Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
Space Engineering: Thermal Design Handbook - Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
5 December 2011
Space engineering
Thermal design handbook - Part 4:
Conductive Heat Transfer
ECSS Secretariat
ESA-ESTEC
Requirements & Standards Division
Noordwijk, The Netherlands
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 4A
5 December 2011
Foreword
This Handbook is one document of the series of ECSS Documents intended to be used as supporting
material for ECSS Standards in space projects and applications. ECSS is a cooperative effort of the
European Space Agency, national space agencies and European industry associations for the purpose
of developing and maintaining common standards.
The material in this Handbook is a collection of data gathered from many projects and technical
journals which provides the reader with description and recommendation on subjects to be
considered when performing the work of Thermal design.
The material for the subjects has been collated from research spanning many years, therefore a subject
may have been revisited or updated by science and industry.
The material is provided as good background on the subjects of thermal design, the reader is
recommended to research whether a subject has been updated further, since the publication of the
material contained herein.
This handbook has been prepared by ESA TEC‐MT/QR division, reviewed by the ECSS Executive
Secretariat and approved by the ECSS Technical Authority.
Disclaimer
ECSS does not provide any warranty whatsoever, whether expressed, implied, or statutory, including,
but not limited to, any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose or any warranty
that the contents of the item are error‐free. In no respect shall ECSS incur any liability for any
damages, including, but not limited to, direct, indirect, special, or consequential damages arising out
of, resulting from, or in any way connected to the use of this document, whether or not based upon
warranty, business agreement, tort, or otherwise; whether or not injury was sustained by persons or
property or otherwise; and whether or not loss was sustained from, or arose out of, the results of, the
item, or any services that may be provided by ECSS.
Published by: ESA Requirements and Standards Division
ESTEC, P.O. Box 299,
2200 AG Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Copyright: 2011 © by the European Space Agency for the members of ECSS
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Table of contents
1 Scope.....................................................................................................................11
2 References ............................................................................................................12
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5.3.1 Metallic foils between metals...................................................................... 98
5.3.2 Metallic oxide powders between similar metals........................................ 109
5.3.3 Porous metallic materials between similar metals.................................... 109
5.3.4 Insulating spacers between similar metals ............................................... 119
5.3.5 Fluids between metals..............................................................................133
5.3.6 Elastomeric spacers between similar metals............................................ 143
5.4 Outgassing data .....................................................................................................152
Bibliography...........................................................................................................154
Figures
Figure 4-1: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless width of the strip, X. Calculated by the compiler. ......................... 17
Figure 4-2: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. X for different
values of Y. Calculated by the compiler...............................................................19
Figure 4-3: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs.
dimensionless diameter of the cylinder cross section. Calculated by the
compiler. ..............................................................................................................20
Figure 4-4: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/L, vs. cylinder
diameter to length ratio, D/L. Calculated by the compiler. ................................... 22
Figure 4-5: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/D, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the sphere, Z. Calculated by the compiler................. 24
Figure 4-6: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. radius ratio,
; for different values of the dimensionless distance between cylinder axes,
. Calculated by the compiler............................................................................... 26
Figure 4-7: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factors per unit length, Sij/L,
vs. the eccentricity of one of the holes X2, for different values of the relevant
geometrical parameters. From Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13]. ........................ 28
Figure 4-8: Values of the conductive shape factors per unit length, Sij/L, vs. the
diameter ratio d3, for different values of the relevant geometric parameters.
From Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13]................................................................. 30
Figure 4-9: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless characteristic length of the holes, X. Calculated by the
compiler. ..............................................................................................................32
Figure 4-10: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for several values of the aspect
ratio, Y, of the rectangular bar cross-section. Calculated by the compiler........... 34
Figure 4-11: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for different values of the aspect
ratio, Y, of the rectangular bar cross section. After Griggs, Pitts & Goyal
(1973) [25]. ..........................................................................................................36
Figure 4-12: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for several values of the aspect
ratio, Y, of the rectangular bar cross section. After Griggs, Pitts & Goyal
(1973) [25]. ..........................................................................................................38
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Figure 4-13: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless hole radius, , for several values of n. Calculated by the
compiler. ..............................................................................................................40
Figure 4-14: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/r1, vs. radius ratio,
. Calculated by the compiler. ............................................................................. 42
Figure 5-1: Estimation of the temperature drop at the interface............................................. 43
Figure 5-2: Variation of gap thickness parameter, , with contact surface parameter, d.
After Fletcher & Gyorog (1970) [17].....................................................................45
Figure 5-3: Variation of contact conductance with apparent interface pressure. After
Fletcher & Gyorog (1970) [17]. ............................................................................46
Figure 5-4: Dimensionless conductance vs. dimensionless load. Stainless steel under
vacuum conditions. From Thomas & Probert (1972) [47]. ................................... 47
Figure 5-5: Dimensionless conductance vs. dimensionless load. Stainless steel under
vacuum conditions. From Thomas & Probert (1972) [47]. ................................... 48
Figure 5-6: Schematic representation of two surfaces in contact and heat flow across
the interface. ........................................................................................................48
Figure 5-7: Interface material compressed between two contacting surfaces. ...................... 49
Figure 5-8: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different surface
finishes. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24]. ........................................................... 51
Figure 5-9: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different surface
finishes. From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23]. ........................................................... 52
Figure 5-10: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different surface
finishes. From Fried (1966) [22] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43]. ...... 53
Figure 5-11: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different ambient
pressures. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24]. ........................................................ 54
Figure 5-12: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and ambient pressures. Circle: From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23].
Square: From Fried (1966) [21] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43]........ 55
Figure 5-13: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Clausing & Chao (1965) [7]. ......................................................... 56
Figure 5-14: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23]. ........................................................... 57
Figure 5-15: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for various surface
finishes, mean temperatures and ambient pressures. Circle, square and
rhombus: from Clausing & Chao (1965) [7]. Triangle: from Fried (1966) [21]
quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43]. ......................................................... 58
Figure 5-16: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Notice the directional
effect on contact conductance. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24]. ........................ 59
Figure 5-17: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. Circle and square: from Fried (1965) [21]. Rhombus and triangle:
from Fried & Atkins (1965) [23]. Inverted triangle and right-oriented triangle:
from Fried & Kelley (1966) [24]............................................................................ 60
Figure 5-18: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. Circle: From Fried (1966) [22] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella
(1970) [43]. Square: From Gyorog (1970) [26]. ................................................... 61
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Figure 5-19: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Fried (1966) [21] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43]. ...... 62
Figure 5-20: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes: smooth surfaces. White square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982)
[35]. Black square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35]. Black triangle: from
Fletcher & Gygorg (1971) [17]. Circle: from Clausing & Chao (1963) [7]............. 63
Figure 5-21: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes: medium surfaces. White square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982)
[35]. Black square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35]. Black triangle: from
Fletcher & Gygorg (1971) [17]. Circle: from Clausing & Chao (1963) [7]............. 64
Figure 5-22: Experimental values of thermal contact conductance vs. contact pressure.
From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31]. ........................................................ 65
Figure 5-23: Experimental values of thermal contact conductance vs. contact pressure.
