student-centered approach to assessment, as it recognizes that each student progresses at
their own pace and has their own strengths and areas for improvement.
4. Formative assessment: Criterion-referenced assessment can be used as a formative
assessment tool, providing feedback to students on their performance and guiding their
learning. It can help identify students' strengths and areas for improvement, and inform
instructional strategies to support their learning needs.
5. Authentic assessment: Criterion-referenced assessment can be designed to be authentic,
requiring students to apply their knowledge and skills in real-world contexts. This
promotes authentic assessment practices that mirror real-world situations, and allows
students to demonstrate their competence in real-world scenarios.
6. Customized learning: Criterion-referenced assessment can be used to customize
learning experiences for students, as it identifies their individual strengths and areas for
improvement. This allows for personalized instruction and interventions to support
students' unique learning needs, promoting personalized learning pathways.
7. Focus on mastery: Criterion-referenced assessment focuses on students' mastery of
specific learning objectives or standards. This promotes a deep understanding of the
content and skills, as students are expected to demonstrate mastery before moving on to
the next level or topic.
8. Clarity in feedback: Criterion-referenced assessment provides clear and specific
feedback to students on their performance, as it is based on predefined criteria or
standards. This feedback can be used by students to understand their strengths and areas
for improvement, and make revisions to their work, promoting self-directed learning and
improvement.

In conclusion, criterion-referenced assessment has several implications for education, including

clear learning objectives, alignment with the curriculum, individual student performance,
formative assessment, authentic assessment, customized learning, focus on mastery, clarity in
feedback, equity and fairness, and accountability and transparency. By incorporating criterion-
referenced assessment practices into the educational process, educators can promote clear
learning expectations, personalized learning experiences, and equitable assessment practices to
support student learning and growth.

8.4 Norms referenced assessment and implications

Norm-referenced assessment is an approach to evaluating student performance that compares
their performance to that of their peers. In norm-referenced assessment, students are ranked or
graded relative to the performance of a larger group, typically a normative sample or reference
group. Let's explore the implications of norm-referenced assessment in education.
1. Comparison to peers: Norm-referenced assessment focuses on comparing students'
performance to that of their peers. This can create a competitive environment among
students, as they are ranked or graded relative to their classmates. This can lead to issues
such as peer pressure, anxiety, and unhealthy competition among students.
2. Limited focus on individual performance: Norm-referenced assessment may not
provide a comprehensive view of an individual student's performance, as it primarily
focuses on how students compare to their peers. This may not capture the full range of
strengths and areas for improvement of individual students, as their performance is
evaluated in relation to the group.
3. Unequal opportunities: Norm-referenced assessment may not take into account the
unequal opportunities and backgrounds of students within the normative sample or
reference group. Students from different backgrounds, cultures, or socioeconomic
statuses may have different levels of access to resources and support, which can impact
their performance in a norm-referenced assessment.
4. Limited feedback: Norm-referenced assessment may provide limited feedback to
students, as the focus is on rank or percentile rather than specific feedback on their
performance. This may not provide students with meaningful feedback to guide their
learning and improvement.
5. Focus on relative performance: Norm-referenced assessment focuses on how students
perform relative to their peers, rather than on absolute performance against predefined
criteria or standards. This may not provide a clear indication of students' mastery of
specific learning objectives or standards.
6. Pressure on high performers: Norm-referenced assessment can create pressure on high-
performing students to maintain their rank or percentile, leading to stress and anxiety.
This may also discourage risk-taking and experimentation in learning, as students may
prioritize maintaining their rank over exploring new areas of interest.
7. Impacts on self-esteem: Norm-referenced assessment can have implications on students'
self-esteem and self-worth, as their performance is compared to their peers. Students who
do not perform well may experience lowered self-esteem and reduced motivation, which
can impact their overall well-being and engagement in learning.
In conclusion, norm-referenced assessment has several implications for education, including
comparison to peers, limited focus on individual performance, unequal opportunities, limited
feedback, focus on relative performance, pressure on high performers, limited diagnostic
information, disparity in performance expectations, potential for bias, and impacts on self-
esteem. Educators need to be mindful of these implications and carefully consider the use of
norm-referenced assessment in their educational practices, ensuring that it is used in a fair and
meaningful manner to support student learning and growth.
8.5 Portfolio assessment
Portfolio assessment is an approach to evaluating student performance that involves the
collection and assessment of student work samples over time. These work samples may include a
variety of artifacts, such as written assignments, projects, presentations, reflections, and other
evidence of learning. Let's explore some key aspects and implications of portfolio assessment in
education.
1. Holistic view of student performance: Portfolio assessment provides a holistic view of
student performance, as it allows for the collection of diverse work samples that
demonstrate different aspects of student learning. This can capture a more comprehensive
picture of a student's strengths, areas for improvement, and progress over time.
2. Authentic assessment: Portfolio assessment often includes authentic assessments, where
students demonstrate their learning in real-world or authentic contexts, rather than
through isolated tests or exams. This can enhance the relevance and authenticity of the
assessment, as it aligns with real-world applications of knowledge and skills.
3. Personalization and reflection: Portfolio assessment allows students to personalize their
learning and reflect on their own progress. Students can select work samples that
represent their best efforts or areas of growth, and reflect on their learning journey,
strengths, and areas for improvement. This can promote metacognition, self-assessment,
and self-regulation skills.
4. Flexibility and customization: Portfolio assessment offers flexibility and customization,
as it can be adapted to suit different students, contexts, and learning goals. Students can
choose the artifacts they include in their portfolio based on their interests, strengths, and
learning needs. Educators can also tailor the criteria and standards used for assessment to
align with specific learning objectives or standards.
5. Formative and summative assessment: Portfolio assessment can serve both formative
and summative assessment purposes. Formatively, it can provide ongoing feedback and
guidance to students to support their learning and improvement. Summatively, it can be
used to assess student performance at the end of a unit, semester, or year, and provide a
comprehensive overview of student achievement.
6. Authentic audience and feedback: Portfolio assessment can provide opportunities for
students to showcase their work to authentic audiences beyond the classroom, such as
peers, parents, community members, or experts in the field. This can motivate students to
produce high-quality work and receive feedback from diverse perspectives, enhancing the
authenticity and relevance of the assessment.
In conclusion, portfolio assessment offers several advantages, such as providing a holistic view
of student performance, promoting authentic assessment, personalization, and reflection, offering
flexibility and customization, serving formative and summative purposes
Unit: 9
9.1 Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation
Curriculum monitoring and evaluation are crucial processes in education that involve assessing
and assessing the effectiveness of the curriculum in achieving desired learning outcomes. Let's
explore some key aspects and implications of curriculum monitoring and evaluation in the
educational context.

