Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and Composite
Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and Composite
5 December 2011
Space engineering
Thermal design handbook - Part 5:
Structural Materials: Metallic and
Composite
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
Foreword
This Handbook is one document of the series of ECSS Documents intended to be used as supporting
material for ECSS Standards in space projects and applications. ECSS is a cooperative effort of the
European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry associations for the purpose
of developing and maintaining common standards.
The material in this Handbook is a collection of data gathered from many projects and technical
journals which provides the reader with description and recommendation on subjects to be
considered when performing the work of Thermal design.
The material for the subjects has been collated from research spanning many years, therefore a subject
may have been revisited or updated by science and industry.
The material is provided as good background on the subjects of thermal design, the reader is
recommended to research whether a subject has been updated further, since the publication of the
material contained herein.
This handbook has been prepared by ESA TEC‐MT/QR division, reviewed by the ECSS Executive
Secretariat and approved by the ECSS Technical Authority.
Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory, including,
but not limited to, any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose or any warranty
that the contents of the item are error‐free. In no respect shall ECSS incur any liability for any
damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages arising out
of, resulting from, or in any way connected to the use of this document, whether or not based upon
warranty, business agreement, tort, or otherwise; whether or not injury was sustained by persons or
property or otherwise; and whether or not loss was sustained from, or arose out of, the results of, the
item, or any services that may be provided by ECSS.
Published by: ESA Requirements and Standards Division
ESTEC, P.O. Box 299,
2200 AG Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Copyright: 2011 © by the European Space Agency for the members of ECSS
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Table of contents
1 Scope.....................................................................................................................18
2 References ............................................................................................................19
4 Metallic materials..................................................................................................23
4.1 General.....................................................................................................................23
4.1.1 Modifiers of thermal radiative properties .................................................... 26
4.1.2 Cladding definitions ....................................................................................27
4.1.3 Temper designation for heat treatable aluminium alloys ............................ 28
4.2 Aluminium alloys ...................................................................................................... 28
4.3 Aluminium-Copper alloys .........................................................................................85
4.4 Aluminium-Magnesium alloys................................................................................. 104
4.5 Aluminium-Zinc alloys ............................................................................................ 114
4.6 Magnesium-Zink-Thorium alloys ............................................................................ 131
4.7 Titanium-Aluminium-Tin alloys ............................................................................... 133
4.8 Titanium-Aluminium-Tin alloys ............................................................................... 144
4.9 Titanium-Aluminium-Vanadium alloys .................................................................... 151
4.10 Nickel-Chrome-Cobalt-Molybdenum alloys ............................................................ 165
4.11 Iron-Nickel alloys ....................................................................................................175
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5.3.4 Geometry of fiber reinforcement. fabrics. abridged designation............... 205
5.4 Physical properties .................................................................................................210
5.4.1 Density......................................................................................................210
5.5 Thermal properties .................................................................................................216
5.5.1 Specific heat .............................................................................................216
5.5.2 Thermal conductivity................................................................................. 222
5.5.3 Thermal diffusivity.....................................................................................247
5.6 Thermo-elastic properties.......................................................................................256
5.6.1 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion .................................................... 256
5.7 Thermal radiation properties of bare high strength fibers....................................... 319
5.7.1 Sample characterization ...........................................................................319
5.7.2 Emittance..................................................................................................319
5.7.3 Absorptance .............................................................................................321
5.8 Thermal radiation properties of bare composite materials ..................................... 324
5.8.1 Tabulated data.......................................................................................... 324
5.9 Thermal radiation properties of coated composite materials.................................. 326
5.9.1 White painted composite materials........................................................... 327
5.9.2 Sputtered Aluminium on graphite-epoxy composite material ................... 331
5.10 Operating temperature range ................................................................................. 334
5.10.1 Temperatures related to the maximum service temperature.................... 335
5.11 Electrical properties................................................................................................341
5.11.1 Electrical resistance and electrical resistivity............................................ 341
5.12 Prelaunch environmental effects ............................................................................ 348
5.12.1 Moisture absorption and desorption ......................................................... 348
5.13 Postlaunch environmental effects .......................................................................... 355
5.13.1 Ascent.......................................................................................................355
5.13.2 Orbital effects ...........................................................................................357
5.13.3 Re-entry effects ........................................................................................367
5.14 Thermal vacuum cycling.........................................................................................371
5.14.1 Test facilities.............................................................................................371
5.14.2 Measurement methods............................................................................. 372
5.14.3 Thermal vacuum cycling effects on the coefficient of linear thermal
expansion .................................................................................................373
5.14.4 Trends in the variation of mechanical properties...................................... 378
5.15 Coating application.................................................................................................378
5.15.1 Pcbz conductive white paint ..................................................................... 378
5.15.2 APA-2474 (TiO2 white paint) .................................................................... 378
5.15.3 Wiederhold's Z-12321 ..............................................................................379
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5.16 Past spatial uses ....................................................................................................380
5.16.1 Intelsat v ...................................................................................................380
5.16.2 Spelda (structure porteuse externe de lancement double ariane)............ 381
5.16.3 CS-3A Japanese satellite ......................................................................... 384
Figures
Figure 4-1: Specific heat, c, of Aluminium as a function of temperature, T............................ 30
Figure 4-2: Thermal conductivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature, T. .............. 31
Figure 4-3: Thermal conductivity integrals of Aluminium as a function of temperature, ...... 32
Figure 4-4: Thermal diffusivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature, . ................ 33
Figure 4-5: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Aluminium as a function of
temperature, . ....................................................................................................34
Figure 4-6: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Aluminium as a function of wavelength, . ..... 37
Figure 4-7: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Aluminium conversion coatings as a
function of wavelength, . ....................................................................................38
Figure 4-8: Angular spectral emittance, ', of Aluminium as a function of wavelength, ...... 39
Figure 4-9: Normal total emittance, ', of Aluminium as a function of temperature, . ........... 45
Figure 4-10: Normal total emittance, ', of Aluminium anodized as a function of
anodizing thickness, tc . .......................................................................................46
Figure 4-11: Summary of data concerning the hemispherical total emittance, , of
Aluminium as a function of temperature, . From Touloukian & DeWitt
(1970) [42]. ..........................................................................................................47
Figure 4-12: Summary of data concerning the hemispherical total emittance, , of
Aluminium conversion coatings vs. temperature, . From Touloukian,
DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43]. .............................................................................. 52
Figure 4-13: Directional spectral absorptance, ', of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, . Data points correspond to = 25°............................................ 54
Figure 4-14: Absorptance to emittance ratio, s/, of Aluminium conversion coatings as
a function of the exposure time, t......................................................................... 60
Figure 4-15: Normal - normal spectral reflectance, '', of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .......................................................................................................62
Figure 4-16: Normal - normal spectral reflectance, '', of Aluminium contact coatings
as a function of wavelength, . ............................................................................64
Figure 4-17: Effect of coating thickness on normal - normal spectral reflectance, '', of
Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, ........................... 65
Figure 4-18: Bidirectional reflectance, '', of Aluminium contact coatings as a function
of wavelength, ...................................................................................................66
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Figure 4-19: Bidirectional spectral reflectance, '', of Aluminium conversion coatings
as a function of zenith angles, and ', of incident and reflected radiations...... 68
Figure 4-20: Summary of data concerning normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance,
', of Aluminium vs. wavelength, . From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42]....... 69
Figure 4-21: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Aluminium conversion
coatings as a function of wavelength, . .............................................................. 70
Figure 4-22: Effect of UV exposure on normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ',
of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, ....................... 71
Figure 4-23: Effect of electron exposure on normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance
of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, ....................... 72
Figure 4-24: Effect of simultaneous UV - electron exposure on normal - hemispherical
spectral reflectance, ', of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of
wavelength, .......................................................................................................73
Figure 4-25: Effect of proton exposure on normal - hemispherical spectral
reflectance,', of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of
wavelength,.......................................................................................................74
Figure 4-26: Directional - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Aluminium
conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, ............................................. 75
Figure 4-27: Hemispherical - normal spectral reflectance, ', of Aluminium contact
coatings as a function of wavelength, . .............................................................. 76
Figure 4-28: Bidirectional total reflectance, '', of Aluminium as a function of the viewing
zenith angles, '. ..................................................................................................77
Figure 4-29: Normal - normal spectral transmittance, '', of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .......................................................................................................80
Figure 4-30: Angular spectral transmittance, '', of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .......................................................................................................81
Figure 4-31: Electrical resistivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature, . ........... 83
Figure 4-32: Specific heat, c, of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, . ....................................................................................................86
Figure 4-33: Thermal conductivity, k, of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, . ....................................................................................................87
Figure 4-34: Thermal conductivity integrals of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a
function of temperature, ....................................................................................88
Figure 4-35: Thermal diffusivity, , of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, . ....................................................................................................89
Figure 4-36: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a
function of temperature, ....................................................................................90
Figure 4-37: Normal - spectral emittance, ', of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a
function of wavelength, . ....................................................................................91
Figure 4-38: Normal total emittance, ', of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg - 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, T. ....................................................................................................93
Figure 4-39: Normal-normal spectral reflectance, '', of Al-4,3 Cu-1,5 Mg-0,6 Mn,
anodized, as a function of wavelength, ............................................................. 98
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Figure 4-40: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg -
0,6 Mn as a function of wavelength, ................................................................ 99
Figure 4-41: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al - 4,3 Cu - 1,5 Mg -
0,6 Mn, anodized, as a function of wavelength, .............................................. 100
Figure 4-42: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al-1 Mg-0,6 Si, as
received, as a function of wavelength, ............................................................ 108
Figure 4-43: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al-1 Mg-0,6 Si, grit
blasted, as a function of wavelength, .............................................................. 109
Figure 4-44: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al-1 Mg-0,6 Si,
chemically polished, as a function of wavelength, . ......................................... 111
Figure 4-45: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al - 1 Mg - 0,6 Si,
chemically milled, as a function of wavelength, . ............................................. 112
Figure 4-46: Specific heat, c, of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, . ..................................................................................................115
Figure 4-47: Thermal conductivity, k, of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................116
Figure 4-48: Thermal conductivity integral of Al – 5,7 Zn – 2,5 Mg – 1,6 Cu as a
function of temperature, T..................................................................................117
Figure 4-49: Thermal diffusivity, , of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................118
Figure 4-50: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a
function of temperature, ..................................................................................119
Figure 4-51: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a
function of wavelength, ..................................................................................120
Figure 4-52: Angular spectral emittance, ', of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a
function of wavelength, . ..................................................................................121
Figure 4-53: Normal total emittance, ', of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature,. ...................................................................................................122
Figure 4-54: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Al - 5,7 Zn - 2,5 Mg - 1,6
Cu conversion coatings, as a function of wavelngth, . ..................................... 126
Figure 4-55: Specific heat, c, of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of temperature, T............... 134
Figure 4-56: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of temperature,
T.........................................................................................................................135
Figure 4-57: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................136
Figure 4-58: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T, for =6,65 x 107 m. ................................................................. 137
Figure 4-59: Normal total emittance, ', of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................138
Figure 4-60: Normal-normal spectral reflectance, '', of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function
of wavelength, .................................................................................................140
Figure 4-61: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a
function of wavelength, . ..................................................................................141
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Figure 4-62: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn,
anodized, as a function of wavelength, ........................................................... 142
Figure 4-63: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti - 5 Al - 2,5 Sn as a function of temperature,
T.........................................................................................................................143
Figure 4-64: Specific heat, c, of Ti - 6 Al - 2 Sn - 4 Zr - 2 Mo as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................145
Figure 4-65: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti - 6 Al - 2 Sn - 4 Zr - 2 Mo as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................146
Figure 4-66: Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, , of Ti - 6 Al - 2 Sn - 4 Zr - 2
Mo from room temperature to temperature T. ................................................... 147
Figure 4-67: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti - 6 Al - 2 Sn - 4 Zr - 2 Mo as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................149
Figure 4-68: Specific heat, c, of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of temperature, T.................... 152
Figure 4-69: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of temperature, T. ...... 153
Figure 4-70: Thermal conductivity integrals of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................154
Figure 4-71: Thermal diffusivity, , of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of temperature, T........... 155
Figure 4-72: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................156
Figure 4-73: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................157
Figure 4-74: Normal total emittance, ', of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of temperature, T.... 158
Figure 4-75: Hemispherical total emittance, , of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................160
Figure 4-76: Normal - hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a
function of wavelength, . ..................................................................................162
Figure 4-77: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti - 6 Al - 4 V as a function of temperature, T. ..... 163
Figure 4-78: Specific heat, c, of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3 Ti as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................166
Figure 4-79: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3 Ti as a function
of temperature, T. ..............................................................................................167
Figure 4-80: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3 Ti as a
function of temperature, T..................................................................................168
Figure 4-81: Normal spectral emittance, ', of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3 Ti as a
function of wavelength, . ..................................................................................169
Figure 4-82: Normal total emittance, ', of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3 Ti as a function
of temperature, T. ..............................................................................................170
Figure 4-83: Normal-normal spectral reflectance, ", of Ni - 19 Cr - 11 Co - 10 Mo - 3
Ti as a function of wavelength, . Data points correspond to normal-
hemispherical reflectance while , , correspond to hemispherical-normal
reflectance. ........................................................................................................172
Figure 4-84: Specific heat, c, of Fe - 36 Ni (Invar) as a function of temperature, T. ............ 176
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Figure 4-85: Linear thermal expansion, L/L, of Fe - 36 Ni (Invar) as a function of
temperature, T. ..................................................................................................177
Figure 4-86: Effect of the concentration of alloying elements, c, on the value of the
coefficient of linear expansion, . From MOND NICKEL Co.............................. 178
Figure 4-87: Normal emittance, ', of Fe - 36 Ni (Invar), for = 6,7 x 107 as a function
of temperature, T. ..............................................................................................179
Figure 5-1: International ties between Carbon Fiber manufactures. From SENER
(1984) [147]. ......................................................................................................205
Figure 5-2: Schematic of an angle plied laminate. From Chamis (1987) [67]. ..................... 206
Figure 5-3: Schematic of a tri-orthogonally fiber reinforced composite. a) Straight
filaments. From Domínguez (1987) [82]. b) Tapes. From Aboudi (1984)
[49].....................................................................................................................206
Figure 5-4: Main types of woven fabrics. Lengthwise (warp) yarns and crosswise (fill)
yarns can be interlaced to produce woven fabrics. A fabric construction of
16 x 14 means 16 warp ends per inch and 14 fill ends per inch. a) Plain
weave. Very stable. Small yarn slippage. b) Leno weave. Minimizes
distortion with few yarns. c) Twill. The fabric has a broken diagonal line
and, consequently, greater pliability than a plain weave. d) Crowfoot satin.
Pliable and confortable to contoured surfaces. From Domínguez (1987)
[82], Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]. ................................................... 207
Figure 5-5: Longitudinal (to fibers) and transverse directions for the measurement of
composite properties. From Chamis (1987) [67]. .............................................. 209
Figure 5-6: Cryostat assemblies for measuring the thermal conductivity, k. a) High-k
samples. b) Low-k samples. From Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979)
[137]. For explanation see text. .........................................................................222
Figure 5-7: Facility used to measure the thermal conductivity, k, of a sample as a
function of temperature in the range 90 K to 410 K. Temperature changes
continuously. From Ott (1981) [132]. ................................................................. 224
Figure 5-8: Hypodermic probe to measure the thermal conductivity of polymer melts. All
the dimensions are in mm. From Lobo & Cohen (1990) [120]. .......................... 225
Figure 5-9: Thermal conductivity, km, of different matrices as a function of temperature,
T. Numerical values are given in Table 5-10. .................................................... 236
Figure 5-10: Longitudinal thermal conductivity, kf1, of several advanced pitch graphite
fibers vs. temperature, T. The fiber designation is from Amoco Performance
Products; the number stands for the fiber elasticity modulus in millions of
lbs.in2. All the data, unless otherwise stated, are from LMSC. Pitch
precursor graphite fibers have a structure which approaches that of a single
crystal of graphite and, thus, their thermal conductivity is very large. From
McGuire & Vollerin (1990) [127]. ....................................................................... 237
Figure 5-11: Typical assembly for measuring the thermal diffusivity, , of a long slender
bar by use of the Angström method. From Landis (1964) [116]. ....................... 247
Figure 5-12: Typical assembly for measuring the thermal diffusivity, , of a disc shaped
sample. From Lachi, Legrand & Degiovanni (1988) [115]. ................................ 248
Figure 5-13: Thermal diffusivity, f, of different fiber cloths as a function of temperature,
T. Numerical values are given in Table 5-33 From Touloukian (1967) [157]. .... 251
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Figure 5-14: Experimental arrangement for the interferometric measurement of the
thermal expansion. a) Specimen chamber assembly. b) Optical system.
From James & Yates (1965) [108]. For explanation see text. ........................... 256
Figure 5-15: The ESTEC CTE 1000 facility for the measurement of the linear thermal
expansion of structure up to 0,7 m long. All the dimensions are in mm.
From Aalders (1989) [48]...................................................................................258
Figure 5-16: Linear thermal expansion, m, as a function of temperature, T, for four
different epoxy matrices. Numerical values are given in Table 5-41. ................ 269
Figure 5-17: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as a
function of temperature, T, for some composite materials formed by the
same matrix, DER 332/T403, and two different glass fiber reinforcements.
Upper and lower limits of the shadowed regions are for 95% confidence. ........ 278
Figure 5-18: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to fibers, 2,
as a function of temperature, T, for some composite materials formed by
the same matrix, DER 332/T403, and two different glass fiber
reinforcements. ..................................................................................................280
Figure 5-19: Linear thermal expansion coefficient mesured in different directions, , as
a function of temperature, T, for similar carbon fiber reinforced composite
materials. The matrix is ERLA 4617/mPDA. From Rogers, Phillips,
Kingston.Lee, Yates, Overy, Sargent & McCalla (1977) [144]........................... 281
Figure 5-20: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as a
function of temperature, T, for different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber:
Courtaulds HTS PT112/21Z; Matrix: DLS 351/BF3400...................................... 290
Figure 5-21: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to fibers, 2,
as a function of temperature, T, for different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber:
Courtaulds HTS PT112/21Z; Matrix: DLS 351/BF3400...................................... 291
Figure 5-22: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured either in plane of laminate,
1, or penpendicular to it, 3, as a function of temperature, T, for similar
carbon fibers reinforced composite materials. The fiber is carbon HTS
PT112/21Z. From Yates, McCalla, Sargent, Rogers, Phillips & Kingston-
Lee (1978)b [169]. .............................................................................................292
Figure 5-23: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, , of a carbon fiber reinforced
unidirectional composite material, measured in plane of laminate, as a
function of the direction of the measurement, . Matrix is Epikote
828/BF3MEA. Fibers are Torayca T300A. Temperature range is 290 K to
340 K. From Isikawa, Koyama & Kobayashi (1977, 1978) [106] & [107]. .......... 299
Figure 5-24: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as a
function of temperature, T, for two nominally identical carbon fiber
reinforced composite materials produced on separate occasions and
having slightly different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber: HTSCarbon; Matrix:
Fibredux 914C. ..................................................................................................300
Figure 5-25: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to fibers, 2,
as a function of temperature, T, for two nominally identical carbon fiber
reinforced composite materials produced on separate occasions and
having slightly different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber: HTSCarbon; Matrix:
Fibredux 914C. ..................................................................................................301
Figure 5-26: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured in 0° direction, 0, as a
function of temperature, T, for some carbon fiber reinforced composite
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materials with various amounts of fibers in different directions. Fiber:
Courtaulds HTS, Type II; Matrix: Fibredux 914C. .............................................. 306
Figure 5-27: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, 0, of a two-ply ( ) carbon fiber
reinforced composite material, measured in direction 0° of the plane of
laminate, as a function of the angle ply, . Matrix is Hercules 3002, fibers
are Hercules HT (Hercules 3002T prepreg). Temperature range is 80 K to
450 K. From Friend, Poesch & Leslie (1972) [90].............................................. 308
Figure 5-28: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, , measured in several directions of
the plane of laminate for an unidirectional and an angle plied carbon fiber
reinforced composite material, as a function of temperature, T. Matrix is
Narmco 5208, fibers are Narmco T300. From Karlsson (1983) [111]................ 309
Figure 5-29: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured either parallel, 1, or
penpendicular, 2, to fibers of two composites with similar epoxy matrices,
but with carbon fiber or Kevlar 49 reinforcements. ............................................ 316
Figure 5-30: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as a
function of temperature, T, for two graphite fiber-metal and one carbon
fiber-epoxy composite materials. .......................................................................317
Figure 5-31: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to fibers, 2,
as a function of temperature, T, for graphite fiber-metal and carbon fiber-
epoxy composite materials. ............................................................................... 318
Figure 5-32: Normal spectral absorptance, ', of SiO2 Fabric at 310 K vs. wavelength,
. Sample is described in the text. From Eagles, Babjak & Weaver (1975)
[85].....................................................................................................................320
Figure 5-33: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance, ', of SiO2 Fabric vs.
wavelength, . Sample is described in the text. From Eagles, Babjak &
Weaver (1975) [85]. ...........................................................................................321
Figure 5-34: Solar absorptance, s, of SiO2 Fabric-Substrate composite as a function of
the solar absorptance, ss, of the substrate. Sample: 16 Harness Satin
Weave 0,38x103 m thick, on different substrates. From Eagles, Babjak &
Weaver (1975) [85]. ...........................................................................................322
Figure 5-35: Absorptance/Emitatnce ratio, s/, solar absorptance, s, and
hemispherical total emittance, , of various mosaics of silica and carbon
yarn as functions of the exposed black to total area fraction, AB/A. From
Eagles, Babjak & Weaver (1975) [85]................................................................ 322
Figure 5-36: Normal spectral emittance, ', of PV 100 coating on different substrates
and with different thicknesses (see Table 5-67) vs. wavelength, , at 393 K.
From Giommi, Marchetti, Salza & Testa (1985) [92].......................................... 327
Figure 5-37: Normal-hemispherical spectral reflectance factor, R', of PV 100 coating
on different substrates and with different thicknesses vs. wavelength, .
From Giommi, Marchetti, Salza & Testa (1985) [92].......................................... 329
Figure 5-38: Normal total emittance, '(0), of sputtered aluminium on T300/5209
graphite-epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating
thickness, tc, and for two different textures of the supporting material. From
Witte & Teichman (1989) [166]. .........................................................................332
Figure 5-39: Normal solar absorptance, s, of sputtered aluminium on T300/5209
graphite-epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating
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thickness, tc, and for two different textures of the supporting material. From
Witte & Teichman (1989) [166]. .........................................................................333
Figure 5-40: Solar absorptance to emittance ratio of sputtered aluminium on T300/5209
graphite-epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating
thickness, tc, and for two different textures of the supporting material. From
Witte & Teichman (1989) [166]. .........................................................................334
Figure 5-41: Tensile strength, t, vs. temperature, T, of structural materials. Inert
atmospheres. From DeMario (1985) [81]........................................................... 335
Figure 5-42: Electrical resistivity, , as a function of frequency, f, for a carbon-epoxy
composite material. Fiber: Super A, Matrix: Fibredux 914C. Layup (0° 45°)
16 plies. Sample size: :> 1,98x103 m, 10x103 m, 25x10 3 m. :>
1,98x103 m, 5,5x103 m, 25x103 m. From Thomson (1982) [156]. ................. 345
Figure 5-43: One-dimensional and radial models of laminar diffusion through
homogeneous-isotropic media........................................................................... 350
Figure 5-44: Moisture content, M, as a function of ambient temperature, T, after 100 h
of exposure to distilled water at that temperature, for several carbon fiber
reinforced composites. The specimens are infinitely large rods of 6x103 m
diameter. M0 = 0,002 assumed. .........................................................................351
Figure 5-45: Effect of UV radiation on linear thermal expansion, , of Graphite/epoxy
T300/SP 288 laminates. a) = 90°, b) = ( 43°)s, c) = 0°. Ambient
pressure 104 Pa to 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [107],
Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [153]...................................................................... 361
Figure 5-46: Effect of UV radiation on linear thermal expansion, , of Kevlar/epoxy 3M
SP 306 laminates. a) = 90°, b) = ( 43°)s, c) = 0°. Ambient pressure
104 Pa to 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen &
Tennyson (1983) [95].........................................................................................361
Figure 5-47: Effect of electron radiation with (thick solid line) and without (thin solid line)
UV exposure, on linear thermal expansion, 0, of graphite/epoxy and
Kevlar/epoxy, = ( 43°)S. Ambient pressure 10-4 Pa to 10-5 Pa. Exposure >
1 year and 300 ESD of UV. From Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95]. ................. 362
Figure 5-48: Linear thermal expansion, 0, as a function of temperature, T, of
T50(PAN)/F263 (0/90)2s HM graphite/epoxy laminates exposed to electron
radiation. Calculated by the compiler by numerical derivation ( =
d(L/L)/dT) of data from Mauri & Crossman (1983) [125]. ................................ 362
Figure 5-49: Graphs for estimating the depletion by atomic oxygen of a material of
known Reaction Efficiency, Re. From Leger & Visentine (1986) [118]............... 367
Figure 5-50: Effect of the number of thermal cycles, N, on the linear thermal expansion,
0, of ( 22°)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982)
[154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].............................................................. 375
Figure 5-51: Effect of the number of thermal cycles, N, on the linear thermal expansion,
0, of ( 43°)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson (1980) [153],
Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95]. .................. 375
Figure 5-52: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear thermal
expansion, 0, of ( °)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K
T 370 K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in
12
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
vacuum. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson
(1983) [95]. ........................................................................................................376
Figure 5-53: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear thermal
expansion, 0, of ( °)S 3M SP306 Kevlar/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in vacuum.
From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].......... 376
Figure 5-54: Comparison of predicted (-) and experimental (o) values of the linear
thermal expansion, 0, vs. fiber angle, , for (°)S 3M SP306 Kevlar/Epoxy
laminates. 48 cycles 220 days in vacuum. 300 K T 370 K, p = 1,33 x
104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [171], Hansen &
Tennyson (1983) [95]. Results for Graphite/Epoxy are given in Tennyson
(1980) [153]. Compare also with Figure 5-27. ................................................... 377
Figure 5-55: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear thermal
expansion, 0, of ( °)S 3M SP290 Boron/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in vacuum.
From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].......... 377
Figure 5-56: Coefficient of the linear thermal expansion, 0, as a function of
temperature, T, for Graphite/Epoxy circular hybrid tubes, identified as Spec.
No. 12 in Table 5-84 and Table 5-85, before (solid line) and after (dashed
line) thermal vacuum cycling. 3000 cycles. 98 K T370 K, p = 1,33 x 103
Pa. From Reibaldi (1985) [141].......................................................................... 378
Figure 5-57: Outline of INTELSAT V communication satellite.............................................. 380
Figure 5-58: Sketch of the ARIANE 4 upper part. From Thomas & Oliver (1985) [155]....... 382
Figure 5-59: Exploded view of SPELDA. From Thomas & Oliver (1985) [155]. ................... 383
Figure 5-60: Sketch of the CS-3a structure. From Kawashima, Inoue & Seko (1985)
[112]...................................................................................................................384
Figure 5-61: Exploded view of CS-3a Central Thrust Tube. Prepared by the compiler
after Kawashima, Inoue & Seko (1985) [112]. ................................................... 385
Tables
Table 4-1: Normal Total Emittance of Aluminium................................................................... 40
Table 4-2: Normal Total Emittance and Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium
Contact Coatings .................................................................................................42
Table 4-3: Normal Total Emittance and Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium
Conversion Coatings ...........................................................................................44
Table 4-4: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Aluminium Contact Coatings. .......................... 47
Table 4-5: Hemispherical total Absorptance of Aluminium..................................................... 55
Table 4-6: Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium .............................................................. 57
Table 4-7: Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium Conversion Coatings............................ 58
Table 4-8: Angular Solar absorptance of Aluminium.............................................................. 60
Table 4-9: Normal-Normal Solar Reflectance of Aluminium Conversion Coatings. ............... 78
Table 4-10: Normal-Hemispherical Solar Reflectance of Both Bulk Aluminium and
Contact Coatings .................................................................................................79
Table 4-11: Normal Total Emittance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn, Anodized................. 95
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ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
Table 4-12: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn....................... 95
Table 4-13: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn ............................. 96
Table 4-14: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn, Anodized ............ 97
Table 4-15: Normal Hemispherical Solar Reflectance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn,
Anodized............................................................................................................102
Table 4-16: Normal Total Emittance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si ................................................... 105
Table 4-17: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si ........................................ 106
Table 4-18: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si............................................... 107
Table 4-19: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 5,7 Zn – 2,5 Mg – 1,6 Cu
Conversion Coatings. ........................................................................................124
Table 4-20: Normal Solar Absorptance and Normal-Hemispherical Solar Reflectance of
Al – 5,6 Zn – 2,5 Mg 1,6 Cu...............................................................................125
Table 4-21: Normal Solar Absorptance of Ti – 5 Al – 2,5 Sn ............................................... 139
Table 4-22: Normal Solar Absorptance of Ti – Al – 4 V ....................................................... 161
Table 4-23: Cost of Ti – 6 Al – 4 – V compared with those of other structural metallic
materials. ...........................................................................................................164
Table 4-24: Electrical Resistivity of Ni – 19Cr – 11Co – 10Mo – 3Tia .................................. 173
Table 4-25: Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Fe – 36 Ni under different temper
conditions...........................................................................................................178
Table 4-26: Magnetic Properties of Fe – 36 Ni under different temper conditions. .............. 180
Table 4-27: Relative Permeability of Fe – 36 Ni, measured at 400 A.m-1 ............................ 180
Table 5-1: Abridged Designation of Single Reinforcement Laminates................................. 208
Table 5-2: Density, f [kg.m-3], of High-Strength Fibers ........................................................ 210
Table 5-3: Density, m [kg.m-3], of Matrices ..........................................................................215
Table 5-4: Specific Heat, cf [J.kg1.K1], of High-Strength Fibers ......................................... 217
Table 5-5: Fussed Silicia ...................................................................................................... 218
Table 5-6: Kevlar d ................................................................................................................219
Table 5-7: Specific Heat, cm [J.kg-1.K-1], of Matrices ............................................................. 220
Table 5-8: Specific Heat, c [J.kg-1.K-1], of Composite Materials............................................ 221
Table 5-9: Longitudinal (1) and Transverse (2) Thermal Conductivity, of High-Strength
Fibers. Tabulated Data are kf1 [W.m-1.K-1]/kf2[W.m-1.K-1], of Fibers .................... 226
Table 5-10: Thermal Conductivity, km [W.m1.K1], of Matrices ............................................ 228
Table 5-11: Araldite LY556...................................................................................................229
Table 5-12: DER 332/T403 (100:36) c ..................................................................................230
Table 5-13: Epitoke 210/BF3400 b ........................................................................................230
Table 5-14: Epoxin 162 a ......................................................................................................230
Table 5-15: Palatal P51 a .....................................................................................................231
Table 5-16: Nylon 6 a ............................................................................................................232
Table 5-17: Comco, Nylon 6/6 g,h .........................................................................................233
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ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
Table 5-18: Polypenco 101, Nylon 6/6 g,h .............................................................................234
Table 5-19: Polypropylene a .................................................................................................235
Table 5-20: Characteristics of Composite Materials (Thermal Conductivity can be found
following the links) .............................................................................................237
Table 5-21: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 241
Table 5-22: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 241
Table 5-23: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 242
Table 5-24: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 242
Table 5-25: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 242
Table 5-26: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 243
Table 5-27: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 243
Table 5-28: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 244
Table 5-29: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. ......................................... 245
Table 5-30: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 245
Table 5-31: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. .......................................... 246
Table 5-32: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m-1.K-1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5-9. ......................................... 246
Table 5-33: Thermal diffusivity, f x 106 [m2.s-1], of High-Strength Fibers ............................ 249
Table 5-34: Thermal diffusivity, f x 106 [m2.s-1], of High-Strength Fibers ............................ 250
Table 5-35: Thermal diffusivity, m [m2.s-1], of Matrices ....................................................... 252
Table 5-36: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s-1], of Composite Materials.............................. 253
Table 5-37: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s-1], of Composite Materials.............................. 254
Table 5-38: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s-1], of Composite Materials .......................... 255
Table 5-39: Linear thermal expansion, f [K-1], and elasticity modulus, Ef [Pa], of high-
strength fibers ....................................................................................................260
Table 5-40: Linear thermal expansion, m [K-1], elasticity modulus, Em [Pa] and
Poisson's ratio, m, of matrices ..........................................................................264
Table 5-41: Arrangements of the Data on Linear Thermal Expansion, , of Composite
Materials Compiled in Table 5-42 to Table 5-60 ................................................ 270
Table 5-42: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).................................................................................... 271
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ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
Table 5-43: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 274
Table 5-44: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 274
Table 5-45: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 275
Table 5-46: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 275
Table 5-47: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 276
Table 5-48: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5-85. ............................................. 277
Table 5-49: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).................................................................................... 282
Table 5-50: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-49. ............................................ 285
Table 5-51: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-49. ............................................ 286
Table 5-52: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-49. ............................................ 288
Table 5-53: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-49. ............................................ 289
Table 5-54: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).................................................................................... 293
Table 5-55: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-54. ............................................ 295
Table 5-56: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-54. ............................................ 297
Table 5-57: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).................................................................................... 302
Table 5-58: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-57. ............................................ 304
Table 5-59: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-57. ............................................ 305
Table 5-60: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).................................................................................... 310
Table 5-61: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-60. ............................................ 312
Table 5-62: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-60. ............................................ 313
Table 5-63: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-60. ............................................ 314
Table 5-64: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106 [K-
1
], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-60. ............................................ 315
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ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
Table 5-65: Effect of the Space Environment on Solar Absorptance, s, of Silica
Fabrics ...............................................................................................................323
Table 5-66: Normal Total Emittance, ' ('=0), and Solar Absorptance, s, of Uncoated
Plastic Materials.................................................................................................324
Table 5-67: Coated Composite Materials the Thermal Radiation Properties of Which
Are Given in This Clause ...................................................................................326
Table 5-68: Normal Total Emittance, '('=0), of PV 100 Coating on Different
Substrates and with Different Thicknesses........................................................ 328
Table 5-69: Normal Solar Reflectance, s (=0), of PV 100 Coating on Different
Substrates and with Different Thicknesses........................................................330
Table 5-70: Characteristic Temperatures of Neat and Reinforced Resins........................... 336
Table 5-71: Electrical Resistivity, f [.m], of High-Strength Fibers ..................................... 342
Table 5-72: Electrical Resistivity, [.m], of Carbon-Epoxy Composite Materials .............. 344
Table 5-73: Drill Bit Costs and Standard Drilling Hourse ..................................................... 347
Table 5-74: Characterization of Composite Materials, the Maximum Moisture Content
and Diffusion Constants of which are given in Table 5-75 and Table 5-76
respectively........................................................................................................352
Table 5-75: Maximum Moisture Content, Mm, of the Specimens Characterized in Table
5-74....................................................................................................................353
Table 5-76: Constants Do and C for the Arrhenius Expression, of the Transverse
Diffusion Coefficient, D2, of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-74.......... 353
Table 5-77: Outgassing Data for Typical Composite Materials ............................................ 355
Table 5-78: Characterization of Materials Tested under a Vacuum Radiation
Environment.......................................................................................................357
Table 5-79: Summary of the Data Regarding Radiation Effects on the Coefficient of
Linear Thermal Expansion for the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-78...... 360
Table 5-80: Average Values of Linear Thermal Expansion, , for
75S(Pitch)/948A1(0/90)2S Graphite/Epoxy Laminates in the Temperature
Range 280 K - 370 K .........................................................................................363
Table 5-81: Atomic Oxygen Reaction Efficiency Data from Reported LEO Flights and
Ground Testing ..................................................................................................365
Table 5-82: Weight Loss, WL (%), of Carbon Fibers After Isothermal Aging in Flowing
Air ......................................................................................................................368
Table 5-83: Chemical Composition, Atom (%), of both T40R and Hercules AS4 Carbon
Fibers, as received and oxidized, ESCA ........................................................... 370
Table 5-84: Characterization of Materials Tested under or after Thermal Vacuum
Cycling ...............................................................................................................371
Table 5-85: Thermal Vacuum Cycling Effects on the Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5-84 ................................ 373
Table 5-86: Effect of Storage on the Linear Thermal Expansion, o, of the Hybrid Tubes
Identified as Spec. No. 1, in Table 5-84 and Table 5-85 ................................... 374
Table 5-87: Effect of Thermal Cycling (either Ambient or Vacuum) on the Linear
Thermal Expansion, o, of the Hybrid Tubes Identified as Spec. No. 1 in
Table 5-84 and Table 5-85a ...............................................................................374
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ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
1
Scope
In this Part 5 of the spacecraft thermal control and design data handbooks, clause 4 contains technical
data on the metallic alloys used in spacecrafts is given: composition, application areas, properties and
behaviour from a thermal and thermo‐optics point of view, degeneration and aging. All other
properties of the metallic alloys are outside the scope of this document.