From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31]. ........................................................ 66
Figure 5-24: 0,1 µm brass sample pair applied force comparison. Dashed line: 112 N;
dashed-dotted line: 224 N; long-short dashed line: 336 N; long-double short
dashed line: 448 N; dashed-triple dotted line: 560 N; solid line: 670 N. .............. 67
Figure 5-25: 0,2 µm brass sample pair applied force comparison. ........................................ 67
Figure 5-26: 0,4 µm brass sample pair applied force comparison. ........................................ 68
Figure 5-27: 0,8 µm brass sample pair applied force comparison. ........................................ 68
Figure 5-28: 1,6 µm brass sample pair applied force comparison. ........................................ 69
Figure 5-29: Brass sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Short dashed line:
0,1 µm; long dashed line: 0,2 µm; dashed-dotted line: 0,4 µm; long-short
dashed line: 0,8 µm; long-double short dashed line: 1,6 µm. .............................. 69
Figure 5-30: Brass sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Long-double short
dashed line: 112 N; short dashed line: 224 N; dashed-dotted line: 336 N;
dotted line: 448 N; long dashed line: 560 N; solid line: 670 N. ............................ 70
Figure 5-31: copper sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Key as in Figure
5-30......................................................................................................................71
Figure 5-32: Physical model of two rotating cylinders contacted to each other. .................... 71
Figure 5-33: Contact thermal resistance after applied high contact pressure vs. rotating
speed. ..................................................................................................................72
Figure 5-34: Contact thermal resistance after applied high contact pressure vs. rotating
speed. ..................................................................................................................73
Figure 5-35: Thermal contact conductance as a function of position for: (a) 4 x 6 load
array; (b) 5 x 7 load array; c) 6 x 8 load array. From Peterson and Fletcher
(1992) [37]. ..........................................................................................................75
Figure 5-36: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5-2. ................................ 76
Figure 5-37: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Notice the directional
effect on contact conductance. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24]. ........................ 77
Figure 5-38: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Al 2024-T4/SS
304 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results......................................78
Figure 5-39: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Al 2024-
T4/Zircaloy-2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results....................... 79
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Figure 5-40: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for SS 304/Zircaloy-
2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.......................................... 80
Figure 5-41: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Mg
AZ31B/zircaloy-2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results. ............... 81
Figure 5-42: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Brass
271/Zircaloy-2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results..................... 82
Figure 5-43: Variation of contact conductance with apparent interface pressure for Al
2024-T4/SS 304 metal surfaces at different mean junction temperatures........... 83
Figure 5-44: Thermal contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Theoretical curve: hc =
KP0,93. (1) SS-Al, K = 3,27 x 10-11. (2) SS-Cu, K = 1,84 x 10-11............................ 84
Figure 5-45: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Al
interface. Theoretical curve: hc = 3,65 x 10-9 P0,66................................................ 84
Figure 5-46: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Cu
interface. ..............................................................................................................85
Figure 5-47: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Al
interface. ..............................................................................................................85
Figure 5-48: Thermal contact resistance vs. applied pressure for SS to Cu specimens
(RMS roughness values as indicated). ................................................................ 86
Figure 5-49: Thermal contact resistance vs. applied pressure for Cu to SS (RMS
roughness values as indicated). ..........................................................................87
Figure 5-50: Dimensionless correlation of contact resistances between machined SS
specimens pressed against copper optical-flats (surface finishes of the SS
specimens as indicated). ..................................................................................... 88
Figure 5-51: Dimensionless correlation as for Figure 5-50 but for different surface
finishes of the SS specimens............................................................................... 89
Figure 5-52: Overall thermal conductance as a function of apparent contact pressure
and mean junction temperature. .......................................................................... 91
Figure 5-53: Joint Configuration. ............................................................................................92
Figure 5-54: Thermal contact conductance as a function of distance from center of bolt.
From Peterson, Stanks & Fletcher (1991) [39]. ................................................... 92
Figure 5-55: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5-4. ................................ 93
Figure 5-56: Stainless-steel and Graphite-epoxi-laminate. .................................................... 94
Figure 5-57: Stainless-steel and glass-epoxi-laminate........................................................... 95
Figure 5-58: Experimental values of thermal transverse conductivity a) Graphite-epoxi-
laminate. b) Glass-epoxi-laminate. ...................................................................... 96
Figure 5-59: Graphite-epoxi-laminate and graphite-epoxi-laminate. ...................................... 97
Figure 5-60: Glass-epoxi-laminate and glass-epoxi-laminate. ............................................... 97
Figure 5-61: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington (1964)
[9].........................................................................................................................98
Figure 5-62: Loading resistance with tin.................................................................................99
Figure 5-63: Unloading resistance with tin. ............................................................................99
Figure 5-64: Loading resistance with lead............................................................................100
Figure 5-65: Unloading resistance with lead. .......................................................................100
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Figure 5-66: Loading resistance with aluminium. ................................................................. 101
Figure 5-67: Unloading resistance with aluminium............................................................... 101
Figure 5-68: Loading resistance with copper. ...................................................................... 102
Figure 5-69: Unloading resistance with copper. ................................................................... 102
Figure 5-70: Dimensionless minimum resistance to bare joint resistance. .......................... 103
Figure 5-71: Dimensionless thermal contact conductance for specimen sets 1, 2 and 3
as a function of the distance from a load point. Pcontact = 689,5 x 103 Pa.
Values for huncoated from Table 5-1 (clause 5.2.1.1). From Peterson and
Fletcher (1992) [37]. .......................................................................................... 104
Figure 5-72: Thermal contact conductance variation: a) 0,79 N.m; b) 1,92 N.m; c) 3,04
N.m. From Peterson & Fletcher (1991) [37]....................................................... 107
Figure 5-73: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5-6. .............................. 108
Figure 5-74: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and mean temperatures. From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32]................ 110
Figure 5-75: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and mean temperatures. From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32]................ 111
Figure 5-76: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different porosities.
From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32]. .................................................................... 112
Figure 5-77: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].....................................................................................................................113
Figure 5-78: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].....................................................................................................................114
Figure 5-79: Comparison of thermal conductance of fiber metals with aluminium bare
junction conductance, Tm = 307 K. .................................................................... 116
Figure 5-80: Comparison of thermal conductance of powder metals with aluminium
bare junction conductance, Tm = 342 K. ............................................................ 116
Figure 5-81: Effect of surface finish on thermal conductance with a porous copper
interstitial material.............................................................................................. 117
Figure 5-82: Effect of mean junction temperature on thermal conductance with a
porous copper interstitial material...................................................................... 117
Figure 5-83: Dimensionless effectiveness parameter for porous metals and selected
thermal control materials. ..................................................................................118
Figure 5-84: Effects of surface finish and temperature conductance with a porous nickel
interstitial material.............................................................................................. 118
Figure 5-85: Effects of mean junction temperature on thermal conductance with a
porous copper interstitial material...................................................................... 119
Figure 5-86: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................120
Figure 5-87: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................121
Figure 5-88: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................122
Figure 5-89: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................123
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Figure 5-90: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................124
Figure 5-91: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................126
Figure 5-92: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].....................................................................................................................127
Figure 5-93: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................128
Figure 5-94: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................129
Figure 5-95: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................130
Figure 5-96: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................131
Figure 5-97: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].....................................................................................................................132
Figure 5-98: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda &
Gyorog (1969) [20].............................................................................................133
Figure 5-99: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington (1964)
[9].......................................................................................................................134
Figure 5-100: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington
(1964) [9]. ..........................................................................................................135
Figure 5-101: Photograph of segmented surface test specimen.......................................... 135
Figure 5-102: Thermal contact resistance values for Al 6061-T6 with and without
segmented surface interstitial material (one atmosphere). ................................ 136
Figure 5-103: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS1 and SS2. ... 138
Figure 5-104: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS1 and SS2. ... 139
Figure 5-105: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS3 and SS4. ... 140
Figure 5-106: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS3 and SS4. ... 140
Figure 5-107: Effect of variation of initial contact pressure on joint resistance for the
edge tube/fin system. ho = 0, he = 0, Pi = 0, Po = 0, Ti = 313 K, To = 293 K,
Ti = 373 K, To = 293 K........................................................................................142
Figure 5-108: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for various elastomeric
materials at two mean temperatures. From Fletcher & Miller (1973) [18].......... 145
Tables
Table 5-1: Load configuration thermal contact conductance data.......................................... 74
Table 5-2: Integrated load configuration test thermal contact conductance values ............... 76
Table 5-3: Parameters of Samples Used in Tests Shown in Figure 5-43. ............................. 83
Table 5-4: Integrated thermal contact conductance values.................................................... 93
Table 5-5: Thermal contact conductance data. .................................................................... 106
Table 5-6: Integrated thermal contact conductance values.................................................. 108
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Table 5-7: Values of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. ......................................... 109
Table 5-8: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and mean
temperature. ......................................................................................................125
Table 5-9: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and mean
temperature. ......................................................................................................129
Table 5-10: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and mean
temperature. ......................................................................................................132
Table 5-11: Outgassing Data of Several Materials............................................................... 152
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1
Scope
This Part 4 of the spacecraft thermal control and design data handbooks, provides information on
calculating the conductive heat transfer rate for a variety of two and three‐dimensional configurations.
Calculations for the conductance of the interface between two surfaces (joints) require special
consideration and are included as a separate clause.
