University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)

THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOLISM IN THE

FAMILY ON YOUNG OFFENDERS

BY

ONICCA OFENTSE TLHOAELE

SUBMITTED FOR THE FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

MAGISTER ARTUIM
(SOCIAL WORK)

IN THE DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

THE UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

STUDY LEADER: DR G.M. SPIES OCTOBER 2003

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AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to the following persons for their contributions to this dissertation:

• The Creator of the universe for giving me the strength of initiating and completing this
study.

• Dr G.M. Spies for her guidance and support.

• Mr Laurence Shee for the editing.

• Mrs Carina Matthysen for arranging and organising this dissertation in the required style.

• The Department of Correctional Services for granting me the opportunity to conduct this
research in their department.

• Mr Steven Tlala for his constant supervision and expertise regarding offenders.

• Mrs Karina Hynecke for her supervision during the data gathering process.

• The twenty respondents who participated in this study, who so readily provided the rich
material for this research.

• My husband Sylvester for his constant support and understanding.

• My children Masego and Obakeng who inspired me to complete this research study.

• My sister Nkele for being there for her support by managing my household while I was
busy with this study.

• My colleagues and friends Mpho Nawa and Philly Mkhize for listening to my frustrations
and their support.

• Finally I want to extend my greatest gratitude to all my family members for their words
of encouragement and support.
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SUMMARY

The effect of alcoholism in the family on young offenders

By

Onicca Ofentse Tlhoaele

Study leader: Dr GM Spies

Department : Social Work

Degree : MA (Social Work)

Alcohol abuse in families remain a serious problem in South Africa. Early exposure to

dysfunctional family patterns may contribute to juvenile offending. Such an exposure will be

detrimental to children’s development and may create emotional problems for them. It would

appear that certain factors contribute towards juvenile delinquency such as divorce among

parents, single parent families, unemployment of parents, family violence, substance abuse and

poverty.

The researcher was motivated to undertake this study as she observed in the field of Social Work

that nearly all juvenile offenders were exposed to alcoholism in their families of origin. The

question arised whether there is a relation between alcohol abuse in the family system and

juvenile delinquency.
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The goal of this study was to explore the extent to which alcohol abuse in the family system may

contribute towards juvenile delinquency and imprisonment. The researcher conducted a

qualitative study through which the goal of the study has been achieved. Further research in this

field is recommended to prevent the effect alcohol abuse may have on the family system.

The following are the key concepts in this study:

• Alcohol abuse

• Alcoholism

• Family system

• Dysfunctional family

• Juvenile delinquency
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OPSOMMING

Die effek van alkoholisme in die gesin op jeugoortreders

Deur

Onicca Ofentse Tlhoaele

Studieleier : Dr GM Spies

Departement : Maatskaplikewerk

Graad : MA (Maatskaplikewerk)

Alkoholmisbruik binne gesinsverband bly 'n ernstige probleem in Suid Afrika. Vroeë

blootstelling aan disfunksionele gesinspatrone kan lei tot jeugmisdaad deurdat dit nadelig is vir

enige kind se ontwikkeling en aanleiding kan gee tot emosionele probleme. Dit blyk dat sekere

faktore soos egskeiding, enkelouergesinne, werkloosheid van ouers, gesinsgeweld,

substansafhanklikheid en armoede, tot jeugoortredings aanleidng kan gee.

Die navorser is gemotiveer om hierdie studie te onderneem nadat sy in die veld van

Maatskaplike Werk waargeneem het dat bykans alle jeugoortreders binne hulle gesinne van

herkoms, aan drankmisbruik blootgestel was. Die vraag het onstaan of daar ‘n verband bestaan

tussen alkoholisme in die gesinsisteem en jeugmisdaad.

Die doel van hierdie studie was om te eksploreer tot watter mate alkoholmisbruik in die

gesinsisteem aanleiding gee tot jeugmisdaad en gevangenisskap. Die navorser het ‘n

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kwalitatiewe studie gedoen waartydens die doel van die studie bereik is. Verdere navorsing in

hierdie veld word aanbeveel ten einde die effek van alkoholmisbruik op die gesinsisteem te

voorkom.