Properties of composite materials combined to form heterogeneous structures are given in clause 5.
The Thermal design handbook is published in 16 Parts
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 1 Thermal design handbook – Part 1: View factors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 2 Thermal design handbook – Part 2: Holes, Grooves and Cavities
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 3 Thermal design handbook – Part 3: Spacecraft Surface Temperature
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 4 Thermal design handbook – Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5 Thermal design handbook – Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and
Composite
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 6 Thermal design handbook – Part 6: Thermal Control Surfaces
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 7 Thermal design handbook – Part 7: Insulations
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 8 Thermal design handbook – Part 8: Heat Pipes
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 9 Thermal design handbook – Part 9: Radiators
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 10 Thermal design handbook – Part 10: Phase – Change Capacitors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 11 Thermal design handbook – Part 11: Electrical Heating
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 12 Thermal design handbook – Part 12: Louvers
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 13 Thermal design handbook – Part 13: Fluid Loops
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14 Thermal design handbook – Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 15 Thermal design handbook – Part 15: Existing Satellites
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 16 Thermal design handbook – Part 16: Thermal Protection System
18
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
2
References
ECSS‐S‐ST‐00‐01 ECSS System ‐ Glossary of terms
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 4 Thermal design handbook – Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 12 Thermal design handbook – Part 12: Louvers
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14 Thermal design handbook – Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
All other references made to publications in this Part are listed, alphabetically, in the Bibliography.
19
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
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3
Terms, definitions and symbols
3.2 Symbols
B magnetic induction, [T]
E modulus of elasticity, [Pa]
H magnetic field strength, [A.m1]
R reflectance factor
c specific heat, [J.kg1.K1]
k thermal conductivity, [W.m1.K1]
L/L thermal expansion
thermal diffusivity, [m2.s1] = k/c
temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity, [K1]
hemispherical total absorptance
ʹ(,) directional total absorptance
s normal solar absorptance
() hemispherical spectral absorptance
ʹ(,,) directional spectral absorptance
mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, [K1]
angle between surface normal and direction of
incident flux, [angular degrees]
ʹ angle between surface normal and direction of
emitted, reflected or transmitted flux, [angular
20
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
degrees]
hemispherical total emittance
ʹ(ʹ,ʹ) directional total emittance
() hemispherical spectral emittance
ʹ(,ʹ,ʹ) directional spectral emittance
azimuthal angle of incident flux, [angular degrees]
ʹ azimuthal angle of emitted, reflected or transmitted
flux, [angular degrees]
wavelength, [m]
/0 relative magnetic permeability
density, [kg.m3]
hemispherical total reflectance
() hemispherical spectral reflectance
ʹ(,) directional‐hemispherical total reflectance
ʹ(ʹ,ʹ) hemispherical‐directional total reflectance
ʹs normal‐hemispherical solar reflectance
ʹ(,,) directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance
ʹ(,ʹ,ʹ) hemispherical‐directional spectral reflectance
ʹʹ(,,ʹ,ʹ) bidirectional total reflectance.
ʹʹ(,,,ʹ,ʹ) bidirectional spectral reflectance
ʹʹs(,,ʹ,ʹ) bidirectional solar reflectance
electrical conductivity, [.m] ‐1, electrical
resistivity [.m]
ult ultimate tensile strength, [Pa]
ʹ(,,,ʹ,ʹ) bidirectional spectral transmittance
solid angle of incident radiation beam [steradians]
ʹ solid angle of emitted, reflected or transmitted
radiation beam, [steradians]
21
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
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The sketches below show the angles used to characterize the radiative fluxes arriving at or leaving a
surface element.
Angles used to define directional emittance
Angles used to define bidirectional reflectance
22
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
4
Metallic materials
4.1 General
Data for each alloy are arranged as indicated below. When no data on some property are available the
heading is omitted.
1. TYPICAL COMPOSITION, PERCENT
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity
3.2.4. Thermal expansion
3.2.5. Melting range
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance
3.3.1.1. Directional spectral emittance
3.3.1.1.1. Normal spectral emittance
3.3.1.1.2. Angular spectral emittance
3.3.1.2. Directional total emittance
3.3.1.2.1. Normal total emittance
3.3.1.3. Hemispherical spectral emittance
3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance
3.3.2. Absorptance
3.3.2.1. Directional spectral absorptance
3.3.2.1.1. Normal spectral absorptance
3.3.2.2. Directional total absorptance
3.3.2.2.1. Normal total absorptance
23
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
5 December 2011
3.3.2.3. Hemispherical spectral absorptance
3.3.2.4. Hemispherical total absorptance
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.2. Angular solar absorptance
3.3.2.6. Absorptance to emittance ratio
3.3.3. Reflectance
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance
3.3.3.1.1. Normal‐normal spectral reflectance
3.3.3.1.2. Angular (non‐normal) spectral reflectance
3.3.3.2. Directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance
3.3.3.2.1. Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance
3.3.3.2.2. Angular‐hemispherical spectral reflectance
3.3.3.3. Hemispherical‐directional spectral reflectance
3.3.3.3.1. Hemispherical‐normal spectral reflectance
3.3.3.4. Hemispherical spectral reflectance
3.3.3.5. Bidirectional total reflectance
3.3.3.5.1. Normal‐normal total reflectance
3.3.3.5.2. Angular (non‐normal) total reflectance
3.3.3.6. Directional‐hemispherical total reflectance
3.3.3.6.1. Normal‐hemispherical total reflectance
3.3.3.7. Hemispherical‐directional total reflectance
3.3.3.7.1. Hemispherical‐normal total reflectance
3.3.3.8. Bidirectional solar reflectance
3.3.3.8.1. Normal‐normal solar reflectance
3.3.3.9. Directional‐hemispherical solar reflectance
3.3.3.9.1. Normal‐hemispherical solar reflectance
3.3.4. Transmittance
3.3.4.1. Bidirectional spectral transmittance
3.3.4.1.1. Normal‐normal spectral transmittance
3.3.4.1.2. Angular (non‐normal) spectral transmittance
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity
3.4.2. Magnetic properties
4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
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4.2. Postlaunch
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential
5.2. Corrosion resistance
6. FABRICATION
6.1. Casting
6.2. Forming
6.3. Welding
6.4. Machining
6.5. Heat treatment
6.6. Anodizing
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
9. APPLICATIONS
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Others
Al Cu Fe Mn Si Zn
Each Total
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2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
Al ‐ 99,99 1 Al 99,98R
S ‐ Al 99,98R
3,0385
Al ‐ 99,9 Al 99,9
3,0305
NOTE ~ Can be approximately included with those alloys having the indicated aluminium content.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density.
Al ‐ 99,99, = 2699 kg.m3. (Pennington (1961) [29]).
Al ‐ 99,5 = 2700 kg.m3. (Kappelt (1961) [23]).
Al ‐ 99,0 = 2710 kg.m3. (Kappelt (1961) [23]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat
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Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐1.
Figure 4‐1: Specific heat, c, of Aluminium as a function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Al ‐ 99,0 Kappelt (1961) [23].
Al ‐ 99,99 Pennington (1961)
[29].
Al 99,9
Single crystal.
Melted and cooled 2 d in vacuum.
Al ‐ 99,9 Reported error 5%
Reported error 5%
Coston (1967) [18].
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
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Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐2.
Figure 4‐2: Thermal conductivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature, T.
Explanation
0,04 Si ‐ 0,03 Fe ‐ 0,006 Cu ‐ 0,005 Ti, Reported error 3%.
and traces of Mn and Mg.
Annealed 1 h at 723 K and cooled
slowly.
Al ‐ 99,5
Cast at 973 K into molds at 473 K;
rolled and drawn, then turn into rods.
Al ‐ 99,9
Same treatment as above.
Al ‐ 99,9
Same treatment as above.
Al 99,99 Reported error 1%.
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Commercially pure. Reported error 3%.
Sample 2x102m in diameter and
1,8x102 m length.
Coston
(1967) [18].
Thermal conductivity integrals: Figure 4‐3.
Figure 4‐3: Thermal conductivity integrals of Aluminium as a function of
temperature, .
Explanation
: Al ‐ 99,99. From Coston (1967) [18].
: Al ‐ 99,0. From Coston (1967) [18].
: Straight line whose slope has been calculated by the compiler by fitting the experimental
data points and of Figure 4‐2 with the least‐squares method.
: Calculated by the compiler from data points of Figure 4‐2
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3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity.
Effect of temperature on thermal diffusivity: Figure 4‐4.
Figure 4‐4: Thermal diffusivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature, .
Explanation
Same as above. Third run of the above
specimen.
Reported error 11%.
Pure. 1.9x103 m2 square Reported error 5%.
cross‐section and 3.52x103
m length.
Pure.
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3.2.4. Thermal expansion.
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐5.
Figure 4‐5: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Aluminium as a function of
temperature, .
Explanation
Touloukian
(1967)a [38].
Al ‐ 99,99
Annealed above 873 K.
Al ‐ 99,99
Al ‐ 99,9
Annealed 2 h at 893 K and cooled
slowly.
99,952 Al ‐ 0,019 Cu ‐ 0,015 Fe ‐ 0,014
Si.
Cast in graphite mold.
Chemically pure. X‐ray
diffraction
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method.
99,989 Al ‐ 0,004 each Si, Cu ‐ 0,003 Fe.
Pure. Pressed rod made of sintered
aluminium powder.
Al ‐ 99,5
Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, .
The available information concerning thermal expansion coefficients of these alloys seems to indicate
that there is no noticeable influence of the aluminium content on . Values given below correspond to
Al ‐ 99,99.
T [K] 73‐293 123‐293 173‐293 223‐293 293‐373 293‐473 293‐573 293‐673 293‐773
x106 [K1] 18,0 19,9 21,0 21,8 23,6 24,5 25,5 26,4 27,4
From Pennington (1961) [29].
3.2.5. Melting range
Al ‐ 99,99: 933 K. (Pennington (1961) [29]).
Al ‐ 99,5: 919 K ‐ 930 K. (Kappelt (1961) [23]).
Al ‐ 99,0: 916 K ‐930 K. (Kappelt (1961) [23]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance
Data concerning emittance have been arranged as indicated in the following Table.
3.3.1.1. Directional spectral emittance.
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
4‐7
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3.3.1.2. Directional total emittance.
Aluminium. Figure
Effect of temperature. 4‐9
Aluminium contact coatings. Table
4‐2a
Aluminium conversion coatings. Table
4‐3a
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Effect of anodizing thickness. 4‐10
3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance.
Aluminium contact coatings. Table
4‐4
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Effect of anodizing thickness. 4‐12
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a Solar absorptance, s, has been also included in this Table in order to save space.
Figure 4‐6: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .
Explanation
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Figure 4‐7: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Aluminium conversion coatings as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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sodium hydroxide solution at 298 K, then
washed in water and dried in air.
Same as . Reacted for 40 s.
Black anodized. T = 323 K.
Data from smooth curve.
Converted from R(2,0).
Al ‐ 99.7. Anodized 30 min at 102 A.m2 in 4 N T = 461 K.
analar sulphuric acid at 293 K, sealed for 30 Data from smooth curve.
min in boiling distilled water. Anodizing Reported error 10%.
6
thickness 2,54x10 m. Heated at 456 K for 15
h.
Figure 4‐8: Angular spectral emittance, ʹ, of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .
Explanation
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Same as except sandblasted with 1000
mesh alumina (mesh opening 1,4x105 m).
Same as except sanded with 280 mesh
silicon carbide paper.
Table 4‐1: Normal Total Emittance of Aluminium
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exposed to weather on beach
during 8 months.
Table 4‐2: Normal Total Emittance and Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium
Contact Coatings
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vapor deposited on unspecified (1970) [33].
surface. Polished surface. Measured
in vacuum.
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Table 4‐3: Normal Total Emittance and Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium
Conversion Coatings
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Figure 4‐9: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Aluminium as a function of temperature,
.
Explanation
Cleaned, polished, and oxidized. Touloukian &
DeWitt (1972)
Pure. Highly polished. Reported error 2%. [158].
Pure. Rolled, as received.
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Figure 4‐10: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Aluminium anodized as a function of
anodizing thickness, tc .
Explanation
Foil oxidized electrolytically in 15% sulphuric T = 311 K.
acid. Measured relative to
Aluminium.
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Figure 4‐11: Summary of data concerning the hemispherical total emittance, , of
Aluminium as a function of temperature, . From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970)
[42].
Table 4‐4: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Aluminium Contact Coatings.
T
Comments
[K]
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T
Comments
[K]
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T
Comments
[K]
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T
Comments
[K]
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T
Comments
[K]
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
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Figure 4‐12: Summary of data concerning the hemispherical total emittance, , of
Aluminium conversion coatings vs. temperature, . From Touloukian, DeWitt &
Hernicz (1972) [43].
Explanation
Anodized. Layer of carbon deposited into pores of the Measured in vacuum
surface. (1,33x105 Pa).
Al ‐ 99,99, anodized in sulphuric acid. Polished increases when coating
substrate. Coating thickness: 2,54x106 ‐ 2,54x105 m. thickness increases.
Al ‐ 99.99. Electropolished in fluoboricacid solution,
then anodized in ammonium tartrate solution.
Anodized. Dull surface. Measured in vacuum.
Reported error 5%.
Vapor blasted after anodization. Measured in vacuum.
Reported error 5%.
Blasting decreases less
than 6%.
Al ‐ 99.99. Substrate alkaline electropolished (sodium Measured in vacuum.
phosphate and sodium carbonate) 15 min at 353 K and
12 V DC, then anodized 15 min at 18 V DC in 10%
sulphuric acid.
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3.3.2. Absorptance
Data concerning absorptance have been arranged as indicated in the following Table.
3.3.2.1. Directional spectral absorptance.
3.3.2.2. Directional total absorptance.
3.3.2.4. Hemispherical total absorptance.
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance.
Aluminium conversion coatings. Table 4‐3,
Table 4‐7
3.3.2.6. Absorptance to emittance ratio.
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Degradation effects. 4‐14
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Figure 4‐13: Directional spectral absorptance, ʹ, of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, . Data points correspond to = 25°.
Explanation
T298 K
Data from smooth curve.
Polished.
Foil. = 25°
T = 306 K.
Measured in dry nitrogen.
Heated cavity at
approximately 1056 K with
platinum reference.
Authors assumed = 1R.
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Table 4‐5: Hemispherical total Absorptance of Aluminium.
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Table 4‐6: Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium
T s
Alloy Comments References
[K] ( = 0)
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Table 4‐7: Normal Solar Absorptance of Aluminium Conversion Coatings.
T s
Basic Conditions Variables Investigated
[K] ( = 0)
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T s
Basic Conditions Variables Investigated
[K] ( = 0)
Unexposed sample (T = 298 K). 0,14
80 keV electrons (10145x1015 e.m2.s1; 0,15
1019 e.m2, in dark in vacuum (1,33
x106 Pa), maintained by ion pump.
0,16
1020 e.m2
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
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Figure 4‐14: Absorptance to emittance ratio, s/, of Aluminium conversion
coatings as a function of the exposure time, t.
Explanation
Table 4‐8: Angular Solar absorptance of Aluminium
Al ‐ 99.99. Foil (5,1x105 m thick) bright dipped, anodized on both sides (7,6x106 m thick) in dilute
sulphuric acid. Computed from spectral reflectance data for above atm. conditions.
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3.3.3. Reflectance
Data concerning reflectance have been arranged as indicated in the following Table.
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance.
Aluminium contact coatings. Figure
4‐16
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Effect of thickness. 4‐17
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
(any , given ) 4‐19
3.3.3.2. Directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance.
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Effect of thickness. 4‐21
Aluminium conversion coatings. UV Figure
exposure effect. 4‐22
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Electron exposure effect. 4‐23
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Simultaneous UV‐electron exposure 4‐24
effect.
Aluminium conversion coatings. Figure
Proton exposure effect. 4‐25
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3.3.3.3. Hemispherical‐directional spectral reflectance.
3.3.3.5. Bidirectional total reflectance.
3.3.3.8. Bidirectional solar reflectance.
3.3.3.9. Directional‐hemispherical solar reflectance.
Figure 4‐15: Normal ‐ normal spectral reflectance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium as a function
of wavelength, .
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Explanation
=ʹ=7°
T = 298 K.
Measured in air.
Reported error <0,16%
Polished. T = 298 K.
Same as . Cratered. Avg. crater
diameter: 1,23x104 m.
Depth: 2,89x104 m.
Same as . Cratered. Avg. crater
diameter: 5,4x105 m.
Depth: 1,83x104 m.
Aluminized dense flint. =ʹ 5°
Flint ground with M 303,5 grinding T = 298 K.
powder with average particle size of Al mirror reference, ʹ =
1,1x105 m. 0,03 sr.
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Figure 4‐16: Normal ‐ normal spectral reflectance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium contact
coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Al ‐ 99,99 ( 6x108 m thick). Glass
substrate. Deposited in vacuum (1,33x103
Pa) at 3x108 m.s1 with 60º angle of vapor
incidence.
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Figure 4‐17: Effect of coating thickness on normal ‐ normal spectral reflectance, ʹʹ,
of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except tc = 11,4x106 m.
Same as except tc = 13,2x106 m.
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Figure 4‐18: Bidirectional reflectance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium contact coatings as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except evaporation time 55 s.
Same as except evaporation time 130 s.
Evaporated film (9x108 m thick). Substrate
cleaned as . Evaporated at 1,33x103 Pa for 2
s using Al ‐ 99.99. Film 24 h old when
measurement was made.
Same as . Al ‐ 99,5 used for evaporation.
Evaporated film (8x108 m thick). Substrate T 298 K.
cleaned as . Substrate temperature at
deposition 308 K. Film 2‐3 h old.
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Same as except substrate at 323 K at time of
deposition
Same as except substrate at 373 K at time of
deposition
Same as except aged 1000 h.
Evaporated film. Substrate cleaned as .
Stored in dry air for 63 d before measurement.
Same as except stored in normal air (30‐50%
humidity) for 63 d before measurement.
Evaporated film. Substrate cleaned as ;
prepared under optimum conditions. Placed
0,2 m from a 435‐W quartz mercury burner
and irradiated for 20 h in dry air.
Same as except irradiated for 20 h in normal
air (30% humidity).
Same as except irradiated for 20 h in moist
air (>90% humidity).
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Figure 4‐19: Bidirectional spectral reflectance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium conversion
coatings as a function of zenith angles, and ʹ, of incident and reflected
radiations.
Explanation
Same as above. T = 298 K.
= 7,62x108 m.
Same as above. T = 298 K.
= 1,032x107 m.
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Figure 4‐20: Summary of data concerning normal ‐ hemispherical spectral
reflectance, ʹ, of Aluminium vs. wavelength, . From Touloukian & DeWitt
(1970) [42].
Explanation
Al ‐ 99.0. Vacuum deposited on glass. Freshly prepared. = 10°.
T = 298 K.
Foil.
Mechanically polished, electro polished. T = 298 K.
Mill finished, electro polished. Measured in vacuum
(1,33x104 Pa).
Mechanically polished only.
Polished. T = 298 K.
7
Evaporated on Mylar (2x10 m thick). T = 298 K.
Film vacuum deposited on glass. = 7°.
T = 298 K.
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Acid etched. 5°.
T = 298 K.
Sandblasted. T = 298 K.
8
Polished, roughened (roughness 1,27x10 m). = 5°.
T = 300 K.
Foil. Diffuse reflectance. T = 298 K.
Figure 4‐21: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Aluminium
conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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Figure 4‐22: Effect of UV exposure on normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance,
ʹ, of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Alodine 401‐45. Reaction T = 300 K.
of Aluminium surface Data from smooth curve.
with aqueous solution of
chromic, phosphoric, and
hydrofluoric acid.
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Figure 4‐23: Effect of electron exposure on normal ‐ hemispherical spectral
reflectance of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except exposed to electron radiation
(8,6x10141,6x1016 e.m2.s1) in vacuum 5,8x1019
e.m2.
Same as except total dose 1,2x1020 e.m2.
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Figure 4‐24: Effect of simultaneous UV ‐ electron exposure on normal ‐
hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Aluminium conversion coatings as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except:
UV 8 sun intensity in vacuum 66 ESH
electron 3,5x1014 e.m2.s1; 1,2x1019 e.m2.
Same as except total dose:
UV 130 ESH
electron 2,3x1019 e.m2.
Same as except total dose:
UV 310 ESH electron 5,8x1019 e.m2.
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Figure 4‐25: Effect of proton exposure on normal ‐ hemispherical spectral
reflectance,ʹ, of Aluminium conversion coatings as a function of wavelength,.
Explanation
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Figure 4‐26: Directional ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Aluminium
conversion coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
= 60°. T = 298 K.
= 15°. T = 298 K.
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Figure 4‐27: Hemispherical ‐ normal spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Aluminium contact
coatings as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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Figure 4‐28: Bidirectional total reflectance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium as a function of the
viewing zenith angles, ʹ.
Explanation
T = 298 K. Touloukian
Angle of viewing within 2,5° of angle of & DeWitt
specular reflection. (1970) [42].
Sandblasted. T = 298 K. = 45°. = ʹ = 0.
Tungsten filament lamp source.
Same as except ʹ=180.
Same as except green filter.
Same as except ʹ =180.
Same as except amber filter.
Same as except ʹ =180.
Same as except blue filter.
Same as except ʹ =180.
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Table 4‐9: Normal‐Normal Solar Reflectance of Aluminium Conversion Coatings.
T ʹʹs
Comments
[K] (=ʹ=0)
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
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Table 4‐10: Normal‐Hemispherical Solar Reflectance of Both Bulk Aluminium and
Contact Coatings
ʹʹs
T
(=0) Comments
[K]
(ʹ=2)
NOTE From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42].
3.3.4. Transmittance
3.3.4.1. Directional spectral transmittance
3.3.4.1.1. Normal‐normal spectral transmittance of Aluminium
( = ʹ = 0): Figure 4‐29.
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Figure 4‐29: Normal ‐ normal spectral transmittance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except film thickness
(10,1) x107 m.
Evaporated film 4,7x108 m thick. T = 298 K.
Unsupported. Exposed to air at
atmospheric pressure.
Same as except film thickness
1,38x107 m.
Unbacked film ( 8x108 m thick). T = 298 K.
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Slight oxide layer. Measured in vacuum (<1,33x103
Pa).
Unbacked foil (3x108 m thick). T = 298 K.
Evaporated in vacuum (4x104 Pa). Condensed spark discharge in
Exposed to air. argon light source.
p‐polarization dominant.
Data uncorrected for partial
polarization effects.
Same as except s‐polarization
dominant.
3.3.4.1.2. Angular spectral transmittance ( 0).
Effect of angle on angular spectral transmittance of Aluminium: Figure 4‐30.
Figure 4‐30: Angular spectral transmittance, ʹʹ, of Aluminium as a function of
wavelength, .
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Explanation
Same as except s‐polarization dominant.
Same as except =ʹ=20°.
Same as except s‐polarization dominant.
Same as except =ʹ=30°.
Same as except s‐polarization dominant.
Same as except =ʹ=45°.
Same as except s‐polarization dominant.
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity
Effect of temperature on electrical resistivity: Figure 4‐31.
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Figure 4‐31: Electrical resistivity, , of Aluminium as a function of temperature,
.
Explanation
Traces of Mg, Si, Fe, and Cu. Touloukian
(1967)a [38].
99,9 Al ‐ 0,05 Si ‐ 0,03 B.
0,04 Si ‐ 0,03 Fe, traces of Cu, Ti, annealed 1 h at 723 Furnace
K. cooled.
Al ‐ 99.5. Cast at 973 K into molds at 473 K, rolled
and drawn. Turned into rods.
Al ‐ 99,9, 0,038 Fe ‐ 0,03 Si ‐ 0,002 Cu. Same
treatment as .
Al ‐ 99,99, 0,003 Fe ‐ 0,0027 Si ‐ 0,0024 Cu. Same
treatment as .
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SP grade.
Al ‐ 99,6.
Pure.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
Aluminium surface is very susceptible to increase s and caused by contamination. The surface
should be protected from physical abuse, atmospheric exposure and caustic contaminants; cleanliness
is of the utmost importance.
From Breuch (1967) [16].
4.2. Postlaunch
No known restrictions other than structural.
Adhesive backed bright aluminium foils should not be used externally during ascent nor in areas
where the peak ascent temperature is expected to exceed 460 K.
Pressure‐sensitive aluminium tapes, if placed externally, should be fastened mechanically on both
ends to avoid blistering. These tapes can be used internally where peak temperatures of up to 700 K
are anticipated, and externally for temperatures below 670 K.
From Breuch (1967) [16].
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode)
Al ‐ 99,5: 0,84 V, any condition.
Al ‐ 99,0: 0,83 V, any condition.
From Kappelt (1961) [23].
5.2. Corrosion resistance
These alloys are very stable because they become covered by a thin oxide film which is very resistant
and protective. Thicker, more protective oxide coatings can be deposited by chemical or electrolytic
treatments.
Corrosion resistance of these alloys is very good in interiors, rural, marine or industrial environments.
(Kappelt (1961) [23]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Excellent.
6.3. Welding. Good.
6.4. Machining. Excellent.
6.5. Heat treatment. These alloys are non‐heat‐treatable.
From Kappelt (1961) [23].
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7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
These alloys are available in any standard product form such as: sheet, plate, strip, bar, tubing, wire
extrusions, and forgings in a wide range of sizes from foils less than 2,5x105 m thick to big forgings.
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
Continuous structural use should be limited to temperatures below 400 K.
The temperature range of aluminized plastic films is normally controlled by the linear expansion of
the film, which in the case of Mylar is extremely high above 310 K.
9. APPLICATIONS
Structural elements, foils, bushing and gear, tanks, sealing, wires, honeycombs (both cores and faces),
thin wall tubing. As coating on Mylar, Teflon, Kapton, …. To protect aluminium alloys (alclad).
Others
Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Ni Si Ti+Zr Zn Al
Each Total
0,1 4,9 0,5 1,8 0,9 0,5 0,2 0,2 0,5 0,15
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
AlCuMg2
Al‐P13 Al‐Cu4Mg1 A‐U4G1 2024 2L 65
3. 1354
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 2770 kg.m3. (Kappelt (1961) [23], ASMH (1974)c [10].
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat.
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐32.
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Figure 4‐32: Specific heat, c, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, .
Explanation
4,32 Cu ‐ 0,29 Si ‐ 0,14 Fe, and traces of other Touloukian
impurities. Hot worked, annealed several hours at (1967)b [39].
773 K in vacuum and cooled in 10 d. Heating rate
during test 2 K.min1.
93,4 Al ‐ 4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Sealed under
Condition ‐ T4. helium
atmosphere.
Same as . Condition ‐ T4.
Nominal composition. Reported error
Hanova liquid platinum was applied on both 5%.
surfaces of the specimen; on front surface for
opaqueness and on rear surface for good
conductivity. In addition front surface was
undercoated with Parson black to obtain constant
absorptance.
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3.2.2. Thermal conductivity.
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐33.
Figure 4‐33: Thermal conductivity, k, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a function
of temperature, .
Explanation
Nominal composition. Condition ‐ T4. Touloukian
Density 2787 kg.m3. As received. (1967)b [39].
Same as . Measured after heating to 575 K.
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Reported error
Heated from virgin conditions to maximum 4%.
temperature of 648 K.
Same as . Cooled to room temperature and
then repeated the above heat treatment.
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Thermal conductivity integrals: Figure 4‐34.
Figure 4‐34: Thermal conductivity integrals of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a
function of temperature, .
Explanation
Solid line: From Coston (1967) [18].
Dashed line: Calculated, by the compiler, by fitting the experimental data points and of Figure
4‐33 with the least‐squares method, and integrating the expression,k(T) = 74,44 2,30 x 102T+ 9,96 x
104T2 1,09 x 106T3 (r = 0,977), which is then obtained; r is the correlation coefficient giving the
goodness of the fit.
3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity.
Effect of temperature on thermal diffusivity: Figure 4‐35.
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Figure 4‐35: Thermal diffusivity, , of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a function of
temperature, .
Explanation
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Condition ‐ T4. As Touloukian
received. (1967)b [39].
Same as . Heated above 575 K.
3,8 ‐ 4,9 Cu ‐ 1,2 ‐1,8 Mg ‐ 0,3 ‐ 0,9 Mn ‐ 0,5 Measured after five
max Fe ‐ 0,5 max Si ‐ 0,25 max Zn ‐ 0,1 max exposures to radiation
Cr and 0,15 max other in total. Condition ‐ and followed by
T86. cooling.
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4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Annealed at 723 K.
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Condition ‐ T4.
3.2.4. Thermal expansion.
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐36.
Figure 4‐36: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a
function of temperature, .
Explanation
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Cooling.
2,31 Cu ‐ 1,46 Mg ‐ 1,23 Fe ‐ 1,20 Ni ‐ 0,88 Si ‐
0,07 Ti .
Wrought, heated 2 h at 798 K, quenched,
aged 16 h at 443 K, quenched.
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Condition ‐ T4. Tested at 1,5 ‐ 2,5
K.min1 rise in
argon.
3.2.5. Melting range.
773 K ‐913 K. (ALCAN (1965) [2]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance.
3.3.1.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0): Figure 4‐37
Figure 4‐37: Normal ‐ spectral emittance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a
function of wavelength, .
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Explanation
Same as .
Surface roughness: 4,6x108 m and
3,8x108 m in x and y directions
respectively.
Same as .
Surface roughness: 1,52x107 m and
1,7x107 m in x and y directions
respectively.
3.3.1.2.1. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐38.
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Figure 4‐38: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn as a function
of temperature, T.
Explanation
Cycle 1 cooling.
Cycle 2 heating.
Cycle 2 cooling.
Cycle 2 heating.
Cycle 2 cooling.
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Cycle 2 heating.
Cycle 2 cooling.
Cycle 3 heating.
Cycle 3 cooling.
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. Alclad Measured in vacuum (6,7x103
As received. Pa). Reported error 10%.
Same as above. Cleaned with
liquid detergent or polished with
fine polishing compounds on a
buffing wheel.
Same as above. Oxidized in air at
red heat for 30 min.
4,5 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn.
Weathered using flat shield.
Same as above. Weathered using
conical shield.
Constant over temperature
range 361‐433 K.
Reported error 10%.
The influence of anodizing is given in Table 4‐11.
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Table 4‐11: Normal Total Emittance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn, Anodized
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz(1972) [43].
3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance: Table 4‐12.
Table 4‐12: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn
T [K] Comments
NOTE From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42].