The Thermal design handbook is published in 16 Parts
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 1 Thermal design handbook – Part 1: View factors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 2 Thermal design handbook – Part 2: Holes, Grooves and Cavities
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 3 Thermal design handbook – Part 3: Spacecraft Surface Temperature
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 4 Thermal design handbook – Part 4: Conductive Heat Transfer
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 5 Thermal design handbook – Part 5: Structural Materials: Metallic and
Composite
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 6 Thermal design handbook – Part 6: Thermal Control Surfaces
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 7 Thermal design handbook – Part 7: Insulations
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 8 Thermal design handbook – Part 8: Heat Pipes
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 9 Thermal design handbook – Part 9: Radiators
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 10 Thermal design handbook – Part 10: Phase – Change Capacitors
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 11 Thermal design handbook – Part 11: Electrical Heating
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 12 Thermal design handbook – Part 12: Louvers
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 13 Thermal design handbook – Part 13: Fluid Loops
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 14 Thermal design handbook – Part 14: Cryogenic Cooling
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 15 Thermal design handbook – Part 15: Existing Satellites
ECSS‐E‐HB‐31‐01 Part 16 Thermal design handbook – Part 16: Thermal Protection System
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2
References
ECSS‐S‐ST‐00‐01 ECSS System ‐ Glossary of terms
All other references made to publications in this Part are listed, alphabetically, in the Bibliography.
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3
Terms, definitions and symbols
FD flatness deviation, [m]
RD roughness deviation, [m]
TWL total weight loss, percent
VCM volatile condensable materials, percent by weight
Other symbols, mainly used to define the geometry of the configuration, are introduced when
required.
3.3 Symbols
A cross‐sectional area normal to temperature gradient,
[m2]
E modulus of elasticity, [Pa]
L length normal to the plane of the figure in two‐
dimensional configurations, [m]
M surface hardness, [Pa]
P applied compressive load, also called contact pressure,
[Pa]
Q heat transfer rate, [W]
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S langmuir conductive shape factor, [m]
T temperature, [K]
Tm arithmetic mean temperature, [K]
b Clause 2: radius of the specimen, [m]
d surface parameter in Fletcher & Gyorog correlation,
[m]
hc thermal joint conductance, [W.m2.K1]
hf interstitial contribution to thermal joint conductance,
[W.m2.K1]
hr radiative contribution to thermal joint conductance,
[W.m2.K1]
hs solid contribution to thermal joint conductance,
[W.m2.K1]
k thermal conductivity, [W.m1.K1]
km mean thermal conductivity, [W.m1.K1]. km =
2k1k2/(k1+k2)
l heat path length, [m]
p ambient pressure, [Pa]
r filter rating, [m]
t thickness, [m]
T interfacial temperature drop, [K]
porosity
coefficient of linear thermal expansion, [K1]
0 gap thickness parameter in Fletcher & Gyorog
correlation, [m]
density, [kg.m3]
rms surface roughness, [m]
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4
Conductive shape factors
4.1 General
The conductive heat transfer rate through fairly complicated two‐or‐three dimensional configurations
can be estimated on the basis of the so‐called conductive shape factor, S.
In order to introduce the concept of conductive shape factor it is customary to start with the
expression giving the one‐dimensional conductive heat transfer rate, Q, between two parallel planer
surfaces, 1 and 2, of cross‐sectional area, A. Assuming that the thermal conductance k, of the space
between the planes is constant, Fourier’s law yields the following equation:
Q = k(A/l)(T2 ‐ T1) = kS(T2 ‐ T1) ,
l being the distance between the planes.
The factor S, known as Langmuir conductive shape factor, is, in this case, the ratio of the cross‐
sectional area, A, to the heat path length, l.
When two‐or‐three dimensional configurations are involved, the temperature field can be calculated
by use of one of the methods available to solve Laplace differential equations. In many instances,
however, only the overall heat transfer rate between arbitrary surfaces, 1 and 2, is required, and the
above expression giving Q can be used, provided that S represents the ratio of the average cross‐
sectional area to the average heat path length. although the mathematical problem must be solved in
full, in order to calculate S, the resulting values of S can be displayed in a very compact and useful
way, as it is shown in this clause.
It should be mentioned that for two‐dimensional configurations, that is to say, configurations which
do not depend on the coordinate normal to the plane of the figure, the heat transfer rate is to be
understood as that corresponding to the unit length normal to the mentioned plane. In order to keep
unchanged the physical dimensions of S, the conductive shape factor for two‐dimensional
configurations is defined as S/L, which is a dimensionless magnitude.
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Formula:
S/L = a/b
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
References: Andrews (1955) [3], Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46].
Formula:
0 , 59
S 1
1,45ln1 [4‐1]
L X
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Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐1.
Figure 4‐1: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless width of the strip, X. Calculated by the compiler.
Reference: Andrews (1955) [3].
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Formula:
S 1
0 , 59
1 0, 078
1,685ln1 [4‐2]
L X Y
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The above expression has been obtained by means of the electric analogy, using a conductive paper of
finite dimensions (Andrews (1955) [3]). Since it is not stated in the reference how the point at infinity
has been taken into account, results for small values of Y, which is presumably correspond to large
values of b, are doubtful. In Figure 4‐2 the finite strip case (see clause 4.2.1.2) has been taken to bound
below the recommended values.
The results are given in Figure 4‐2.
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Figure 4‐2: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. X for
different values of Y. Calculated by the compiler.
References: Andrews (1955) [3], Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46].
The cylinder is assumed to be infinitely conductive.
Z = D/z
Formula:
S 2
L 2
1 [4‐3]
cosh
Z
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Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐3.
Figure 4‐3: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs.
dimensionless diameter of the cylinder cross section. Calculated by the compiler.
References: Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46], Kutateladze & Borishanskii (1966) [28].
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The cylinder is assumed to be infinitely conductive.
D << L
Formulae:
S 2
(a)
L 4L [4‐4]
ln
D
S
2
2 2 ln 2 1
(b)
2
L ln 4 L 4L
D ln [4‐5]
D
Comments:
To obtain expression (a) the end effects corresponding to the free end of the cylinder have been
neglected, so that this expression is only valid when the cylinder is slender enough.
Expression (b), which includes the second asymptotic term of the three‐dimensional solution, has been
obtained by the compiler.
The results are given in Figure 4‐4.
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Figure 4‐4: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/L, vs. cylinder
diameter to length ratio, D/L. Calculated by the compiler.
References: Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46], Kutateladze & Borishanskii (1966) [28]; Parker, Boggs &
Blick (1969) [36].
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The sphere is assumed to be infinitely conductive.
Z = D/z
Formula:
S 2
D Z [4‐6]
1
4
The results are given in Figure 4‐5.
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Figure 4‐5: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/D, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the sphere, Z. Calculated by the compiler.
References: Andrews (1955) [3], Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46], Kutateladze & Borishanskii (1966)
[28]; Parker, Boggs & Blick (1969) [36].
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Formula:
S 2
1 1 s
2 2
L [4‐7]
cosh
2
Comments:
Both configurations are two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐6.
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Figure 4‐6: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. radius
ratio, ; for different values of the dimensionless distance between cylinder axes,
. Calculated by the compiler.
References: Andrews (1955) [3], Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46]; Parker, Boggs & Blick (1969) [36].
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Xi = xi/D0
di = Di/D0
The results presented have been obtained by using an electrical analogue method.
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐7.
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Figure 4‐7: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factors per unit length,
Sij/L, vs. the eccentricity of one of the holes X2, for different values of the relevant
geometrical parameters. From Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13].
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Reference: Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13].
Circular rod with three circular holes.
Xi = xi/D0
di = Di/D0
The results presented have been obtained by using an electrical analogue method.
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐8.
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Figure 4‐8: Values of the conductive shape factors per unit length, Sij/L, vs. the
diameter ratio d3, for different values of the relevant geometric parameters. From
Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13].
Reference: Faulkner & Andrews (1955) [13].
Circular rod with square or hexagonal concentric holes.
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Formulae:
S 6,533
(a)
L 1 [4‐8]
ln 0,15921
x
S 6,46
(b)
L 1 [4‐9]
ln 0,03147
x
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐9.
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Figure 4‐9: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless characteristic length of the holes, X. Calculated by the compiler.
Reference: Ramachandra Murthy & Ramachandran (1967) [40].
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X = D/a
Y = b/a
Formula:
S 2
L 4 [4‐10]
ln 2k
X
where k is a coefficient which depends upon Y as indicated below
Y k
1,00 0,08290
1,25 0,03963
1,50 0,01781
1,75 0,00816
2,00 0,00373
2,25 0,00170
2,50 0,00078
3,00 0,00016
4,00 6,9748x106
5,00 3,0140x107
10,00 4,5422x1014
0
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐10.
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Figure 4‐10: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for several values of the aspect ratio, Y, of
the rectangular bar cross‐section. Calculated by the compiler.
Reference: Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46].
Rectangular bar having one adiabatic face and a concentric circular hole.
X = D/a
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Y = b/a
The results presented were obtained numerically.
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
These results can be used to study configurations similar to the one sketched below.
The results are given in Figure 4‐11.
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Figure 4‐11: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for different values of the aspect ratio, Y, of
the rectangular bar cross section. After Griggs, Pitts & Goyal (1973) [25].