1. Ensuring curriculum alignment: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation help ensure

that the curriculum is aligned with the intended learning outcomes, standards, and goals.
It involves regularly reviewing and analyzing the curriculum documents, instructional
materials, and assessments to ensure they are aligned with the curriculum objectives and
reflect best practices in education.
2. Identifying strengths and weaknesses: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation allow
educators to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum. Through ongoing
assessment and evaluation, educators can identify areas where the curriculum is effective
and areas that may need improvement or revision. This information can inform
curriculum development and improvement efforts.
3. Assessing instructional practices: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation also involve
assessing instructional practices to ensure they align with the curriculum. This may
include classroom observations, lesson plan reviews, and analysis of instructional
strategies and methods. It helps ensure that teachers are implementing the curriculum
effectively and making necessary adjustments to meet the needs of their students.

4. Monitoring student progress: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation involve

monitoring and assessing student progress towards the intended learning outcomes. This
may include formative and summative assessments, standardized tests, and other
measures of student achievement. It helps educators gauge the effectiveness of the
curriculum in promoting student learning and identify areas where additional support
may be needed.

5. Feedback for improvement: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation provide feedback

for curriculum improvement. The findings from the evaluation process can inform
decisions about curriculum revision, instructional strategies, and professional
development needs for teachers. It helps ensure that the curriculum is continuously
improved to meet the changing needs of students and align with educational goals.

6. Ensuring equity and inclusivity: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation can also help
ensure that the curriculum is inclusive and equitable. It involves examining the
curriculum for bias, cultural relevance, and representation to ensure that all students,
regardless of their background or identity, have access to a curriculum that is inclusive,
relevant, and meets their diverse needs.
 7. Stakeholder involvement: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation often involve the
participation of various stakeholders, such as teachers, students, parents, administrators,
and policymakers. It promotes collaborative decision-making, shared ownership of the
curriculum, and accountability in the educational system.
8. Data-driven decision-making: Curriculum monitoring and evaluation are based on data-
driven decision-making. Data collected through assessments, observations, and other
evaluation methods provide evidence for decision-making and inform curriculum
improvement efforts. It helps ensure that decisions about the curriculum are based on
objective data and not solely on subjective opinions.