3.3.2. Absorptance
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3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance: Table 4‐13.
Table 4‐13: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn
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NOTE All data are from Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42], unless otherwise stated.
The influence of anodizing is given in Table 4‐14.
Table 4‐14: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6 Mn, Anodized
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
3.3.3. Reflectance.
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance.
3.3.3.1.1. Normal‐normal spectral reflectance ( = ʹ = 0) of alloy anodized: Figure 4‐39.
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Figure 4‐39: Normal‐normal spectral reflectance, ʹʹ, of Al‐4,3 Cu‐1,5 Mg‐0,6 Mn,
anodized, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except anodized in chromic
acid.
Same as except anodized in black
chromic acid.
3.3.3.2. Directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance.
Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2): Figure 4‐40.
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Figure 4‐40: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg
‐ 0,6 Mn as a function of wavelength,
Explanation
Same as except oxidized in air at red
heat for 30 min.
Nominal composition. Cleaned. T = 378 K. Measured in
vacuum (1,33x103 Pa).
Same as above except exposed to UV
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radiation for 20 h; G.E. Type UA‐3 lamp Measured relative to MgO.
source.
Same as except exposed to UV
radiation for 60 h. Same radiation
source as .
Same as except exposed to UV
radiation for 100 h. Same radiation
source as .
Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2) of alloy anodized: Figure 4‐41.
Figure 4‐41: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg
‐ 0,6 Mn, anodized, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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Same as except exposed to UV radiation
for 60 h.
Same as except exposed to UV radiation
for 100 h.
Nominal composition. T = 300 K.
Sheet 1,59x103 m Data from smooth curve. The data
thick anodized in correspond to two different tests.
sulphuric acid. Coating
thickness 1,27x105 m. Same as except exposed to vacuum
(1,33x106 Pa) for 300 h. Vacuum maintained
by ion pump. Measured in air after vacuum
exposure.
Same as except exposed to UV radiation in
vacuum for 300 h; H2 gas UV source.
3.3.3.6. Normal‐hemispherical total reflectance
3.3.3.9.2. Normal‐hemispherical solar reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2) of alloy anodized: Table 4‐15.
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Table 4‐15: Normal Hemispherical Solar Reflectance of Al – 4,3 Cu – 1,5 Mg – 0,6
Mn, Anodized
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity (at room temperature).
The coefficient giving the variation of electrical resistivity with temperature is in the range 2x103 K1.
(ASMH (1974)c [10]) to 2,6x103 K1. (Touloukian (1967)b [39]).
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4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
Aluminium surface is very susceptible to increase in s and caused by contamination. The surface
should be protected from physical abuse, atmospheric exposure and caustic contaminants; cleanliness
if of the utmost importance.
4.2. Postlaunch
There are no known restrictions, other than structural.
From Breuch (1967) [16].
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode)
NOTE From REYNOLDS METALS Co (1961) [30].
5.2. Corrosion resistance
It is poor in marine or industrial environments, sufficient in rural and urban environments, and good
indoors.
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Medium.
6.3. Welding. Poor.
6.4. Machining. Good.
6.5. Heat treatment. Good.
6.6. Anodizing. Poor.
From García‐Poggio et al. (1972) [20].
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
This alloy is available in the full commercial range of sizes for sheet, strip, plate, rod, bar, forgings,
tubing, wire, extrusions and structural shapes.
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
Some disagreement seems to exit in the literature regarding the maximum operating temperature of
this alloy. Although temperatures as high as 425 K are quoted for long term structural purposes (any
temper condition), and even higher values for intermittent loading (475 K, T4 conditions), it is
advisable not to use this alloy (T3, T4 conditions) in a corrosive environment at temperatures above
340 K for several hours, or above 365 K for more than a few minutes.
9. APPLICATIONS
Gear materials in antenna drive, instruments, structural purposes, and thermal surfaces.
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Others
Cra Cu Fe Mg Mn Si Ti Zn Al
Each Total
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
AlMgSi1,
Al‐P34 Al‐Mg1SiCu ‐ 6061 H20
3,2315
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 2700 kg.m3. (Kappelt (1961) [23]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat
From room temperature to 373 K. Conditions 0 and T6.
c = 963 J.kg1.K1. (ASMH (1974)c [10]).
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
At room temperature.
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3.2.5. Melting range. 855 K ‐ 922 K. (ASMH (1974)c [10]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance
3.3.1.2. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0): Table 4‐16.
Table 4‐16: Normal Total Emittance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si
0,03 Sheet 3,17x103 m thick, cleaned and degreased.
0,76 Anodized with chromic acid electrolyte 5% by weight, at 308 K, anodizing
voltage: 40V DC, 120 min. Resulting coating thickness: 105 m.
0,07 Anodized with citric acid electrolyte, 1 kg.m3 ammonium citrate, at 295 K,
anodizing voltage: 200V DC, 45 min.
0,81 Anodized with oxalic acid electrolyte, 3% by weight, at 311 K, anodizing
voltage: 30V DC, 60 min. Resulting coating thickness: 105 m.
0,80 Hard anodized, 7,6x106 m thick, with sulphuric acid electrolyte 15% by weight,
at 269 K.
0,82 Soft anodized, 7,6x106 m thick, with sulphuric acid electrolyte 17% by weight, at
293 K.
NOTE From Bevans (1969) [14].
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3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance: Table 4‐17.
Table 4‐17: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si
T [K] Comments
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3.3.2. Absorptance
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance: Table 4‐18.
Table 4‐18: Normal Solar Absorptance of Al – 1 Mg – 0,6 Si
0,37b 3,17x103 m thick sheet cleaned and degreased.
0,48b Hard anodized, 7x106 m thick, with sulfuric acid electrolyte, 15%
by weight, at 269 K.
0,38b Soft anodized, 7x106 m thick, with sulfuric acid electrolyte, 17%
by weight, at 293 K.
0,42b Anodized with oxalic acid electrolyte, 3% by weight, at 311 K,
anodizing voltage: 30V DC, 60 min. Resulting coating thickness:
105 m.
0,37b Anodized with citric acid electrolyte, 1 kg.m3 ammonium citrate,
at 295 K, anodizing voltage: 200 V DC, 45 min.
0,48b Anodized with chromic acid electrolyte, 5% by weight, at 308 K,
anodizing voltage: 40V DC, 120 min. Resulting coating thickness:
105 m.
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3.3.3. Reflectance
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance
Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2):
Data concerning different surface conditions are given in the following figures:
As received: Figure 4‐42
Figure 4‐42: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al‐1 Mg‐0,6 Si, as
received, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Nominal composition. Cleaned. T 322K.
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Same as above. Diffuse component only. Data from smooth
curve. Hohlraum
Same as . Exposed to vacuum (5,32x106 at 1273 K. (Gier &
Pa) for 24 h. Dunkle).
Converted from
Same as above. Diffuse component only. R(2,0). Reported
error <2%.
Same as . X‐Ray exposed in vacuum
(5,32x106 Pa) for 24 h.
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
Grit blasted: Figure 4‐43.
Figure 4‐43: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al‐1 Mg‐0,6 Si, grit
blasted, as a function of wavelength, .
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Explanation
Same as except chem‐polished using the
Alcoa process with a 2 min immersion at 358 K;
blasted as above.
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
Chemically polished: Figure 4‐44.
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Figure 4‐44: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al‐1 Mg‐0,6 Si,
chemically polished, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
Same as . X‐Ray exposed in vacuum
(5,32x106 Pa) for 24 h.
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
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Chemically milled: Figure 4‐45.
Figure 4‐45: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 1 Mg ‐ 0,6 Si,
chemically milled, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
Same as . X‐Ray exposed in vacuum
(5,32x106 Pa) for 24 h.
Same as above. Diffuse component only.
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3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity
4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
Aluminium surface is very susceptible to increase in s and caused by contamination. The surface
should be protected from physical abuse, atmospheric exposure and caustic contaminants; cleanliness
if of the utmost importance. (Breuch (1967) [16]).
4.2. Postlaunch
No known restrictions other than structural. (Breuch (1967) [16]).
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode)
T4 Condition: 0,80 V.
T6 Condition: 0,83 V.
From Kappelt (1961) [23].
5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy is ranked among the best of the heat treatable alloys concerning corrosion resistance. In
general, resistance to corrosion is not significantly affected by variations in the heat treatment. (ASMH
(1974)c [10]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Good.
6.3. Welding. Good.
6.4. Machining. Good.
6.5. Heat treatment. Good.
6.6. Anodizing. Excellent.
From García‐Poggio et al. (1972) [20].
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
This alloy is available in the full commercial range of sizes for sheets, strip, plate, rod, bar, forgings,
tubing extrusion and structural shapes. (ASMH (1974)c [10]).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
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Continuous structural use should be limited to temperatures below 425 K, whatever the temper
conditions. Short term utilization temperatures up to 475 K can be achieved using T4 or T6 conditions.
(ASMH (1974)c [10]).
9. APPLICATIONS
For electrical power systems, tubing, structural elements, whip antennas, heat pipes, solar absorbers.
Others
Cr Cu Fe Mg Mn Si Ti Zn Al
Each Total
0,18 1,2 0,7 2,1 0,3 0,5 0,2 5,1 0,5 0,15 Balance
0,40 2,0 2,9 6,1
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
AlZnMgCu 1,5 Al‐5ZnMgCu
Al‐P42 A‐Z5GU 7075
3,4365 UNE 38‐371
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 2800 kg.m3. (ASMH (1974)c [10]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐46
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Figure 4‐46: Specific heat, c, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, .
Explanation
Al Alloy 75 S ‐ T6 (Canadian commercial Touloukian
designation). 5,5 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,5 Cu, 0,3 Cr, (1967)c [40].
0,2 Mn, Al balance.
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,5 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,5 Cu, 0,3 Sealed under helium
Cr, Al balance. atmosphere.
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
At 298 K.
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Condition k
[W.m1.K1]
T6 130
T73 155
T76 150
NOTE From McCall (1979) [25].
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐47.
Figure 4‐47: Thermal conductivity, k, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
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Al Alloy RR77 (British Wrought, 2 h solution heat treatment
designation). 4,96 Zn, 2,54 Mg, at 720 K, quenched in water at 340 K,
2,2 Cu, 0,54 Mn, 0,31 Fe, 0,26 Si, aged 4 h at 408 K and aircooled.
trace Ti, Al balance.
As received.
See also ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 8.4, where k is given in the temperature range 25 K ‐ 300 K.
Thermal conductivity integral: Figure 4‐48.
Figure 4‐48: Thermal conductivity integral of Al – 5,7 Zn – 2,5 Mg – 1,6 Cu as a
function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Al alloy 75 S (Canadian commercial designation). Coston (1967)
[18].
3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity.
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Effect of temperature on thermal diffusivity: Figure 4‐49.
Figure 4‐49: Thermal diffusivity, , of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Measured after another exposure to
radiation and followed by cooling.
Measured after the third cycle of
exposure.
Averaged values on measurements
after from 4th to 8th exposure cycles.
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,6 Zn, 2,5 As received.
Mg, 1,6 Cu, Al balance.
Heated above 575 K.
Al alloy 75S (Canadian Annealed at 720 K.
commercial designation). 5,5
Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,5 Cu, 0,3 Cr,
0,2 Mn.
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3.2.4. Thermal expansion.
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐50.
Figure 4‐50: Linear thermal expansion, L / L, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a
function of temperature, .
Explanation
Al alloy 75S‐T6 (Canadian Tested at 1,5‐2,5 K/min rise in
commercial designation). 5,6 Zn, argon.
2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al balance.
= 2800 kg.m3.
Al alloy RR77 (British Wrought, 2 h solution heat
designation). 4,96 Zn, 2,54 Mg, treatment at 720 K, quenched
2,20 Cu, 0,54 Mn, 0,31 Fe, 0,26 Si in water at 340 K, aged 4 h at
and trace Ti, Al balance. 408 K and aircooled.
3.2.5. Melting range.
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750 K ‐ 910 K. (ASMH (1974)c [10]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance
3.3.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0): Figure 4‐51.
Figure 4‐51: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a
function of wavelength,
Explanation
Different sample, same as
specimen and conditions except
surface roughness 0,048x106 m
0,064x106 m (center line
average).
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Different sample, same as
specimen and conditions except
surface roughness 0,081x106 m
0,113x106 m (center line
average).
3.3.1.1.2. Angular spectral emittance (ʹ = 25°): Figure 4‐52.
Figure 4‐52: Angular spectral emittance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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0,381x106 m, across 1,78x106 m 2,29x106 m (RMS). (25°, 2).
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,6 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al
balance. Sanded with 80 grit paper (grit sieve opening
175x106 m). Surface roughness: in line 0,508x106 m
1,52x106 m, across 3,81x106 m 4,32x106 m (RMS).
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,6 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al
balance. Sanded with 40 grit paper (grit sieve opening
42x106 m). Surface roughness: in line 1,27x106 m
2,54x106 m, across 6,86x106 m 7,62x106 m (RMS).
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,6 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al
balance. Sandblasted with 250 mesh silicon carbide
(mesh opening 60x106 m). Surface roughness 0,254x106
m 0,381x106 m (RMS).
Al alloy 7075‐T6. 5,6 Zn, 2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al
balance. Sandblasted with 60 mesh silicon carbide (mesh
opening 250x106 m). Surface roughness 6,35x106 m
7,62x106 m (RMS).
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐53.
Figure 4‐53: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,6 Cu as a function
of temperature,.
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Explanation
Another change in viewing
configuration.
Another change in viewing
configuration.
Different sample, same as above
specimen and conditions.
Unpolished.
Different sample, same as white
specimen and conditions. Polished
with aerobright and Bon Ami.
Same as above. Repeated
measurement one day later.
Al alloy 75‐ST (alclad) (Canadian Heating. Measuring in air
Commercial designation). 5,6 Zn, (0,133 Pa).
2,5 Mg, 1,6 Cu, 0,3 Cr, Al balance.
Cleaned with methyl alcohol.
Different sample, same as above Measured in argon (0,133
specimen and conditions. Pa).
Different sample, same as black
specimen and conditions except
scrubbed with Bon Ami and a wet
cloth, washed and dried, wiped
with toluene and alcohol.
Different sample, same as above Measured in argon (0,133
specimen and conditions. Pa).
Different sample, same as black
specimen and conditions except
polished and then finished with a
wool bulf and rouge and washed.
Surface free from scratches.
Different sample, same as above Measured in argon (0,133
specimen and conditions. Pa).
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3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance
75‐ST (Alclad) (Canadian commercial designation). Nominal composition.
Sample temperature: 303 K.
Unpolished surface. Measured in air.
= 0,02 (Touloukian (1967)c [40]). See Table 4‐19.
Table 4‐19: Hemispherical Total Emittance of Al – 5,7 Zn – 2,5 Mg – 1,6 Cu
Conversion Coatings.
T [K] Comments.
313 0,091
285 0,869
313 0,856
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
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3.3.2. Absorptance
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance: Table 4‐20.
Table 4‐20: Normal Solar Absorptance and Normal‐Hemispherical Solar
Reflectance of Al – 5,6 Zn – 2,5 Mg 1,6 Cu.
NOTE From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42].
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3.3.3. Reflectance
3.3.3.2.1. Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2): Figure 4‐54.
Figure 4‐54: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Al ‐ 5,7 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐
1,6 Cu conversion coatings, as a function of wavelngth, .
Explanation
T = 589 K.
Same specimen and conditions as .
T = 714 K.
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Same specimen and conditions as .
T = 298 K.
Same specimen and conditions as after high
temperature runs.
T = 298 K.
Treated as except shorted anodizing time (1/3
standard). 0,5x106 m thick coating.
T = 298 K.
Mechanically polished and boric acid anodized.
Measured in 104 Pa vacuum. Converted from R(2,0°).
T = 298 K.
Mill finished, electropolished and boric acid anodized.
Measured in 1,33x101 Pa vacuum.
Al alloy 7075. T = 298 K.
5,1‐6,1 Zn, Mechanically polished and electropolished, hard coat
2,1‐2,9 Mg, anodized. Measured in 104 Pa vacuum. Converted
1,2‐2,0 Cu, 0,7 from R(2,0°).
Fe, 0,5 Si,
0,18‐0,4 Cr, T = 298 K.
0,3 Mn, 0,2 Treated as above and sealed.
Ti, Al
balance. T = 422 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 589 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 714 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 298 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above after high
temperature runs.
T = 298 K.
Treated as and heated in air at 700 K for 30 min.
T = 298 K.
Mechanically polished and electropolished, hard coat
anodizing (1/3 standard time).
Al alloy 7075. T = 298 K.
Mill finished and electropolished, hard coat anodized,
sealed. Measured in 104 Pa vacuum. Converted from
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R(2,0°).
T = 298 K.
Mechanically polished hard coat anodized. Measured in
1,33x104 Pa vacuum. Converted from R(2,0°).
T = 298 K.
Treated as except shorter anodizing (1/3 standard) and
sealed.
T = 298 K.
Mechanically and electropolished, sulfuric acid
anodized. Measured in 104 Pa vacuum. Converted
from R(2,0°).
T = 422 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 589 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 714 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above.
T = 298 K.
Same specimen and conditions as above after high
temperature runs.
T = 298 K.
Mechanically and electropolished, sulfuric acid
anodized, 1,4x106 m thick coating, sealed. Measured in
104 Pa vacuum. Converted from R(2,0°).
T = 298 K.
Same as above except not sealed.
T = 298 K.
Same as above except shorter anodizing time (¼
standard).
T = 298 K.
Same as above and sealed.
T = 298 K.
Mechanically and polished, sulfuric acid anodized 1/3
standard time, sealed. Measured in 104 Pa vacuum.
Converted from R(2,0°).
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3.3.3.9.1. Normal‐hemispherical solar reflectance. See Table 4‐20 above.
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity (at room temperature).
NOTE From McCall (1979) [25].
4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
This alloy is normally coated. The surface condition is as important as the material. The production of
the coating should be carefully controlled.
4.2. Postlaunch
No known restrictions other than structural.
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode).
5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy should be protected at least on faying surfaces.
Condition Stress‐Corrosion Cracking
T6, T651, T652, T6510, Service failures with sustained tension stress acting on short transverse
T6511 direction relative to grain structure. Limited failures in laboratory tests of
long transverse specimens.
T73, T7351 No known instance of failure in service. Limited failures in laboratory
tests of short transverse specimens.
NOTE From McCall (1979) [25].
Assemblies of this alloy with magnesium alloys require protective insulation (Braun (1979) [15]).
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6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Cold workability is poor.
6.3. Welding.
Gas. no commonly used methods have been developed.
Arc. Limited weldability because of crack sensitivity or loss in resistance to corrosion and mechanical
properties.
Resistance Spot and Seam. Welbadle with special techniques or for specific applications which justify
trials or development testing.
Brazing. No commonly used methods have been developed.
Soldering. Solderability is poor.
These characteristics do not change significantly with heat treatment.
From McCall (1979) [25].
6.4. Machining. Machinability of this alloy is good (compared to others of the same series) and can be
improved through heat treatment.
6.5. Heat treatment.
Quenching and Aging
Treatment Forging Annealing
Quenching Aging
NOTE From UNE (1982) [45].
6.6. Anodizing. This alloy can be anodized to increase corrosion resistance, prior to painting or
plating, or to increase emittance (see Table 4‐19). Any of the three principal types of anodizing
processes (chromic acid, sulfuric acid or hard anodizing) can be used (Ball (1982) [12]).
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
This alloy is available in the full commercial range of sizes for sheets; plates; extrude rods, bars and
wires; extruded shaped; extruded tubes; cold finished rods, bars and wires; drawn tubes and forgings
(McCall (1979) [25]).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
The tensile strength of this alloy (T6) decreases markedly above 400 K (McCall (1979) [25]).
This alloy is not normally used in applications involving cryogenic temperatures. Information on its
behavior at low temperatures is scanty. Tensile properties and fracture roughness at temperatures
down to 4 K and results of fatigue‐life tests are given by Campbell (1980) [17]. Other alloys of the
Aluminium 7000 series exhibit good behavior at temperatures as low as 20 K (Develay et al (1967)
[19]).
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9. APPLICATIONS
Aircraft and other structures, many presently operating commercial jets (Simenz & Guess (1980) [34]).
Aircraft structural parts and other highly stresses structural applications where very high strength
and good resistance to corrosion is required.
Caution should be exercised in T6 temper applications where sustained tensile stresses are
encountered, either residual or applied, particularly in the transverse grain direction. In such instances
the T73 temper should be considered at some sacrifice in tensile strength (McCall (1979) [25]).
10. OTHER QUOTATIONS
These alloys have been explicitly quoted in the following pages of this Handbook.
ECSS‐E‐ HB‐31‐01 Part 4, clause 5.2, Al alloy 7075‐T6
Thermal joints conductance. Bare joints.
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 12, clause 5.2.2.2, Al alloy 7075
Used in bellows for louvers actuators.
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 6.3.3, Al alloy 7075
Figure of Merit, /k, of supporting materials at cryogenic temperatures.
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 8.4, Al alloy 75 S (Canadian commercial designation)
Thermal conductivity in the temperature range 25 K ‐ 300 K.
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 9.3.1, Al alloy V95 (USSR designation)
Data sources of mechanical properties at cryogenic temperatures.
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 9.3.2, Al alloy 7075‐T73
Susceptibility to hydrogen embrittlement.
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
MgZn6Th2Zr,
4438B
3,5114
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3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 1860 kg.m3. (Rhines (1961)).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat
From 293 to 373 K, c = 962 J.kg1.K1. (Rhines (1961)).
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
3.2.4. Thermal expansion
Mean coefficient of linear expansion, .
From 293 K to 473 K, = 27,1x106 K1. (Rhines (1961)).
= 27,6x106 K1. (Smithells (1962) [35]).
= 27,2x106 K1. (ASMH (1974)d [11]).
3.2.5. Melting range.
773 K ‐ 903 K. (Smithells (1962) [35]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance
3.3.1.2. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0).
No data available. For polished Magnesium: ʹ = 0,07. (Scollon & Carpitelle (1970) [33]).
3.3.2. Absorptance.
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance.
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance.
No data available. For polished Magnesium: s = 0,27. (Scollon & Carpitelle (1970) [33]).
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity at 293 K. = 6,5x108 .m. (Rhines (1961)).
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.2. Corrosion resistance.
Although this alloy will corrode in industrial, marine and moist environments, it will perform
satisfactorily with suitable surface protection and painting. (ASMH (1974)d [11]).
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6. FABRICATION
6.1. Casting. Good, even into complicated shapes.
6.3. Welding. Good, by argon arc process. Should not be gas‐welded.
6.4. Machining. Excellent. This alloy can be chemically milled by sulphuric, nitric or hydrochloric
acids of 5 percent strength.
6.5. Heat treatment. Good in SO2 atmosphere. This alloy is normally used in T‐5 condition.
From ASMH (1974)d [11].
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
Sand, permanent mold and die castings. Normally used in T‐5 condition. (ASMH (1974)d [11]).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
This alloy shows excellent structural characteristics up to 425 K. Above this temperature the strength
drops sharply.
9. APPLICATIONS
This alloy should be considered for any aerospace application requiring a high strength‐to‐weight
ratio at temperatures up to 420 K. In addition, it as excellent dimensional stability at service
temperatures up to the quoted value. (ASMH (1974)d [11]).
Safety precautions should be directed to the prevention of fires, burns, and explosions. (ASMH
(1974)d [11]).
4 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 2 Balance
6 0,1 0,5 0,02 0,07 0,3 3
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
4926
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 4460 kg.m3. (Stuart Lyman (1961) [36]).
3.2. Thermal properties
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3.2.1. Specific heat
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐55.
Figure 4‐55: Specific heat, c, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Stuart Lyman (1961)
[36].
Nominal composition. Coston (1967) [18].
Titanium. Coston (1967) [18].
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
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Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐56.
Figure 4‐56: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Stuart Lyman (1961)
[36].
Nominal composition.
3.2.4. Thermal expansion
Mean coefficient of linear expansion, , between 293 K and given temperature.
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T [K] 366 477 588 700 811 922 1033 1144 1255
x106 [K1] 9,4 9,4 9,5 9,5 9,7 9,9 10,1 10,3 10,3
NOTE From Stuart Lyman (1961) [36].
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐57.
Figure 4‐57: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Touloukian (1967)c
[40].
Nominal composition. Density 4460‐
4480 kg.m3. Alpha phase.
Same as above except low oxygen
content.
Nominal composition. Cosoton (1967) [18].
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3.2.5. Melting range
1822 K ‐ 1922 K. (Stuart Lyman (1961) [36]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance.
3.3.1.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal emittance for a particular wavelength: Figure 4‐58.
Figure 4‐58: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T, for =6,65 x 107 m.
Explanation
Same as except oxidized in air at red
heat for 30 min.
Same as above.
Cycle 2.
Same as .
Cycle 3.
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3.3.1.2. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐59.
Figure 4‐59: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Cycle 2 heating.
Cycle 2 cooling.
Cycle 3.
Nominal composition. Oxidized at 922 Measured in air.
K for 30 min. Cycle 1.
Cycle 2.
Cycle 3 heating.
Cycle 3 cooling.
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3.3.2. Absorptance
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance: Table 4‐21.
Table 4‐21: Normal Solar Absorptance of Ti – 5 Al – 2,5 Sn
NOTE From Touloukian & DeWitt (1970) [42].
3.3.3. Reflectance.
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance.
Normal‐normal spectral reflectance ( = ʹ = 0): Figure 4‐60.
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Figure 4‐60: Normal‐normal spectral reflectance, ʹʹ, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except mechanically polished; pickled,
anodized in NaOH, and sealed. 4x107 m thick
coating. Measured in
vacuum
(1,33x103 Pa).
T = 755 K.
3.3.3.2. Directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance.
Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( = 0, ʹ = 2): Figure 4‐61.
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Figure 4‐61: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as
a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except polished.
Same as except oxidized at 922 K.
Effect of anodizing on thermal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance): Figure 4‐62.
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Figure 4‐62: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn,
anodized, as a function of wavelength, .
Explanation
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3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity.
Effect of temperature on electrical resistivity: Figure 4‐63.
Figure 4‐63: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti ‐ 5 Al ‐ 2,5 Sn as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
3.4.2. Magnetic properties. This alloy is non‐magnetic.
Relative permeability: /0 = 1,00005 measured at 1,6x103 A.m1. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode)
Data not available. Solution potential of Ti pure is +0,20 V (Ross (1972) [31]).
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5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy is highly resistant to corrosion. It has excellent resistance to hot oxidation up to 900 K. It
resists the attack by normal acids (except fuming nitric) or alkalies at room and even higher
temperatures. (Ross (1972) [31]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Good. In sheet forming the minimum bending radius is 5 times the thickness.
6.3. Welding. Good, using TIG or MIG processes.
6.4. Machining. Possible with slow speeds, coarse feeds, and sharp tools.
6.5. Heat treatment. Good. This alloy can only be annealed.
From ASMH (1974)e [9].
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
Available in full range of sizes for sheet, strip, plate, bar forgings, wire, extrusions and castings.
(ASMH (1974)e [9]).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
The structural use of this alloy should be limited to temperatures below 580 K. The extra‐low‐
interstitial grade (ELI) is recommended for low temperatures uses (as low as 20 K). Fresh fracture
surfaces of this alloy, when in contact with liquid oxygen, burn expontaneously, and the reaction may
spread at a high rate. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
9. APPLICATIONS
Structural elements, fasteners, bolts and, generally speaking, when high temperature precludes the
use of aluminium alloys. Also used in pressure vessels for liquid hydrogen and liquid helium.
Others
Al Mo Sn Zr Fe O2 H2 N2 C Al
Each Total
5,5 1,8 1,8 3,6 0,25 0,12 0,015 0,05 0,05 0,10 0,40 Balance
6,5 2,2 2,2 4,4
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
Ti‐6Al4ZrMoSn
Ti6242
UNE 38‐718
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3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 4540 kg.m3. (UNE (1984) [46]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat.
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐64.
Figure 4‐64: Specific heat, c, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 2 Sn ‐ 4 Zr ‐ 2 Mo as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal Composition. ASMH (1974).
Sheet. 103 m thick.
Duplex annealed: 1170 K, 30 min, air cool
+1060 K, 15 min, air cool.
Nominal Composition.
Bar. 0,0286 m in diameter.
Duplex annealed: 1170 K, 1h, air cool +870 K,
8 h, air cool.
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3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐65.
Figure 4‐65: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 2 Sn ‐ 4 Zr ‐ 2 Mo as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Same as above specimen and
conditions.
Nominal Composition. Measured parallel to long
Bar. 0,108 m in diameter. direction.
Duplex annealed: 1170 K, 1h, air
cool +870 K, 8 h, air cool.
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3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity
3.2.4. Thermal expansion
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐66.
Figure 4‐66: Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, , of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 2 Sn ‐ 4
Zr ‐ 2 Mo from room temperature to temperature T.
Explanation
Nominal Composition. Measured in longitudinal
Bar. 0,0286 m in diameter. direction. Average
Duplex annealed: 1170 K, 1h, air cool ascending‐descending
+870 K, 8 h, air cool. temperatures
Nominal composition. Cast
compressor casing. As cast.
Nominal Composition.
Package forging.
Duplex annealed: 1230 K, 1h, air cool
+870 K, 8 h, air cool.
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3.2.5. Melting range.
Alloy 6,2 Al, 2 Sn, 4,2 Zr, 1,8 Mo, 0,06 Fe, 0,124 O, 0,008 N, 0,0052 H, 0,02 C, Ti balance.
a Four determinations.
b Two determinations.
c Temperature measurement accuracy 19 K. Some diffusion of support tray material (Nb) into sample may
have caused slight elevation of solidus and liquidus temperatures.
NOTE From ASMH (1978).
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity.
Effect of temperature on electrical resistivity: Figure 4‐67.
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Figure 4‐67: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 2 Sn ‐ 4 Zr ‐ 2 Mo as a function
of temperature, T.
Explanation
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3.4.2. Magnetic properties.
This alloy is non‐magnetic.
5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy is susceptible to solid salt stress corrosion at elevates temperatures and exhibits delayed
failure of cracked specimens at room temperature in aqueous salt environments. Stress corrosion
characteristics can depend on alloy processing and heat treatment (ASMH (1978)).
The application of a nickel base protective coating to this alloy yielded limited results because of
formation and growth of intermetallic Ni3Ti and NiTi phases. (Tien et al. (1973) [37]).
6. FABRICATION
6.1. Casting
Acceptable castings by the induction melting technique cannot be obtained with the use of graphite
crucibles and molds due to surface reaction with the mold. This problem is at present circumvented
by multiple consumable electrode arc melting under vacuum in water‐cooled copper crucibles. A skin
of solid titanium, the ʺskullʺ, is formed providing a non reactive wall between the melt and the
crucible.
(ASMH (1978)).
6.2. Forming
bending. Bend properties are equivalent to those for similar alloys.
Forging. Forgeability of this alloy is similar to Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V.
(ASMH (1978)).
6.3. Welding
Fusion welding by either TIG or MIG process can be performed on any of the heat treated conditions
of this alloy. Weldment properties are inferior to those of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V (Betner (1980) [13]).
This alloy produces a weld the properties of which are difficult to predict and markedly different from
the unwelded metal. Tests seem to indicate that weld properties may vary with ingot source, gage of
material welded, weld cooling rate and, possibly, prior heat treatment.
(ASMH (1978)).
6.4. Machining
Good, within the group of Ti alloys (UNE (1984) [46]).
6.5. Heat treatment
This alloy is used in either a duplex or triplex annealed conditions. The heating cycles of duplex
annealing for sheets are specified in the Explanations of Figure 4‐64 to Figure 4‐67. A final 870 K
heating cycle for triplex annealed sheet and duplex annealed bar and forges, followed by 8 h air cool is
sometimes referred as stabilization age. (ASMH (1978)).
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
Ingot, bloom bar, billet, sheet, plate, wire (ASMH (1978)).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
This alloy possesses good strength properties up to 800 K and appears metallurgically stable up to 700
K. These are disappointingly low values relative to the melting point of titanium (1900 K to 1950 K).
No service experience of this alloy at temperatures below 273 K has been gained.
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9. APPLICATIONS
Blades and discs of the compressor section of jet engines, and air‐frame applications requiring good
strength, fracture toughness, erosion properties and improved creep resistance at temperatures up to
800 K.
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
4911 TiAl6V4,
Ti ‐ P63 TA 10
4928 3,7164
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 4430 kg.m3. (Stuart Lyman (1961) [36]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat.
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐68.
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Figure 4‐68: Specific heat, c, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Stuart Lyman
(1961) [36].
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐69.
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Figure 4‐69: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of temperature,
T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Stuart Lyman (1961)
[36].
Nominal composition. Coston (1967) [18].
Nominal composition.
Sheet no. 1777 A‐1.
Thermal conductivity integrals: Figure 4‐70
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Figure 4‐70: Thermal conductivity integrals of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Solid line: From Coston (1967) [18].
Dashed line: Calculated, by the compiler, by fitting the experimental data points , and of Figure
4‐69 with the least‐squares method, and integrating the expression, k(T) = 6,33 + 3,67 x106T2 (r = 0,995)
which is then obtained; r is the correlation coefficient giving the goodness of the fit.
3.2.3. Thermal diffusivity
Effect of temperature on thermal diffusivity: Figure 4‐71.
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Figure 4‐71: Thermal diffusivity, , of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of temperature,
T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Measured after three exposures
to radiation.
Nominal composition. Measured after five exposures
to radiation.
3.2.4. Thermal expansion.
Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, , between 294 K and given temperature.
NOTE From Stuart Lyman (1961) [36].
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Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐72.
Figure 4‐72: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
From smooth curve. Coston (1967) [18].