Reference: Griggs, Pitts & Goyal (1973) [25].
Rectangular bar having two opposite adiabatic faces and a concentric circular hole.
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X = D/a
Y = b/a
The results presented were obtained numerically.
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
These results can be used to study configurations similar to the one sketched below.
The results are given in Figure 4‐12.
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Figure 4‐12: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless diameter of the hole, X, for several values of the aspect ratio, Y, of
the rectangular bar cross section. After Griggs, Pitts & Goyal (1973) [25].
Reference: Griggs, Pitts & Goyal (1973) [25].
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= r2/r1
Formula:
S 2
L 1 B [4‐11]
ln
2
where B is a coefficient which depends upon n as indicated in the table below.
n B
3 1,13916
4 0,54159
5 0,32131
6 0,21339
0
Comments:
The configuration is two‐dimensional.
S/L is the conductive shape factor per unit length normal to the plane of the figure.
The results are given in Figure 4‐13.
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Figure 4‐13: Values of the conductive shape factor per unit length, S/L, vs. the
dimensionless hole radius, , for several values of n. Calculated by the compiler.
Reference: Sunderland & Johnson (1964) [46].
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= r2/r1
where r1 and r2 are the radii of the outer and inner sphere, respectively.
Formula:
S 4
r1 1 [4‐12]
1
The results are given in Figure 4‐14.
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Figure 4‐14: Values of the dimensionless conductive shape factor, S/r1, vs. radius
ratio, . Calculated by the compiler.
Reference: Parker, Boggs & Blick (1969) [36].
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5
Thermal joint conductance
5.1 General
The interface existing between two surfaces in contact introduces a resistance to heat transfer between
the materials making up the contact. The thermal conductance, hc, between these surfaces is given by:
hc = (Q/A)/(T) ,
where:
Q/A, Heat flux across the interface. [W.m2].
T, Interfacial temperature drop, estimated as in Figure 5‐1. [K].
Figure 5‐1: Estimation of the temperature drop at the interface.
The thermal conductance, hc, which depends on the actual contact area and on the physical properties
of the mating materials, can be split into three contributions, namely: the radiative, hr, interstitial, hf,
and solid, hs, contributions
hc = hr + hf + hs.
The radiative contribution, hr, can be neglected for temperatures below 900 K, as shown by Fenech &
Rohsenow (1959) [15] and by Clausing & Chao (1965) [7].
Concerning hf, no generally valid method has been developed up to the moment to predict its
contribution. The problem has been considered, among others, by Cetinkale & Fishended (1951) [6],
Laming (1961) [29], Fenech & Rohsenow (1963) [14], and Henry & Fenech (1964) [27].
The contribution, hs, of the solid contacting materials has been calculated, in the case of very simple
geometrical configurations, by Roess (1949) [41], Laming (1961) [29], Clausing & Chao (1965) [7],
Fenech & Rohsenow (1963) [15], and Henry & Fenech (1964) [27]. However, the direct application of
these data is impeded by the impossibility of correctly defining the geometrical characteristics of the
contact area under practical conditions.
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Because of the difficulties which have been mentioned, the use of empirical correlations based on
directly measurable parameters should be recommended. These correlations, which are based on
dimensional considerations for the selection of the relevant dimensionless groups of parameters,
include together the contributions of hr, hf, and hs.
Unfortunately, only correlations for bare contacting metals have reached widespread use, thence,
when information on the contact conductance between similar metals separated by a suitable spacer
material is required, one must resort to the use of experimental data on systems which resemble as
much as possible the configuration which is expected to be used in the real case.
Recently Al‐Astrabadi et al. (1977) [2] correlated data on thermal contact conductance’s for stacks of
thin layers in high vacuum. Data from different sources, for both bare metals and plastic layers,
correlate fairly in terms of appropriate dimensionless parameters.
P
Tm
6 o
0 , 56
km P
hc 5, 22 10 0, 036 Tm exp 170 E [5‐1]
o b E o / b
where:
E, Modulus of Elasticity. [Pa].
P, Applied Compressive Load. [Pa].
Tm, Mean Temperature. [K].
b, Specimen Radius. [m].
hc, Thermal Contact Conductance. [W.m2.K1].
km, Mean Thermal Conductivity. [W.m1.K1].
km = 2k1k2/(k1+k2). k1 and k2 are thermal conductivities of the mating materials.
, Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion. [K1].
o, Gap Thickness Parameter. [m].
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FD, Flatness Deviation. [m].
RD, Roughness Deviation. [m].
The gap thickness parameter, o is represented as a function of d in Figure 5‐2. Experimental data from
different sources are included in this figure.
Figure 5‐2: Variation of gap thickness parameter, , with contact surface
parameter, d. After Fletcher & Gyorog (1970) [17].
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The thermal conductance, hc, is plotted vs. the load pressure, P, in Figure 5‐3. Again the empirical
correlation is compared with data from several sources. A mean error of 24% is reported by the
authors.
Figure 5‐3: Variation of contact conductance with apparent interface pressure.
After Fletcher & Gyorog (1970) [17].
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Figure 5‐4: Dimensionless conductance vs. dimensionless load. Stainless steel
under vacuum conditions. From Thomas & Probert (1972) [47].
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Figure 5‐5: Dimensionless conductance vs. dimensionless load. Stainless steel
under vacuum conditions. From Thomas & Probert (1972) [47].
Figure 5‐6: Schematic representation of two surfaces in contact and heat flow
across the interface.
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In many applications (e.g., removal of waste heat generated by semiconductors devices) the physical
interfaces will offer minimum resistance to heat flow, and generally they will also provide electrical
isolation. These requirements can be met by using conventional insulators coated with a thermal
compound, or with one‐component thermal interface materials (see clause 5.3.6.1). A thermal interface
material is illustrated in Figure 5‐7. Electrical isolation is achieved because the two metal surfaces are
separated by the dielectric material. Thermal contact resistance has been minimized because the air
gaps have been eliminated and replaced with a material whose thermal conductivity is much greater
than that of air.
Figure 5‐7: Interface material compressed between two contacting surfaces.
To perform successfully, thermal interface materials have high dielectric strength, high thermal
conductivity and sufficient pliancy to conform to both microscopic and macroscopic surface
irregularities. They are also sufficiently durable to survive a variety of assembly, use and
environmental conditions.
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Two cylinders
(same diameter)
Two different cylinders
(different diameter)
Two disks
(can be off different thickness)
Three cylinders
(same diameter)
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Figure 5‐8: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different
surface finishes. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 1 Mg ‐ 0,6 Si. (Al 6061‐T6).
Radius, b = 2,54x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x102 Pa.
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Figure 5‐9: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different
surface finishes. From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 5,5 Zn ‐ 2,5 Mg ‐ 1,5 Cu. (Al 7075‐T6).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐10: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for two different
surface finishes. From Fried (1966) [22] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Be.
Radius, b = 2,54x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +3,8x106 and +3x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,1x106 m.
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Figure 5‐11: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different ambient
pressures. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Cu OFHC.
(OFHC: Oxygen Free High Conductivity).
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Figure 5‐12: Plots of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and ambient pressures. Circle: From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23]. Square:
From Fried (1966) [21] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Cu ‐ 35 Zn ‐ 3 Pb (Brass, Anaconda alloy 271).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,1x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 0,66x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐13: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Clausing & Chao (1965) [7].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Mg ‐ 3 Al ‐ 1 Zn ‐ 0,2 Mn. (Mg AZ‐31B).
Radius, b = 2,54x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x102 Pa.
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Figure 5‐14: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Fried & Atkins (1965) [23].
Comments: Oxide films were detected on both test surfaces. This could be the explanation on the
higher conductance exhibited by the coarse finish.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Mg ‐ 3 Al ‐ 1 Zn ‐ 0,2 Mn. (Mg AZ‐31B).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,1x106 m.
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Figure 5‐15: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for various surface
finishes, mean temperatures and ambient pressures. Circle, square and rhombus:
from Clausing & Chao (1965) [7]. Triangle: from Fried (1966) [21] quoted by
Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43].
Comments: Notice the effect of loading and unloading.
In the case of the curve of rhombus, a film was detected on both test surfaces.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni (SS 304) and
Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn (Al 2024‐T4).
Radius, b = 2,54x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = 1,3x106 and +6,4x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,3x106 and 0,2x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x102 Pa.
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Figure 5‐16: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Notice the directional
effect on contact conductance. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni (SS 304).
Radius, b = 2,54x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x102 Pa.