In conclusion, curriculum monitoring and evaluation are essential processes in education that
ensure curriculum alignment, identify strengths and weaknesses, assess instructional practices,
monitor student progress, provide feedback for improvement, ensure equity and inclusivity,
involve stakeholders, promote data-driven decision-making, facilitate continuous improvement,
and inform professional development efforts for teachers.

9.2 Traditional and progressive notion of curriculum monitoring and evaluation

Traditional and Progressive Notions of Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation
Curriculum monitoring and evaluation can be approached from both traditional and progressive
perspectives, each with its own unique characteristics and implications. Let's explore the key
differences between these two notions in the context of curriculum monitoring and evaluation.
Traditional Notion of Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation:
1. Emphasis on standardized assessments: In the traditional notion of curriculum
monitoring and evaluation, the focus is often on standardized assessments that measure
student performance against predetermined standards or benchmarks. These assessments
are typically quantitative in nature and may include standardized tests or exams.
2. Teacher-centered approach: The traditional notion of curriculum monitoring and
evaluation often involves a top-down approach, with teachers being assessed based on
their ability to deliver the curriculum and meet predetermined learning outcomes. The
focus is on teacher compliance with the curriculum and adherence to prescribed
instructional methods.
3. Fixed curriculum and assessment framework: The traditional notion of curriculum
monitoring and evaluation tends to view the curriculum and assessment framework as
fixed and unchanging. The curriculum is typically determined by external authorities, and
teachers are expected to follow it without much flexibility for adaptation or customization
to meet the diverse needs of students.
4. Emphasis on content coverage: In the traditional notion of curriculum monitoring and
evaluation, the emphasis is often on covering a predetermined set of content within a
given timeframe. The focus is on the quantity of content covered rather than the quality
of student learning or deeper understanding of concepts.
 5. Outcome-oriented: The traditional notion of curriculum monitoring and evaluation tends
to focus on the outcomes of student learning, such as test scores or grades, as the primary
indicator of success or failure of the curriculum. The emphasis is on achieving
predetermined learning outcomes as the ultimate goal of education.
Progressive Notion of Curriculum Monitoring and Evaluation:
1. Emphasis on authentic assessments: In the progressive notion of curriculum monitoring
and evaluation, the focus is on authentic assessments that measure student performance in
real-world, meaningful contexts. These assessments may include performance-based
tasks, projects, portfolios, or other forms of authentic assessment that allow students to
demonstrate their understanding and application of knowledge and skills.
2. Student-centered approach: The progressive notion of curriculum monitoring and
evaluation often involves a student-centered approach, with a focus on individual student
growth and development. It recognizes the diversity of students' backgrounds, interests,
and learning styles, and encourages personalized and differentiated instruction that meets
the unique needs of each student.
3. Flexible and adaptive curriculum: The progressive notion of curriculum monitoring
and evaluation views the curriculum as flexible and adaptable, with room for
customization and adaptation to meet the needs and interests of students. It encourages
teachers to be innovative and creative in designing curriculum and instructional
approaches that promote active engagement, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills
among students.
4. Emphasis on process and skills development: In the progressive notion of curriculum
monitoring and evaluation, the emphasis is on the process of learning and the
development of essential skills, such as critical thinking, communication, collaboration,
and creativity, rather than solely on content coverage. The focus is on fostering deep
understanding, application, and transfer of knowledge and skills to real-world situations.
5. Holistic approach: The progressive notion of curriculum monitoring and evaluation
takes a holistic approach to student learning, considering multiple dimensions of learning,
including cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development. It recognizes that
student learning is multifaceted and goes beyond just academic achievement, and thus,
assessment approaches should also reflect this holistic perspective.
6. Formative assessment focus: The progressive notion of curriculum monitoring and
evaluation emphasizes formative assessment, which is ongoing and provides feedback for
learning and improvement rather than just summative assessment, which focuses on
evaluating the final outcomes of learning. Formative assessment is seen as a tool for
teachers and students to gauge progress, identify areas of improvement, and guide
instructional decisions.
9.3 Relationship between monitoring and evaluation
Monitoring and evaluation are two closely related concepts that are often used in the field of
education and other areas of practice. While they share some similarities, they are distinct in
their purposes, processes, and outcomes. Let's explore the relationship between monitoring and
evaluation:
1. Purpose: Monitoring is the ongoing process of collecting data, observing, and
documenting progress towards the achievement of specific goals or objectives. It involves
regular checks to ensure that activities are on track and that progress is being made as
planned. Monitoring is typically used to track the implementation of programs or
interventions, identify challenges, and make timely adjustments to improve performance.
On the other hand, evaluation is the systematic and objective assessment of the
effectiveness, efficiency, and relevance of a program, project, or intervention. It involves
analyzing data and evidence to determine the extent to which goals and objectives have
been achieved, the impact of the program or intervention, and the lessons learned for
future improvement.