Nominal composition. Touloukian
Density 4430 kg.m3 (1967)c [40].
Same as above.
Alpha‐beta alloy.
Same as above. Low C content.
Machined; solution treated, 1200 Average data of three
K, 20 min; oil‐quenched; aged 755 samples with permanent
K, 4 h, and air‐cooled. Sample expansion from 0,011 to
2,54x103 m in diameter and 5x102 0,025 percent.
m length.
Prepared from sponge. Sample Measured in vacuum (
1,59x102 m in diameter. 4x102 Pa). Beta‐transus
Annealed. temperature 1270 K.
Heating data.
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Cooling data.
3.2.5. Melting range.
1877 K ‐ 1933 K. (Stuart Lyman (1961) [36]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance.
3.3.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal spectral emittance: Figure 4‐73.
Figure 4‐73: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
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Same composition as above. Measured in vacuum.
polished with fine polishing = 6,65x107 m.
compounds.
Same composition as above. Measured in vacuum.
oxidized in air at red heat for = 6,65x107 m.
30 min.
Nominal composition. Measured in vacuum (0,4 ‐ 0,53 Pa).
Surface roughness: 2x106 ‐ Heating.
3x106 m RMS. Polished. = 6,5x107 m.
Same as above. Same as above. Cooling.
= 6,5x107 m.
3.3.1.2. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐74.
Figure 4‐74: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of
temperature, T.
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Explanation
Cycle 2 cooling.
Cycle 3.
Nominal composition. Oxidized Measured in air. Cycle 1.
at 922 K for 30 min.
Cycle 2.
Cycle 3 heating.
Cycle 3 cooling.
Nominal composition. Surface Measured in vacuum (0,4
roughness: 2x106 ‐ 3x106 m ‐ 0,53 Pa). Heating.
RMS. Polished.
Same as above. Cooling.
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3.3.1.4. Hemispherical total emittance
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐75.
Figure 4‐75: Hemispherical total emittance, , of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Data from smooth curve.
Rough surface, as received. Reported error >6%.
Same as above except Reported error >6%.
preheated at 1150 K in air.
Rough surface. As received. Data from smooth curve.
Reported error >6%.
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3.3.2. Absorptance
3.3.2.5. Solar absorptance
3.3.2.5.1. Normal solar absorptance: Table 4‐22.
Table 4‐22: Normal Solar Absorptance of Ti – Al – 4 V
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(9,87x1024 ions.m2).
NOTE From Touloukian, DeWitt & Hernicz (1972) [43].
3.3.3. Reflectance.
3.3.3.2. Directional‐hemispherical spectral reflectance.
Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance ( 0, ʹ = 2): Figure 4‐76.
Figure 4‐76: Normal ‐ hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
Same as except polished.
Same as except oxidized at 922 K for 30 min.
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3.4. Other physical properties.
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity.
Effect of temperature on electrical resistivity: Figure 4‐77.
Figure 4‐77: Electrical resistivity, , of Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V as a function of temperature,
T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Touloukian (1967)c
Mild annealed. [40].
3.4.2. Magnetic properties. This alloy is non‐magnetic.
Relative Permeability: /0 = 1,00005 measured at 1,6x103 A.m1. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.1. Solution potential (vs. decinormal calomel electrode)
Data not available. Solution potential of Ti pure is +0,20 V. (Ross (1972) [31]).
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5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy is highly resistant to corrosion. It has excellent resistance to hot oxidation up to 800 K. It can
not be attacked by normal acids (except fuming nitric) and alkalies at room temperature, and has
considerable resistance to many acids at high temperature. (Ross (1972) [31]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Good. In sheet forming the minimum bending radius is 6 times the thickness.
6.3. Welding. Good, using TIG or MIG processes.
6.4. Machining. Possible with slow speeds, coarse feeds, and sharp tools.
6.5. Heat treatment. Good.
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
It is available in the full commercial range of sizes for sheet, plate, bar, forgings, wire, extrusions, and
casting in the annealed and solution treated conditions (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
the structural use of this alloy should be limited to the temperature range 116 K ‐ 670 K. The extra‐
low‐interstitial grade (ELI) is recommended for low temperature uses. Fresh fracture surfaces of this
alloy, when in contact with liquid oxygen, burn expontaneously, and the reaction may spread at a
high rate. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
9. APPLICATIONS
Structural elements, fasteners, bolts and, generally speaking, those applications where high
temperatures precludes the use of aluminium alloys.
Representative cost of this alloy (sheet stock) is compared with those of other typical metals in Table
4‐23. Structural data are also included as a guide to cost effectiveness estimation.
Table 4‐23: Cost of Ti – 6 Al – 4 – V compared with those of other structural
metallic materials.
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a ult, Ultimate tensile strength.
b E, Modulus of Elasticity.
NOTE From Adams (1974) [51].
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
This alloy is known as René 41, which is a trade mark.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 8190 kg.m3. (room temp.) (Alloy Digest (1958) [3]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat.
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐78.
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Figure 4‐78: Specific heat, c, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐ 3 Ti as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Alloy Digest (1958)
[3].
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity
Effect of temperature on thermal conductivity: Figure 4‐79.
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Figure 4‐79: Thermal conductivity, k, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐ 3 Ti as a
function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Harris (1961)
[21].
Nominal composition.
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3.2.4. Thermal expansion
Mean coefficient of linear thermal expansion, , between 293 K and given temperature.
NOTE From Harris (1961) [21].
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐80.
Figure 4‐80: Thermal linear expansion, L/L, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐ 3 Ti as a
function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Solution‐treated at Touloukian (1967)c
1350 K and water‐quenched. [40].
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3.2.5. Melting range
1580 K ‐ 1616 K. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance.
3.3.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0). Figure 4‐81.
Figure 4‐81: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐ 3 Ti as a
function of wavelength, .
Explanation
T = 1023 K.
Nominal composition. Heated in T = 523,2 K.
air at 1255 K for 30 min.
T = 773,2 K.
T = 1023 K.
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Nominal composition. Heated in T = 523,2 K.
vacuum (1,01x102 Pa) at 1255 K
for 30 min. T = 773,2 K.
T = 1023 K.
Nominal composition. Well T = 1041,5 K.
oxidized.
3.3.1.2. Normal total emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal total emittance: Figure 4‐82.
Figure 4‐82: Normal total emittance, ʹ, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐ 3 Ti as a
function of temperature, T.
Explanation
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1) fine structure 2x106 m high. Measured in increasing
2) coarse structure 5x106 m high temperatures.
at 2x104 m intervals. The specimen was heated by gas
Cleaned in 1 to 1 water‐diluted HF for temperatures higher than
solution for 1 h, oxidized 3 h at 1227,6 K.
1200 K in air.
Above specimen measured in
decreasing temperatures.
Nominal composition. Chromel‐Alumel thermocouple
mounted off center on the face.
Electrically heated specimen.
Same as above.
Gas fired stand.
Same as .
Electrically heated stand.
Same as .
Gas fired stand.
Same as . Gas fired stand.
Based on optical pyrometer.
Heated in vacuum 30 min at 1255
K.
Oxidized in air 30 min at 1340 K
and 16 h at 1030 K.
Solution treated in argon
atmosphere 30 min at 1340 K. Air
cooled, aged in argon 16 h at 1030
K, oxidized.
3.3.3. Reflectance.
3.3.3.1. Bidirectional spectral reflectance.
Normal‐normal spectral reflectance ( = ʹ = 0): Figure 4‐83.
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Figure 4‐83: Normal‐normal spectral reflectance, ʺ, of Ni ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 11 Co ‐ 10 Mo ‐
3 Ti as a function of wavelength, . Data points correspond to normal‐
hemispherical reflectance while , , correspond to hemispherical‐normal
reflectance.
Explanation
773,2 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
1273 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
773,2 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
1273 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
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Same as above. Heated in 523,2 K source.
vacuum (102 Pa) at 1255 K for Sample temperature below 322 K.
30 min.
773,2 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
1273 K source.
Sample temperature below 322 K.
Nominal composition. = 4° ʹ = 2
Surface roughness: 1) fine Sample temperature: 294,3 K.
structure 2x106 m high. 2)
coarse structure 5x106 m high = 2 ʹ= 7°
at 2x104 m intervals. Sample temperature: 294,3 K.
Cleaned in 1 to 1 water‐diluted
HF solution for 1 h, oxidized 3 Same as above although sample
h at 1200 K in air. temperature is 828,1 K.
Same as above. Well oxidized. = 2 ʹ = 7°
3.4. Other physical properties
3.4.1. Electrical resistivity. Table 4‐24
Table 4‐24: Electrical Resistivity of Ni – 19Cr – 11Co – 10Mo – 3Tia
T x106
Condition
[K] [.m]
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a A sheet 1,9x10‐2 m thick was used in any case.
b It appears in the source as ʺroom temperatureʺ.
NOTE From ASMH (1974)e [9].
3.4.2. Magnetic properties
Relative Permeability: /0 < 1,002 measured at 1,6x103 A.m1 at room temperature (ASMH (1974)e
[9]).
4. ENVIRONMENTAL BEHAVIOR
4.1. Prelaunch
Highly polished surfaces of this alloy are very susceptible to increase in s and , by fingerprinting
and surface oxidation. Permanent damage may be caused unless contamination is immediately
removed and the surface is protected.
4.2. Postlaunch
Ascent heating is very likely to increase s and .
(From Breuch (1967) [16]).
5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.2. Corrosion resistance
This alloy is highly corrosion and oxidation resistant (Alloy Digest (1958) [3]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. Good in the annealed condition. Bad in the age hardening condition. (ASMH (1974)e
[9]).
6,3. Welding. Good in inert gas shielded arc (ASMH (1974)e [9]) for electron beam with preheating.
(Harris (1961) [21]). Sections thicker than 1,3x102 m are recommended in the last case.
6.4. Machining. Good with tungsten carbide tools in age hardening condition. (Alloy Digest (1958) [3]).
6.5. Heat treatment. Good. (ASMH (1974)e [9]).
6.6. Anodizing
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
Bar, sheet, plate, flats and billets.
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
This alloy has excellent properties even at temperature as high as 1250 K. Nevertheless, structural use
should be limited to temperatures below 1150 K, and even below 950 when thin sheets are used.
9. APPLICATIONS
For structural elements (high speed airframes) and antennas.
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‐ ‐ 34,5 ‐
Balance
0,12 0,5 36 0,5
2. OFFICIAL DESIGNATIONS
Ni 36
1,3912
This alloy is often known as Invar, which is a trade mark.
3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
3.1. Density. = 8082 kg.m3. (Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
3.2. Thermal properties
3.2.1. Specific heat.
Effect of temperature on specific heat: Figure 4‐84.
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Figure 4‐84: Specific heat, c, of Fe ‐ 36 Ni (Invar) as a function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Hunter (1961)
[22].
Fe ‐ 39 Ni, prepared from electrolytically
deposited pure iron and pure nickel.
3.2.2. Thermal conductivity.
293 K ‐ 373 K, k = 10,96 W.m1.K1. (Hunter (1961) [22]).
k = 10,47 W.m1.K1. (Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
k = 13,50 W.m1.K1. (Anon (1973) [6]).
3.2.4. Thermal expansion
Effect of temperature on thermal expansion: Figure 4‐85.
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Figure 4‐85: Linear thermal expansion, L/L, of Fe ‐ 36 Ni (Invar) as a function of
temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Vacuum‐melted, hot‐ Touloukian (1967)d
rolled at 1470 K from 7,5x102 to 2x102 m, [41].
reheated to 1270 K, water‐quenched, cold‐
rolled to 103 m, aged 8 h at 370 K, and
cooled slowly.
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3.2.4.1. Effect of alloying elements on thermal expansion coefficient: Figure 4‐86
Figure 4‐86: Effect of the concentration of alloying elements, c, on the value of the
coefficient of linear expansion, . From MOND NICKEL Co.
3.2.4.2. Effect of heat treatment on linear thermal expansion coefficient: Table 4‐25.
Table 4‐25: Linear thermal expansion coefficient of Fe – 36 Ni under different
temper conditions.
Temp. Range x106
Condition
[K] [K1]
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NOTE From Hunter (1961) [22].
3.2.5. Melting range.
Solidus temperature: 1698 K. (Hunter (1961) [22]).
3.3. Thermal radiation properties
3.3.1. Emittance.
3.3.1.1.1. Normal spectral emittance (ʹ = 0).
Effect of temperature on normal emittance for a particular wavelength: Figure 4‐87.
Figure 4‐87: Normal emittance, ʹ, of Fe ‐ 36 Ni (Invar), for = 6,7 x 107 as a
function of temperature, T.
Explanation
Nominal composition. Powders were mixed in desired Touloukian
proportions, compressed at 4,8x108 Pa and 298 K, (1967)d [41].
heated at 1373 K in flowing hydrogen; cold rolled, then
heated in hydrogen at 1273 K.
3.4. Other physical properties
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3.4.1. Electrical resistivity.
= (0,80 0,05)x106 .m. (Hunter (1961) [22]).
Temperature coefficient of electrical resistivity:
= 1,2x103 K1. (Hunter (1961) [22]).
3.4.2. Magnetic properties. Table 4‐26 and Table 4‐27.
Table 4‐26: Magnetic Properties of Fe – 36 Ni under different temper conditions.
Normal Relative
Field Strength
Condition Induction Permeability
H [A.m1]
B [T] (/o)x103
Annealed 8 0,020 1
32 0,950 2,2
64 0,310 3,7
95 0,440 3,5
103 0,445 3,4
NOTE From Alloy Digest (1964) [4].
Table 4‐27: Relative Permeability of Fe – 36 Ni, measured at 400 A.m‐1
T [K] (/o)x103
255 1,800
283 1,715
311 1,630
339 1,545
367 1,450
389 1,360
From Alloy Digest (1964) [4].
3.4.2.1. Loss of magnetism
Tia Tfa
Condition
[K] [K]
a Ti initial temperature; Tf minimum temperature of complete loss.
NOTE From Hunter (1961) [22].
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5. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
5.2. Corrosion resistance. This alloy resists the atmospheric corrosion and those produced by fresh
water and by salt water. (Anon. (1973) [6]).
6. FABRICATION
6.2. Forming. This alloy has almost unlimited capacity for plastic deformation, either hot or cold.
(Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
6.2.1. Hot working can be performed below 1530 K, (Alloy Digest (1964) [4]), however, as has been
reported by Hunter (1961) [22], careful handling is required to avoid cracking and breaking up.
6.2.2. Invar which has been subjected to cold working or machining may require a stress‐relieving heat
treatment for stabilization. (Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
6.3. Welding. May be successfully welded by any of the commonly used methods. (Alloy Digest (1964)
[4]).
6.4. Machining. Is somewhat difficult. (Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
6.5. Heat treatment. A reducing atmosphere should be used. (Hunter (1961) [22]).
7. AVAILABLE FORMS AND CONDITIONS
Hot rolled and cold drawn bars, wires, strips, and forgings.
8. USEFUL TEMPERATURE RANGE
This alloy retains its characteristic low expansiveness provided that temperature is maintained below
475 K. For applications at temperatures above this value, higher nickel alloys are recommended.
(Alloy Digest (1964) [4]).
9. APPLICATIONS
Because Invar has unusually low thermal expansion, it is used for instruments requiring constant
distances between points, glass to metal seals, thermostatic and other temperature control or
indicating devices, bimetals, etc.
Invar has positive thermoelastic coefficients over a large temperature range. This anomaly is useful in
developing alloys with nearly temperature‐invariant elastic constants.
Invar is also a candidate low‐temperature material. Its elastic properties between room temperature
and liquid helium temperature have been reported by Ledbetter, Naimon & Weston (1977) [24].
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5
Composite materials
E, Elasticity Modulus. [Pa]
Fo, Fournier Number, Fo = t/L2.
G, Relative Moisture Content.
L, Length, Sample Thickness. [m]
Le, Lewis‐Semenov Number. Le = Dc/k
M, Moisture Content.
N, Number of Thermal Cycles.
Q, Volume Gas Flow Rate. [m3.s1]
R, Electrical Resistance. []
Sunspot Number (Wolf Number). Introduced in
clause 5.13.2.5.
Re, Atomic Oxygen Reaction Efficiency. [m3.atom1]
Rʹ(,), Directional Hemispherical Spectral Reflectance Factor.
T, Temperature. [K]
TM, Maximum Continius Service Temperature. [K]
TMI, Maximum Intermittent Service Temperature. [K]
Td, Deflection Temperature. [K]
Tg, Glass Transition Temperature. [K]
X, Mole Fraction.
Strength. [Pa]
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c, Specific Heat. [J.kg1.K1]
k, Thermal Conductivity. [W.m1.K1]
p, Pressure. [Pa]
t, Time. [s], [h], [d]
, Thermal Diffusivity. [m2.s1]. = k/c
s, Solar Absorptance.
ʹ(,), Directional Total Absorptance.
ʹ(,), Directional Spectral Absorptance.
, Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion. [K1]
Angle Between Surface Normal and Direction of
Incident Flux. [Angular degrees]
ʹ, Angle Between Surface Normal and Direction of
Emergent Flux. [Angular degrees]
, Hemispherical Total Emittance.
ʹ(ʹ,ʹ), Directional Total Emittance.
ʹ(ʹ,ʹ), Directional Spectral Emittance.
, Circumferential Angle of Incident Flux. [Angular
degrees]
ʹ, Circumferential Angle of Emergent Flux. [Angular
degrees]
, Wavelength. [m]
, Poissonʹs Ratio.
, Density. [kg.m3]
Electrical resistivity. [.m]
ʹ(,), Directional‐Hemispherical Spectral Reflectance.
t, Tensile Strength. [Pa]
, Dimensionless temperature. introduced in clause
5.12.1.5.
ʹ(,), Directional‐Hemispherical Total Transmittance.
, Volume Fraction.
Particle Flux. [m2.s1]
Relative Humidity.
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, Frequency. [s1]
ʹ, Solid Angle of Emitted, Reflected or Transmitted
Radiation Beam. [Steradians]
Subscripts
f, Fiber.
m, Matrix.
o, Initial value.
0° Angle in Angle Plied Laminates.
s, Solar.
v, Void.
, Angle with Fibers in Unidirectional Laminates.
[degrees]
1, Parallel to Fibers in Unidirectional Laminates.
2, Normal to Fibers, in Plane of Laminate, Unidirectional
Laminates.
3, Normal to Plane of Laminate, Unidirectional
Laminates.
Acronyms
A‐glass, High‐Alkali Glass.
ABM, Apogee Boost Motor.
APC, Aromatic Polymer Composite.
AS, High Tensile. Surface Treated Fiber.
ASTM, American Society for Testing Materials.
ATC, Accelerated Thermal Cycling.
BDMA, Benzyl‐Dimethylamine.
BMI, Bismaleimide.
BTDE, Dimethylester of 3,3ʹ,4,4ʹ
Benzophenonetetracarboxylic Acid.
C‐glass, Chemical Glass.
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CD, Direct Current.
CF, Carbon Fiber.
CPI, Condensation‐Reaction Polyimide.
CTE, Coefficient of Thermal Expansion.
CVCM, Collected Volatile Condensable Material.
CVD, Chemical Vapor Deposition.
D‐glass, Dielectric Glass.
DDM, Diaminodiphenylmethane.
DDS, Diaminodiphenyl Sulfone.
DMP, Tri‐dimethylaminomethylphenol.
DSC, Differential Scanning Calorimetry.
E‐glass, Electrical Glass.
ESCA, Electron Spectroscopy Chemical Analysis.
ESD, Equivalent Sun Days.
ESH, Equivalent Sun Hours.
FEP, Fluorinated Ethylene‐Propylene.
FM,
FWPF, Fine Weave Pierced Fabric.
HHPA, Hexahydrophthalic Anhydride.
HM, High‐modulus same as Type I Carbon Fiber.
HMS, High Modulus. Surface Treated.
HS, High Strength same as Type II Carbon Fibers.
HT, High Tensile.
HTS, Intermediate Tensile and Modulus. Surface Treated.
IM, Intermediate Modulus.
IMFP, Inelastic Mean Free Path.
INTELSAT, Interim Telecommunications Satellite.
IPN, Interpenetrating Polymer Network.
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IR, Infrared.
KEL‐F, Polychlorotrifluoroethylene.
LEO, Low Earth Orbit.
LMSC, Lockheed Missiles & Space Company.
MBMI, Methyl‐substituted Bismaleimide.
MDA, 4,4ʹ‐Methylenedianiline.
MEA, Monoethylamine.
MEK, Methylethyl ketone.
MLI, Multilayer Insulation.
MMAB, m‐Aminibenzamide.
mPDA, Metaphenylene Diamine.
NBS, National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute
of Standards and Technology).
NE, Monomethylester of 5‐Narbornene‐2,3‐Dicarboxylic
Acid.
NMA, Nadic Methyl Anhydride.
OP,
PAN, Polyacrylonitrile.
PBT, Polybutylene Terephthalate.
PCU,
PEEK, Polyether Etherketone.
PES, Polyether Sulfone.
PET, Polyethylene Terephthalate.
PMR, (In situ) Polymerization of Monomeric Reactants.
PP, Polypropylene.
PPS, Polyphenylene Sulfide.
PTFE, Polytetraflourethylene.
PVA, Polyvinyl Alcohol.
PVF, Polyvinyl Fluoride.
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RPPR, Reflection Pulsed Photothermal Radiometry.
S‐glass, High‐Strength Glass.
SH, Solar Hours.
SPELDA, Structure Porteuse Externe de Lancement Double
ARIANE.
STS, Space Transportation System.
TAC, Triallylcyanurate.
TEA, Triethanolamine.
TFE, Tetrafluoroethylene.
TML, Total Mass Loss.
TPPR, Transmission Pulsed Photothermal Radiometry.
TPRL, Thermophysical Properties Research Laboratories
(Purdue University).
UHM, Ultrahigh Modulus.
UV, Ultra Violet.
VHM, Very High Modulud.
WCB,
WYP,
XAS, Super A Surface Treated Fiber.
XPS, X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy.
YM‐31A, High Modulus Glass.
4H‐1, Glass.
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LIST OF NOT YET IDENTIFIED MATERIALS
TRADE DESCRIPTION
P2000 PES
3110 Epoxy
HBRF 55A Epoxy
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ASH, Ashland Oil Incorporated
ATL, Atlantic Laminates
AZD, Azdel Incorporated
BAS, BASF
BKX, Bakelyte Xylonite Limited
BOU, Boulder Plastics, Incorporated
BRO, Brochier S.A. (Ciba‐Geigy)
CAS, The Castolite Company
CIB, Ciba‐Geigy, Limited. Ciba Corporation
CNS, Celanese Corporation
CRB, Carborundum Company, Plastics & Adhesives Department
COU, Courtaulds
CTH, Consultech Limited
CTL, Cincinnati Testing Laboratories, Incorporated
DOW, DOW Chemical Company
DUP, E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, Incorporated
ELI, Electroply, Incorporated
EPO, Epoxy Technology Inc.
FBR, Fiberfil Division, Dart Industries
FER, Ferro Corporation
FIB, Fiberite Corporation
FOT, Fothergill and Harvey, Limited
GAC, Goodyear Aerospace Corporation
GEC, General Electric Company
HCC, HC Chem. Research & Service Corporation
HER, Hercules Incorporated
HEX, Hexcel Products Incorporated
HHA, Hecht, Heyworth and Alcan (Chemical) Limited
HOE, Hoechst AG
HYS, Hysol Division, The Dexter Corporation
ICI, Imperial Chemical Industries
JEF, Jefferson Chemical Company
LNP, Liquid Nitrogen Processing Corporation
MCA, The Mica Corporation
MIL, Milliken & Company
MMM, Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing Company
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MON, Monsanto Company
NASA, National Aeronautics and Space Administration
PHP, Phillips 66 Petroleum Company
PPC, The Polymer Corporation
PRC, Products Research & Chemical Corporation
SHL, Shell Chemicals, UK Limited. Shell Chemical Company
SPI, Stevens Products Incorporated
SYN, Synthane Taylor Incorporated
TOR, Toray
TRW, Thompson‐Ramo‐Wooldrige
UCC, Union Carbide Corporation
UJC, Upjohn Company
UOP, Universal Oil Products
USP, U.S. Polymeric Incorporated
WCN, Whittaker Corporation, Narmco Materials Division
WEC, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Micarta Division
WEI, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Industrial Plastics Division
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5.3.2 Composition
Composite materials could consist of either an additive constituent (fibers, particles) embedded in a
matrix, or layers of two or more different materials.
5.3.2.1 Reinforcements
Reinforcing materials supply the basic strength of the composite.
Reinforcements could be:
a. Fibers.
Glass Fibers. They are mainly based on silica (SiO2 content is larger than 50 % in any case).
Depending on the chemicals added, different types of glass arise: A–glass (high alkali, 72 % of
SiO2), C‐glass (chemically resistant, it resists to acids), D‐glass (good dielectrical properties, high
dielectric permitivity or dielectric constant), E‐glass (good electrical properties, low electrical
resistivity, it resists to alkalies and to moisture), S–glass (high strength), YM‐31A (high
modulus).
High Silica and Quartz Fibers.
Metal Fibers and Wires.
Amorphous Metals (or Metallic Glasses). They are non‐crystalline metallic solids formed by
rapid quenching, sputtering, vacuum evaporation or other methods. They exhibit at least one
small dimension to ease rapid quenching. Their properties are distinctly different from those of
the corresponding crystalline alloys, particularly very high strength and high compressive or
bending ductility.
Carbon and Graphite Fibers. Carbon fibers are produced by pyrolisis of an organic precursor
fiber in an inert atmosphere at temperatures beyond 1200 K. The aim of these fibers could either
be to obtain high strength (HS or Type II carbon fiber), high modulus (HM or Type I), or both
(HMS).
The process of pyrolization in an inert atmosphere at temperatures in excess of 2000 K (and
holding the fibers under tension) is called graphitization. Its aim is to obtain fibers with higher
moduli. From this point of view the cut‐line between carbon and graphite fibers is not clearly
delineated (the same product may be identified as carbon or as graphite depending on the
reference). Although the distinction between both is far from crucial, in this clause we will
mainly follow the nomenclature used in the corresponding source.
GY70, from Celanese (now BASF Structural Materials), is the graphite fiber most often used in
spacecraft.
Multiphase Fibers. These are filaments, produced by CVD processes of boron on a filament
substrate such as tungsten. These fibers are attractive for use at high temperatures because of
their chemical stability.
Ceramic Fibers. These are continuous length filaments of alumina, boron carbide or silicon
carbide.
Aramid Fibers. Aramid fibers are produced from aromatic polyamides. Their main features are
low weight, high temperature strength and high modulus. They are resistant to flame and high
temperatures and can be easily woven. Kevlar, from E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company, is
the most extensively used Aramid fiber. Unfortunately, it buckles under moderate compressive
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forces, absorbs water and deteriorates under ultra‐violet radiation. Another Aramid, Nomex, is
also produced by DuPont.
Directionally‐Solidified Eutectics. Metallic fibers can be produced by directional solidification of
cast alloys. This process usually involves eutectic alloys in which the molten material exhibits
two or more phases during solidification at constant temperature.
In directional solidification the material structure is characterized by longitudinal single crystals
which, because of their ordered arrangement, provide to the material a very high strength.
Whiskers. Whiskers are short discontinuous ceramic or metallic single crystal fibers which
exhibit a very large strength and elastic strains greater than 1%. They can be used to reinforce
metal matrices. However, their very fine size makes whiskers extremely difficult to handle and
fabricate into fiber reinforced composites.
b. Fillers.
Solid Microspheres.
Hollow Microspheres.
Flakes.
5.3.2.2 Matrices
Matrices serve two fundamental purposes: 1) holding the reinforcement phase, and 2) distributing the
stress to the reinforcement constituents.
Matrices could be:
a. Metal matrix materials such as Aluminium, Titanium or Magnesium.
Fiber reinforced superalloy matrix composites have been developed for improved materials at
elevated temperatures. Fibers considered for such use include: refractory metal alloy wires,
carbon filaments, boron filaments, submicron diameter ceramic whiskers, continuous length
ceramic filaments, ...
The theoretical specific strength potential of refractory alloy fiber reinforced superalloys is less
than that of ceramic fiber reinforced superalloys, nevertheless the use of ceramic fibers has been
unsuccessful to date. The more ductile metal fiber systems are more tolerant of fiber‐matrix
reactions and thermal expansion mismatches.
b. Polymer matrix materials.
Polymer matrix materials can be thermosetting, thermoplastic and thermosetting‐plastic.
Thermosetting polymers are synthetic products which undergo a permanent and irreversible
change during curing. The cure is accomplished by heat, pressure and catalytic and/or hardener
agents. Several thermosetting polymers are capable of curing at ambient conditions.
The most used thermosetting products in the aerospace industry are: Epoxies with excellent
mechanical properties, Phenolics for their heat resistance and, for low performance
applications, Polyesters.
Thermoplastic polymers soften, and even melt, at high temperatures but reversibly regain
rigidity after cooling. The most commonly used are the Polyamide resins (Nylon) having
outstanding toughness, low friction and good chemical resistance. Polysulfone resins are also
used because they exhibit good transparency and high heat resistance.
Thermosetting‐plastic polymers behave either as thermosetting or as thermoplastic depending
on the applied curing process. The sole thermosetting‐plastic polymers used in spacecraft are
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the polyimides which exhibit outstanding resistance to heat and a low coefficient of thermal
expansion.
c. Ceramic and Glass matrix materials which are only used at high temperatures.
d. Carbon/carbon composites, also known as C/C or G/G composites, offer a superior potential as
high performance engineering materials at elevated temperatures where resistance to thermal
shock coupled with high strength is of importance. However, carbon/carbon composites are
susceptible to oxidation degradation at high temperatures for a long period of service and, also,
the achievement of controllable quality from suitable design and processing is, at present,
uncertain.
From Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164], Petrasek, Signorelli, Caufield & Tien (1989) [136], Hsu &
Chen (1989) [105].
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Figure 5‐1: International ties between Carbon Fiber manufactures. From SENER
(1984) [147].
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Figure 5‐2: Schematic of an angle plied laminate. From Chamis (1987) [67].
Figure 5‐3: Schematic of a tri‐orthogonally fiber reinforced composite. a) Straight
filaments. From Domínguez (1987) [82]. b) Tapes. From Aboudi (1984) [49].
Hybrid stratified laminates are characterized by a single matrix (usually) and two or more dissimilar
fibers. In intralaminar hybrid two reinforcements are in the same ply. An interlaminar hybrid has plies
reinforced with different fibers.
Fabric weaves are planar systems made by interlacing yarns or fibers as in the textile industry. Fabrics
are introduced to improve the in‐plane isotropic characteristics of a ply and to allow manufacturing
complex curvature surfaces. Different types of fabric weaves are shown in Figure 5‐4.
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Figure 5‐4: Main types of woven fabrics. Lengthwise (warp) yarns and crosswise
(fill) yarns can be interlaced to produce woven fabrics. A fabric construction of 16
x 14 means 16 warp ends per inch and 14 fill ends per inch. a) Plain weave. Very
stable. Small yarn slippage. b) Leno weave. Minimizes distortion with few yarns.
c) Twill. The fabric has a broken diagonal line and, consequently, greater
pliability than a plain weave. d) Crowfoot satin. Pliable and confortable to
contoured surfaces. From Domínguez (1987) [82], Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987)
[164].
An abridged designation is used to identify the laminates according to the reinforcement
arrangement. The convention used for laminates with a single type of reinforcing fibers is introduced,
by means of simple examples, in Table 5‐1.
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Table 5‐1: Abridged Designation of Single Reinforcement Laminates
0°,90°,45°,90°,0° Symmetrical. The central ply (45°)
(0/90/ ) S
contains the symmetry plane.
When fabrics and tapes are stacked in a laminate, fabrics are given in parenthesis. Thus,
(45/(0)/90/(45))T indicates that the sequence is: tape at 45°, fabric at 0°, tape at 90° and fabric at 45°.
For hybrid laminates the convention is the same but the reinforcing material is specified by means of
initials and digits as subscripts. Thus: (45K49/0T300) indicates that one of the plies, at 45°, is reinforced by
Kevlar 49 and the other, at 0°, by Graphite T300.
The matrix‐fiber composition of a composite material is represented by the initials representing the
fibers followed by those used to identify the matrix. For example: T300/SP288 is a graphite (T300)
epoxy (SP288) reinforced material.
Epoxy resin systems consist of a resin and a hardener or curing agent. They can be supplied as two
independent products, to be mixed before use, or as a mixture which can be thermally activated.
Two‐product systems are identified as it is indicated in the following example: DER 332/T403, where
DER 332 is the resin (Bisphenol A, epoxy) and T403 the hardener.
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In addition to the angular arrangement of plies a new angle appears because of the anisotropy of most
composite materials. For an unidirectional laminate the properties in the plane of laminate can be
measured parallel to the fibers and normal to the fibers.
Scalar variables are identified by a single subscript which indicates the direction, 1, 2 or 3 (see Figure
5‐5) in which they have been measured.
Figure 5‐5: Longitudinal (to fibers) and transverse directions for the measurement
of composite properties. From Chamis (1987) [67].
For plies stacked with different orientations, in‐plane variables are usually referred to the 0° direction.
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5.4.1 Density
f f m m [5‐1]
where is the volume ratio.