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Figure 5‐17: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. Circle and square: from Fried (1965) [21]. Rhombus and triangle: from
Fried & Atkins (1965) [23]. Inverted triangle and right‐oriented triangle: from Fried
& Kelley (1966) [24].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐18: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. Circle: From Fried (1966) [22] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43].
Square: From Gyorog (1970) [26].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Ti ‐ 6 Al ‐ 4 V. (Ti 6 Al 4 V).
Radius, b = 1,27 x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐19: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes. From Fried (1966) [21] quoted by Scollon & Carpitella (1970) [43].
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Figure 5‐20: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes: smooth surfaces. White square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35]. Black
square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35]. Black triangle: from Fletcher & Gygorg
(1971) [17]. Circle: from Clausing & Chao (1963) [7].
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Figure 5‐21: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes: medium surfaces. White square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35].
Black square: from Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35]. Black triangle: from Fletcher &
Gygorg (1971) [17]. Circle: from Clausing & Chao (1963) [7].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al‐alloy 6061 ‐ T6.
Radius, 1,55 x 10‐2 m
Thickness, 10‐3 m
Surface roughness, ~ 3 x 10‐3 m
Vacuum
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Figure 5‐22: Experimental values of thermal contact conductance vs. contact
pressure. From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Cu UNI 2528.
Radius, 1,55 x 10‐2 m
Thickness, 10‐3 m
Vacuum.
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Figure 5‐23: Experimental values of thermal contact conductance vs. contact
pressure. From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31].
SPECIMENS: Two different cylinders, Brass.
Radius, r1 = 6,35 x 10‐3 m; r2 = 5,10 x 10‐3 m
Length, L1 = 8,89 x 10‐3 m; L2 = 10,2 x 10‐3 m
Ambient pressure, < 7 x 10‐3 Pa.
Contact at liquid helium temperatures.
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Figure 5‐24: 0,1 μm brass sample pair applied force comparison. Dashed line: 112
N; dashed‐dotted line: 224 N; long‐short dashed line: 336 N; long‐double short
dashed line: 448 N; dashed‐triple dotted line: 560 N; solid line: 670 N.
Figure 5‐25: 0,2 μm brass sample pair applied force comparison.
Key as in Figure 5‐24.
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Figure 5‐26: 0,4 μm brass sample pair applied force comparison.
Key as in Figure 5‐24.
Figure 5‐27: 0,8 μm brass sample pair applied force comparison.
Key as in Figure 5‐24.
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Figure 5‐28: 1,6 μm brass sample pair applied force comparison.
Key as in Figure 5‐24.
Figure 5‐29: Brass sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Short dashed line:
0,1 μm; long dashed line: 0,2 μm; dashed‐dotted line: 0,4 μm; long‐short dashed
line: 0,8 μm; long‐double short dashed line: 1,6 μm.
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Figure 5‐30: Brass sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Long‐double
short dashed line: 112 N; short dashed line: 224 N; dashed‐dotted line: 336 N;
dotted line: 448 N; long dashed line: 560 N; solid line: 670 N.
From Salerno, Kittel, Books, Spivak & Marks (1986) [42].
SPECIMENS: Two different cylinders, OFHC Cu.
Radius, r1 = 6,35 x 10‐3 m, r2 = 5,10 x 10‐3 m
Length, L1 = 8,89 x 10‐3 m, L2 = 10,2 x 10‐3 m
Ambient pressure, < 7 x 10‐3 Pa.
Contact at liquid helium temperature.
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Figure 5‐31: copper sample pairs, 4,2 K surface finish comparison. Key as in
Figure 5‐30.
From Salerno, Kittel, Books, Spivak & Marks (1986) [42].
SPECIMENS: Two rotating horizontal cylinders.
Outer diameter, 9 x 10‐2 m
Length, 15 x 10‐2 m
Inner diameter of upper cylinder, 6 x 10‐2 m
Figure 5‐32: Physical model of two rotating cylinders contacted to each other.
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From Yamazaki, Shimizu & Tsuchida (1987) [49].
Aluminium
Figure 5‐33: Contact thermal resistance after applied high contact pressure vs.
rotating speed.
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Brass
Figure 5‐34: Contact thermal resistance after applied high contact pressure vs.
rotating speed.
SPECIMENS: Two rectangular plates, Al 6061–T6.
Dimensions, 0,127 x 0,1778 x 0,0254 m
Ambient Pressure, < 0,133 x 10‐2 Pa
RMS surface roughness
Plate A, 0,42 x 10‐6 m
Plate B, 0,48 x 10‐6 m
Load distribution
Four sets of load distribution plates were constructed. Each set consisted of two plates, one pin plate
and one plate using conical shaped springs. The pin plate had a series of ceramic pins, located at each
load point, of:
= 0,635 x 10‐2 m
L = 0,525 x 10‐2 m
Measured thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1]
k = 111,94 + 0,226T , T [K]
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Table 5‐1: Load configuration thermal contact conductance data
Distance from hc [W.m‐2.K‐1]
pin x 103 [m]
Interface Pressure x 10‐3 [Pa]
4 x 6 Array
5 x 7 Array
6 x 8 Array
NOTE Mean interface temperature 294 ± 6 K; all pressure values ± 104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐35: Thermal contact conductance as a function of position for: (a) 4 x 6
load array; (b) 5 x 7 load array; c) 6 x 8 load array. From Peterson and Fletcher (1992)
[37].
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Table 5‐2: Integrated load configuration test thermal contact conductance values
Apparent pressure hc [W.m‐2.K‐1]
x 10‐3 [Pa]
4 x 6 Array 5 x 7 Array 6 x 8 Array
Note Assuming symmetry around each load point and defining a unit cell as the region bounded by the
midway between each load point, the expressions of thermal contact conductance as a function of
radial distance from the loading points were integrated and then multiplied by the total number of
load points to obtain the overall plate conductance.
Figure 5‐36: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5‐2.
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Figure 5‐37: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Notice the directional
effect on contact conductance. From Fried & Kelley (1966) [24].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al 2024 ‐ T4 and Stainless‐steel 304.
Surface roughness, 0,038 ‐ 1,60 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness deviations, 0,457 ‐ 91,4 x 10‐6 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Figure 5‐38: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Al 2024‐T4/SS
304 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.
From Somer, Miller & Fletcher (1979) [45].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al 2024 ‐ T4 and Zircaloy‐2.
Surface roughness, 0,038 ‐ 1,60 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness deviations, 0,457 ‐ 91,4 x 10‐6 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Figure 5‐39: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Al 2024‐
T4/Zircaloy‐2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.
From Somer, Miller & Fletcher (1979) [45].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Stainless‐steel 304 and Zircaloy‐2.
Surface roughness, 0,038 ‐ 1,60 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness deviations, 0,457 ‐ 91,4 x 10‐6 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Figure 5‐40: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for SS
304/Zircaloy‐2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.
From Somer, Miller & Fletcher (1979) [45].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Magnesium AZ31B and Zircaloy‐2.
Surface roughness, 0,038 ‐ 1,60 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness deviations, 0,457 ‐ 91,4 x 10‐6 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Figure 5‐41: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Mg
AZ31B/zircaloy‐2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.
From Somer, Miller & Fletcher (1979) [45].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Brass 271 and Zircaloy‐2.
Surface roughness, 0,038 ‐ 1,60 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness deviations, 0,457 ‐ 91,4 x 10‐6 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Figure 5‐42: Thermal contact conductance vs. interfacial pressure for Brass
271/Zircaloy‐2 contacts: experimental data and theoretical results.
From Somer, Miller & Fletcher (1979) [45].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al 2024 ‐ T4 and Stainless‐steel 304
Radius, 1,77 x 10‐2 m
Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
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Table 5‐3: Parameters of Samples Used in Tests Shown in Figure 5‐43.
NOTE * Referenced by Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35].
Figure 5‐43: Variation of contact conductance with apparent interface pressure for
Al 2024‐T4/SS 304 metal surfaces at different mean junction temperatures.
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From Padgett & Fletcher (1982) [35].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, (1) Al‐alloy 6061‐T6 and Stainless‐steel AISI4340; (2) Stainless‐steel
AISI4340 and Cu UNI 2528
Radius, 0,10 x 10‐2 m
Thickness, 1,55 x 10‐2 m
Figure 5‐44: Thermal contact conductance vs. contact pressure. Theoretical curve: hc
= KP0,93. (1) SS‐Al, K = 3,27 x 10‐11. (2) SS‐Cu, K = 1,84 x 10‐11.
Figure 5‐45: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Al
interface. Theoretical curve: hc = 3,65 x 10‐9 P0,66
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Figure 5‐46: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Cu
interface.