Die volgende is kernbegrippe van die studie:

Alkoholmisbruik

Alkoholisme

Gesinsisteem

Disfunksionele gesin

Jeugmisdaad
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL ORIENTATION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Motivation for the choice of the study 2

1.3 Problem formulation 2

1.4 Aim and objectives of the study 5

1.4.1 Aim 5

1.4.2 Objectives 5

1.4.2.1 Literature study 5

1.4.2.2 Empirical study 5

1.4.2.3 Conclusions and recommendations 6

1.5 Problem statement 6

1.6 Research approach 7

1.7 Type of research 7

1.8 Research design 8

1.9 Research procedures and strategy 8

1.9.1 Research procedure 8

1.9.2 Strategy 9

1.10 Pilot study 9

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1.10.1 Literature study 10

1.10.2 Consultation with experts 10

1.10.3 Overview of the feasibility of the study 11

1.10.4 Pilot test of the semi-structured interview schedule 12

1.11 Population sample and sampling technique 13

1.11.1 Universe or population 13

1.11.2 Sample 13

1.12 Ethical considerations related to data collection 14

1.13 Definition of key concepts 16

1.13.1 Family system 16

1.13.2 Alcoholism 17

1.13.3 Alcohol abuse 18

1.13.4 Juvenile delinquency 19

1.14 Contents of the report 20

CHAPTER 2: THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOLISM IN THE

FAMILY ON YOUNG OFFENDERS

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Definition of alcoholism 24

2.3 Phases of alcohol dependency 26

2.4 The impact of alcoholism on the family system 31

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2.5 Phases of the alcoholic family 34

2.6 Roles often played by children in alcoholic relationships

37

2.7 Conclusion 47

CHAPTER 3: JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

3.1 Introduction 48

3.2 Definition of juvenile delinquency 59

3.3 Incidence of juvenile delinquency 52

3.4 Factors contributing towards juvenile

delinquency 54

3.4.1 Personal-milieu factors 55

3.4.2 Social-milieu factors 56

3.5 Juvenile delinquency and alcoholism in the

family system 65

3.6 Conclusion 76

CHAPTER 4: EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION

4.1 Introduction 78

4.2 The research design and procedures of the

empirical study 89

4.3 Discussion of the empirical data 81

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4.4 Conclusion 97

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction 98

5.2 Assessment of the aim and objectives of the

study 99

5.2.1 The aim of the study 99

5.2.2 The objectives of the study 100

5.3 Conclusion 100

5.4 Recommendations 106

BIBLIOGRAPHY 109

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Meso-, exo-and macro-system 59

Figure 2: Four factors linked to antisocial behaviour

and delinquency 61

ANNEXURES

Annexure 1 : Interview schedule 113

Annexure 2 : Letter of consent 117

Annexure 3 : Letter of approval 120

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Chapter 1

General orientation

1.1 Introduction

Understanding the impact of alcoholism in the family on young

offenders, is a serious issue in South Africa. There has been a lack of

research on the function and the effects alcoholism may have on South

African families and whether or not it contributes towards juvenile

delinquency. Bartollas (1993:262) says that some observers of social life

events, argue that the family as a social unit, no longer functions in a

useful manner. Family problems affecting young people badly which

include divorce and single-parent families, “blended families”, out-of-

wedlock births, homelessness, unemployment, alcohol and drug abuse

and violence.

Through this study, the researcher tried to the knowledge base of

alcoholism and juvenile delinquency. The researcher aims to explore

further whether alcoholism within the family system, may contribute

towards delinquency among juveniles and as a result of it, imprisonment.

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1.2 Motivation for the choice of the study

Various factors motivated the researcher to facilitate this research study

in order to search for possible explanations for the high occurrence of

juvenile delinquency in alcoholic families:

Through the researcher’s under-graduate and post- graduate studies, there

had been various issues the researcher discovered. One of these is that

there is limited South African literature regarding alcoholism and the

way it may contribute towards juvenile delinquency.

The researcher works for the Department of Correctional Services where

she renders social work group programmes to the sentenced young

offenders. The researcher became aware of these young offenders’

vulnerability and traumatic backgrounds, which include alcohol abuse

within their families.

Social problems within the researcher’s community also served as a

strong motivation for the research. These include alcohol abuse,

family violence, divorce, and the alarming rise in the number of street

children who usually end up in conflict with the law.

1.3 Problem formulation

Alcoholism can transform the whole family system into a dysfunctional

entity. Such families focus on problems, addiction, trauma or secrets,

rather than on the needs of the children. Young people whose family

members experience substance-abuse problems, suffer from neglect,

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economic hardship and even abuse in these family settings (Bartollas,

1993:266).