Table 5‐2: Density, f [kg.m‐3], of High‐Strength Fibers
Glass Fibers 2,50
A‐glass SENER (1984) [147]
C‐glass 2,49
D‐glass 2,16
4H‐1 glass 2,66
Carbon Fibers 1,72‐1,80
Carbon PAN Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
Carbon/Graphite pitch 1,99‐2,16
Graphite II 1,85
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Celion GY70 1,95
Celion 6000 (epoxy sized) 1,78
Fortafil 3 1,71
Fortafil 3T 1,80
Fortafil 4T 1,70
Fortafil 5 1,80
Fortafil 5T 1,80
Fortafil 6T 1,90
Grafil AS 1,76
G40‐600 (IM Celanese) 1,78
Hercules AS6 1,83
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Hercules HMS 1,88
Hercules IM7 1,78
Modmor I S 1,90
Modmor II S 1,77
Modmor III S 1,65
Modmor IV S 1,80
Panex 1/4CF‐30 1,73
Panex 30 1,74
Panex 30A 1,78
Panex 30C 1,78
Panex 30R 1,75
Panex 30Y/800d 1,75
Rigilor 1,75
Rigilor AG 1,95
Sigrafil HF 1,80
Sifrafil HM 2,00
Thornel 50 a 1,67
Thornel 50S a 1,67
Thornel 75 a 1,82
Thornel 75S a 1,82
Thornel 300 1,76
Thornel 300 WYP 90‐1/0 1,75
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Thornel 400 1,78
Toray T300B 1,72
Toray T300C 1,74
Toray T800 1,80
Torayca T300 1,78
Toraica T500 1,78
Aramid Fibers 1,44
Kevlar 29 Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
Kevlar 49 1,44
Other Organic Fibers 1,13
Polyamide Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
Polyester‐Dacron Type 68 1,38
Nylon Du‐Pont 728 1,13
Spectra‐900 0,97
Processed mineral fiber 2,68
Fibrafrax 2,60
Fibermax 2,99
Metal Wires 2,68
Aluminium Rosato (1982) [145]
Beryllium 1,85
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Boron 2,52
Molybdenum 10,2
Steel 7,81
Tantalum 16,6
Titanium 4,71
René 41 8,25
Amorphous Metals 7,40
Fe80B20 Davis (1978) [78]
Fe80P16C3B1 7,30
Fe40Ni40P14B6 7,51
Ni49Fe29P14B6Si2 7,65
Pd80Si20 10,3
Multiphase b 2,63
Boron Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
B4C Boron Carbide 2,35
SiC Silicon Carbide 3,46‐3,52
SiC on B ~ 3
TiB2 Titanium Diboride 4,48
Polycrystalline Inorganic (Bulk 3,16
or Fiber) Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
Al2O3 Alumina
ZrO2 Zirconia 4,84
BN Boron Nitride 1,91
WC Tungsten Carbide 15,70
TiB2 Titanium Diboride 4,5±0,1
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ZrC Zirconium Carbide 6,56
TiC Titanium Carbide 4,92
ZrB2 Zirconium Diboride 6,10
SiO2 Silica 2,54
Whiskers 2,10
Graphite Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]
Al2O3 Alumina 3,98
BeO Beryllium Oxide 3,01
SiC Silicon Carbide 3,22
B4C Boron Carbide 2,51
a Precursor RAYON.
b Deposited on 0,127 x 10‐3 m diameter Tungsten core wire.
Table 5‐3: Density, m [kg.m‐3], of Matrices
Epoxy 1,12
Typical Weast (1976) [163]
Fibredux 914 1,304
50% Resin type S 1,37
40% Resin type S 1,40
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Polyester 1,50‐2,10
Typical Weast (1976) [163]
Polyamide 1,13‐1,14
Nylon 6 Skinner & Goldhar (1968) [149]
Nylon 6/6 1,13‐1,15
Nylon 6/10 1,07‐1,09
Polysulfone 1,24‐1,25
Typical
Polyimide 1,44
Typical Economy, Nowak & Cottis (1970) [86]
c
1
f c f m m cm [5‐2]
f
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and being respectively the density and the volume fraction.
5.5.1.3. Tabulated data
Table 5‐4: Specific Heat, cf [J.kg1.K1], of High‐Strength Fibers
Temperature [K]
Type
290 300 370 480 670
Glass Fibers Table
1
C‐glass a,d 887
D‐glass a,d 732
E‐glass a,d 803
S‐glass a,d 737
S‐2‐glass a,d 737
Carbon Fibers
A graphite d 710
HM graphite d 710
VHM graphite d 710
UHM P75 1000
graphite e
UHM P100 1000
graphite e
UHM P120 1000
graphite e
Fortafil 3 f 921
Fortafil 5 f 879
Grafil f 710
Magnamite AS1 712
f
Magnamite HTS 712
f
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Temperature [K]
Type
290 300 370 480 670
Thornel 300 f 712
Aramid Fibers Table
1
Kevlar d 5‐6
Metal Wires
Aluminium d 960
Boron d 840
Amorphous
Metals
Fe81,5B14,5Si4 f 270
Fe75C10P15f 494
Pd82Si18 f 670
a Determined on bulk.
b From Johnson (1961) [109].
c Determined on fibers.
d From Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987) [164]. Temperature not given.
e From AMOCO (1990) [52]. The number after P stands for the fiber Ef in millions of lb.in2.
f From Karlsson (1983) [111].
g From Elias & Waugh (1981) .
Table 5‐5: Fussed Silicia
Temperature [K] cf [J.kg1.K1]
50 96,8 a,b
100 261 a,b
200 543 a,b
290 963 c,d
300 745 a,b
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a Determined on bulk.
b From Johnson (1961) [109].
c Determined on fibers.
d From Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987). Temperature not given.
Table 5‐6: Kevlar d
Temperature [K] cf [J.kg1.K1]
270 1220
320 1600
370 1990
420 2370
470 2620
520 2740
570 2840
d From Weeton, Peters & Thomas (1987). Temperature not given.
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Table 5‐7: Specific Heat, cm [J.kg‐1.K‐1], of Matrices
560 1500
250 1050
310 1260
370 1460
420 1800
480 2340
500 3060
530 2220
560 1460
590
620
Polyamide 1670
Nylon 6 Anon. (1969) [53]
Nylon 6/6 1260‐2090
Nylon 6/10 1260‐2090
Polyimide 1050
Typical Chamis (1987) [67]
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Table 5‐8: Specific Heat, c [J.kg‐1.K‐1], of Composite Materials
Type Volume 30 80 210 220 250 270 290 300 320 350
f
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a From Clements & moore (1978)[73].
b From Collings & Smith (1978) [75].
c From Penton (1966) [135].
d From Clements & Chiao (1977) [71].
e From Amoco (1990) [52]. The number after P stands for the fiber Ef in millions of lb.in‐2.
f Composite is Textron FWPF. Data from smooth curve in the 30 K to 100 K range. From Yang & Migone (1989)
[167].
For additional information on the specific heat of glass‐reinforced, graphite‐epoxy, boron‐epoxy and
of other advanced composites, at room temperature and below, see clause 5.5.
Figure 5‐6: Cryostat assemblies for measuring the thermal conductivity, k. a) High‐
k samples. b) Low‐k samples. From Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979) [137].
For explanation see text.
A cryostat assembly, suspended from the top cap of a Dewar vessel by means of three stainless steel
tubes, encloses a copper specimen chamber, C, surrounded by an outer brass can, B. The specimen, S,
shaped as a bar, is held axially by a copper mounting block, O, located at the center of the base of the
specimen chamber. Another, slightly different, mounting block can be used to hold an electrolytic iron
reference bar.
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The upper copper block, H, thermally decoupled from the surrounding, is electrically heated. Both the
heated holder and the bar are surrounded by a stainless steel radiation shield, R, which terminates in a
copper top cap, T, with a thermal anchoring port, A, for the electrical connections.
A copper block, U, is hard soldered to the base of the specimen chamber to house a platinum
resistance thermometer. The temperature gradient along the specimen can be measured through
thermometer yokes, Y, in thermal contact with the specimen.
Apiezon vacuum grease is used to achieve good thermal contact between the various demountable
components. The specimen chamber is evacuated and sealed to the bottom plate by Loctite Stud Lock
which provides access when changing specimens.
Temperatures between 80 K and 270 K can be achieved, with liquid nitrogen in the Dewar, by means
of a series of five heating coils wound on the outside of the specimen chamber, C. The temperature is
monitored, within a few milli degrees, with the sensor located in the copper block, U, which activates
the heating coils.
The temperature gradient along the radiation shield, R, should be identical to that along the specimen.
To this aim the base of the shield was in thermal contact with the specimen holder whereas a
differential thermocouple placed between H and T activates a heating coil wound on the top section of
the radiation shield.
When the thermal conductivity is small, disc‐shaped samples are used as in the Leeʹs disc
arrangement, Figure 5‐6b.
Now the outer brass can, B, the specimen chamber, C, and the temperature sensor, U, are the same as
before.
The specimen disc, S, is sandwiched between two copper blocks which contain the platinum
resistance thermometers. The upper block terminates on a pillar, H, to which a heater is wound. The
lower block, L, fits into the base of the specimen chamber.
Good thermal contact between the various surfaces is achieved by a low vapour‐pressure grease.
The radiation shield, R, consists of two equal diameter cylindrical copper shells separated by a nylon
insert, N, the length and axial position of which are the same as those of the specimen.
The temperature equality between the lower part of the shield and the lower sandwich block is
achieved by thermally connecting them through the base of the specimen chamber, and that between
the upper part of the shield and the upper sandwich block is achieved with the aid of a differential
thermocouple which actuates a heater wound to the upper part of the shield.
When the temperature changes, the thermal conductivity is measured continuously by use of a two‐
plate apparatus, Figure 5‐7.
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Figure 5‐7: Facility used to measure the thermal conductivity, k, of a sample as a
function of temperature in the range 90 K to 410 K. Temperature changes
continuously. From Ott (1981) [132].
The samples lie between the temperature probe plates and the heat store. The heat flows from the
outer plates to the central heat store through temperature probes and samples. An adiabatic shell, kept
at the heat store temperature, shields the system.
Helium and Nitrogen, are used in order to obtain a reliable thermal contact between the plates.
Since the temperature changes with time, both the sample specific heat and heat store influence the
flux and should be taken into account. The specific heat is deduced from the measurements.
In the case of polymer melts, material characteristics could change due to degradation when exposed
to high temperatures for the extended periods of time required by the measurements.
The measurements can be made quickly, before the effects of thermal degradation become apparent,
by use of the Line Source Method which is based on the transient flow of heat in cylindrical
geometries (Lobo & Cohen (1990) [120]).
The thermal conductivity is deduced (independently of the specific heat) from the change in
temperature during a time interval at a fixed point close to the cylinder axis. This method has been
used to measure the thermal conductivity of unreinforced and reinforced materials in the temperature
range 290 K to 500 K. The reproducibility of the results is better than 10 %. The results agree
reasonably close with others found in the literature.
The probe consists in heater and measurement wires which are encased in a thin steel hypodermic
needle 0,05 m long and 1,3 x 10 ‐3 m in diameter, Figure 5‐8: Hypodermic probe to measure the
thermal conductivity of polymer melts. All the dimensions are in mm. From Lobo & Cohen (1990)
[120].. Heater elements are 36 gauge constantan thermocouple wires (TFE sheathed) which extend all
along the probe. Temperature is measured with 36 gauge J‐type thermocouple wires (TFE sheathed)
which are spot welded or brazed. Care should be taken to place the thermocouple bead halfway down
the casing length and in physical contact with the wall.
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Figure 5‐8: Hypodermic probe to measure the thermal conductivity of polymer
melts. All the dimensions are in mm. From Lobo & Cohen (1990) [120].
Since the power output of the probe heater is too small a booster heater is used to heat up the sample
to its initial temperature.
For molten samples a concentric barrel heater is used. After the barrel heater has attained the desired
temperature level, the sample is introduced through the top. Once the sample is melted, the probe is
inserted axially down the center of the barrel and the temperature monitored until steady state is
attained.
For measurements below the melting point the barrel heater is inconvenient and a circulation oil or
fluidized sand bath may be used. The samples are prepared by melting the polymer into small vials in
an oven under vacuum. The probe is inserted into the molten polymer which is allowed to solidify
slowly. The sample with imbedded probe is then placed in the bath and reading may be taken at
different temperatures.
To account for the deviation of the experimental setup from the ideal situation, a probe constant factor
is obtained by calibration against materials of known thermal conductivity.
The transverse thermal conductivity, k2 = k3, of the composite in terms of the thermal conductivities of
the constituents:
f km
k 2 k3 1 f k m k
[5‐4]
1 f 1 m
kf
2
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When voids exist in the matrix km should be substituted by kʹm
k m 1 f k m
v km
k
[5‐5]
1 v 1 m
kv
For the thermal conductivity in a direction forming an angle with the fibers, k:
k k1 cos 2 k 2 sin 2 [5‐6]
For a composite material with n1 layers of fibers forming an angle 1 with the measurement direction,
and n2 layers of fibers forming an angle 2:
n1 n2
k k1 k [5‐7]
n1 n2 n1 n2 2
From Karlsson (1983) [111], Chamis (1987) [67].
Type Temperature [K]
Glass Fibers 1,9/2,2 a
E‐Glass
S‐2 Glass 2,6/2,7 a
Carbon Fibers 105/‐
Grafil
GY70 140/‐
Fortafil 3 20/‐
Fortafil 5 144/‐
Magnamite AS1 6/‐
Thornel P 83/‐
Thornel 300 21/9
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Type Temperature [K]
Kevlar 49/HBRF 55A d ‐/21
Amorphous Metals 14
Fe81,5B14,5Si4
Fe80B20 6,5
Fe74C10P15 5,9
Fe73Mo10B17 7,1
Zr70Co30 5,1
Zr70Ni30 3,8
Zr10Be40Ti50 3,5
Pd82Si18 21
Pd78Cu6Si16 9,2
a Deduced from k of an unidirectional composite.
b P 130X is an Amoco Advanced Pitch‐Based Fiber. Data from smooth curve in McGuire & Vollerin (1990) [127].
See also Figure 5‐10.
c Measured on fibers only. Corrected value for a specific density 1,45.
d From Elias & Waugh (1981).
NOTE All data, unless otherwise stated, are from Karlsson (1983) [111].
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Table 5‐10: Thermal Conductivity, km [W.m1.K1], of Matrices
Temperature [K]
Type
270 290 300 350 470 570
Epoxy
0,230 0,234 0,236 Table 5‐11
1
Araldite LY556 a
Araldite MY 750/DDM b 0,29 0,06
Hysol 6000‐OP d 0,196
H 70E e 1,4
H 70S e 1,2
Phenolic
0,245
Typical d
50% Resin type S d 0,356
40% Resin type S d 0,377
Polyester
0,16
Typical f
Castolite d 0,175
Polyamide
0,215 0,219 0,220 Table 5‐16
1
Nylon 6 a
Polysulfone
0,26
Typical f
Polyphenylene Sulfide f 0,29
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Temperature [K]
Type
270 290 300 350 470 570
Polymide
0,156 0,163 0,178 0,189
Kapton i
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
b From Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979) [137].
c From Chiao & Moore (1974) [68].
d From Touloukian (1967) [157].
e From Epo‐Tek (1989) [87].
f From Karlsson (1983) [111].
g Rod. Measured along direction of extrusion.
h From Ashworth, Loomer & Kreitman (1973) [54].
I From GENIUM (1986) [91].
Table 5‐11: Araldite LY556
Temperature [K] km [W.m1.K1]
100 0,162
140 0,187
175 0,203
180 0,205
220 0,219
260 0,228
270 0,230
290 0,234
300 0,236
320 0,239
340 0,243
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
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Table 5‐12: DER 332/T403 (100:36) c
Temperature [K] km [W.m1.K1]
300 0,134
320 0,174
340 0,210
c From Chiao & Moore (1974) [68].
Table 5‐13: Epitoke 210/BF3400 b
Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
175 0,194
180 0,196
220 0,207
260 0,222
270 0,226
b From Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979) [137].
Table 5‐14: Epoxin 162 a
Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
100 0,179
140 0,207
175 0,223
180 0,225
220 0,237
260 0,244
270 0,245
290 0,247
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Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
300 0,248
320 0,250
340 0,252
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
Table 5‐15: Palatal P51 a
Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
100 0,156
140 0,171
175 0,180
180 0,182
220 0,188
260 0,192
270 0,192
290 0,193
300 0,193
320 0,193
340 0,192
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
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Table 5‐16: Nylon 6 a
Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
100 0,166
140 0,182
175 0,193
180 0,195
220 0,205
260 0,213
270 0,215
290 0,219
300 0,220
320 0,223
340 0,226
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
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Table 5‐17: Comco, Nylon 6/6 g,h
Temperature [K] km [W.m1.K1]
1 0,00193
20 0,0948
40 0,184
60 0,245
80 0,278
100 0,297
140 0,324
180 0,337
220 0,348
260 0,355
300 0,366
320 0,370
340 0,370
g Rod. Measured along direction of extrusion.
h From Ashworth, Loomer & Kreitman (1973).
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Table 5‐18: Polypenco 101, Nylon 6/6 g,h
Temperature [K] km [W.m1.K1]
1 0,00193
20 0,0948
40 0,175
60 0,228
80 0,263
100 0,284
140 0,305
180 0,316
220 0,328
260 0,329
300 0,342
320 0,353
340 0,357
g Rod. Measured along direction of extrusion.
h From Ashworth, Loomer & Kreitman (1973).
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Table 5‐19: Polypropylene a
Temperature km [W.m1.K1]
[K]
100 0,148
140 0,162
175 0,173
180 0,174
220 0,185
260 0,192
270 0,193
290 0,195
300 0,195
320 0,196
340 0,195
a Curve fitting to experimental points given by Ott (1981) [132].
See also Figure 5‐9.
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Figure 5‐9: Thermal conductivity, km, of different matrices as a function of
temperature, T. Numerical values are given in Table 5‐10.
Explanation
Araldite LY 556 Ott (1981) [132]
Epikote 210/BF3400 Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979)
[137]
Epoxin 162 Ott (1981) [132]
Palatal P51
Nylon 6
Comco, Nylon 6/6 Ashworth, Loomer & Kreitman (1973)
[54]
Polypenco 101, Nylon 6/6
PP Polyprolene Ott (1981) [132]
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Figure 5‐10: Longitudinal thermal conductivity, kf1, of several advanced pitch
graphite fibers vs. temperature, T. The fiber designation is from Amoco
Performance Products; the number stands for the fiber elasticity modulus in
millions of lbs.in2. All the data, unless otherwise stated, are from LMSC. Pitch
precursor graphite fibers have a structure which approaches that of a single crystal
of graphite and, thus, their thermal conductivity is very large. From McGuire &
Vollerin (1990) [127].
Table 5‐20: Characteristics of Composite Materials (Thermal Conductivity can be
found following the links)
Fiber
Spec. Fiber Void
Direction of
Matrix Fiber Volume Content
No. Type measurement
angle (°) f v
(Manufacturer)
of Weave
Table Araldite LY
1 Glass 0 0,586 Parallel to fibers
5‐21 556 Roving
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐21 to fibers
(Owens‐Corning) Perpendicular
5‐22 to fibers
Table
1 0,650 Parallel to fibers
5‐22
Table
1 Perpendicular
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Fiber
Spec. Fiber Void
Direction of
Matrix Fiber Volume Content
No. Type measurement
angle (°) f v
(Manufacturer)
of Weave
5‐22 to fibers
Table
1 0,700 Parallel to fibers
5‐22
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐22 to fibers
Table
1 S‐2 Glass 0 0,600 Parallel to fibers
5‐23 Fiberglass P263A
(Owens‐Corning)
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐23 to fibers
Table
1 0,650 Parallel to fibers
5‐23
Table
1 0,700 Parallel to fibers
5‐23
Table Epoxin 162
1 Glass, Roving 0 0,455 Parallel to fibers
5‐24 (Owens‐Corning)
Table
1 Palatal P51 0,484 Parallel to fibers
5‐24
Table
1 0,487 Perpendicular
5‐24 to fibers
Table
1 Nylon 6 Short glass 0,195 Parallel to fibers
5‐24
Table
1 PP Long glass 0,300 Parallel to fibers
5‐24
Table Epoxy DOW
1 YM‐31A‐glass 0 Parallel to fibers
5‐25
Table
1 Roving, 57/303 Parallel to plane
5‐25 HTS finish of cloth
Table Narmco 4033
1 Quartz Weave Parallel to plane
5‐26 (Whittaker Corp. of cloth
(prepreg))
Table Narmco 4065
1 Light Weight Quartz Weave Parallel to plane
5‐26 (Whittaker Corp. of cloth
(prepreg))
Table Epikote
1 Morganite 0 0,607 0,001 Parallel to fibers
5‐27 210/BF3400 HMS Carbon
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Fiber
Spec. Fiber Void
Direction of
Matrix Fiber Volume Content
No. Type measurement
angle (°) f v
(Manufacturer)
of Weave
Table
1
(Modmor) 0,579 0,003 Perpendicular
5‐27 to fibers
Table
1 90 0,557 0,008 Parallel to one
5‐27 set of fibers
Table
1 0,561 0,000 Bisecting angle
5‐27 between fibers
Table
1 Morganite 0 0,584 0,023 Parallel to fibers
5‐27 HTS Carbon
(Modmor)
Table
1 0,459 0,000 Perpendicular
5‐27 to fibers
Table
1 0,591 0,003 Perpendicular
5‐27 to fibers
Table
1 0,719 0,000 Perpendicular
5‐27 to fibers
Table
1 90 0,621 0,012 Parallel to one
5‐27 set of fibers
Table
1 0,593 0,028 Bisecting angle
5‐27 between fibers
Table Phenolic
1 Graphite 0 Parallel to fibers
5‐28 Monsanto WCB Style Fabric
Table Hercules
1 HM Graphite 0 0,510 0,019 0°
5‐29 2002M (Hercules)
(prepreg)
Table
1 90°
5‐29
Table
1 0/90 0°
5‐29
Table
1 ±30
5‐29
Table
1 ±45
5‐29
Table
1 ±60
5‐29
Table
1 0/±60
5‐29
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Fiber
Spec. Fiber Void
Direction of
Matrix Fiber Volume Content
No. Type measurement
angle (°) f v
(Manufacturer)
of Weave
Table
1 0/90/±45
5‐29
Table
1 0/±45
5‐29
Table Araldite CY
1 Thornell T300 90/08/90 0,620 0°
5‐30 203 (Union Carbide)
HT 872
Table Hardener
1
5‐30
Table Narmco 4047
1 Carbon Weave Parallel to plane
5‐30 (Whittaker Corp.) of cloth
Table Hercules HA
1 Rayon G2206 Weave 0,530 Parallel to plane
5‐31 43 Carbon of cloth
Epoxy (Hitco)
Table decomposed
1 Perpendicular
5‐31 under heating to plane of cloth
Table (Carbon
1 PAN M/74/01/C Weave 0,440 Parallel to plane
5‐31 matrix) Carbon of cloth and one
(Morganite) set of fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐31 to plane of cloth
Table
1 Araldite LY 0,450 Parallel to plane
5‐31 558 of cloth and one
Epoxy set of fibers
decomposed
Table
1
under Perpendicular
5‐31 heating to plane of cloth
(Carbon
matrix)
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐32 to fibers
Table
1 XD7818/T403 0,600 Perpendicular
5‐32 to fibers
Table Narmco 4018
1 Nylon Weave Parallel to plane
5‐32 (Whittaker Corp. of cloth
(prepreg))
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Fiber
Spec. Fiber Void
Direction of
Matrix Fiber Volume Content
No. Type measurement
angle (°) f v
(Manufacturer)
of Weave
Table CTL‐91‐LD
1 SN‐19 Nylon
5‐32 Phenolic YN‐25 Style
Table 5‐21: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 100 150 200 220 250 270 300 320 350
1 0,367 0,487 0,567 0,591 0,617 0,631 0,645 0,653 0,662 (1)
Table 5‐22: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 250 290 320 350
3 1,06 1,17 1,26 1,35 (2)
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Table 5‐23: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 220 250 270 300 320 350
9 1,50±0,26 1,58±0,26 1,67±0,26 1,75±0,26 (3)
NOTE References: Clements & Moore (1979) [74]
(3) Specimens as above. Longitudinal values are valid within ± 26%. Continuing study on the exploration of low
cost fabrication of large parts.
Table 5‐24: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 100 150 200 220 250 270 300 320 350
13 0,338 0,459 0,528 0,548 0,571 0,584 0,599 0,605 0,606 (1)
14 0,352 0,450 0,510 0,527 0,548 0,560 0,576 0,585 0,591
(4)
15 0,249 0,308 0,342 0,352 0,363 0,370 0,379 0,384 0,393
16 0,166 0,185 0,200 0,205 0,211 0,215 0,220 0,223 0,227
17 0,182 0,204 0,222 0,227 0,232 0,234 0,234 0,232 0,228
NOTE References: Ott (1981) [132]
(1) Fiber rovings impregnated and wrapped on a metal frame by a winding machine with constant feed. Plates
cut out of the wound composite were used for measuring the thermal conductivity perpendicular to the fibers.
For the measurements in the fiber direction approximately 30 plane polished plates were stacked together
with the resin, and teh plates cut out of the block perpendicular to the fiber direction. Measurements as in
Figure 5‐6. Curve fitting to experimental points by the compiler.
(4) Nylon 6 samples furnished by BASF AG, PP samples from Hoechst AG. Measurements as in (1).
Table 5‐25: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 100 120 150 170 200 220 250 270 290
18 0,215 0,234 0,260 0,274 0,288 0,294 0,301 0,310 0,327 (5)
19 0,214 0,236 0,263 0,279 0,300 0,314 0,330 0,337 0,338
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NOTE References: Hertz & Haskins (1965) [101]
(5) Cure temperature 420 K. Curing pressure 14 x 105 Pa to 1,6 x 103 Pa. Stops. Measured in Nitrogen (similar
values are obtained in Helium). From smooth curve.
Table 5‐26: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature Comments References
No. [K]
290 530
20 0,32 0,36 (6) Penton (1966)
Table 5‐27: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity,
k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature [K] Comments
No. 80 100 120 150 170 200 220 250 270
22 12,0 17,2 24,6 29,5 36,6 41,1 47,1 50,6 (7)
24 (3.30) 5,30 7,40 10,9 13,1 16,1 18,0 20,7 22,6
25 (3.64) 5,64 7,75 11,0 13,1 16,2 18,0 20,6 22,0
26 (1.55) 2,27 3,05 4,25 5,08 6,35 7,20 8,48 9,33
30 (0.94) 1,45 1,95 2,70 3,20 3,96 4,46 5,21 5,73
31 (1.02) 1,46 1,94 2,71 3,28 4,17 4,79 5,75 6,39
NOTE References: Pilling, Yates, Black & Tattersall (1979) [137]
(7) Resin in a solution of MEK and 20% hardener is heated in vacuum oven at 400 K. Oven is pumped from 10
min. Resin poured in a mould and oven cured for 1 h. Once void free resin is cured at 420 K for 2 h. For
longitudinal measurements the Searle’s bar technique was used (see paragraph 2.5.2.1). Bar specimens 6x10‐3
m x 6x10‐3 m x 0,1 m. For transverse measurements the Leeʹs disc method was used (see paragraph 2.5.2.1).
Discs 35 x 10‐3 dia. The estimated error was ± 3% at 80 K increasing to ± 4% at 270 K for the HMS reinforced
bars, and ± 5% at 80 K to ± 7% ‐ ± 10% at 270 K for HTS reinforced bars. The error in the Lees’ disc method was ±
3% to ± 10% over the temperature range. Parenthetical values have been apparently extrapolated. The work
aims at obtaining data for immediate technological application and evaluating the available prediction
methods.
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Table 5‐28: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 100 150 200
32 0,428 0,667 0,887 (8) Hertz & Haskins
(1965)
(8) Cure temperature 435 K. Curing pressure 14 x 106 Pa to 1,6 x 103 Pa. Stops. Measured in Nitrogen. From
smooth curve.
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Table 5‐29: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in
Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 170 220 270 290 300 330 370 420
33 31..5 35,5 37,0 38,9 41,5 44,3 47,4 (9) Friend, Poesch
35 19,9
36 29,4
37 19,9
38 10,4
39 19,9
40 19,9
41 26,3
(9) Values for Specs. No. 35 to 41 have been calculated.
Table 5‐30: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 100 150 170 220 250 270 290 300 320 330 350 530
42 8,6 21,0 26,0 39,0 47,0 51,0 55,0 57,0 60,0 62,0 64,0 (10) Reibaldi
(1985)
43 7,4 19,0 24,0 36,0 43,0 47,0 51,0 53,0 56,0 57,0 60,0 (11)
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Table 5‐31: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 2 10 40 80
Table 5‐32: Smoothed values of the Thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1], of the
Composite Specimens Characterized in
Table 5‐9.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 100 150 220 250 270 290 300 320 350 530
51 2,62 2,84 3,05 3,22 3,31 3,34 (13) Clements & Moore
(1977)
52 0,27 0,33 0,35 0,37 0,39
53 0,63 0,73 0,83 0,93 1,03 1,13
54 0,14 0,19 (6) Penton (1966)
For additional information on the thermal conductivity of glass‐reinforced, graphite‐epoxy, boron‐
epoxy and of other advanced composites, at room temperature and below, see clause 5.5.
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Figure 5‐11: Typical assembly for measuring the thermal diffusivity, , of a long
slender bar by use of the Angström method. From Landis (1964) [116].
If is the input frequency (1 to 2 cycles per minute) and consideringonly the conductive heat transfer
along the bar, the phase shift at x = L is/2)1/2L (Carslaw & Jaeger (1959) [65]), from which can be
deduced. The analysis is quite simple if the bar end temperature changes as a pure sinusoid, this
however is difficult to achieve experimentally and higher harmonics appear in the experimental
periodic function which should be analyzed numerically.
The so called Transmission Pulsed Photothermal Radiometry (TPPR or ʺflashʺ method), also based on
the application of a time‐dependent heat input, is used worldwide, since the early sixties, for
measuring and has been applied to composite materials. See Taylor, Groot & Shoemaker (1981)
[152], Balageas (1988) [57] and the references therein, Pujolá & Balageas (1986) [140], ...
In this technique, the front face of a small disc‐shaped sample is heated (by a laser, a flash lamp or an
electron beam) during a short enough time to be considered as a pulse, Figure 5‐12. The temperature
of the rear face at instant t is a known function of the Fourier number, Fo = t/L2, L being the sample
thickness, so that, can be deduced from the measured temperature history of the rear face.
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Figure 5‐12: Typical assembly for measuring the thermal diffusivity, , of a disc
shaped sample. From Lachi, Legrand & Degiovanni (1988) [115].
The effects of heat losses to the environment, pulse shape, and temperature‐dependent properties
should be accounted for.
In the Reflection Pulsed Photothermal Radiometry (RPPR), which is a variant of the flash method, the
evolution of the front face is analyzed in order to calculate . According to Balageas, Déom & Boscher
(1988) [56] both methods (transmission and reflection) seem up to now to be equivalent.
An apparatus, used at TPRL (Purdue University) has been described by Taylor, Groot & Shoemaker
(1981) [152]. The apparatus consists of a Korad K2 laser, a high vacuum system including a bell jar
with windows for viewing the sample, a tantalum tube heater surrounding the sample‐holding
assembly, a spring‐loaded thermo‐couple and an IR detector. The electronic subsystem consists in the
appropriate biasing circuits, amplifiers, A‐D converters, crystal clocks and a minicomputer‐based data
acquisition system capable of accurately taking data in the 40 microsecond and longer time domain.
The computer controls the experiment, collects the data, calculates the results and compares the raw
data with the theoretical model.
The application of the technique to composite materials is discussed by Luc & Balageas (1984) [124].
For sufficiently thick samples an equivalent homogeneous medium is defined (Balageas & Luc (1986)
[58]).
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Table 5‐33: Thermal diffusivity, f x 106 [m2.s‐1], of High‐Strength Fibers
Temperature
Manufacturer Direction of [K]
Type References
(Supplier) Measurement
300
Other
Temp.
Other
Temp.
a Data displayed in Figure 5‐13.
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Table 5‐34: Thermal diffusivity, f x 106 [m2.s‐1], of High‐Strength Fibers
Direction of Measurement
Thickness
Manufacturer
Type L x 103 Perpendicular Parallel to References
(Supplier)
[m] to plane of plane of
laminate laminate
Lyvertex G803 b Brochier
6,2 0,410 1,7
HT Carbon Fabric
Kevlar/145‐S Du
5,6 0,147 0,700
Epoxy b Pont/Brochier
b T = 300 K. Ambient pressure: 105 Pa. Flash method.
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Figure 5‐13: Thermal diffusivity, f, of different fiber cloths as a function of
temperature, T. Numerical values are given in Table 5‐33 From Touloukian (1967)
[157].
Explanation
Key Description
Glass cloth. 8 harness satin. 57 yarns.in1 x 54 picks.in1
Mass/Area = 0,30 kg.m2, L = 0,42x103 m, p = 1,21x105 Pa.
As above.
p = 1,56x103 Pa.
Silica cloth. Twill weave. 57 warp.in1 x 52 filling yarns.in1
Mass/Area = 0,25 kg.m2, L = 0,50x103 m, p = 1,21x105 Pa.
As above.
p = 0,56x103 Pa.
Graphite cloth. Plain weave. 26,9 warp.in1 x 22,7 filling yarns.in1
Mass/Area = 0,26 kg.m2, L = 0,62x103 m, p = 1,20x105 Pa.
As above.
p = 2,16x103 Pa.