Figure 5‐47: Comparison between experimental and theoretical values for SS/Al
interface.
From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31].
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders,
Commercially pure copper, /k = 0,044 x 10‐6 W‐1.m
Stainless‐steel EN58B, /k = 1,165 x 10‐5 W‐1.m
Diameter, 25 x 10‐3 m
Length, 28 x 10‐3 m
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Ambient pressure, 1,33 x 10‐3 Pa
Figure 5‐48: Thermal contact resistance vs. applied pressure for SS to Cu
specimens (RMS roughness values as indicated).
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Figure 5‐49: Thermal contact resistance vs. applied pressure for Cu to SS (RMS
roughness values as indicated).
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Figure 5‐50: Dimensionless correlation of contact resistances between machined SS
specimens pressed against copper optical‐flats (surface finishes of the SS
specimens as indicated).
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Figure 5‐51: Dimensionless correlation as for Figure 5‐50 but for different surface
finishes of the SS specimens.
From Edmonds, Jones & Probert (1980) [10].
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Thickness x 103 [m] RMS surface roughness x 10‐6 [m]
Side 2 17,0
Side 2 23,5
Schematic of the junction
Measured thermal conductivity, k [W.m‐1.K‐1]
k = 147,76 + 0,15469 T (280 K < T < 420 K)
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Figure 5‐52: Overall thermal conductance as a function of apparent contact
pressure and mean junction temperature.
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77 steel bolts = 5 x 10‐3 m, length = 15 x 10‐3 m
Spaced on a 0,070 x 0,070 m matrix pattern.
Figure 5‐53: Joint Configuration.
Figure 5‐54: Thermal contact conductance as a function of distance from center of
bolt. From Peterson, Stanks & Fletcher (1991) [39].
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Table 5‐4: Integrated thermal contact conductance values.
Torque [N.m] hc [W.m‐2.K‐1]
0,79 855
1,35 985
1,92 1139
2,48 1331
3,04 1589
NOTE Assuming symmetry around each bolt hole and defining a unit cell as a 70 x 70 mm region with the
bolt hole located in the center, the equations (obtained by a least squares curve fit technique from data
of Figure 5‐53) were integrated to obtain the individual bolt conductance. The average contact
conductance in each case can be calculated by dividing these numbers by the area of unit cell.
Figure 5‐55: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5‐4.
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Figure 5‐56: Stainless‐steel and Graphite‐epoxi‐laminate.
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Figure 5‐57: Stainless‐steel and glass‐epoxi‐laminate.
From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31].
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Figure 5‐58: Experimental values of thermal transverse conductivity a) Graphite‐
epoxi‐laminate. b) Glass‐epoxi‐laminate.
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Figure 5‐59: Graphite‐epoxi‐laminate and graphite‐epoxi‐laminate.
Figure 5‐60: Glass‐epoxi‐laminate and glass‐epoxi‐laminate.
From Marchetti, Testa & Torrisi (1988) [31].
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Figure 5‐61: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington
(1964) [9].
Cost of the filler: 1300 SF.kg1 (Fluka).
FILLERS: Lead, Tin, Aluminium, Copper
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Armco Iron.
Diameter, 25 x 10‐3 m
Length, 38 x 10‐3 m
One surface optically flat and the other lathe turned such that a continuous spiral was produced.
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Ambient pressure.
Figure 5‐62: Loading resistance with tin.
Figure 5‐63: Unloading resistance with tin.
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Figure 5‐64: Loading resistance with lead.
Figure 5‐65: Unloading resistance with lead.
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Figure 5‐66: Loading resistance with aluminium.
Figure 5‐67: Unloading resistance with aluminium.
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Figure 5‐68: Loading resistance with copper.
Figure 5‐69: Unloading resistance with copper.
EMPIRICAL CORRELATION: lnR* = C+m Pa
R* = Rm/Rb = R)optimum thickness/R)bare joint (dimensionless minimum resistance)
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Material C m
Figure 5‐70: Dimensionless minimum resistance to bare joint resistance.
From Yovanovich (1973) [50] and Koh & John (1965).
FILLERS:
Layer of indium, Thickness, 2,5 μm
Molybdenum disulfide coating (Moly–Tiolub–1175), Thickness, 1,25 μm
Teflon impregnated anodized coating (Hard–Tuf X20), Thickness, 1,25 μm
SPECIMENS: Two rectangular plates, Al 6061–T6
Dimensions, 0,127 x 0,1778 x 0,0254 m
Ambient Pressure, < 0,133 x 10‐2 Pa
RMS surface roughness
Specimen set 1 (Indium)
Plate A, 0,33 x 10‐6 m
Plate B, 0,37 x 10‐6 m
Specimen set 2 (Moly‐Tiolub‐1175)
Plate A, 0,44 x 10‐6 m
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Plate B, 0,42 x 10‐6 m
Specimen set 3 (Hard‐Tuf X20)
Plate A, 0,37 x 10‐6 m
Plate B, 0,42 x 10‐6 m
Load distribution: See the description of two rectangular plates of Al 6061‐T6 in clause 5.2.1.1. Case 5 x
7 load array.
Figure 5‐71: Dimensionless thermal contact conductance for specimen sets 1, 2 and
3 as a function of the distance from a load point. Pcontact = 689,5 x 103 Pa. Values for
huncoated from Table 5‐1 (clause 5.2.1.1). From Peterson and Fletcher (1992) [37].
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SPECIMENS: Two plates, Al 6061–T6
Dimensions, 0,50 x 0,75 m
Thermal test plate, t = 2,54 x 10‐2 m, = 3,2 x 10‐6 m (rms)
Attachment technique: Bolted plate
77 steel bolts, = 5 x 10‐3 m, length = 15 x 10‐3 m
Spaced on a 0,070 x 0,070 m matrix pattern.
Joint configuration: See Figure 5‐53 (clause 5.2.1.4)
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Table 5‐5: Thermal contact conductance data.
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Figure 5‐72: Thermal contact conductance variation: a) 0,79 N.m; b) 1,92 N.m; c) 3,04
N.m. From Peterson & Fletcher (1991) [37].
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Table 5‐6: Integrated thermal contact conductance values.
Torque hc [W.m‐2.K‐1]
[N.m]
Bare Lead Tin Aluminium Copper
NOTE Assuming symmetry around each bolt hole and defining a unit cell as a 70 x 70 mm region with the
bolt hole located in the center, the equations (obtained by a least squares curve fit technique from data
of Figure 5‐72) were integrated to obtain the individual bolt conductance. The average contact
conductance in each case can be calculated by dividing these numbers by the area of unit cell.
Figure 5‐73: Integrated thermal contact conductance. From Table 5‐6.
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Table 5‐7: Values of contact conductance vs. contact pressure.
px103 [Pa] hc [W.m2.K1]
627 128
2137 271
From Gyorog (1970) [26]
Cost of the filler: 2,5 US $.kg1.
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Figure 5‐74: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and mean temperatures. From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32].
The filler is an structure of sintered metallic fibers. In this particular case it has been manufactured by
Huyck Metals Co., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Porous Nickel.
Porosity, = 0,8
Fiber Diameter, d = 0,12x104 m.
Filter Rating, r = 0,6x104 m.
Initial Thickness, t = 2,05x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024‐T4).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐75: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different surface
finishes and mean temperatures. From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32].
The filler is an structure of sintered metallic fibers. In this particular case it has been manufactured by
Huyck Metals Co., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Porous Fe ‐ 16 Cr (SS 430).
Porosity, = 0,68 and 0,80
Fiber Diameter, d = 0,43x104 and 0,45x104 m.
Filter Rating, r = 1x104 and 1,5x104 m.
Initial Thickness, t = 1,67x103 and 1,62x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024‐T4).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,30x104 and +0,33x104 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,30x106 and 0,07x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 341 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐76: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for different
porosities. From Miller & Fletcher (1973) [32].
The filler is an structure of sintered metallic fibers. In this particular case it has been manufactured by
Huyck Metals Co., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Stainless Steel 149x106 m. Mesh Screen.
Density, = 8009 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 2,29x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x106 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 236 to 418 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐77: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].
Cost of the filler: 20 US $.m2
FILLER: Stainless Steel 2x103 m. Mesh Screen.
Density, = 8009 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 1,27x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 219 to 385 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐78: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].
Cost of the filler: 11 US $.m2
FILLERS:
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SPECIMENS: Three cylinders, Al 2024 ‐ T4.
Diameter, 2,54 x 10‐2 m
a. Dome‐shaped surface.
b. Nominally flat surface.