2. Timing: Monitoring is a continuous process that occurs throughout the life cycle of a
program or intervention, from the planning stage to implementation and beyond. It
involves ongoing data collection, analysis, and feedback to inform decision-making and
ensure that progress is on track. Evaluation, on the other hand, typically takes place at
specific points in time, such as at the end of a program or intervention or during major
milestones. Evaluation provides a comprehensive and in-depth assessment of the overall
performance and impact of the program or intervention.
3. Scope: Monitoring focuses on the day-to-day implementation of activities, tracking
progress towards short-term objectives, and identifying issues or challenges that may
arise during implementation. It is often carried out by program staff or other stakeholders
who are directly involved in the implementation. Evaluation, on the other hand, takes a
broader perspective and assesses the overall performance and impact of the program or
intervention, including its long-term outcomes, sustainability, and relevance to the needs
of the target population. Evaluation is typically conducted by external evaluators or
experts who are independent of the program or intervention.
4. Data and methods: Monitoring relies on regular data collection, observation, and
documentation of progress using established indicators or benchmarks. It often involves
qualitative and quantitative data, such as progress reports, checklists, surveys, and other
forms of data collection tools. Evaluation, on the other hand, uses a variety of methods to
collect and analyze data, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, case studies, and
other evaluation techniques. Evaluation aims to provide a comprehensive and evidence-
based assessment of the program or intervention, using rigorous methods to ensure the
validity and reliability of the findings.

5. Use of findings: Monitoring findings are used to inform day-to-day decision-making,

identify challenges, and make adjustments to improve program performance. Monitoring
provides real-time feedback on progress and helps to identify areas where improvements
are needed to ensure that the program or intervention stays on track. Evaluation findings,
on the other hand, are used to assess the overall performance and impact of the program
or intervention, identify strengths and weaknesses, and provide recommendations for
future improvement. Evaluation findings are often used to make strategic decisions,
inform policy and practice, and be accountable to stakeholders.
6. Relationship: Monitoring and evaluation are closely related and often complement each
other. Monitoring provides the ongoing data and information needed for evaluation, and
evaluation findings can inform adjustments in the monitoring process. Monitoring helps
 to ensure that the program or intervention is implemented as planned and progress is
being made towards the desired outcomes, while evaluation provides a comprehensive
assessment of the overall performance and impact of the program or intervention. Both
monitoring and evaluation are important for effective program management,
accountability, and continuous improvement.

9.4 Forms of curriculum evaluation-formative and summative

Curriculum evaluation is an important process that assesses the effectiveness, relevance,

and quality of a curriculum or educational program. There are two main forms of
curriculum evaluation: formative evaluation and summative evaluation. Let's explore
these forms in more detail:

1. Formative Evaluation: Formative evaluation is an ongoing, continuous process that

occurs during the development and implementation of a curriculum or educational
program. It focuses on gathering data and feedback to inform and shape the curriculum or
program as it is being developed or implemented. Formative evaluation is typically
conducted by curriculum developers, instructional designers, or educators involved in the
program's implementation. It aims to identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for
improvement in the curriculum or program, and to make timely adjustments to enhance
its effectiveness. Formative evaluation may involve qualitative and quantitative data
collection methods, such as observations, interviews, focus groups, surveys, and other
formative assessment techniques. The findings from formative evaluation are used to
guide curriculum development, instructional strategies, and implementation practices in
real-time, with the goal of improving the curriculum or program before it is fully
implemented.
2. Summative Evaluation: Summative evaluation is conducted after the curriculum or
educational program has been fully implemented and completed. It is a comprehensive
assessment of the overall effectiveness, outcomes, and impact of the curriculum or
program. Summative evaluation is typically conducted by external evaluators or experts
who are independent of the curriculum or program being evaluated. It uses rigorous
research methods and data collection techniques to assess the curriculum's effectiveness
in achieving its intended goals and objectives, as well as its impact on learners'
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors. Summative evaluation may involve data
collection through surveys, assessments, tests, and other quantitative and qualitative
methods to measure the curriculum's outcomes and impacts. The findings from
summative evaluation are used to provide an overall assessment of the curriculum's
performance, inform decision-making, and make recommendations for future
improvement.
In summary, formative evaluation occurs during the development and implementation of
a curriculum or program and focuses on making ongoing adjustments to improve its
effectiveness, while summative evaluation takes place after the curriculum or program is
completed and provides a comprehensive assessment of its overall performance and
impact. Both formative and summative evaluation are important for ensuring the quality
and effectiveness of a curriculum or educational program and supporting continuous
improvement.
9.5 Role of evaluation in curriculum improvement: Evaluation plays a crucial role in
curriculum improvement as it helps to assess the effectiveness of a curriculum and identify areas
for enhancement. Here are some key roles that evaluation plays in curriculum improvement:
1. Feedback for Curriculum Development: Evaluation provides valuable feedback to
curriculum developers, instructional designers, and educators involved in the curriculum
development process. Through formative evaluation, feedback from various data sources,
such as observations, interviews, assessments, and surveys, can inform the ongoing
development and refinement of the curriculum. This feedback helps to identify strengths,
weaknesses, and areas for improvement, which can be used to make adjustments to the
curriculum to enhance its effectiveness and relevance to learners' needs.
2. Identification of Gaps and Discrepancies: Evaluation helps to identify gaps and
discrepancies between the intended curriculum (what is planned) and the implemented
curriculum (what is actually taught and learned). Through formative and summative
evaluation, data on the actual implementation of the curriculum can be collected and
analyzed to identify any gaps or discrepancies between the intended and implemented
curriculum. This information can be used to identify areas where the curriculum may
need improvement or further alignment to ensure that it is being implemented as
intended.

3. Evidence-Based Decision Making: Evaluation provides evidence that informs decision-

making in curriculum improvement. By collecting and analyzing data on curriculum
effectiveness, outcomes, and impacts, evaluators can provide evidence that supports
decision-making in identifying areas for improvement, setting priorities, and allocating
resources. Evidence-based decision-making helps ensure that curriculum improvements
are based on reliable data and not on subjective opinions or assumptions.

4. Continuous Improvement: Evaluation supports a culture of continuous improvement in

curriculum development and implementation. By regularly evaluating the curriculum and
its outcomes, a cycle of continuous improvement can be established, where feedback
from evaluation is used to make adjustments and refinements to the curriculum on an
ongoing basis. This iterative process helps ensure that the curriculum remains relevant,
effective, and responsive to the changing needs of learners and the educational context.

5. Accountability and Quality Assurance: Evaluation provides a mechanism for

accountability and quality assurance in curriculum improvement. Through summative
evaluation, the overall performance and impact of the curriculum can be assessed against
established criteria and standards. This helps to ensure that the curriculum meets the
desired quality benchmarks and is aligned with educational goals and objectives.
Evaluation also provides evidence of the effectiveness of the curriculum to stakeholders,
such as policymakers, administrators, teachers, learners, and parents, which helps to
establish accountability for the curriculum's outcomes and impacts.

In conclusion, evaluation plays a critical role in curriculum improvement by providing feedback,

identifying gaps, supporting evidence-based decision-making, promoting continuous
improvement, and ensuring accountability and quality assurance. By using evaluation as a
systematic and ongoing process, curriculum developers and educators can make data-informed
decisions to enhance the effectiveness and relevance of the curriculum, ultimately benefiting
learners and educational outcomes.