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Table 5‐35: Thermal diffusivity, m [m2.s‐1], of Matrices
50% Resin type S 0,17
40% Resin type S 0,18
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Table 5‐36: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s‐1], of Composite Materials
Fiber Temperature [K]
Matrix Fiber Volume, Comments References
f 290 330 370 590 Other
CTL‐37‐ 181 Glass b
9X Fabric Table 5‐37
1
Phenolic
Ironside Graphite c
0,14
101 Mat
Phenolic
WC‐101 d
Graphite 0,31
Cloth
Graphite Table 5‐38
1
e
Cloth
0,47 to Table 5‐38
1
f
0,53
Table 5‐38
1
g
Table 5‐38
1
h
CTL‐91 Graphite i
0,47 to
LD Mat Table 5‐38
1
0,53
Phenolic
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a Pressed 500 kg.m‐2 at 450 K for 1 h, then postcured at 450 K for 16 h. From smooth curve.
b From smooth curve. Highly scattered data points. Reported error 9% ‐ 11%.
c 6 sheets of graphite mat. Disc‐shaped 3,2 x 10‐2 m2, 3,6 x 10‐3 m thick, = 1060 kg.m‐3. Pressed 500 kg.m‐2 at 450
K for 1 h, then postcured at 450 K for 16 h. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
d 13 sheets of graphite cloth, Disc‐shaped 3,2 x 10‐2 m2, 4,1 x 10‐3 m thick, = 1280 kg.m‐3. Cured and postcured
as above. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
e Pressed 500 kg.m‐2 at 465 K for 1 h, then postcured at 465 K for 12 h. Measured at side 1. From smooth curve.
Low resolution figure.
f Same as above. Measured at side 2. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
g Same as above. Measured at side 5. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
h Same as above. Measured at side 6. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
I Sample size 0,115 m x 0,115 m x 4,6 x10‐3 m. Cured and postcured as above. From smooth curve. Low
resolution figure.
j L = 1,62 x 10‐3 m, 3,21 x 10‐3 m, 4,81 x 10‐3 m, 6,42 x 10‐3 m, 8,2 x 10‐3 m, = 1900 kg.m‐3. min at the beginning of
the temperature rise extrapolated to L = 0. TPPR method parallel to direction 1.
k L = 1,62 x 10‐3 m, 3,2 x 10‐3 m, 4,8 x 10‐3 m, 6,42 x 10‐3 m. Same as above. Measured parallel to direction 2.
Table 5‐37: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s‐1], of Composite Materials
Temperature Matrix: CTL‐37‐9X Phenolic b
[K] Fiber: 181 Glass Fabric
350 0,69
400 0,69
450 0,69
500 0,692
550 0,693
600 0,694
NOTE References: Touloukian (1967) [157]
b From smooth curve. Highly scattered data points. Reported error 9% ‐ 11%.
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Table 5‐38: Thermal diffusivity, x 106 [m2.s‐1], of Composite Materials
Fiber Volume, f: 0,47 to 0,53
e f g h i
NOTE References: Touloukian (1967) [157]
e Pressed 500 kg.m‐2 at 465 K for 1 h, then postcured at 465 K for 12 h. Measured at side 1. From smooth curve.
Low resolution figure.
f Same as above. Measured at side 2. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
g Same as above. Measured at side 5. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
h Same as above. Measured at side 6. From smooth curve. Low resolution figure.
i Sample size 0,115 m x 0,115 m x 4,6 x10‐3 m. Cured and postcured as above. From smooth curve. Low resolution
figure.
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Figure 5‐14: Experimental arrangement for the interferometric measurement of the
thermal expansion. a) Specimen chamber assembly. b) Optical system. From James
& Yates (1965) [108]. For explanation see text.
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Two quartz optical flats, U and L, having thicknesses 4,5 x 10‐3 m and diameters 27 x 10‐3 m and 30 x
10‐3 m respectively are shown in the figure in contact with the specimen, S. The two faces of U and the
upper face of L are polished flat. In addition the two faces of U are cut at an angle of 40 min to each
other. Finally, the lower face of U is partially aluminized and the upper face of L is fully aluminized to
enhance fringe visibility.
The L flat is placed between two brass rings, B1 and B2 , connected to each other by three metal strips
(not shown). B1 surrounds the specimen, S, while B2 is located in a groove within the specimen
chamber, C. Lateral movement of the U flat is controlled by the grooved collar, R. The whole assembly
is slightly compressed by means of the spring, H, the lower extremity of which is soldered to R and
the upper extremity to the ring A, which is positioned and controlled by three spring‐loaded levelling
screws (two of them are shown).
The top of the specimen chamber, C, is sealed by the 6 x 10‐3 m thick optically‐flat glass window W, 45
x 10‐3 m in diameter.
The specimen chamber, C, is supported from the top of the brass jacket, J, by three adjustable tubes
(not shown). J is immersed in liquid nitrogen or liquid hydrogen. The space between C and J is
evacuated and the temperature monitored to within 0,01 K with the aid of a heater, P, and of the
sensing element, Q.
The specimen temperature is measured by an Indium resistance thermometer, T, the leads of which
enter C by a metal‐glass seal, M. The same seal is used for the Helium exchange gas duct. This
exchange gas enhances the thermal conduction between specimen and thermometer.
The optical system is shown schematically in Figure 5‐14b.
I is the light source. F1 and F2 are filters, D is a diaphragm and L1 a lens. G1 and G2 are respectively a
fully aluminized and a partially aluminized glass plate.
The light beam is collimated and reflected into U and L down a tube, E, of internal diameter 25 x 10‐3
m, lined with black paper. The emerging light is focused by the objective, L2, on the camera, K.
Approximately six interference fringes are formed in the image. The arrangement used by Pojur &
Yates (1973) [138] is similar. Now the upper flat is substituted by a 45° prism, and the specimens are
placed in between. The lower flat rests on a stainless steel holder and lateral movement of both
components is prevented by means of vertical guiding rods. Different sample geometries can be used
with this arrangement.
Sample sizes are more or less limited in the different arrangements used, but the length range of
reported measurements is very wide. Typically 5 x 10‐3 m to 50 x 10‐3 m long, 5 x 10‐3 m to 20 x 10‐3 m
wide and 10‐3 m to 5 x 10‐3 m thick.
The thermal expansion of amorphous metals ribbons in the thickness range 30 x 10‐6 m to 350 x 10‐6 m
can be measured by holding the ribbon between two fused silica pillars so that the thermal expansion
of the beam formed by the sample and the two supporting bars is measured. Particular attention
should be paid to keep the sample straight at any time.
The linear thermal expansion of fibers can be deduced from that of unidirectional composites
reinforced with such fibers. In other technique the fiber is kept under constant tension between two
holding blocks, the distance between which is measured as a function of temperature.
Strain gauge techniques have been used also. Any size of specimen including structures and
components can be tested, and measurements are made in several directions simultaneously.
The technique is limited to the temperature capability of the strain gauge and of the bond line, but
measurements in the temperature range from 12 K to 450 K have been reported (Valentich (1985)
[161]).
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The active gauge used to measure the thermal expansion will be compensated for the effects of
apparent thermal strain. This can be done by mounting an identical gauge on a low‐expansion fused
silica standard reference kept at the sample temperature when the reading is made.
A facility to measure the linear thermal expansion of composite structures (rods, panels or even
structural assemblies) up to 0,7 m in length has been described by Aalders (1989) [48].
The thermal expansion is measured by means of inductive dilatometers, which consist in a coil system
through which a rod‐shaped magnet moves. These sensors, Sony‐Magnascale, have a resolution of 5 x
10‐7 m.
The test specimens are cooled and heated exclusively by radiation. The temperature range is 150 K to
390 K and the achievable uniformity in temperature is 2 K above 273 K over a 0,7 m test sample and 5
K at 140 K.
The maximum diameter of the test area is 0,15 m and, thus, five samples plus one reference rod can be
measured at a time, with values possibly as low as 10‐8 K‐1, and all having distinctly different linear
thermal expansions.
The measurements can be performed either changing the temperature in steps from one extreme to
the other, with one or two intermediate steps, or under (slowly varying, below 20 K/h) transient
conditions.
The whole system is contained in a vacuum chamber, Figure 5‐15. The sample platform and the sensor
ring are attached to the supporting ring by means of appropriate supporting rods which are thermally
decoupled from each other.
Figure 5‐15: The ESTEC CTE 1000 facility for the measurement of the linear
thermal expansion of structure up to 0,7 m long. All the dimensions are in mm.
From Aalders (1989) [48].
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The sensor ring is placed in the upper part of the vacuum chamber and is kept at constant temperature
by means of a temperature‐controlled sensor hood.
The sample(s) together with an Invar ( 10‐7 K‐1) reference rod, are surrounded by a free‐standing
double bifilar coil shroud which is thermally controlled by a heat exchange system which delivers air
at any given temperature between 80 K and 390 K. Heat transfer between coil shroud and sample(s)
takes place by radiation only. In order to keep the rods at nearly ambient temperature, the shroud is
thermally decoupled from the supporting rods by a 20‐layer insulation blanket. MLI blankets, with
appropriate openings, are also placed on top and bottom of the shroud and on the bottom of the hood.
The shroud is 0,4 m longer than the sample(s) so that its lower end surrounds the sample platform,
whereas the upper end is placed 0,2 m above the sample end.
The test sample(s) and the Invar reference rod are glued to the platform by means of small patches of
epoxy. The distance from the top of each test sample and the sensor ring ( 0,450 m long) is bridged by
an Invar extension rod glued to the sample. The sensor magnetic rod is pressed into the top of the
extension rod which has area restrictions to ensure that the sensor ring is thermally decoupled from
the test specimen.
The thermal expansion of the test sample is deduced from the change in length of the sample plus the
extension rod. In its turn, the thermal expansion of the extension rod is deduced from that of the
reference rod, made of the same material and held at the same temperature.
The same facility can be used to study other phenomena yielding length changes and can be scaled up
to accommodate samples three or four times as long.
where E [Pa] is the modulus of elasticity.
The transverse linear thermal expansion, 2 = 3, is given by:
2
2 3 f f 1 f 1 f m
f Ef
E f11
m
m Em
[5‐9]
11
where vm is the Poissonʹs ratio of the matrix.
For the thermal expansion in a direction forming an angle with the fibers,
1 cos 2 2 sin 2 [5‐10]
Usually 1 f1 and 2m.
From Karlsson (1983) [111], Chamis (1987) [67].
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5.6.1.3 Tabulated data
Table 5‐39: Linear thermal expansion, f [K‐1], and elasticity modulus, Ef [Pa], of
high‐strength fibers
810 81,4 d
810 89,0 d
500 0,65
600 0,61
750 0,50
Celanese GY 70 517 f
Celanese G40‐ 300 f
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Hercules AS‐4 234 f
Hercules AS‐6 248 f
Hercules IM6 278 f
1200
Hercules IM7 303 f
Hitco HM ‐1,3
Hysol Grafil 235 f
XA‐S
(standard)
Hysol Grafil 235 f
XA‐S
(HS)
Hysol Grafil 245 f
Apollo
HS
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Hysol Grafil 370 f
HMS
(6K)
Hysol Grafil 390 f
Apollo
HM
Hysol Grafil 275 f
Apollo
IM
Magnamite ‐0,4
HTS
‐0,54
Modmor HM ‐1,1
Thornel HT ‐1,1
Thornel HM ‐1,4
Thornel VHM ‐1,3
Toray T300 & 235 f
T400
Toray T800 294 f
Toray M40 392 f
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470‐530 ‐5
Kevlar 29 83
Fenax ST3 235 f
(ENKA/TOHO)
Twaron HM 125 f
(ENKA AG)
Fe75P15C10 9,0
Fe40Ni40B20 6,6
10,9 l
10,5 m
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12,2 j Tyagy & Lord
(1980)[150].
11,0 k Ef from Davis
(1978) [78]
10,7 l
10,1 m
Table 5‐40: Linear thermal expansion, m [K‐1], elasticity modulus, Em [Pa] and
Poissonʹs ratio, m, of matrices
Type T m x Em x 10‐9 [Pa] m References
[K] 106
Tensile Compr. Flex.
[K‐1]
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170 5,28±1,19
270 0,41
290 3,32±0,18
300 0,39
370 0,38
420 0,38
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Karlsson (1983)
[111]. Em and m
from Ishikawa et
al. (1977) [106].
63±2 h
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300‐420 66,1
Hexcel C‐1000 52
Hexcel I‐2000 29
PBT 70‐110
PBT S600 80
PET 130
160 50
200 59
240 69
280 82
320 100
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280 130
320 180
360 200
280 74
320 120
360 150
Radel 55
Ryton 54
Polyamide/imide 34
Torlon 2000
Torlon 4203 36
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a Spec. No. 45, Table 5‐49. See also Figure 5‐12.
b Shear modulus. From torsion tests.
c Hardener is BF3MEA.
d Spec. No. 21, Table 5‐42. See also Figure 5‐16.
e Spec. No. 115, Table 5‐57. See also Figure 5‐16.
f Measured dry.
g Saturated at 350 K but measured dry.
h Saturated at 350 K but measured at the same moisture concentration.
I Dry, as molded.
j For three different monomers (MDA, NE and BTDE with methylalcohol as the solvent).
Figure 5‐16: Linear thermal expansion, m, as a function of temperature, T, for four
different epoxy matrices. Numerical values are given in Table 5‐41.
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Explanation
Table 5‐41: Arrangements of the Data on Linear Thermal Expansion, , of
Composite Materials Compiled in Table 5‐42 to Table 5‐60
Content Table or
Figure
Characterization of glass or carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐42
Smoothed values of , curing and measuring of glass or carbon reinforced Table 5‐41
specimens
More relevant trends of glass or carbon reinforced specimens Figure 5‐17 to
Figure 5‐19
Characterization of carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐49
Smoothed values of , curing and measuring of carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐49
More relevant trends of carbon reinforced specimens Figure 5‐20 to
Figure 5‐22
Characterization of carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐54
Smoothed values of , curing and measuring or carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐54
More relevant trends of carbon reinforced specimens Figure 5‐23 to
Figure 5‐25
Characterization of carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐57
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Content Table or
Figure
Smoothed values of , curing and measuring or carbon reinforced specimens Table 5‐57
More relevant trends of carbon reinforced specimens Figure 5‐26 to
Figure 5‐28
Characterization of aramid fiber reinforced and miscellany specimens Table 5‐60
Smoothed values of , curing and measuring or aramid fiber reinforced and Table 5‐60
miscellany specimens
More relevant trends of aramid fiber reinforced and miscellany specimens Figure 5‐29 to
Figure 5‐31
Table 5‐42: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).
Table DER
1 E‐glass 0 0,600 0,000 Parallel to fibers
5‐43 332/T403 Type 30
Nomenclature
Table
1
410AA‐450 Perpendicular to
5‐43 (Owens‐Corning) fibers
Table
1 0,650 Parallel to fibers
5‐43
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐43 fibers
Table
1 0,700 Parallel to fibers
5‐43
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐43 fibers
Table
1 S‐2 glass 0 0,600 Parallel to fibers
5‐44 Fiberglass P263A
(Owens‐Corning)
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐44 fibers
Table
1 0,650 Parallel to fibers
5‐44
Table
1 Perpendicular to
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Table
1 0,700 Parallel to fibers
5‐44
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐44 fibers
Table EF‐2
1 7576 E‐glass Woven 0,670 0°
5‐45 VM 665 finish 11 plies per to
120 fibers in warp laminate
Table 0,730 90°
1
24 fibrs in weft
5‐45
0,28 x 10‐3 m thick
Table
1 7781 E‐glass Woven 0°
5‐45 Volan A finish 14 plies per
60 fibers in warp laminate
Table
1
54 fibers in weft 90°
5‐45 0,22 x 10‐3 m thick
Table
1 Both types above (07576/07781/ 0°
5‐45 stacked 307576/07576/
+307781/(07781)2/07576)S
Table
1 90°
5‐45
Table Narmco
1 Quartz Weave ‐ Parallel to plane
5‐46 4033 (Whittaker Corp.) of cloth
Table Narmco
1 Light weight ‐
5‐46 4065 quartz
(Whittaker Corp.)
Table ERLA
1 No fibers 0,000 0,000
5‐47 4617/mPDA
Table
1 HTS PT112/21Z 0 0,494 0,019 Parallel to fibers
5‐47 Carbon fiber
(Courtaulds)
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐47 fibers
Table
1 45° to fibers
5‐47
Table
1 HTS PT112/21Z 90 0,500 0,000 Parallel to one set
5‐47 (prepreg) of fibers
(Courtaulds)
Table
1 Bisecting angle
5‐47 between fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular to
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Table
1 HTS PT112/21Z 63 0,529 0,042 Bisecting acute
5‐48 (Courtaulds) angle
Table
1 Bisecting obtuse
5‐48 angle
Table
1 HMS 0 0,504 0,016 Parallel to fibers
5‐48 QM218/622W
Carbon fiber
Table
1
(Courtaulds) Perpendicular to
5‐48 fibers
Table
1 90 0,520 0,000 Parallel to one set
5‐48 of fibers
Table
1 Bisecting angle
5‐48 between fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐48 laminate
Table
1 66 0,526 0,002 Bisecting acute
5‐48 angle
Table
1 Bisecting obtuse
5‐48 angle
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐48 laminate
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Table 5‐43: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
Spec. Temperature (K)
References
No. g
210 250 290 320 350
3 a 6,31 0,51
5 a 6,07 0,49
Data displayed in Figure 5‐17
a
b Data displayed in Figure 5‐18
g Comments: 100 p DER 332/45 p T403. 16h/330 K.
For longitudinal tests: filament wound and moulded rods 6x103 m dia., 0,120 m long.
For transverse tests: tubes with 25x103 m inner diameter, 6x103 m wall thickness and approximately 65x103 m
long.
95% confidence limits for the second set of data given in the Ref. are in error. Rapid increase of above 320 K
attributable to resin.
Table 5‐44: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
Spec. Temperature (K)
References
No. g
220 250 270 300 320 350
9 a 3,52 0,38
11 a 3,38 0,38
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a Data displayed in Figure 5‐17
b Data displayed in Figure 5‐18
g Comments: 100 p DER 332/45 p T403. 16h/330 K.
For longitudinal tests: filament wound and moulded rods 6x103 m dia., 0,120 m long.
For transverse tests: tubes with 25x103 m inner diameter, 6x103 m wall thickness and approximately 65x103 m
long.
95% confidence limits for the second set of data given in the Ref. are in error. Rapid increase of above 320 K
attributable to resin.
Table 5‐45: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
Spec. Temperature (K)
References
No. h
80 K ‐ 295 K 295 K ‐ 360 K
Table 5‐46: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
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Table 5‐47: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
Temperature Spec. No. j, k
[K]
21 22 c 23 c 24 25 d 26 d 27 d
440 3,23
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c Data displayed in Figure 5‐29.
d Data displayed in Figure 5‐19.
j Comments: 50 p ERLA 4617/50 p mPDA in MEK. Pure resin: 2,5 h/400 K + 2 h/440 K + 6 h/500 K.
Composite: 2,5 h/400 K, removed, cut, 2 h/440 K + 6 h/500 K. 5x103 x 6x103 x 13x103 m long.
Each temperature region traversed twice. Interferometric measurements. Parenthetical values are extrapolated.
Investigation of the influence of fiber type and orientation.
k References: Rogers, Phillips, Kingston‐Lee, Yates, Overy, Sargent & McCalla (1977) [144]
Table 5‐48: Smoothed values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens characterized in Table 5‐85.
Temperature Spec. No. j, k
[K]
28 29 30 c,e 31 c,f 32 d 33 d 34 d 35 36 37
90 ‐1,3 7,2 19,0 1,43 1,20 26,5 ‐1,7 8,4 26,1
100 ‐1,4 7,8 ‐0,20 20,0 1,44 1,25 28,0 ‐2,0 8,7 27,5
120 ‐1,7 8,7 ‐0,28 21,9 1,45 1,33 31,0 ‐2,4 9,3 30,1
140 ‐1,9 9,4 ‐0,36 23,6 1,48 1,39 33,3 ‐2,6 10,0 32,9
160 ‐2,1 10,1 ‐0,47 25,4 1,52 1,42 35,8 ‐2,8 10,6 35,2
180 ‐2,2 10,8 ‐0,56 27,0 1,57 1,46 38,0 ‐3,0 11,2 37,8
200 ‐2,4 11,3 ‐0,57 28,4 1,64 1,50 40,0 ‐3,1 11,8 40,0
220 ‐2,4 11,7 ‐0,52 29,9 1,72 1,56 42,0 ‐3,1 12,4 42,0
240 ‐2,5 12,1 ‐0,46 31,1 1,83 1,63 43,7 ‐3,2 13,0 44,0
260 ‐2,6 12,1 ‐0,37 32,1 1,97 1,72 45,0 ‐3,4 13,6 45,7
280 ‐2,06 12,4 ‐0,30 33,1 2,14 1,82 46,2 ‐3,7 14,2 47,3
300 ‐2,07 13,4 ‐0,26 33,9 2,40 1,95 48,3 ‐4,2 14,9 49,5
320 ‐3,0 15,0 ‐0,26 34,6 2,67 2,11 54,0 ‐5,0 16,4 54,6
340 ‐3,7 17,6 ‐0,28 36,4 2,75 2,30 64,0 ‐6,2 19,2 67,8
360 ‐4,8 21,5 ‐0,36 40,3 2,42 2,59 82,0 ‐8,2 25,6 96,0
380 ‐7,4 27,7 ‐0,46 47,5 1,60 3,10 125 ‐15,1 156
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Temperature Spec. No. j, k
[K]
28 29 30 c,e 31 c,f 32 d 33 d 34 d 35 36 37
420 ‐0,90
430 ‐1,10
440 ‐1,47
c Data displayed in Figure 5‐29.
d Data displayed in Figure 5‐19.
e Data displayed in Figure 5‐30.
f Data displayed in Figure 5‐31.
j Comments: 50 p ERLA 4617/50 p mPDA in MEK. Pure resin: 2,5 h/400 K + 2 h/440 K + 6 h/500 K.
Composite: 2,5 h/400 K, removed, cut, 2 h/440 K + 6 h/500 K. 5x103 x 6x103 x 13x103 m long.
Each temperature region traversed twice. Interferometric measurements. Parenthetical values are extrapolated.
Investigation of the influence of fiber type and orientation.
k References: Rogers, Phillips, Kingston‐Lee, Yates, Overy, Sargent & McCalla (1977) [144].
Figure 5‐17: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as
a function of temperature, T, for some composite materials formed by the same
matrix, DER 332/T403, and two different glass fiber reinforcements. Upper and
lower limits of the shadowed regions are for 95% confidence.
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Explanation
5 0,700
11 0,700
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Figure 5‐18: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to
fibers, 2, as a function of temperature, T, for some composite materials formed by
the same matrix, DER 332/T403, and two different glass fiber reinforcements.
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Explanation
6 0,700
12 0,700
Figure 5‐19: Linear thermal expansion coefficient mesured in different directions,
, as a function of temperature, T, for similar carbon fiber reinforced composite
materials. The matrix is ERLA 4617/mPDA. From Rogers, Phillips, Kingston.Lee,
Yates, Overy, Sargent & McCalla (1977) [144].
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Explanation
27 Perpendicular to laminate
34 Perpendicular to laminate
Table 5‐49: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).
Fiber Fiber Void
Spec. Direction of
Matrix volume content
No. Type Fiber angle measurement
f v
(Manufacturer) (°) or Weave
Table DLS
1 (No fibers) 0,000 0,000
5‐50 351/BF3400
Table
1 HTS PT112/21Z 0 0,515 0,022 Parallel to fibers
5‐50 (Courtaulds)
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐50 fibers
Table
1 0,607 0,016 Parallel to fibers
5‐50
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐50 fibers
Table
1 0,789 0,028 Parallel to fibers
5‐50
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐50 fibers
Table Code 69
1 (No fibers) 0,000 0,000
5‐51
Table
1 HTS PT112/21Z 0 0,589 0,000 Parallel to fibers
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Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐51 fibers
Table
1 90 In plane of
5‐51 laminate
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐51 laminate
Table
1 63 0,570 Bisecting acute
5‐51 angle
Table
1 Bisecting obtuse
5‐51 angle
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐51 laminate
Table
1 DLS 90 0,614 0,018 In plane of
5‐51 351/BF3400 laminate
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐51 laminate
Table Code 69
1 Grafil HTS 130 (0/ 45)8Q 0,560 0,070 0°, in plane of
5‐52 SC/10000 laminate
(Courtaulds)
Table
1 90°, in plane of
5‐52 laminate
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐52 laminate
Table DLS
1 Type II Carbon 16 plies of plain 0,601 0,030 Parallel to warp
5‐53 351/BF3400 fiber weave woven
(Morganite) from 5000‐end
Table
1
carbon tows Parallel to weft
5‐53
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐53 laminate
Table
1 15 plies of 5000‐ 0,611 0,036 Parallel to warp
5‐53 endtwill weave
Table
1 Parallel to weft
5‐53
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐53 laminate
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Table
1 Grafil E/XAS 25 plies of twill 0,600 0,005 Parallel to warp
5‐53 XA: Super A type weave woven
S: Surface treated from 3000‐end
Table
1
Table
1 25 plies of 5 0,591 0,022 Parallel to warp
5‐53 ShaftSatin 3000‐
end fiber. The
Table
1
warp tows of Parallel to weft
5‐53 each ply in the
Table
1
same direction Perpendicular to
5‐53 laminate
Table
1 As above. 0,587 0,009 Perpendicular to
5‐53 Warp towsof direction having
even plies at 13 warps and 12
right‐angles to wefts
those of odd
Table
1
plies Perpendicular to
5‐53 direction
having12 warps
and 13 wefts
Table
1 Undirectional 0,619 0,013 Parallel to fibers
5‐53 unwovenfibers.
3000‐end fiber
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐53 fibers
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Table 5‐50: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐49.
Temperature Spec. No. d, e
[K]
38 39 a 40 b 41 a 42 b 43 a 44 b
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Temperature Spec. No. d, e
[K]
38 39 a 40 b 41 a 42 b 43 a 44 b
520 ‐0,55
a Data displayed in Figure 5‐20.
b Data displayed in Figure 5‐21.
d Comments: 80 p DLS 351/1,2 p BF3400 at 400 K. 0,5 h vacuum oven + 0,25 h mould outgas/400 K. Vacuum
released. Then 0,25 h/400 K + 2,5 h/420 K + 15 h/460 K. Specimen sizes and measurements as above.
Investigation of the influence of f.
e References: Yates, Overy, Sargent, McCalla, Kingston‐Lee, Phillips & Rogers (1978)a [170].
Table 5‐51: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐49.
Temperature Spec. No. f, g
[K]
45 46 47 48 c 49 c 50 51 52 53 c 54 c
90 22,0 ‐0,08 13,0 1,56 19,2 ‐1,00 7,8 18,0 1,29 18,7
100 23,0 ‐0,08 13,9 1,58 20,2 ‐1,10 8,1 19,0 1,33 19,6
120 25,1 ‐0,09 15,5 1,63 22,2 ‐1,37 8,9 20,9 1,41 21,7
140 27,3 ‐0,12 17,0 1,68 24,1 ‐1,66 9,6 22,4 1,47 23,7
160 29,5 ‐0,18 18,4 1,73 26,0 ‐1,92 10,3 24,5 1,53 25,7
180 31,6 ‐0,24 19,7 1,78 27,9 ‐2,18 11,0 26,2 1,59 27,6
200 33,7 ‐0,26 20,9 1,85 29,8 ‐2,39 11,8 28,1 1,67 29,6
220 35,8 ‐0,24 22,1 1,92 31,7 ‐2,59 12,5 30,0 1,77 31,5
240 37,8 ‐0,19 23,1 1,99 33,5 ‐2,76 13,2 31,9 1,88 33,3
260 39,7 ‐0,11 24,1 2,05 35,5 ‐2,90 13,9 33,6 2,03 35,0
280 41,7 ‐0,10 25,1 2,13 37,5 ‐3,02 14,7 35,4 2,18 36,6
300 43,9 ‐0,20 26,0 2,21 39,1 ‐3,18 15,4 37,1 2,24 38,1
320 46,3 ‐0,39 26,9 2,30 41,0 ‐3,27 16,1 39,9 2,23 39,5
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Temperature Spec. No. f, g
[K]
45 46 47 48 c 49 c 50 51 52 53 c 54 c
340 49,0 ‐0,40 27,8 2,39 42,9 ‐3,37 16,8 42,8 2,14 40,8
360 52,0 ‐0,32 28,6 2,50 44,9 ‐3,42 17,5 46,4 2,02 41,9
380 55,4 ‐0,19 29,8 2,61 47,0 ‐3,50 18,3 50,8 1,98 42,9
400 59,1 0,01 31,1 2,74 49,5 ‐3,56 19,0 53,5 2,07 44,7
420 63,6 0,21 32,7 2,90 52,5 ‐3,70 19,7 55,2 2,26 47,0
440 69,1 0,26 35,1 3,16 55,9 ‐4,03 20,5 57,7 2,68 50,4
460 75,7 0,23 38,5 3,56 60,2 ‐4,65 21,2 64,0 3,16 56,1
480 83,8 0,10 44,4 4,21 66,8 ‐6,22 (21.9) 86,4 3,40 65,0
490 89,2 0,01 49,7 3,80 72,0 ‐8,65 109 2,95 70,9
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Table 5‐52: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐49.
Temperature Spec. No. h, i
[K]
55 56 57
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Temperature Spec. No. h, i
[K]
55 56 57
520 ‐0,52
h Comments: Resin cure, specimen sizes and measurements as above. Investigation of ply multidirectional effects.
i References: Yates, McCalla, Sargent, Rogers, Kingston‐Lee & Phillips (1978)c [169].
Table 5‐53: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐49.
Temp. Spec. No. j, k
[K]
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
90 1,68 2,71 16,1 1,48 2,35 17,7 1,61 1,65 18,2 2,10 2,11 19,3 2,22 2,20 0,38 14,9
100 1,77 2,73 17,1 1,48 2,35 18,7 1,62 1,68 19,3 2,15 2,14 20,3 2,22 2,22 0,37 15,7
120 1,89 2,81 19,1 1,49 2,37 20,7 1,64 1,74 21,5 2,22 2,20 22,6 2,24 2,25 0,33 17,3
140 1,96 2,90 21,1 1,50 2,39 22,7 1,67 1,80 23,5 2,26 2,26 24,6 2,26 2,28 0,28 18,7
160 1,92 3,00 22,9 1,52 2,43 24,4 1,70 1,86 25,5 2,29 2,32 26,5 2,29 2,32 0,24 20,3
180 1,89 3,11 24,8 1,54 2,47 26,2 1,74 1,93 27,5 2,32 2,37 28,5 2,34 2,36 0,21 21,8
200 1,92 3,25 26,5 1,56 2,53 27,8 1,78 2,00 29,5 2,37 2,41 30,3 2,40 2,42 0,18 23,3
220 2,00 3,41 28,1 1,60 2,61 29,3 1,84 2,08 31,4 2,45 2,47 31,8 2,49 2,49 0,16 24,9
240 2,13 3,62 29,7 1,69 2,69 30,7 1,88 2,17 33,3 2,58 2,60 33,5 2,62 2,57 0,17 26,4
260 2,23 3,90 31,1 1,84 2,80 31,9 1,98 2,26 35,0 2,77 2,80 35,2 2,77 2,68 0,20 27,9
280 2,28 4,24 32,4 2,07 2,92 34,0 2,07 2,37 36,9 2,95 3,00 36,9 2,95 2,84 0,25 29,4
300 2,35 4,18 34,6 2,44 3,06 37,7 2,17 2,49 39,0 2,70 3,08 38,1 3,02 3,00 0,31 31,0
320 3,05 3,54 39,2 2,85 3,23 39,2 2,29 2,66 41,5 2,62 3,02 38,9 2,89 2,93 0,37 32,5
340 2,93 3,45 40,0 3,16 3,44 39,6 2,40 2,89 44,2 2,85 2,87 39,2 2,71 2,72 0,43 34,1
360 1,99 4,16 41,6 3,38 3,67 42,0 2,52 3,17 46,8 3,08 2,91 39,8 2,72 2,72 0,49 35,6
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Temp. Spec. No. j, k
[K]
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
380 2,19 4,48 45,3 3,55 3,96 46,0 2,62 3,30 50,3 3,27 3,49 41,8 3,45 3,28 0,53 37,5
400 2,07 4,42 49,6 3,66 4,23 50,3 2,72 3,32 54,2 3,41 4,10 47,9 3,97 3,79 0,47 39,7
420 1,32 3,90 53,7 3,72 4,33 (55.0) 2,80 3,24 60,3 3,50 4,03 59,1 4,12 3,96 0,34 42,3
440 0,87 2,47 57,6 3,66 3,86 2,87 2,94 71,5 3,37 3,55 74,2 3,95 3,89 0,14 45,6
Figure 5‐20: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as
a function of temperature, T, for different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber: Courtaulds
HTS PT112/21Z; Matrix: DLS 351/BF3400.
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Explanation
43 0,789
Figure 5‐21: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to
fibers, 2, as a function of temperature, T, for different fiber volume ratios, f.
Fiber: Courtaulds HTS PT112/21Z; Matrix: DLS 351/BF3400.
Explanation
44 0,789
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Figure 5‐22: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured either in plane of
laminate, 1, or penpendicular to it, 3, as a function of temperature, T, for similar
carbon fibers reinforced composite materials. The fiber is carbon HTS PT112/21Z.
From Yates, McCalla, Sargent, Rogers, Phillips & Kingston‐Lee (1978)b [169].
Explanation
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Table 5‐54: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).
Fiber Fiber Void
Spec. Direction of
Matrix volume content
No. Type Fiber angle measurement
f v
(Manufacturer) (°) or Weave
Table CRC 350A
1 GY70 0 0,600 0,006 Parallel to
5‐55 (Celion Fibers fibers
Celanese Corp.)