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Figure 5‐79: Comparison of thermal conductance of fiber metals with aluminium
bare junction conductance, Tm = 307 K.
Figure 5‐80: Comparison of thermal conductance of powder metals with
aluminium bare junction conductance, Tm = 342 K.
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Figure 5‐81: Effect of surface finish on thermal conductance with a porous copper
interstitial material.
Figure 5‐82: Effect of mean junction temperature on thermal conductance with a
porous copper interstitial material.
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Figure 5‐83: Dimensionless effectiveness parameter for porous metals and selected
thermal control materials.
Figure 5‐84: Effects of surface finish and temperature conductance with a porous
nickel interstitial material.
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Figure 5‐85: Effects of mean junction temperature on thermal conductance with a
porous copper interstitial material.
From Miller & Fletcher (1974) [33].
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Figure 5‐86: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Cost of the filler: 1 US $.kg1, 7 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Asbestos Tape (No. 2074)
Density, = 880 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 1,67x103 m.
Appearance after thermal test: No apparent effect
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 369 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐87: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Asbestos Tape (No. 2074 is produced by Atlas Asbestos Co. USA.
Cost of the filler: 1 US $.kg1, 2 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Carbon Paper (F‐907)
Density, = 144 kg.m3
Thickness, t, as given by the following compression test data:
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly compressed
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 365 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐88: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Paper F‐907 is a product of Fiberite Corp. USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Ceramic Paper (970‐J)
Density, = 192 kg.m3
Thickness, t, as given by the following compression test data:
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly deformed.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 366 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐89: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Paper 970 is made of Fiberfrax, which is a fiber composed mainly of Alumina and Silica. Fiberfrax is a
Trade Name of Carborundum Co. USA.
Cost of the filler: 14 US $.m2
FILLER: Laminate T‐30‐LR
Density, = 801 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 3,33x103 m.
Appearance after thermal test: No apparent effect
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 365 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐90: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
T‐30‐LR is a laminate of impregnated Fiberfrax; which is a fiber composed mainly of Alumina and
Silica. Fiberfrax is a Trade Name of Carborundum Co., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Laminate T‐30‐LR
Density, = 801 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 3,15x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Table 5‐8: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and
mean temperature.
731 365 8
703 370 8
From Gyorog (1970) [26].
T‐30‐LR is a laminate of impregnated Fiberfrax; which is a fiber composed mainly of Alumina and
Silica. Fiberfrax is a Trade Name of Carborundum Co., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Mica (bonded)
Density, = 208 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 0,5x104 m.
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly deformed.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 376 to 385 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐91: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Cost of the filler: 2,5 US $.kg1, 0,5 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Mica
Density, = 208 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 0,7x104 m.
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly deformed.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 351 to 401 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐92: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].
Cost of the filler: 2,5 US $.kg1, 0,5 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Pluton B‐1 Cloth
Density, = 1394 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 3,16x103 m.
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly compressed.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 362 to 364 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐93: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Pyroid
Density, = 2595 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 2,95x103 m.
Appearance after thermal test: No apparent effect.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 376 to 378 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
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Figure 5‐94: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Pyrotex 23RPD
Density, = 1396 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 2,84x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
Table 5‐9: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and
mean temperature.
From Gyorog (1970) [26]
Pyrotex 23RPD is the Trade Name of an asbestos reinforced plastic from International Raybestos
Manhattan Co., USA.
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Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Silica paper
Density, = 160 kg.m3
Thickness, t, as given by the following compression test data:
Appearance after thermal test: Discoloring, considerably compressed.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 366 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
Figure 5‐95: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Silica paper is a product of Fiberite Corp., USA.
Cost of the filler:
FILLER: Teflon (TFE) Sheet
Density, = 160 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 0,5x104 m.
Appearance after thermal test: No apparent effect.
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SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 398 to 401 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
Figure 5‐96: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Teflon polytetrafluoroethylene (TFE) is a Trade Name of E.I. DuPont de Nemours Co., Inc. USA.
Cost of the filler: 20 US $.kg1, 0,16 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Teflon (TFE) Sheet
Density, = 160 kg.m3
Initial Thickness, t = 3,07x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Table 5‐10: Values of contact conductance as a function of contact pressure and
mean temperature.
From Gyorog (1970) [26].
Teflon polytetrafluoroethylene (TFE) is a Trade Name of E.I. DuPont de Nemours Co., Inc. USA.
Cost of the filler: 20 US $.kg1, 9,6 US $.kg2 (on basis of density).
FILLER: Textolite
Initial Thickness, t = 1,57x103 m.
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Fe ‐ 19 Cr ‐ 10 Ni. (SS 304).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,508x106 to +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,076x106 to 0,152x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 386 to 393 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
Figure 5‐97: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Gyorog (1970)
[26].
Textolite, Trade Name of General Electric Co. USA, is a phenol formaldehyde laminated compound.
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Cost of the filler:
FILLER: WRP‐X‐AQ Felt
Density, = 288 kg.m3
Thickness, t, as given by the following compression test data
Appearance after thermal test: Slightly compressed
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 0,127x106 m.
Mean Temperature, Tm = 357 K.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 to 1,33x104 Pa.
Figure 5‐98: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Fletcher, Smuda
& Gyorog (1969) [20].
Cost of the filler:
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Density, = 2300 kg.m3
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders as indicated below.
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
Figure 5‐99: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington
(1964) [9].
DC‐340 is a silicone heat transfer compound, heavily filled with metal oxides. It is produced by Dow‐
Corning. USA.
Cost of the filler: 10 US $.kg1
FILLER: Silicone Vacuum Grease
Density, = 1000 kg.m3
SPECIMENS: Two cylinders, Mg ‐ 3 Al ‐ 1 Zn ‐ 0,2 Mn. (Mg AZ‐31B).
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
Flatness Deviation, FD = +0,635x106 m.
Roughness Deviation, RD = 2,54 to 3,175x106 m.
Ambient Pressure, p = 1,33x103 Pa.
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Figure 5‐100: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure. From Cunnington
(1964) [9].
The filler is a stiff, non‐melting, silicone material that maintains its consistence over a temperature
range 233 to 533 K. It is produced by Dow‐Corning. USA.
Cost of the filler: 25 US $.kg1
FILLER: Alloy consisting of an eutectic compositium of bismuth, lead, tin, indium and cadmium (320
K melting point alloy).
SPECIMENS: Two disks, Al 6061 ‐ T6.
Diameter, 7,62 x 10‐2 m
Roughness, 3 ‐ 3,8 x 10‐6 m (RMS); 1,5 ‐ 2 x 10‐6 m (RMS) ; 0,25 ‐ 0,38 x 10‐6 m (RMS)
Flatness, ± 0,5 x 10‐6 m
Thickness, 10‐3 m
Figure 5‐101: Photograph of segmented surface test specimen.
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Figure 5‐102: Thermal contact resistance values for Al 6061‐T6 with and without
segmented surface interstitial material (one atmosphere).
From Cook, Token & Calkins (1982) [8].
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A B
0,762 ‐ 0,940b 1,27 ‐ 1,65b
0,03b 0,08b
a. Sample set 1 and 2
b. Sample set 3 and 4
c. effective absolute surface slope
Sample set characteristics
A x 106 [m] m B x 106 [m] m
NOTE Sample set 1 (SS1): test 1 data with minimum roughness of specimens.
Sample set 2 (SS2): test 1 data with maximum roughness of specimens.
Sample set 3 (SS3): test 2 data with minimum roughness of specimens.
Sample set 4 (SS4): test 2 data with maximum roughness of specimens.
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Figure 5‐103: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS1 and
SS2.
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Figure 5‐104: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS1 and
SS2.
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Figure 5‐105: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS3 and
SS4.
Figure 5‐106: Comparison between models and experimental results for SS3 and
SS4.
From Lemczyk & Yovanovich (1987) [30] and Hsu & Tam (1979) [30].
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JOINT: Tube/Fin system
a = 4,458 x 10‐3 m
b = 4,763 x 10‐3 m
c = 1,905 x 10‐2 m
t = 7,62 x 10‐5 m
FILLER: Air
SPECIMENS: Copper tube (A) and Aluminium fin (B)
A B
Bi 4,92 x 10‐5
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
(A) Cylinder:
hc A PA
log C log 2 D [5‐4]
km M
Solution TA(r) = C1 + C2lnr
(B) One–dimensional fin:
2TA 0 , TA TA r [5‐5]
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Solution
1 d d h
r 0 , TB r To
r dr dr kt
[5‐6]
Boundary conditions:
r r
TB r To C3 I o Bi C 4 K o Bi [5‐7]
t t
r a , hi TA Ti k A
dTA
( with convection) [5‐8]
dr
h j TB TA
dTA
r b , kA [5‐9]
dr
dTA dT
r b , kA kB B [5‐10]
dr dr
Figure 5‐107: Effect of variation of initial contact pressure on joint resistance for
the edge tube/fin system. ho = 0, he = 0, Pi = 0, Po = 0, Ti = 313 K, To = 293 K, Ti = 373 K,
To = 293 K.