9.6 Processes and practices of curriculum evaluation.

Curriculum evaluation is a systematic process that involves assessing the effectiveness and
quality of a curriculum to ensure that it meets its intended goals and objectives. Here are some
common processes and practices involved in curriculum evaluation:
1. Setting Evaluation Criteria and Standards: The first step in curriculum evaluation is
to establish criteria and standards against which the curriculum will be evaluated. These
criteria and standards should be aligned with the goals and objectives of the curriculum
and should be measurable and observable. They may include factors such as curriculum
alignment with educational standards, relevance to learners' needs, instructional design,
assessment strategies, and learning outcomes.
2. Data Collection: Data collection is a crucial step in curriculum evaluation. Various
methods can be used to collect data, such as observations, interviews, surveys,
assessments, and document analysis. Data can be collected from multiple sources,
including teachers, students, administrators, and other stakeholders involved in the
curriculum implementation process. The data collected should be relevant, reliable, and
valid to ensure that the evaluation findings are accurate and meaningful.
3. Data Analysis: Once data is collected, it needs to be analyzed to make sense of the
information obtained. Data analysis involves organizing, interpreting, and synthesizing
the data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. This analysis helps in
understanding the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum, identifying areas for
improvement, and making data-informed decisions.
4. Interpretation of Findings: After data analysis, the findings need to be interpreted to
understand the implications for the curriculum. The evaluation findings should be
interpreted in the context of the established criteria and standards. This helps in
understanding the extent to which the curriculum is meeting its intended goals and
objectives, and identifying areas that require improvement.
5. Reporting and Feedback: The findings of the curriculum evaluation should be reported
to relevant stakeholders, including curriculum developers, administrators, teachers, and
other stakeholders involved in the curriculum implementation process. The report should
include a clear and concise summary of the evaluation findings, conclusions, and
recommendations for improvement. Providing feedback to stakeholders is crucial for
facilitating informed decision-making and driving curriculum improvement efforts.

6. Implementation of Recommendations: Once the evaluation findings and

recommendations are communicated, the next step is to implement the identified
improvements. This may involve making adjustments to the curriculum, instructional
strategies, assessments, or other aspects of the curriculum implementation process based
on the evaluation findings. It may also involve revising curriculum documents, providing
professional development opportunities for teachers, or allocating resources to support
curriculum improvement initiatives.
 7. Follow-up and Monitoring: Curriculum evaluation is an ongoing process, and it is
important to monitor the implementation of the recommended improvements and assess
their impact. Follow-up and monitoring help to ensure that the recommended changes are
implemented as intended and that they are having the desired impact on the curriculum's
effectiveness and quality. If needed, further evaluation may be conducted to assess the
effectiveness of the implemented changes and to inform additional improvements.

In conclusion, curriculum evaluation involves a systematic process of setting evaluation criteria

and standards, data collection and analysis, interpretation of findings, reporting and feedback,
implementation of recommendations, and follow-up and monitoring. These processes and
practices are essential for assessing the effectiveness and quality of a curriculum and driving
continuous improvement efforts to ensure that the curriculum meets its intended goals and
objectives.

9.7 Curriculum Evaluation in Pakistan and Implications

Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan is an important process that involves assessing the

effectiveness and quality of the curriculum implemented in the country's educational system. The
implications of curriculum evaluation in Pakistan are significant and can impact various aspects
of the education system. Here are some key implications of curriculum evaluation in Pakistan:
1. Curriculum Alignment with National Standards: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan helps
to ensure that the curriculum aligns with national standards and guidelines set by the
Ministry of Education. This ensures that the curriculum is relevant, up-to-date, and
aligned with the educational needs and goals of Pakistan's students.
2. Curriculum Relevance and Appropriateness: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan assesses
the relevance and appropriateness of the curriculum in the local context. It ensures that
the curriculum is aligned with the cultural, social, and economic context of Pakistan, and
meets the needs and expectations of the local learners, teachers, and stakeholders.
3. Identification of Strengths and Weaknesses: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan helps to
identify the strengths and weaknesses of the curriculum, highlighting areas that require
improvement. This allows for data-informed decision-making and targeted efforts to
enhance the quality and effectiveness of the curriculum.
4. Professional Development Opportunities: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan may identify
areas where teachers need additional support and professional development. This
provides opportunities for teacher training and development programs to improve
instructional practices and pedagogical approaches, leading to enhanced student learning
outcomes.
5. Resource Allocation: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan may identify resource gaps or
needs for effective curriculum implementation. This can lead to informed resource
allocation decisions, including funding, materials, and technology, to support curriculum
improvement efforts.
6. Stakeholder Engagement: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan involves engaging various
stakeholders, including teachers, students, administrators, policymakers, and parents, in
the evaluation process. This promotes collaboration, shared ownership, and collective
decision-making, leading to increased stakeholder engagement and support for the
curriculum.
7. Continuous Improvement: Curriculum evaluation in Pakistan is an ongoing process that
promotes a culture of continuous improvement in the education system. It encourages
 regular monitoring, feedback, and revision of the curriculum to ensure that it remains
relevant, effective, and responsive to the changing needs of learners and the society.
8. Enhanced Learning Outcomes: The ultimate goal of curriculum evaluation in Pakistan is
to enhance learning outcomes for students. By identifying and addressing areas of
improvement in the curriculum, curriculum evaluation can contribute to improved student
achievement, critical thinking skills, and overall educational quality.
In conclusion, curriculum evaluation in Pakistan has significant implications for the education
system, including curriculum alignment with national standards, curriculum relevance and
appropriateness, identification of strengths and weaknesses, professional development
opportunities, resource allocation, stakeholder engagement, continuous improvement, and
enhanced learning outcomes. It is a crucial process that supports the ongoing improvement of the
curriculum to meet the needs of Pakistan's students and ensure a high-quality education system.