The researcher agrees that it is important to understand juveniles’ family

systems and socialization processes, in order to understand their

delinquent behaviour. Through the researcher’s experience, it seems as if

alcohol abuse has a certain function in the family system as a way to

prevent the disintegration of the family. Although this is not always a

healthy way to maintain the family system, it is a way the family decided

to use as a surviving mechanism.

Children from such families may adapt to the symptoms of alcohol abuse

and carry them along as a way of life. They may identify with the abusive

patterns as a coping mechanism, which can lead to other dysfunctional

patterns such as criminal activities. They might also do anything,

including resorting to criminal activities to obtain alcohol. The researcher

views socialization as the process by which one acquires social skills to

participate effectively in the society in which one lives and through

which one feels accepted and special. The researcher believes that the

way in which children relate to other socializing agencies, is partly

influenced by the family of which the child is part of.

When the family fails to socialize its members, other socializing agencies

such as gangs, become important in the lives of these members as a way

to help them survive in society. This could result in turning to criminal

activities.
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Glanz (1994:16) agrees that there are apparent factors, which lead to

delinquent behaviour among young people, especially originating from

within their family systems. These factors include family dysfunction

(broken homes), parent–child relationships, absent parents (single parent

families), substance abuse by parents, poverty, unemployment, truancy,

violence and abuse.

The researcher believes that alcoholic parents often cause children to

experience anxiety and confusion. There is a higher risk of alcoholism,

abuse of illegal drugs and juvenile delinquency among these children.

The problem can be formulated through the creation of the following

statements:

Alcohol abuse by parents/significant others within families may have a

negative effect on young people, which might influence their choice

of involvement in criminal activities.

Young people might identify with alcoholism as a pattern of behaviour in

their families of origin, which may help them to survive.

Children living with alcoholics often identify with unhealthy living

patterns, which may lead to juvenile delinquency. They may not have

the opportunity to experience trust towards themselves and others, or

learn how to deal with painful feelings. Juvenile delinquency can

become a way of dealing with these feelings.

Children of alcoholics who lack coping skills are at a higher risk for

school drop-out, failure, depression, anxiety and alcohol and drug

abuse, which may lead to juvenile delinquency and imprisonment.

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The problem being researched concerns young children who come from

alcoholic families and who end up having difficulty coping under

pressure and who might end up being imprisoned for criminal

offences.

1.4 Aim and objectives of the study

1.4.1 Aim

To explore the effect of alcoholism in the family system on young

offenders.

1.4.2 Objectives

1.4.2.1 Literature study

To create a knowledge base for this research process through a literature study

regarding:

• Alcoholism in the family system and the effect it may have on children in the

family system.

Juvenile delinquency as a phenomenon.

1.4.2.2 Empirical study

To explore through an empirical study, the way in which juveniles could

identify with the patterns of alcoholism from within their family

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systems, and how such patterns of behaviour contributed towards

juvenile delinquency and imprisonment.

1.4.2.3 Conclusions and Recommendations

To construct conclusions and recommendations on the findings of the

research.

1.5 Problem statement

There is very little information available about the impact alcoholic

parents or significant others may have on juveniles, including the way in

which it may influence their involvement in criminal behaviour.

Any research study, which seeks to explore a certain theme, does not

utilize a hypothesis. Hence, there are no dependent and independent

variables during the research study. The researcher will formulate a

problem statement for the research since an exploratory research design

is being used. The researcher’s intention is to establish research findings

on a completely new theme where no research was previously conducted.

A problem statement can thus be formulated as follows:

Alcoholism in the family system may contribute towards juvenile

delinquency and imprisonment.

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1.6 Research approach

The contents of this entire study will be qualitative of nature, meaning

that the researcher will conduct a literature study before the empirical

study.

The researcher will also focus on the participants’ responses towards

whether alcoholism within their families, contributes towards juvenile

delinquency. In this case, respondents will be responding to the questions

directed towards them through semi-structured interviews regarding the

abuse of alcohol by their parents/significant others and the way it might

contribute towards their involvement in criminal activities and as a result

of it, imprisonment. Leedy (1993) in De Vos (1998:150) states that

qualitative research deals with data that is principally verbal.

1.7 Type of research

The researcher will make use of applied research during the study. Smit

(1994:4) is of the opinion that applied research is a systematic way of

gathering knowledge, emphasizing the practical value or application

thereof.