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐55 to fibers
Table
1 (90/+45/0/45)s 0,610 0,018 0°
5‐55
Table
1 +45°
5‐55
Table
1 90°
5‐55
Table
1 45°
5‐55
Table
1 (90/+45/0/45)3s 0,610 0,018 0°
5‐55
Table
1 30°
5‐55
Table
1 45°
5‐55
Table
1 60°
5‐55
Table
1 90°
5‐55
Table Epitoke 210/BF3400
1 T300 0 0,650 Parallel to
5‐55 fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐55 to fibers
Table Epitoke
1 Grafill 0 0,570 Parallel to
5‐55 828/NMA/K61B HMS fibers
(Courtaulds)
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐55 to fibers
Table Epitoke
1 Torayca T300A 0 0,650 Parallel to
5‐55 828/BF3MEA(Toraica‐ (Toray) fibers
P‐301ª prepreg)
Table
1 Perpendicular
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Table
1 0,600 0° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 15° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 28° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 29° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 42° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 43° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 59° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 60° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 74° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 76° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 83° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table
1 87° in plane of
5‐55 laminate
Table Fibredux 914C
1 HTS carbon fiber 0 0,64 0,000 Parallel to
5‐56 NM565 issue 2, fibers
132/1,55/K10
Table
1
Grade SF. Perpendicular
5‐56 Average tensile to fibers
Table
1
modulus: 0,687 0,004 Parallel to
5‐56 132x109Pa. 10000 fibers
ends per tow.
Table
1
Surface treated Perpendicular
5‐56 and sized. to fibers
(Courtaulds)
Table
1 0,671 0,000 Parallel to
5‐56 fibers
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Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐56 to fibers
Table
1 Type II carbon 0 0,619 0,0025 Parallel to
5‐56 fiberNM565 fibers
issue 1 as 130 SC
Table
1
10000. Average Perpendicular
5‐56 tensile modulus: to fibers
Table
1
130x109 Pa. 0,6375 <0,001 Parallel to
5‐56 10000 ends per fibers
tow. Surface
Table
1
treated and Perpendicular
5‐56 continuous to fibers
fibers.
Table 0,642 Parallel to
(Morganite)
1
5‐56 fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐56 to fibers
Table 5‐55: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐54.
Spec. Temperature (K)
Comments References
No. 290 300 330 350 380 450
75 29
76 0,50
77 0,35
78 0,05
79 0,30
80 0,25
81 0,28
82 030
83 0,40
84 0,50
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Spec. Temperature (K)
Comments References
No. 290 300 330 350 380 450
86 35
92 a 2,55
93 a 8,45
94 a 7,92
95 a 17,0
96 a 16,7
97 a 27,7
98 a 28,1
99 a 34,2
100 a 33,9
101 a 34,6
102 a 36,2
a Data displayed in Figure 5‐23.
d From prepreg. Curing: 6h/450 K, bag pressure 5,2x105 Pa. Specimens from tape 0,075 m wide. Cured panels were
trimmed, jigged and cut into 6x103 m wide strips along measurements direction. Bonded rectangular prisms
or cast cylinders 25x103 m to 45x103 m long, 6x103 m to 102 m wide. Netzsch dilatometer Model 402/T2.
Accuracy checked with Pyrex glass and Al 6061T. Heating rate 10 K/min. Hysteresis loop and random
displacement eliminated by 2‐3 pretest cycles 290 K ‐420 K.
e Capacitive method of measurement.
f From prepreg. Curing: 8 min/420 K + 52 min/440 K, 106 Pa + 3h/440 K. Specimens 2x103 m x 0,01 m x 0,01 m.
Specs. No. 89 and 90 were cut from bars either in the surface direction or orthogonal. Data for Spec. No. 90 is
an average of eleven data given in the source. Specs. No. 91 to 102 were cut from plates 0,01 m thick.
Commercial interferometric dilatometer was used with He‐Ne gas laser beam as incident light. Heating from
room up to 420 K at 1 K/min. Temperature measured in an electrical heating point by a thermocouple. Fair
comparison with numerical predictions.
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Table 5‐56: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐54.
Temp. Spec. No. g, h
[K]
103 b 104 c 105 b 106 c 107 b 108 c 109 b 110 c 111 b 112 c 113 b 114 c
80 12,4 ‐
0,018
90 ‐ 13,9 ‐ 13,3 ‐ 14,1 0,161 15,6 0,043 13,7 0,062 13,3
0,041 0,099 0,008
100 ‐ 14,6 ‐ 14,0 ‐ 14,3 0,203 16,1 0,058 14,4 0,128 14,5
0,059 0,137 0,022
120 ‐ 15,8 ‐ 15,2 ‐ 15,8 0,113 17,5 0,072 15,6 0,137 15,2
0,150 0,239 0,111
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Temp. Spec. No. g, h
[K]
103 b 104 c 105 b 106 c 107 b 108 c 109 b 110 c 111 b 112 c 113 b 114 c
400 ‐ 28,0 0,108 30,3 ‐ 28,5 0,220 35,8 ‐ 31,1 0,057 29,4
0,154 0,249 0,050
420 ‐ 28,5 0,164 29,1 ‐ 29,1 0,193 38,3 0,035 32,0 0,194 31,4
0,075 0,124
440 0,081 29,5 0,192 30,6 0,029 30,8 0,124 42,3 0,194 36,7 ‐ 37,3
0,100
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Figure 5‐23: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, , of a carbon fiber reinforced
unidirectional composite material, measured in plane of laminate, as a function of
the direction of the measurement, . Matrix is Epikote 828/BF3MEA. Fibers are
Torayca T300A. Temperature range is 290 K to 340 K. From Isikawa, Koyama &
Kobayashi (1977, 1978) [106] & [107].
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Figure 5‐24: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as
a function of temperature, T, for two nominally identical carbon fiber reinforced
composite materials produced on separate occasions and having slightly different
fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber: HTSCarbon; Matrix: Fibredux 914C.
Explanation
113 0,642
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Figure 5‐25: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to
fibers, 2, as a function of temperature, T, for two nominally identical carbon fiber
reinforced composite materials produced on separate occasions and having
slightly different fiber volume ratios, f. Fiber: HTSCarbon; Matrix: Fibredux
914C.
Explanation
108 0,671
114 0,642
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Table 5‐57: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).
Fiber Fiber Void
Spec. Direction of
Matrix volume content
No. Type Fiber angle (°) measurement
f v
(Manufacturer) or Weave
Table
1 HTS, Type II 100%; 0 0,671 <0,010 0°
5‐58 132/1,55/K10
132: compression
Table
1
5‐58
1,55: minimum
Table
1
acceptable 25%, 0; 75%, 45 0,693
5‐58 composite tensile
strength (in 109 Pa)
Table 50%, 0; 50%, 90 0,651 <0,010
K10: 10000 fibers
1
5‐58
per tow
Table
1
(Courtaulds) 25%, 90; 75%, 45 0,693 <0,020
5‐58
Table
1 50%, 90; 50%, 45 0,683
5‐58
Table
1 75%, 90; 25%, 45 0,658 <0,010
5‐58
Table
1 100%; 90 0,675
5‐58
Table
1 0/90 0°
5‐59
Table
1 0/ 45/90
5‐59
Table
1 30
5‐59
Table
1 45
5‐59
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Table
1 60
5‐59
Table
1 0/ 60 0,486 0°
5‐59
Table Narmco 4047
1 Carbon Weave ‐ Parallel to
5‐59 (Whittaker Corp.) plane of cloth
Table Rigidite 5208
1 T300 0 0,600 Parallel to
5‐59 (Narmco) (Whittaker Corp.) fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐59 to fibers
Table
1 (0/45/135/0/90)s 0°
5‐59
Table PMR‐P1
1 Carbon HTS 0 0,550 Parallel to
5‐59 6 plies fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐59 to fibers
Table
1 Morganite 0,440 Parallel to one
5‐59 M7401/C(pan‐ set of fibers
based)
Table
1
(Modmor) Perpendicular
5‐59 to plane of
cloth
Table
1 LY558/HT973 0,450 Parallel to one
5‐59 (carbonized) set of fibers
Table
1 Perpendicular
5‐59 to plane of
cloth
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Table 5‐58: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐57.
Temp. Spec. No. d, e
[K]
115 a 116 a 117 a 118 a 119 a 120 a 121 a 122 a 123 a 124 a
90 3,54
100 25,0 0,048 ‐0,17 0,341 0,88 1,84 3,56 5,78 8,04 14,6
120 27,6 ‐0,049 ‐0,27 0,197 0,74 1,84 3,63 6,13 8,56 15,6
140 30,0 ‐0,137 ‐0,35 0,082 0,62 1,84 3,70 6,42 9,09 16,9
160 32,1 ‐0,217 ‐0,40 ‐0,005 0,54 1,84 3,79 6,67 9,62 18,1
180 35,0 ‐0,279 ‐0,43 ‐0,069 0,51 1,84 3,87 6,94 10,2 19,0
200 36,4 ‐0,316 ‐0,44 ‐0,108 0,53 1,84 3,97 7,20 10,7 20,2
220 38,4 ‐0,324 ‐0,43 ‐0,117 0,59 1,84 4,08 7,40 11,3 21,2
240 40,6 ‐0,295 ‐0,40 ‐0,101 0,68 1,85 4,19 7,65 11,7 22,6
260 42,4 ‐0,218 ‐0,41 ‐0,052 0,75 1,87 4,29 7,98 12,4 23,9
280 44,1 ‐0,141 ‐0,49 0,027 0,77 1,90 4,45 8,18 12,9 25,0
300 46,7 ‐0,128 ‐0,60 0,090 0,76 1,94 4,57 8,42 13,4 26,1
320 48,7 ‐0,141 ‐0,73 0,110 0,73 2,00 4,76 8,66 13,9 26,8
340 51,1 ‐0,179 ‐0,81 0,104 0,70 2,14 4,92 8,94 14,5 27,6
360 53,8 ‐0,234 ‐0,80 0,107 0,75 2,27 5,20 9,26 15,1 28,5
380 57,7 ‐0,257 ‐0,66 0,148 0,86 2,42 5,50 9,70 15,7 29,1
400 61,3 ‐0,251 ‐0,41 0,229 0,97 2,66 5,84 10,1 16,4 29,6
420 65,5 ‐0,183 ‐0,11 0,345 1,08 2,93 5,40 11,0 17,2 30,2
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a Data displayed in Figure 5‐26.
d Comments: Spec. No. 115 from Fibredux 914C unreinforced, Specs. No. 116 to 124 from Fibredux 914C prepreg.
Curing was in any case the following: 0,25 h/2x105 Pa bag pressure + 0,5 h/400 K. Pressure raised to 7x105 Pa
for 0,25 h. Then 1h/440K + 4h/460 K. From smooth curves in the source. Specimens constructed from 16 plies
of prepreg. Symmetrical sequence of plies. Interferometric measurements. The aim of this work was the
investigation of the influence of the amount of fibers in different directions.
References: Parker, Chandra, Yates, Dootson & Walters (1981) [133].
e
Table 5‐59: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion
Coefficient, x 106 [K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐57.
Spec. Temperature (K)
Comments References
No. 80 290 310 370 380 420 440 450 530
128 2,05
129 b ‐2,38
130 b 1,87
131 b 13,6
132 ‐0,54
133 25,8
134 0,83
g Penton
135 13
(1966)
139 0 h Hanson &
Chamis
140 26,1 (1974)
141 3,1
i Harley &
Rosenberg
142 6,7 (1981)
143 2,2
144 7,8
145 1,9
146 10
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b Data displayed in Figure 5‐27.
c Data displayed in Figure 5‐28.
f Excellent correlation with predictions regarding the influence of angle ply. A zero thermal expansion coefficient
can be obtained with 42 degrees orientation.
g Re‐entry thermal shield. Phenolic are efficient ablative resins.
h Resin is a dried and grinded solution of MDA, NE, BTDE in methyl alcohol. Powder imidized and compacted.
Prepegs. 0,2x103 m thick cut to mould sizes 76,2x103 m x 254x103 m. Curing: 2h/590 K, 34,5x105 Pa.
Imbedded strain gauge measurements.
i Matrix decomposed by heating and densified by CVD in a Xylene atmosphere. Percentage of pyrocarbon pickup
by weight was: 9,54 for Spec Nos. 141 and 142, 11 for Spec. Nos. 143 and 144, 27‐28 for Spec. Nos. 145 and 146.
Capacitive method of measurement.
Figure 5‐26: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured in 0° direction, 0, as a
function of temperature, T, for some carbon fiber reinforced composite materials
with various amounts of fibers in different directions. Fiber: Courtaulds HTS,
Type II; Matrix: Fibredux 914C.
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Explanation
119 25%, 0°, 75%; 45°
120 50%, 0°, 50%; 90°
121 25%, 90°, 75%; 45°
122 50%, 90°, 50%; 45°
123 75%, 90°, 25%; 45°
124 100%, 90°
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Figure 5‐27: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, 0, of a two‐ply ( ) carbon fiber
reinforced composite material, measured in direction 0° of the plane of laminate,
as a function of the angle ply, . Matrix is Hercules 3002, fibers are Hercules HT
(Hercules 3002T prepreg). Temperature range is 80 K to 450 K. From Friend, Poesch
& Leslie (1972) [90].
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Figure 5‐28: Linear thermal expansion coefficient, , measured in several directions
of the plane of laminate for an unidirectional and an angle plied carbon fiber
reinforced composite material, as a function of temperature, T. Matrix is Narmco
5208, fibers are Narmco T300. From Karlsson (1983) [111].
Explanation
137 Perpendicular to fibers
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Table 5‐60: Characterization of Composite Materials (Linear Thermal Expansion is
given following the links).
Fiber Fiber Void
Spec. Direction of
Matrix volume content
No. Type Fiber angle (°) measurement
f v
(Manufacturer) or Weave
Table DER 332/T403
1 Kevlar 49 0 0,650 Parallel to fibers
5‐61 (E.I. du Pont de 0,600
Nemours and
Table
1
Company) Perpendicular to
5‐61 fibers
Table
1 XD7818/T403 0 0,600 Perpendicular to
5‐61 fibers
Table
1 Ferro E‐293 0 0,600 Parallel to fibers
5‐62
Table
1
Perpendicular to
5‐62 fibers
Table Ferro CE‐3305
1
Parallel to fibers
5‐62
0,650
Table
1 45 0°
5‐62
Table
1 60
5‐62
Table
1 0 Perpendicular to
5‐62 fibers
Table
1 0/+45/0/45 0°
5‐62
Table
1 Style 120 fabric Warp fill
5‐62
Table Hexcel F155
1 Kevlar 49 ‐ 285 (0/90)5s 0,470 <0,01 0°
5‐62 style fabric
(E.I. du Pont de
Table
1
Table PR 286
1 Kevlar 49 0 0,5 0°
5‐63 (E.I. du Pont de
Nemours and
Table
1
Company) 30
5‐63
Table
1 45
5‐63
Table
1 60
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Table
1 90
5‐63
Table
1 22 0,52
5‐63
Table
1 30 0,51
5‐63
Table
1 45 0,56
5‐63
Table
1 60 0,51
5‐63
Table
1 68 0,52
5‐63
Table 3M Du Pont
1 Kevlar 0 0,600 Parallel to fibers
5‐63 5134 (E.I. du Pont de
Nemours and
Table 3M SP306
1
Company)
5‐63
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐63 fibers
Table Narmco 5505
1 Boron 0 0,500 Parallel to fibers
5‐63
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐63 fibers
Table HT 424
1 Boron 0 0,500 Parallel to fibers
5‐63
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐63 fibers
Table FM‐1000
1 Amorphous 0 0,620 Parallel to fibers
5‐63 Metal
2826 HB
Table
1 45°
5‐63
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐63 fibers
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Table Al Alloy 6061‐0
1 Parallel to fibers
5‐64
Table
1 Perpendicular to
5‐64 fibers
Table 5‐61: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐60.
Spec. Temperature (K) Comments References
No. 220 250 270 300 320 350 370 400
147 ‐3,8 ‐3,8 ‐3,8 ‐4,0 ‐4,7 ‐6,0 d Clements &
Moore (1977)
148 61 66 72 79 87 150 214 214
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Table 5‐62: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐60.
Spec. Temperature (K)
Comments References
No. 80 190 290 300 340 360 370 390 450
35
151
58
152 ‐4,0 1,0
153 ‐1,25 0,30
154 34
155 57
156 ‐2,5
157 0
e Ballis Crema, Barboni
158 4,5
& Castellani (1986)
f Ballis Crema, Barboni,
159 4,4 Castellani & Peroni
(1987)
e Specimens 2,5x103 m x 21x103 m x 0,230 m. Heating rate 0,4 K/min. Mean values at least two heating and
cooling cycles. Small hysteresis detected.
f Rectangular specimens 5x103 m x 25x103 m. 10 plies. Commercial dilatometer. Heating rate 0,5 K/min. No
differences between heating and cooling.
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Table 5‐63: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐60.
Spec. Temperature (K) References
Comments
No. 190 260 290 300 320 340 370 400 420 450 520
‐ ‐
165 (From 300 K) ‐12,4
10,8 16,2
‐ ‐
166 (From 300 K) ‐13,7
11,7 16,8
172 69
179 12 0,4
a Data displayed in Figure 5‐29.
g PR‐286 resin diluted with MEK /50 pwd resin). 2 h/400 K in a vacuum oven + slow heating up to 450 K then
1h/450 K. Postcured 4h/450 K in air circulating oven. Rectangular parallelepipeds 25x103 m x 6,3 x103 m x 6,3
x103 m. Measurements made by use of a single‐rod quartz dilatometer referenced to a NBS fused silica
standard. Slight hysteresis between heating and cooling. Data for cooling. Hysteresis decreased by decreasing
the heating rate (below 2 K/min). Comparing with Specs. No. 2‐11 it is seen that the thermal expansion of
Kevlar/epoxy composite materials is considerable more anisotropic than that of carbon fiber/epoxy
composites.
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Table 5‐64: Smoothed Values of the Linear Thermal Expansion Coefficient, x 106
[K‐1], of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐60.
Temp. Spec. No. h, i
[K]
180 b 181 b 182 c
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Figure 5‐29: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured either parallel, 1, or
penpendicular, 2, to fibers of two composites with similar epoxy matrices, but
with carbon fiber or Kevlar 49 reinforcements.
Explanation
31 2
164 2
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Figure 5‐30: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured parallel to fibers, 1, as
a function of temperature, T, for two graphite fiber‐metal and one carbon fiber‐
epoxy composite materials.
Explanation
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Figure 5‐31: Linear thermal expansion coefficient measured perpendicular to
fibers, 2, as a function of temperature, T, for graphite fiber‐metal and carbon
fiber‐epoxy composite materials.
Explanation
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For additional information on the linear thermal expansion of glass‐reinforced, graphite‐epoxy and of
other advanced composites, at room temperature and below, see ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14, clause 8.5.
5.7.2 Emittance
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Figure 5‐32: Normal spectral absorptance, ʹ, of SiO2 Fabric at 310 K vs.
wavelength, . Sample is described in the text. From Eagles, Babjak & Weaver
(1975) [85].
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5.7.3 Absorptance
Figure 5‐33: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance, ʹ, of SiO2 Fabric vs.
wavelength, . Sample is described in the text. From Eagles, Babjak & Weaver
(1975) [85].
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Figure 5‐34: Solar absorptance, s, of SiO2 Fabric‐Substrate composite as a function
of the solar absorptance, ss, of the substrate. Sample: 16 Harness Satin Weave
0,38x103 m thick, on different substrates. From Eagles, Babjak & Weaver (1975)
[85].
Figure 5‐35: Absorptance/Emitatnce ratio, s/, solar absorptance, s, and
hemispherical total emittance, , of various mosaics of silica and carbon yarn as
functions of the exposed black to total area fraction, AB/A. From Eagles, Babjak &
Weaver (1975) [85].
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5.7.3.4 Effects of the space environment on absorptance
See Table 5‐65. Data obtained by use of the GE Combined Radiation Effects facility.
Table 5‐65: Effect of the Space Environment on Solar Absorptance, s, of Silica
Fabrics
Spec. Description Initial Treatment sa sa sa sa sa
No. Value a b UV UV UV UV UV
Same as 3,
bonded to
11 0,179 None 0,009 c 0,010 d 0,010 e 0,010 f 0,010 g
aluminium with
SR‐595 adhesive
a The third, subscripted figure, is added to show trend in the data.
b This treatment is required to remove the finish applied to the yarn for weaving.
c Electrons. Intensity: 15 keV. Flux: 5 x 10‐2 e.m‐2.s‐1, +e = 6,1 x 1017 e.m2.
d Electrons. Intensity: 15 keV. Flux: 5 x 10‐2 e.m‐2.s‐1, +e = 1,7 x 1018 e.m2.
e Electrons. Intensity: 15 keV. Flux: 5 x 10‐2 e.m‐2.s‐1, +e = 8 x 1018 e.m2.
f Electrons. Intensity: 15 keV. Flux: 5 x 10‐2 e.m‐2.s‐1, +e = 1,5 x 1019 e.m2.
g Electrons. Intensity: 15 keV. Flux: 5 x 10‐2 e.m‐2.s‐1, +e = 2,3 x 1019 e.m2.
NOTE From Eagles, Babjak & Weaver (1975) [85].
Chamber pressure: 1,3 x 10‐6 Pa.
Chamber temperature not given.
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Table 5‐66: Normal Total Emittance, ʹ (ʹ=0), and Solar Absorptance, s, of
Uncoated Plastic Materials
Type T ʹ T s References
[K] (ʹ=0) [K]
Above Sea Level
Atmosphere
0,25
394 0,86
408 0,86
422 0,86
436 0,88
450 0,89
464 0,91
478 0,91
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a Visually opaque.
b MIL‐R‐9299C. 3 Dic. 1968. ʺResin, Phenolic, Laminatingʺ.
c MIL‐R‐25042B. 12 Sep. 1967. ʺResin, Polyester, High Temperature Resistant, Low Pressure Laminatingʺ.
d MIL‐R‐25506C. 30 Aug. 1982. ʺResin Solution, Silicone, Low‐Pressure Laminatingʺ.
e Smooth. From spectral reflfectance data.
f Rough. From spectral reflectance data.
g From spectral reflectance data for above atmosphere conditions. ʹ = 15°.
h As e, except exposed to 700 MeV protons.
I As e, except exposed to UV (UA‐2 Hg lamp) for 10 d in air.
j = 2,18 x 10‐3 kg.m‐3. Heated at 583 K for 4 h.
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Table 5‐67: Coated Composite Materials the Thermal Radiation Properties of
Which Are Given in This Clause
Spec. Matrix Fiber Coating Data References
No. Given
Manu‐ Type Fiber Type Thickness
facturer Angle tc x 106 [m]
of Weave
[°]
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Figure 5‐36: Normal spectral emittance, ʹ, of PV 100 coating on different
substrates and with different thicknesses (see Table 5‐67) vs. wavelength, , at 393
K. From Giommi, Marchetti, Salza & Testa (1985) [92].
Expanation
1 4 7
2 5 8
3 6 9
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The comparison black body is an integral black body cavity the external edge of which could or could
not support the sample disc. If not, the blackbody emission is analyzed by a monochromator. If the
sample disc closes the cavity, it is heated from the rear by the black body cavity itself, and its radiant
emission is analyzed as above. Errors are introduced in the measurements by uncertainties in the
effective sample temperature.
Table 5‐68: Normal Total Emittance, ʹ(ʹ=0), of PV 100 Coating on Different
Substrates and with Different Thicknesses
NOTE From Giommi, Marchetti, Salz & Testa (1985) [92]
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Figure 5‐37: Normal‐hemispherical spectral reflectance factor, Rʹ, of PV 100
coating on different substrates and with different thicknesses vs. wavelength, .
From Giommi, Marchetti, Salza & Testa (1985) [92].
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Explanation
3 6 9
Table 5‐69: Normal Solar Reflectance, s (=0), of PV 100 Coating on Different
Substrates and with Different Thicknesses
NOTE From Giommi, Marchetti, Salza & Testa (1985) [92]
For the influence of coating thickness on solar absorptance of other white paints see ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01
Part 6, clauses 5.2.2 and 5.2.3.1 (Zinc Oxide pigment) and 5.2.3 (Zinc Orthotitanate). Unfortunately,
present data lack of sufficient resolution to estimate the solar absorptance.
For a comment on the optimum coating thickness of a similar coating system, see ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01
Part 6, clause 5.2.1.
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Figure 5‐38: Normal total emittance, ʹ(0), of sputtered aluminium on T300/5209
graphite‐epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating thickness, tc,
and for two different textures of the supporting material. From Witte & Teichman
(1989) [166].
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Figure 5‐39: Normal solar absorptance, s, of sputtered aluminium on T300/5209
graphite‐epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating thickness, tc,
and for two different textures of the supporting material. From Witte & Teichman
(1989) [166].
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Figure 5‐40: Solar absorptance to emittance ratio of sputtered aluminium on
T300/5209 graphite‐epoxy composite material as a function of sputtered coating
thickness, tc, and for two different textures of the supporting material. From Witte
& Teichman (1989) [166].
As a general rule changes in absorptance and emittance due to the sputtered coating are less for rough
than for smooth substrates. In addition to the non‐uniformity in the coating thickness of rough
substrate specimens, which has been already mentioned, the calculations of surface area based on the
roughness data indicate that the rough specimens present about 1,3 times as much surface area as the
smooth ones. Under the assumption of uniform deposition rates, the coating will be thinner on rough
substrates and thus its effect are reduced.
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Figure 5‐41: Tensile strength, t, vs. temperature, T, of structural materials. Inert
atmospheres. From DeMario (1985) [81].
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Table 5‐70: Characteristic Temperatures of Neat and Reinforced Resins
Araldite LY 556/HY 917/DY 428
070
Oven Cure
Araldite LY 556/HY 972. 438
Oven Cure
Araldite LY 564/HY 2954. 448
Oven Cure
Araldite LY 564/HY 560. 373
Oven Cure
Araldite LY 1927GB/HY 388
1927GB
Room or Warm Cure
Araldite XD 893/HY 932. 473
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Oven Cure
DER 332/T403, 16h/330K, 353
0,65 glass fiber
DER 332/T403, 16h/330K, 355
0,70 glass fiber
ERL 4221+HHPA+BDMA 447,5
2,5h/360K+5h/430K
ERL 4221+DDM+Resorcinol 425
16h/390K+18h/450K+4h/470K
Vicotex 108, 499,5
2h/400K+2h/450K
Xylok 237, 5h/390K+2h/450K 443
Rezolin EPO 93L, up to 430,5
4h/430K
Rezolin EPO 58/970A, up to 444
3 h/530K
Cyclo‐Aliphatic Tri Epoxy 458,5
Resin
24h/420K+4h/470K
Semi‐IPN. Victrex/2‐CBA 1:1 458
pbw
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Cured 2‐CBA 518
Polycarbonate, 0,30 carbon 425
fiber
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461 Hsiue, Miller &
Segal (1985) [103]
PMR‐P1 637
PMR‐P6 631
PMR‐P7 628
BMI‐1/MBMI‐1, X1 = 0,5, 533 d
6h/486K 573
/513KBMI‐1/MBMI‐1, X1 = 513 d
0,33, /489K 553
BMI‐1/MBMI‐1, X1 = 0, 443 d
6h/486K 528
BMI‐1/MMAB, X1 = 0,5 /489K 435 e
BMI‐1/MMAB, X1 = 0,66 /509 478 e
K
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BMI‐1/MMAB, X1 = 0,75 /513 510 e
K
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 1 673 e
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 0,75 645 e
/531 K
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 0,66 621 e
/527 K
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 0,5 /513 591 e
K
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 0,33 591 e
/500 K
BMI‐2/MBMI‐2, X1 = 0/489 K 433 e
Polyetherimide 0,30 carbon 440
fiber
PBT 0,30 carbon fiber 485
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a Applied load 4,6 x 105 Pa.
b Applied load 18,2 x 105 Pa.
c Where two values are given, upper corresponds to before and lower after postcure. Typical postcure is
16h/510K.
d No postcure.
Upper service temperature as controlled by thermo‐oxidative stability of the fibers is introduced in
clause 5.13.3.1.
1 f m
[5‐12]
R1 R f Rm
In many cases: metals, boron, carbon fibers, ... the electrical conduction takes place through fibers (Rm
>> Rf) and thus:
Rf
R1 [5‐13]
f
The electrical conduction in the 2 direction takes place by chance contacts between adjacent fibers. For
unidirectional fibers with volume fractions of structural interest (f 0,60 to 0,65) the resistivities
perpendicular to the fibers are 200 to 400 times higher than those in the fiber direction (Lodge (1982)
[121], Thomson (1982) [156]) and, in general, considerably smaller than that of the matrix alone.
The electrical resistance in a direction forming an angle with the 1 direction (fibers) is given by
(Karlsson (1983) [111])
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In multidirectional layups the leakage between adjacent plies tends to reduce the difference between
R1 and R2 so that a four‐directional quasi‐isotropic layup can be regarded as electrically isotropic in the
plane of the composite.
In general, for multilayered composites formed by n plies with different orientations, the electrical
resistance in the plane of the composite is given by (Karlsson (1983) [111])
1 1 n 1
[5‐15]
R n 1 Rn
where Rn is the electrical resistance of the n layer in its 1 direction. Rn depends on temperature,
moisture and thermal history of the material.
The electrical resistances normal to the plane of the laminate are much higher because of the excess
resin between adjacent plies.
The available body of measurements of the resistivities of a variety of samples is fairly extensive. Data
are summarized in the following.
Table 5‐71: Electrical Resistivity, f [.m], of High‐Strength Fibers
Celion GY 70 3,1‐6,5
Celion 3000 15
Celion 6000 15
Celion 12000 15
Fortafil 3 60
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Hercules E‐HTS 10
HMG 50 14
HMS typical 8,3
Magnamite AS1 20
Magnamite AS3 13
450 6,6
Thornel T‐500 18
Thornel P‐25W 13
Thornel P‐55S 7,5
Thornel P‐75S 5
Thornel P‐100 2,5
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Boron 26 a b
Amorphous Metal 0,8‐3,5
a Depends on the manufacturing process.
b Very high values.
Table 5‐72: Electrical Resistivity, [.m], of Carbon‐Epoxy Composite Materials
Fiber T x 106 [.m]
[K]
Type Angle [°] f 1 2
NOTE From Karlsson (1983) [111].
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5.11.1.3 High-frequency effects
Electrical conduction in composites at non‐zero frequencies is not clearly understood and, thus, a
theoretical prediction of the high‐frequency behavior of composites is at present not possible.
Nevertheless, a substantial body of measurements exists.
Typical results, given in Figure 5‐42, correspond to two set of samples which differ only in their
widths. The electrical resistivity is lower for the narrower samples. This is due to the skin effect for
alternating current flow since in the narrower samples the loss in effective cross‐sectional area will be
proportionally less than in the wider samples as the frequency rises.
Figure 5‐42: Electrical resistivity, , as a function of frequency, f, for a carbon‐
epoxy composite material. Fiber: Super A, Matrix: Fibredux 914C. Layup (0° 45°)
16 plies.
Sample size: :> 1,98x10 m, 10x103 m, 25x10 3 m. :> 1,98x103 m, 5,5x103 m,
3
25x103 m.
From Thomson (1982) [156].
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On the contrary, all the current is forced to flow across the joint via the shank of the metal fasteners
through the composite/metal and metal/composite interfaces.
Bolts are used for component assembly because they sustain high mechanical loads. Hexagonal‐
headed bolts exhibit high electrical admittances, which depend on the bolt tightening torque, below a
given torque value. The tightening pressure under the head of these bolts (combined with localized
heating from the passage of the current) seems to be sufficient to break up the resin rich layer.
When high closing pressures are used on fasteners, structural damage could occur but good electrical
properties could result since the fastener and the fibers are in intimate contact.
Countersink bolts (in which the head fits flush with the surface), although they contact a large area of
machined carbon fiber, exhibit low admittances because the current enters the bolt via a small annulus
around the base of the countersink rather than over the entire area.
Adhesive joints are much worse, from the electrical admittance point of view, than mechanically
fastened joints since no metallic fastener is present and cold curing resins are electrical insulators.
Composite‐metal joints present their own problems. Again bolts are used for component assembly.
Among the bolted joints there are fixed configurations, with Hi‐Loks, and removable configurations
with nut plates. The bolt material has to be compatible with both parts to be assembled. Thus,
titanium bolts are used with carbon fiber reinforced composite ‐ Aluminium joints.
On the other hand, a bonded joint between composite material and metal is not mechanically reliable
if the adhesive used needs a cure cycle. The materials should be pre stressed to cope with thermal
expansion.
The following stratagems are recommended for improving the electrical performance of both
composite‐composite and composite‐metal joints with minor effects on their structural strength.
COMPOSITE‐COMPOSITE JOINTS
1. The protective glass cloth around the fastener impedes the conduction between fibers and bolt. The
cloth layer should be locally removed. The surface could be resealed again after the fasteners have
been installed.
2. Increasing the contact area by using either larger diameter fasteners or large head and tail fittings.
This can result in additional weight and cost.
3. Increasing the contact area by tighter tolerances on the hole drilling. These holes are very expensive
to produce and very easily damaged before final fixing. See Table 5‐73.
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Table 5‐73: Drill Bit Costs and Standard Drilling Hourse
Titanium Cobalt $ 0,70 (Ti)
4 Fluted 30,00 5‐6 times
The factors that affect the cost when drilling holes in composite materials are: hole tolerance
requirements, special drill bit cost, drill speed and setup time. Drill bits specifically designed for
obtaining high quality holes in composite materials are available.
Tighter tolerances than in standard metallic structures are required when using metallic
fasteners in composite structures.
Slower drill feeds should be used because of increased wear rates.
Setup time is increased to avoid back face damage when the drill bit breaks‐through the
laminate.
Removing a misplaced hole can be time consuming and costly.
NOTE From Carter III (9819) [66].
4. Electrodeposited copper down to 5 x 10‐3 m bolt holes improves the admittance of countersink
titanium bolts. Flame spraying and electrodeless deposition have been also used.
5. Conducting particle ladden coatings can be sprayed or hand painted at much less cost and in situ,
although the admittance gains are much more modest.