From Lemczyk & Yovanovich (1987) [30].
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Temperature Thick
Density
Code Name Material Filler Range tx103
[kg.m3]
[K] [m]
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a. International Packing Corporation, Bristol, New Hampshire 03222.
b. Chomerics, 77 Dragon Court, Woburn, Massachusetts 01810.
c. Technical Wire Products, Inc., 129 Dermody Street, Cranford, New Jersey 07016.
SPECIMENS: Three cylinders, Al ‐ 4,3 Cu ‐ 1,5 Mg ‐ 0,6 Mn. (Al 2024‐T4).
Two identical contacting junctions placed as sketched.
Radius, b = 1,27x102 m.
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Figure 5‐108: Plot of contact conductance vs. contact pressure for various
elastomeric materials at two mean temperatures. From Fletcher & Miller (1973)
[18].
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Dielectric Strength. Measured according to ASTM D149, dielectric strength is defined as the AC
voltage required to cause a breakdown on the insulating material being tested. The results are
reported as the Dielectric Breakdown Voltage for a given thickness or as Dielectric Strength in
volts/mil.
Measurements using ASTM D149 yield values obtained under controlled test conditions and may not
accurately reflect actual field performance. Factors such as corona discharge, frequency, temperature
and humidity can significantly affect the long term insulating characteristics of a material.
Volume Resistivity. Volume resistivity as determined by ASTM D257 is a measure of bulk electrical
resistance. This property shows a strong inverse dependence on humidity and temperature. It is not
unusual for volume resistivity to change by a factor of 105 ‐ 106 when exposed to > 90% humidity.
Increasing temperatures yield similar, though not such drastic changes. These changes are completely
reversible. When conditions are returned to normal, the volume resistivity also returns to the original
value.
Elastomeric Properties. Thermal interface materials exhibit properties consistent with highly filled
elastomers, such as compression deflection, stress relaxation, and compression set. Each property has
a major impact on the long term effectiveness of an interface material.
Compression Deflection. A solid elastomer, as opposed to a foam, is not compressible, but will yield
when a load is applied. Under a compressive load, the material will undergo a deflection of the part as
a whole. The magnitude of the deformation is proportional to the load up to the elastic limit (the point
at which the material ruptures and can no longer recover).
Stress Relaxation. If an elastomer is subject to a compressive load it first undergoes compression
deflection while the load is applied. This is followed by a slow relaxation process whereby the initial
stress begins to decay; this stress decay is brought about by macromolecular rearrangement within the
elastomer. The point, or % stress loss, is dependent on several factors including the nature of the
elastomer and the level of loading.
Compression Set. If an elastomer is subject to a compressive load for an extended time, a part of the
deflection becomes permanent and will not be recoverable when the load is removed. This behavior is
important only in designs where the interface material is unloaded and reloaded occasionally during
its service life.
Chemical Resistance. Interface materials may come into short term contact with solvents either in
cleaning operations or through unintentional exposure to coolants, fuels or lubricants. Contact with
any number of solvents will cause swelling of the exposed areas of elastomer interface materials. The
severity of the swelling will depend on the type of solvent, duration of exposure and the type of
elastomer. Generally, solvents such as ketones, halogenated hydrocabons and esters cause more
swelling than alcohols or aromatics.
While the elastomer is swollen its resistance to abrasion is reduced and care should be taken not to
damage the material. The swelling phenomenon is reversible and the interface material returns to its
normal state as the solvent evaporates. All physical, electrical and thermal properties remain the same
as before the exposure.
For applications in which frequent and long term exposure to aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons are
expected, a fluoro‐silicone‐based product is recommended.
FIBERGLASS REINFORCED SILICONES
The thermal interface materials in this family consist of a silicone elastomer binder with boron nitride
or aluminium oxide as the thermally conductive filler. They are reinforced with glass cloth which
makes them resistant to tear and cut‐through. The family also includes a fluorosilicone material that
resists hydrocarbons and other solvents which can be damaging to silicone.
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CHO‐THERM 1679, 1671, 1678 (boron nitride products) provide the highest thermal and electrical
performance available in one‐component interface materials. They are ideal replacements for two‐
component, greased beryllium oxide systems, particularly in aerospace and other high reliability
environments. CHO‐THERM 1679 is designed for use where the lowest possible thermal impedance is
required. CHO‐THERM 1678 prossesses thermal properties approaching those of CHO‐THERM 1671,
but provides only moderate electrical isolation.
CHO‐THERM 1674 elastomer is a low‐cost, aluminium oxide‐filled silicone interface product designed
for applications which require moderate thermal and electrical performance.
CHO‐THERM 1677, based on a fluorosilicone binder is ideal for use in environments prohibiting the
use of thermal grease.
CHO‐THERM 1661 thermal interface products have similar thermal characteristics to CHO‐THERM
1671 products, but are somewhat more pliable because they are not reinforced with glass cloth.
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FILM REINFORCED SILICONES
The CHO‐THERM materials in this family are reinforced with polyimide film which gives them
superior dielectric strength and durability. The filler in these silicone products is boron nitride or
magnesium oxide.
CHO‐THERM 1698 thermal interface materials are boron nitride filled to give outstanding thermal
conductivity. Polyimide film provides excellent cut‐through resistance and a dielectric voltage
breakdown of 6000 VAC. Maximum use temperature is 473 K.
CHO‐THERM 1694 thermal interface elastomers contain magnesium oxide for good thermal
conductivity and to promote longer tool life than that obtained with more abrasive aluminium oxide
fillers. Reliable thermal performance is provided up to 473 K. These products have the same high
durability and dielectric strength as CHO‐THERM 1698.
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FILM REINFORCED URETHANES
The urethane binder in this family of CHO‐THERM materials allows conformal coating without the
dewetting problems (e.g. migration and bubbling) common to applying a conformal coat over silicone.
These products use boron nitride or magnesium oxide as their thermally conductive filler. Their
excellent dielectric strength and exceptional durability are provided by a polyimide or polyester layer
which gives superior resistance to tear and cut through from burrs on heat sinks. Polyimide film
prevents dielectric voltage breakdown up to 6000 VAC. Polyester film protects up to 4000 VAC.
CHO‐THERM 1688 thermal interface elastomers are ideal for applications requiring very low thermal
impedance and superior resistance to cut through. Their excellent thermal conductivity results from
their boron nitride filler. Dielectric voltage breakdown is 6000 VAC.
CHO‐THERM 1684 thermal interface elastomers are designed for applications needing moderate
thermal performance with superior cut through resistance. The magnesium oxide filler provides good
thermal conductivity and promotes longer tool life than does more abrasive aluminium oxide.
Dielectric breakdown is 6000 VAC.
CHO‐THERM 1682 elastomers feature the same urethane binder and magnesium oxide thermal filler
as CHO‐THERM 1684 materials, but have an economical polyester dielectric layer. Voltage
breakdown is 4000 VAC.
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THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY WITHOUT ELECTRICAL ISOLATION
CHO‐THERM 1646 pads offer the best available thermal performance, without the use of grease, in
applications where no dielectric strength is required. The low thermal impedance of CHO‐THERM
1646 materials approximates that of thermal grease.
One‐component CHO‐THERM 1646 pads eliminate the need for grease dispensing equipment or the
labor‐intensive brush‐on process. CHO‐THERM 1646 materials consist of boron nitride‐filled silicone
coated on one side to 50 x 10‐6 m aluminium. Acrylic pressure sensitive adhesive is on the other side of
the aluminium.
Binder Silicone ‐
Filler Boron Nitride ‐
Carrier Aluminium ‐
Thickness x104 [m] 1,27 ‐
Maximum Use Temperature [K] 213 to ‐
Color White/Silver ‐
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Table 5‐11: Outgassing Data of Several Materials
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From ESA RD01 Rev. 3 (1992) [12].
1
From Campbell, Marriott & Park (1973) [5].
2
From Campbell & Marriott (1987) [4].
3
From ESA PSS–01–701, Issue 1, Rev 2 (1990) [11].
4
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