9.8 Contemporary Issues of Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation is an ongoing process that involves assessing the effectiveness and quality
of a curriculum in meeting the educational goals and needs of learners. In the contemporary
education landscape, several issues arise in the context of curriculum evaluation. Here are some
key contemporary issues of curriculum evaluation:
1. Shifting Educational Goals: Educational goals and priorities are constantly evolving, and
curriculum evaluation needs to adapt to these changes. As educational systems face new
challenges and demands, such as globalization, technological advancements, changing
social and cultural dynamics, and the need for equity and inclusivity, curriculum
evaluation must address how well the curriculum aligns with these shifting goals and
priorities.
2. Diverse Learner Needs: Today's classrooms are increasingly diverse, with learners from
different cultural, linguistic, socio-economic, and educational backgrounds. Curriculum
evaluation needs to consider how well the curriculum caters to the diverse needs of
learners, including those with special needs, English language learners, and marginalized
groups, and ensure that it is inclusive, equitable, and accessible to all learners.
3. Technological Integration: Technology is rapidly transforming the education landscape,
and curriculum evaluation needs to address how effectively the curriculum integrates
technology for teaching, learning, and assessment. This includes evaluating the relevance
and appropriateness of technology-based resources, tools, and platforms used in the
curriculum, as well as assessing how well teachers are prepared to use technology in their
instructional practices.
4. Authentic Assessment: There is a growing emphasis on authentic assessment methods
that go beyond traditional standardized tests and exams. Curriculum evaluation needs to
consider how well the curriculum incorporates authentic assessment practices, such as
performance-based assessments, portfolio assessments, and real-world applications of
knowledge and skills, to assess student learning outcomes in a meaningful and relevant
manner.
5. Teacher Evaluation and Professional Development: Curriculum evaluation is closely
linked with teacher evaluation and professional development. It is important to assess
how well teachers are implementing the curriculum in their instructional practices, and
identify their professional development needs to enhance curriculum delivery. This
includes evaluating teacher training and support mechanisms, and addressing challenges
 related to curriculum implementation, such as lack of resources, time constraints, and
support systems.
6. Stakeholder Engagement: Stakeholder engagement is crucial in curriculum evaluation to
ensure that the perspectives of various stakeholders, including teachers, students, parents,
administrators, policymakers, and the community, are taken into account. Curriculum
evaluation needs to involve meaningful stakeholder engagement processes to gather
feedback, insights, and suggestions on the curriculum, and ensure that it meets the diverse
needs and expectations of stakeholders.
7. Ethical Considerations: Ethical considerations in curriculum evaluation include issues
related to bias, equity, fairness, and cultural appropriateness. Curriculum evaluation
needs to be conducted in an ethical manner, taking into account the diverse cultural,
social, and ethical perspectives of learners, and ensuring that the evaluation process is
fair, transparent, and unbiased.
8. Data Privacy and Security: Curriculum evaluation involves the collection and analysis of
data, including student performance data, and it is important to ensure that data privacy
and security are maintained throughout the evaluation process. This includes adhering to
data protection regulations, ensuring data confidentiality, and securing data storage and
transmission to protect the privacy and security of students and other stakeholders.
9. Evidence-Based Decision Making: Curriculum evaluation needs to be based on sound
evidence and data-driven decision making. This includes using multiple sources of data,
such as student performance data, teacher feedback, stakeholder input, and research
findings, to inform decision making and ensure that the curriculum is continuously
improved based on reliable evidence.
10. Resource Allocation: Curriculum evaluation needs to consider resource allocation,
including funding, materials, and support systems, to ensure that the curriculum is
effectively implemented. This includes identifying resource gaps, needs, and priorities,
and making informed resource allocation decisions to support curriculum improvement
efforts.