6. Adhesive joints should be avoided although several recommendations to enhance the electrical
conductivity of the joint are:
6.1. Several hot curing resins have metal particles incorporated into them to improve their hot
strength, Increasing the metal loading up to 70% only results in modes admittance gains. At such high
metal loadings the adhesive becomes unsuitable for structural applications.
6.2. Addition of metal gauzes has been attempted and modest admittance gains have been achieved.
6.3. Hotspots due to passing electrical current cause local softening and even vaporization of the
matrix, releasing more fibers, and increasing the admittance. Nevertheless, the structural integrity of
the composite suffers with a possible loss of strength in the adhesive.
From Lodge (1982) [121].
COMPOSITE‐METAL JOINTS
1. The presence of non‐conductive sealant during a wet assembly will increase the resistivity. Tracers
of this sealant should therefore be removed from both components of the joint.
2. A tenacious non conducting oxide film, that titanium bolts have, will increase the resistivity. The
metal surface should therefore be uncoated and abraded in the bolt areas to improve the electrical
conductivity.
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3. Meshes will increase the weight of a component part since the added plies are not structural
materials. A metalized carbon fiber ply should be more useful. It is a structural material which can be
used instead of the last ply of the laminate.
4. The choice of a metallic protection should take into account thermomechanical distortion problems
during the cure cycle.
5. Incorrect drilling can produce over size holes. On the other hand, a wrong speed drilling or feed
rate can smear the resin over the ends of the fibers insulating them.
6. The current will flow under the head of the pin and will reach the metallic part through the shank of
the bolt.
6.1. The use of washers or metallic strips connecting more Hi‐Loks will improve both the electrical
conduction (admittance increases when pressure does) and the distribution of stresses around the
hole.
6.2. A metallic strip electrical connection of the bolt heads will increase the bolt admittance and the
current will find a new preferential path. When metallic strips are to be avoided, plasma spraying can
be used for the electrical connection of the screw heads.
6.3. If a Ti bolt is used, the higher resistivity of this material compared with Al should be taken into
account in the calculation of the cross‐section.
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We will introduce in the following the analysis by Shen & Springer (1976) [148] and by Loos &
Springer (1979) [122].
M t M o 8
1 2 p 1 2
Ma Mo
1 2
p 0 2 p 1
exp Dt [5‐19]
2
L
where D [m2.s‐1] is the diffusion coefficient in the direction normal to the material
surface. For a fiber reinforced material, D = D2 (normal to fibers). t is the time and L
the thickness of the composite material when exposed on two faces (edges are
assumed to be shielded by an impermeable coating in order to keep valid the one‐
dimensional approach). When the material is exposed on one face only, L should
be twice the thickness.
(b) Radial configuration
Data from experiments with slender rods of diameter 2L have been also reported.
In order to analyze them, the simple one‐dimensional model used by Shen &
Springer should be slightly modified yielding the following expression
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M t M o
1 Dt
1 4 2 exp jo2, p 2 [5‐20]
Ma Mo p 1 j o , p L
where jo,p is the p‐th real zero of Jo (Bessel function of first kind and order 0)
(Abramowitz & Stegun (1965) [50]).
Approximate expressions of Eqs. [5‐19] and [5‐20] are given in Figure 5‐43.
Figure 5‐43: One‐dimensional and radial models of laminar diffusion through
homogeneous‐isotropic media.
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The diffusion coefficient, D2, changes very little with the moisture content, but depends on
temperature. Loos & Springer (1979) [122], based on experimental evidence, suggest the following
Arrhenius‐type law:
D2 Do e C / T [5‐21]
Values of Do and C for typical graphite‐epoxy composite materials will be given in Table 5‐76.
Similar expressions are being used for predicting diffusion coefficients of gases in different materials
(see f.i. Fortier & Giletti (1989) [89]). C depends on the characteristics of the carrying material and also
on those of the diffusing fluid. This could be deduced from the data in Table 5‐76, where, in addition,
nominally identical materials have been exposed to different cure cycles.
Numerical values of the moisture content, M, for t = 100h and typical composites vs. ambient
temperature, T, are shown in Figure 5‐44.
Figure 5‐44: Moisture content, M, as a function of ambient temperature, T, after 100
h of exposure to distilled water at that temperature, for several carbon fiber
reinforced composites. The specimens are infinitely large rods of 6x103 m
diameter. M0 = 0,002 assumed.
Explanation
Spec. No. 1, Table 5‐74. Calculated by the compiler Eq.
(2a), Figure 5‐43
Spec. No. 2, Table 5‐74
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Spec. No. 3, Table 5‐74 Ma = Mm as in Table 5‐75
D0 and C as in Table 5‐76
Matrix: DER 332/DDS, 3h/420K Experimental
Fiber: HT‐S prepreg carbon Hancox (1981) [94], Fig. 4.
f = 0,58 to 0,62, v < 0,01
As above, except v = 0,05 to 0,06
Table 5‐74: Characterization of Composite Materials, the Maximum Moisture
Content and Diffusion Constants of which are given in Table 5‐75 and Table 5‐76
respectively
Spec. Matrix Fiber Fiber Cure Cycle Spec. Size
No. Volume
Manu‐ Type Fiber
f
facture Angle
[°]
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(Narmco) K/min. Then 1h/410K.
Temp. raised to 450 K at 2
K/min. 2h/450K and
5,9x105 Pa. Temp. lowered
to 330 K at 2 K/min.
Pressure released.
Postcure 4h/480K.
The maximum moisture content of the materials in Table 5‐74, immersed either in water or in humid
air, are given in Table 5‐75.
Table 5‐75: Maximum Moisture Content, Mm, of the Specimens Characterized in
Table 5‐74
Distilled Saturated Salt a b
NOTE From Loos & Springer (1979) [75].
Table 5‐76: Constants Do and C for the Arrhenius Expression, of the Transverse
Diffusion Coefficient, D2, of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐74
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2. The beneficial effect of moisture is partially offset by the decreasing in the glass transition
temperature of the matrix by moisture absorption. In addition moisture affects the
corrosion resistance of certain glass fibers.
3. A three‐dimensional diagram of tensile strength versus both temperature, T, and
moisture content, G, will show the same trends with different values of T as for cold
conditions. The lowest values will correspond to cold/dry conditions, due to curing
residual stresses. The highest values will correspond to cold/wet conditions, where
absorbed moisture cancels the curing‐induced stresses.
On the other hand, for a given G, the strength decreases at high temperature due to reduced matrix
strength.
These considerations can not be translated directly to angle plied laminates where both layup and the
nature of the applied load have as much effect as temperature and moisture.
Moisture does not seem to affect the fatigue life of carbon fiber reinforced laminates at room
temperatures. No reliable fatigue data seem to exist for combined temperature and moisture.
5.13.1 Ascent
5.13.1.1 Outgassing
A list of composite materials meeting Johnson Space Center vacuum stability requirements for
polymeric materials is given in Table 5‐77.
Table 5‐77: Outgassing Data for Typical Composite Materials
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NOTE From Lubin & Dastin (1982) [123].
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Table 5‐78: Characterization of Materials Tested under a Vacuum Radiation
Environment
Spec. Laminate Matrix Fiber Fiber Fiber Environment References
No. Angle Volume
[°] f
6 90
7 (±43)S
Only linear thermal expansion data are given, whereas trends for degradation of mechanical
properties are shortly outlined.
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5.13.2.1 Test facilities
The tests have been undertaken by use of different facilities which are described here for later
reference.
TF1. Samples 2 x 10‐3 m thick irradiated with a Xenon lamp (450 W), 8,35 Sun levels, up to 500 ESD.
Sample temperature held at 323 K ‐ 324 K during irradiation.
Samples 0,5 x 10‐3 m thick were exposed to a dose of 3 x 109 rad electron with a particle energy of 40
keV and subsequently to a dose of 05 x 109 rad at 700 keV.
Samples, required for shear tests, 10‐2 m thick, were exposed to doses of 109 rad to 5 x 109 rad, 2 MeV
electrons, first on one face and then on the other.
Samples 05 x 10‐3 m thick were exposed to proton radiation with fluxes of 3 x 109 p.m‐2 up to 23 x 1020
p.m‐2.
All the above irradiations were applied separately from each other.
TF2. Thermal vacuum radiation facility. Its working chamber is 0,46 m diameter, 0,33 m long.
Operating pressure was 1,33 x 10‐4 Pa. Temperatures from 290 K to 450 K, with 1 K difference on any
sample. Thermal cycling tests were also run in hard vacuum (1,33 x 10‐4 Pa to 1,33 x 10‐5 Pa).
UV radiation with UV Xenon compact arc lamp (Canrad Hanovia 976C0010) up to 180 ESD.
Up to 30 specimens are supported on a carousel arrangement which can be turned externally. When
required, loading can be supplied by an external hydraulic piston.
The lower half of each sample is shielded from direct UV radiation in order to separate UV radiation
from thermal vacuum effects. Since the temperatures of the shielded and unshielded parts of the
sample were slightly different they are independently measured.
The high energy electron source consisted of a Strontium‐90 foil contained in a plexi‐glass holder
mounted on the chamber wall. The front panel of this holder can be lowered from outside the
chamber to allow samples directly in front of the foil to be irradiated.
Radiation dose up to 20 x 103 rad.
TF3. A‐H6 high pressure, quartz‐jacketed, water cooled mercury‐arc lamp.
Equivalent exposure times were 210, 480, 720, 960 ESH.
Samples held in pyrex tubes 0,038 m diameter, 0,305 m long at 1,33 x 10‐5 Pa.
TF4. Electron Linear Accelerator of IRT Corp., San Diego, CA. 92121,12 MeV beam.
Total doses were 5 x 107, 108, 5 x 108, 109 rads.
Mean dose rate: 10,8 krad/sec. At this dose rate the irradiated samples reached a temperature of 322 K.
Pressure not given.
Samples held in pyrex tubes as above.
TF5. Electron Accelerator of the Boeing Radiation Facility, Seattle, Washington.
1,5 MeV impinging on the test specimen in vacuum (1,33 x 10‐4 Pa to 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa), 296 K.
This facility does not simulate the proton energy distribution in Space, the dose rate or the combined
effects of electrons and protons.
Total doses: 1 x 103 rads, 3 x 109 rads
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5.13.2.2 Measurement methods
MM1. Bending, pull and shear tests were performed ex situ after irradiations. The samples were held
at 330 K to 340 K during the tests.
MM2. In situ measurements of thermal strains were made using bonded surface straing gauges. For
low configurations the strain gauges were calibrated interferometrically.
No tests on the influence of moisture contents where performed on these samples.
MM3. Ex situ.
In order to control the moisture content, the cartridge tubes containing the composite samples were
dried at 390 K overnight under reduced pressure. The tubes were subsequently evacuated to 1,33 x 105
Pa or less.
MM4. Specimen sizes: 76 x 10‐3 m, 13 x 10‐3 m, 10‐3 m thick.
Spec. No. 10 was cured at 450 K molded in an autoclave from commercial prepreg tape. Spec. Nos. 11
and 12 were cured at 390 K.
All specimens were maintained in the dry condition after cutting.
Tests performed before and after irradiation.
Thermal expansion was measured on a standard laboratory dilatometer over the temperature range
140 K to 390 K.
Specimens were transferred to the Boeing Radiation Facility in sealed aluminium desiccators
containing Drierite. Prior to irradiation, they were degassed in vacuum. After irradiation the
specimens were repackaged in the desiccators and maintained in this condition until just prior to
testing.
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Table 5‐79: Summary of the Data Regarding Radiation Effects on the Coefficient of
Linear Thermal Expansion for the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐78
1
4
7
10 T300/5208
13 Kevlar 49/E719
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Figure 5‐45: Effect of UV radiation on linear thermal expansion, , of
Graphite/epoxy T300/SP 288 laminates. a) = 90°, b) = ( 43°)s, c) = 0°. Ambient
pressure 104 Pa to 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [107], Hansen &
Tennyson (1983) [153].
Figure 5‐46: Effect of UV radiation on linear thermal expansion, , of Kevlar/epoxy
3M SP 306 laminates. a) = 90°, b) = ( 43°)s, c) = 0°. Ambient pressure 104 Pa to
105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
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Figure 5‐47: Effect of electron radiation with (thick solid line) and without (thin
solid line) UV exposure, on linear thermal expansion, 0, of graphite/epoxy and
Kevlar/epoxy, = ( 43°)S. Ambient pressure 10‐4 Pa to 10‐5 Pa. Exposure > 1 year and
300 ESD of UV. From Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
Figure 5‐48: Linear thermal expansion, 0, as a function of temperature, T, of
T50(PAN)/F263 (0/90)2s HM graphite/epoxy laminates exposed to electron radiation.
Calculated by the compiler by numerical derivation ( = d(L/L)/dT) of data from
Mauri & Crossman (1983) [125].
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Table 5‐80: Average Values of Linear Thermal Expansion, , for
75S(Pitch)/948A1(0/90)2S Graphite/Epoxy Laminates in the Temperature Range 280
K ‐ 370 K
Baseline, 2 1 0,54
2 0,49
3 x 109 rad, 1 1 0,49
2 0,43
3 x 109 rad, 2 1 0,23
2 0,23
NOTE From Mauri & Corssman (1983) [125].
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radiation‐induced degradation in shear strength, which probably renders it unsuitable for use in
external spacecraft primary structural components.
Ref. Mauri & Crossman (1983) [125].
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Experiment (Visentine, Leger, Kuminecz & Spiker (1985) [162]). The basic experimental approach
consisted of exposing samples to the LEO environment and then returning them for ground‐based
laboratory analysis. Most of these samples were exposed in disc form (25,4 x 10‐3 m diameter),
however film strips, woven cables and fabrics were also tested.
Reaction efficiencies, measured by mass change, of several organic films were in the range of 3 x 10‐30
m3/atom. Effects of parameters such as temperature and solar radiation were assessed as was the
importance of atmospheric ionic species on surface recession.
Reaction efficiencies so far obtained have errors of the order of 30 % to 50 %, mainly due to errors in
predicting density. Since then, several ground test facilities have been designed, built and tested
(Zimcik et al. (1985) [171], McCargo et al. (1985) [126], Morrison et al. (1988) [130],...) and valuable data
on thin film polymeric materials, coatings and paints are beginning to appear.
Relevant data for composite materials are summarized in Table 5‐81.
Table 5‐81: Atomic Oxygen Reaction Efficiency Data from Reported LEO Flights
and Ground Testing
Generally speaking, good agreement between in‐flight and laboratory simulation experimental results
has been obtained for polymeric materials that are readily eroded by impingement of oxygen atoms,
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and also for those almost unaffected by it. Controversy still exists regarding the vulnerability of
partially erodable polymeric materials, namely fluorionated polymers (TFE and FEP).
In the case of Teflon FEP the simulation erosion rates were two orders of magnitude higher than those
in space.
The total energy and the flux of the oxygen atoms eroding the polymeric materials in simulation
experiments should be controlled so that the supposedly correct space data be reproduced, even in the
case of the fluoropolymers.
Haruvy (1990) [100] has recently noted that the following four polymers, namely: a) Kapton H
(polyimide), b) Kynar (fluorocarbon), c) Teflon FEP (polyfluoroethylenepropylene), and d) Silicone
Rubber (polysiloxane), exhibited in the STS experiments relative reaction efficiences, Re/(Re)Kapton H of 1,
0,2, 0,05 and 0, respectively. What is then actually needed for a reliable prediction of material
durability in LEO is a calibrated simulation facility in which these ratios are maintained.
Since the existing facilities produce the oxygen atoms by a wide variety of methods and in a wide
range of energies, the calibration process should pay the attention to the energy supplied to a given
flux, in order to reproduce the in‐flight experimental results.
On the other hand, the gap between Kynar (0.2) and Kapton H (1.0) could well be filled with Tedlar at
various degrees of fluorination.
The estimation of the material depletion by atomic oxygen can be made by using Figure 5‐49. This
estimation is based on the assumption of a linear relationship between atomic oxygen‐induced
erosion, flux and time. It has been suggested (see Haruvy (1990) [100]) that matters are not so simple
and that the higher the flux the more the erosion rate increases.
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Figure 5‐49: Graphs for estimating the depletion by atomic oxygen of a material of
known Reaction Efficiency, Re. From Leger & Visentine (1986) [118].
5.13.3.1 Oxidation
For applications in the temperature region 550 K ‐ 620 K, and within the Earth atmosphere, both
components of a graphite fiber/high temperature polymer composite should be resistant to oxidation.
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Although the graphite fiber is encapsulated in the polymer matrix, air permeates the composite
material, either through the matrix or by way of interface, and can destroy the bond at the
fiber/polymer interface. This particularly occurs when the polymer is more resistant to oxidation than
the fiber. It is often said that a graphite fiber containing a high concentration of surface sodium shows
poor thermo‐oxidative stability. Fiber surface impurities could result from the PAN precursor or from
the surface treatment process.
The excellent high‐temperature characteristics of Graphite fiber or Carbon/Carbon composites, Figure
5‐41, can be achieved in inert atmospheres only, unless protective coatings are used.
The thermo‐oxidative stability of a composite material is measured through the weight loss after
isothermal aging for sufficiently large time periods (Scola & Laube (1988) [146]). In this particular case
samples were aged in an air circulating oven (Q = 6 x 10‐3 m3/h) at 598 K. Periodically samples are
removed for weighting and returned to the oven for aging up to a total time of 4000 h.
In order to relate the thermo‐oxidative stability of the fibers to their surface composition, ESCA
analysis is performed.
In ESCA technique (also known as XPS) the surface to be analyzed is irradiated with soft X‐rays.
Photoelectrons and Auger electrons are excited and can escape the sample surface, without loss of
energy, provided that their initial deep into the surface is smaller than the Inelastic Mean Free Path
(IMFP). The binding energies of these photo and Auger electrons depend on the atomic number and
chemical environment of the excited atom. The IMFP, in its turn, is a function of the electron energy
and of the angle between the surface and the analyzer. The depth of information, which is further
restricted by the fact that electrons leave the surface of a bunch of fibers at angles between grazing and
normal, is of the order of 0 Å ‐ 10 Å for electron energies to approximately 500 eV. In practice a
nominal sputter depth is quoted, although the surface of a bunch of fibers is not uniformly sputtered.
Weight loss of several carbon and graphite fibers after aging in flowing air has been collected in Table
5‐82.
Table 5‐82: Weight Loss, WL (%), of Carbon Fibers After Isothermal Aging in
Flowing Air
Celion HM (99,6%C) 0,02
Celion 3000/6000 3‐5
G40‐700 (unsized) b 580 1,7 0,40 0,45 1,00 1,90 2,70 5,50 6,97
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IM6 (unsized) b 580 1,7 1,30 2,10 7,50 14,3 23,5 54,1 74,1
Thornel 300 99,3
T40R (unsized) b 580 1,7 0,15 0,19 0,30 0,45 0,60 0,67 0,78
UCC VS All pitch 0,6
VM 0032 (UCC non‐ 0,7
woven mat)
a From Dresselhaus, Sugihara, Spain & Goldberg (1988) [84]
b From Scola & Laube (1988) [146]
ESCA surface analysis of a series of carbon fibers indicates that the chemical composition of their
surface bears a direct relationship to oxidative stability. It could be illuminating to compare the
composition as received and after oxidation of the fibers introduced in Table 5‐82. This comparison
has been summarized, considering only two extreme cases, in Table 5‐83.
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Table 5‐83: Chemical Composition, Atom (%), of both T40R and Hercules AS4
Carbon Fibers, as received and oxidized, ESCA
NOTE From Scola & Laube (1988) [146].
It can be deduced from Table 5‐83 that Carbon Fibers with the highest carbon content and lowest
oxygen and nitrogen contents exhibit the greatest resistance to oxidation. The presence of sodium does
not appear to influence the oxidative stability of the fibers, at least at levels up to 0,6 atom % according
to Scola & Laube (1988) [146]. The role of other elements in influencing the oxidative stability of the
fibers is not presently understood.
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Table 5‐84: Characterization of Materials Tested under or after Thermal Vacuum
Cycling
Spec. Laminate Matrix Fiber Fiber Angle Fiber References
No. [°] Volume
f
6 (±30)S
7 b (±43)S
8 (±60)S
9 b 90
11 90
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mechanical loading fixture, attached to the chamber door, supplies uniaxial or torsional loading of
specimens.
For long test periods (exceeding nine months) a long term thermal‐vacuum cycling facility (SS2) has
been developed. The working chamber is approximately .66 m in diameter, 0,76 m long. The vacuum
is close to 1,33 x 10‐6 Pa. Currently 120 flat laminates plus 38 tubes are mounted for testing. 33 of these
specimens are strain gauged for monitoring thermal strains. The temperature is recorded with
thermocouples. A mass spectrometer is also implemented for species determination.
TF2. Fast thermal cycling was performed by use of the accelerated thermal cycling chamber (ATC2) of
ESTEC. See Larue (1982) [117] for a description of this facility. The useful dimensions for the test
samples were 0,5 m x 0,5 m x 0,25 m. Six specimen tubes were accommodated inside the chamber. The
acceleration factor was 50 compared to low orbit conditions. The tests were interrupted every 1000
cycles (or more often) for cutting sections of the specimens in order to monitor the microcracks.
Mechanical and thermal expansion tests were performed ex‐situ.
The linear thermal expansion was measured in an old ESTEC facility. See Aalders (1989) [48] for the so
called ʺ1983 facilityʺ. It consisted of a vacuum chamber of .55 m diameter and 1,3 m long. The optics
for the laser interferometer measurement system was positioned inside the shroud unit except the
remote interferometer block which was outside the shroud and kept at constant temperature of 300 K
monitored by a thermocouple. The interferometer and associated optics were especially prepared for
vacuum use. A video recording system was used to perform a continuous monitoring of the length
variation and specimen temperature.
The facility is pumped down to less than 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa. The specimens were dried and de‐gassed by
heating at 340 K for 48 h. Then the laser system was adjusted and set to zero.
In order to increase the temperature from its lower end, the liquid nitrogen supply was stopped and
the temperature rose, by thermal leaks, up to about 290 K. Beyond this, the heating system was
activated in order to allow the specimen to reach 340 K.
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Table 5‐85: Thermal Vacuum Cycling Effects on the Coefficient of Linear Thermal
Expansion of the Specimens Characterized in Table 5‐84
3 Figure Figure 5‐51, Figure
5‐51 5‐52
4 Figure 5‐52
5 Laminate Figure 5‐53, Figure
Kevlar/Epoxy 5‐54
6
7
8
9
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Table 5‐86: Effect of Storage on the Linear Thermal Expansion, o, of the Hybrid
Tubes Identified as Spec. No. 1, in Table 5‐84 and Table 5‐85
Sample o x 106 [K‐1]
NOTE From Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
Table 5‐87: Effect of Thermal Cycling (either Ambient or Vacuum) on the Linear
Thermal Expansion, o, of the Hybrid Tubes Identified as Spec. No. 1 in Table 5‐84
and Table 5‐85a
Sample o x 106 [K‐1]
6 1,6 2,5
7 1,3 2,0
8 77 cycles 3,94
9 1,4 3,46
10 4,19
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Figure 5‐50: Effect of the number of thermal cycles, N, on the linear thermal
expansion, 0, of ( 22°)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen
& Tennyson (1983) [95].
Figure 5‐51: Effect of the number of thermal cycles, N, on the linear thermal
expansion, 0, of ( 43°)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson (1980) [153], Tennyson &
Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
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Figure 5‐52: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear
thermal expansion, 0, of ( °)S T300/3M SP288 Graphite/Epoxy laminates. 300 K
T 370 K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in vacuum. From
Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
Figure 5‐53: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear
thermal expansion, 0, of ( °)S 3M SP306 Kevlar/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in vacuum. From
Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
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Figure 5‐54: Comparison of predicted (‐) and experimental (o) values of the linear
thermal expansion, 0, vs. fiber angle, , for (°)S 3M SP306 Kevlar/Epoxy
laminates. 48 cycles 220 days in vacuum. 300 K T 370 K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to
1,33 x 105 Pa. From Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [171], Hansen & Tennyson (1983)
[95]. Results for Graphite/Epoxy are given in Tennyson (1980) [153]. Compare also
with Figure 5‐27.
Figure 5‐55: Effect of the number of thermal vacuum cycles, N, on the linear
thermal expansion, 0, of ( °)S 3M SP290 Boron/Epoxy laminates. 300 K T 370
K, p = 1,33 x 104 Pa to 1,33 x 105 Pa. 50 cycles 220 days in vacuum. From
Tennyson & Zimcik (1982) [154], Hansen & Tennyson (1983) [95].
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Figure 5‐56: Coefficient of the linear thermal expansion, 0, as a function of
temperature, T, for Graphite/Epoxy circular hybrid tubes, identified as Spec. No.
12 in Table 5‐84 and Table 5‐85, before (solid line) and after (dashed line) thermal
vacuum cycling. 3000 cycles. 98 K T370 K, p = 1,33 x 103 Pa. From Reibaldi (1985)
[141].
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5.15.3.1 General
This coating system is widely used by the European Aeronautical industry on carbon fiber composite
materials. No thermooptical nor space environmental properties are given. The system consists of:
5.15.3.2 Filling
Z‐12207 Filler (from Hermann Wiederhold. Germany). It is constitued by two components to be added
as follows:
100 pbw PE‐F84/2,5 pbw PFH. Thinner: Z‐12623, N 39400
Pot life: 40 min to 50 min at 293 K.
Tack free: 1 h at 293 K.
Final drying: 6 h to 8 h at 293 K.
5.15.3.3 Priming
Z‐12129 White primer (from SIKKENS. The Netherlands).
100 pbw Aerodin Primer 37045/30 pbw Hardener S 66/8
Thinner 70 pbw. Add thinner to reach a viscosity of 12 s ‐ 13 s per DIN No. 4 cup (see ECSS‐E‐HB‐
31‐01 Part 6, clause 5.2.5.1).
Final drying: 4 h at 293 K.
Thickness (dry): 15 x 10‐6 m to 25 x 10‐6 m.
5.15.3.4 Thinning
Z‐12607, C 25/90 S Thinner (from SIKKENS).
Formulation (percent by volume):
MEK 30 ± 1
Butyl acetate 10 ± 1
Cellosolve acetate 40 ± 1
Toluene 12
Xylene 8
Cellosolve acetate is a trade‐mark for ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate.
Catalyst: Z‐12322, S 66/8R
This priming system resists to oils and lubricants up to 390 K, to SKYDROL 5008, to greases and to
synthetic oils.
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Z‐12536 is constitued by
4 pbw N53628/1 pbw 39/1327 hardener. Thinner: 39/3460
5.16.1 Intelsat v
INTELSAT V, communication satellite (Figure 5‐57), was launched on 6 December 1980 and placed in
geosynchronous orbit five days later. It provides 12000 communication circuits, including telephone
and television for the member nations of the INTELSAT Corporation.
Figure 5‐57: Outline of INTELSAT V communication satellite.
INTELSAT V was the first satellite in which extensive use of composite materials has been made
(Hillesland (1980) [102]).
The requirements of low mass, low thermal expansion, stiffness, strength, and thermal stability are
satisfactorily fulfilled. Over 4000 separate parts of the spacecraft, accounting for 25 % of total mass, are
of composite materials.
1. Antennae. Eleven antennae (parabolic reflectors and horns) are located on the antenna tower
module.
Among the four parabolic reflectors, the larger 4 GHz and 6 GHz units incorporate a thin honeycomb
shell with a rib‐stiffened backup structure. The skins are 2‐ply from GY70 (Celanese) on the outside
and Kevlar 49 in the inside bonded to a Kevlar honeycomb core. The rib stiffeners incorporate both
materials bonded to the back of the reflector shell.
The two smaller parabolic reflector antennae, 11 GHz and 14 GHz, by Selenia (Italy), have GY70 face
skins with aluminium honeycomb core for the sandwich structure. The surface of the reflectors are
Carbon covered by a white thermal control coating.
The 4 GHz and 6 GHz horn antennae, by Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan), have Carbon skins and
honeycomb core sandwich using Torayca M40A Carbon.
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2. 4 GHz and 6 GHz antenna feeds. Two antenna feed arrays with eighty‐eight feed elements on each
array, fabricated from T300 Carbon fiber/Epoxy, copper‐clad in the inside surface. The feed elements
are attached to a feed network array of copper‐clad Carbon (GY70)/Epoxy face skins with aluminium
sandwich structure and are in turn bolted to another Carbon/Epoxy skin‐aluminium honeycomb core
sandwich, which is part of the antenna support structure. A Kevlar aperture cover is used over the
feed elements.
3. Carbon/Epoxy waveguides placed in the antenna tower module. One hundred and eighty
Carbon/Epoxy pieces. Most of them are fabricated from T300 Carbon with an integral copper coating.
These individual components are fabricated separately, with relatively simple tooling, and adhesively
bonded to each other to form a maximum length run that can be accommodated in the antenna
support module structure. These parts are in turn bolted together using Carbon flanges.
There are also thirty‐nine Carbon/Epoxy waveguides in the spacecraft main body.
4. Antenna module structure. A Carbon/Epoxy structure, 3,3 m high, supports on the spacecraft the
previously described systems.
The structure is fabricated out of Carbon/Epoxy tubular members of diameters 25,4 x 10‐3 m and 50,8 x
10‐3 m and wall thicknesses ranging from 0,51 x 10‐3 m to 1,90 x 10‐3 m, which are bonded together to
form the truss. Carbon materials are GY70 and T300 fabric.
Five different support platforms of honeycomb sandwich construction with GY70 face skins with
aluminium honeycomb core are bonded to the primary truss by Carbon/Epoxy clips.
There are over eight hundred separate piece parts in the tower fabrication.
5. Multiplexers. There are twenty‐nine input fillers which make up eight multiplexers and twenty‐
three output fillers which make up five multiplexers per spacecraft system.
Material utilized is HMS Carbon/Epoxy. The individual parts (over 1100) are adhesively bonded
together and the surface is metal‐coated to fulfil electrical and moisture requirements.
6. Solar array. Furnished by MBB (Germany). It consists of two wings, each 7 m long and 17 m wide.
Each wing is assembled with three hinged panels (1,6 m x 2 m) and a yoke structure.
Each panel consists of a frame of Carbon/Epoxy edge members, aluminium honeycomb core and face
skins of Carbon/Epoxy (Thornel 75) woven in an open mesh configuration and bonded to the frame
and to the aluminium honeycomb core.
The yoke used to attach the panels to the spacecraft main body is Carbon/Epoxy.
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Figure 5‐58: Sketch of the ARIANE 4 upper part. From Thomas & Oliver (1985)
[155].
Supporting the Upper Payload and Fairing.
Forming part of the launcher primary structure and shielding the Lower Payload. The shield separates
around its circumference for deployment of the Lower Payload.
Carrying electrical signals for instrumentation and functioning of the Upper Payload and Fairing.
Giving access to the Lower Payload through the Payload Access Doors.
SPELDA structure is formed by Carbon/Epoxy faced honeycomb sandwich, Figure 5‐59.
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Figure 5‐59: Exploded view of SPELDA. From Thomas & Oliver (1985) [155].
Carbon fiber is Courtaulds HMS pre‐preg. Matrix is Code 69.
Honeycomb core is from expanded 5056 Al alloy with 4,8 x 10‐3 m hexagonal cells 0,018 x 10‐3 m foil
thickness. Face skins are of Carbon/Epoxy bonded to the core.
The cylindrical and conical shell structures consist of panels bonded to each other by Carbon fiber butt
straps. Each cylindrical shell is formed by three panels, each panel constructed from four separate
skins. The conical shell consists of three panels of two skins each.
Ply layups.
the level of the Line Charge Connection Device.
The shells thus formed are bonded into forged and machined aluminium rings to complete the major
SPELDA structure.
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This composite materials structure fulfills the requirement imposed of mass, stiffnes and strength
under high loads at temperatures near 420 K.
Figure 5‐60: Sketch of the CS‐3a structure. From Kawashima, Inoue & Seko (1985)
[112].
1. Central Thrust Tube. The structure of the CS‐3a satellite is assembled around a monocoque cone of
continuously wound filament shell of Carbon/Epoxy from the rocket interface plane (bottom) to the
antenna interface plane, Figure 5‐61. The Apogee Boost Motor (ABM) is supported by a ring bonded
inside the cone and the lower equipment platform is supported by a ring bonded outside the cone.
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Figure 5‐61: Exploded view of CS‐3a Central Thrust Tube. Prepared by the
compiler after Kawashima, Inoue & Seko (1985) [112].
The upper equipment platform is supported by eight brackets bonded to the cone. The thrust tube also
supports the despun antenna assembly mounted on the top of it and has the rocket interface ring at
the bottom.
Ply layups.
Below the ABM ring 70 / 20 2 / 70 S .
Above the ABM ring (±70°/±20°)S.
The directions 20° and 70° were chosen so as to maximize the buckling strength of the cone.
No additional details are given on the materials used except that the ABM ring can withstand a
temperature of about 550 K and then its matrix is Polyimide instead of Epoxy.
The mass of the central thrust tube is 17,5 kg.
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2. Joints. Up to thirty‐two fairly critical brackets are used to join the equipment panels to the thrust
tube. Considerably mass saving was achieved by fabricating them out of composite materials.
The configuration adopted in CS‐3a is shown in Figure 5‐61. Brackets and struts are all Carbon/Epoxy.
The brackets attach the struts near the inner surface of these in order to diminish size. A spherical
shell around the bosses allows rotating the strut around the connecting pin and transfers the strut load
to the web.
More than 30 % mass savings, compared to an ordinary design, was achieved.
The joint connecting the upper and lower struts to the lower equipment platform is also shown in
Figure 5‐61. The brackets are composed of Carbon/Epoxy pieces (7 in the case of sketched bracket)
bonded to each other.
3. Equipment Platforms. The upper and lower equipment platforms are Al alloy face sheets
sandwiches.
The mass of each panel is 15 kg.
386
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5A
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