Through this study, alcoholism in the family system as well as the way it

may influence young people in that family, will be explored as well as

the extent to which alcoholism may contribute towards the imprisonment

of these young people.

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De Jong, Monette & Sullivan (1990:6) reinforce this opinion by stating

that the identified characteristic of applied research deals with practical

phenomenon of most crucial social issues.

1.8 Research design

De Vos & Fouche (1998:76) describe a research design as a blueprint or

a strategy according to which data is collected to investigate the research

hypothesis or questions. It specifies the unit of analysis, sampling

procedures, data collection techniques and measurement’s procedures.

Bless and Higson-Smith (1995:42) also explain that the purpose of an

exploratory research is to gain insight into a situation, phenomenon,

person or community.

The researcher will utilized an exploratory research design during the

research process to explore the way in which alcoholism in their families

may contribute to the behaviour problems experienced by young people,

as well as the way it may lead to juvenile delinquency.

1.9 Research procedures and strategy

1.9.1 Research Procedure

The researcher will conduct semi- structured interviews with the

respondents. A semi- structured interview is a useful technique to use

during an explorative research process as it helps to clarify concepts and

problems as well as creating possible answers or solutions to a problem

(Bless & Higson- Smith, 1995:110).

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Through a semi- structured interview, the researcher will present specific

themes to the respondents with alternatives or sub- themes to explore the

problem. The researcher will interview twenty (20) respondents in the

process of data gathering.

1.9.2 Strategy

Semi- structured interviews will be conducted among respondents who

are detained at Rustenburg Juvenile Centre in the North West Province.

The researcher will interview the respondents individualy in a secure and

private office in the prison. All the juveniles should be assessed by the

social workers during their initial admission.

1.10 Pilot study

According to De Vos (1998:395), pilot studies are designed to determine

whether or not the measuring instrument is applicable to a certain group

of respondents and are being carried out in similar settings to those in

which the investigation will be conducted (Neuman 1997:195). Bless and

Higson-Smith (1995:50) further state that a pilot study involves testing

the actual program on a small sample taken from the community for

whom the program is planned. It will also help to determine the

effectiveness of the intervention as well as to identify which elements of

the prototype may need to be revised (Rothman & Thomas in De Vos

1998:396).

The pilot study will consist of the following elements: a literature study,

consultation with experts, an overview of the feasibility of the study and

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pilot tests of the schedule for the semi-structured interviews. It can be

discussed as follows:

1.10.1 Literature study

Jansen & Vithal (1997:14) state that a good literature study helps to

initiate a more professional problem formulation of the research study.

The researcher will explore alcoholism in the family system and juvenile

delinquency. Both South African and international literature will be

consulted. The researcher will make use of the Academic Information

Centre of the University of Pretoria.

1.10.2 Consultation with experts

Interviews were conducted with various experts in the different fields of

specialty in the Department of Correctional Services and the field of

substance abuse as preparation to the study. The following experts, were

consulted by the researcher:

Mrs. Judith Shopley, the director of the SANCA Information and

Resource Centre (library) in Auckland Park (Johannesburg). She

works as an expert in the field of substance abuse and shared her

views with the researcher regarding the effect alcoholism may have on

the family system and specifically the way it may contribute to

juvenile delinquency.

Mr Steven Tlala, chief social worker at the Department of Correctional

Services in the Odi prison. He was consulted regarding the detention

of young offenders. He broadened the researcher’s perspective

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through an explanation of the problems these young offenders face,

especially those relating to their family systems.

The researcher also attended most of the Gauteng Substance Abuse

Forum meetings during which personnel from SANCA clinics and

other organisations involved in the field of alcoholism, attended. The

latter included the following systems: The SAPS- Gauteng, Traffic

Department- Gauteng, Department of Correctional Services- Gauteng,

medical practitioners and journalists. Together they discussed current

issues pertaining to alcohol abuse and the effect it has on South

African families. During these meetings, very useful information was

gained for this study.

1.10.3 Overview of the feasibility of the study

The researcher works for the Department of Correctional Services and

one of her job descriptions is to render social work group programmes to

young sentenced offenders. The study will be feasible because of the fact

that the researcher is already involved with juvenile offenders. This

makes it easier for the researcher to get respondents for the study.

The researcher has identified the following factors as the ones that will

contribute to the success of this study:

• The respondents will be drawn from existing client caseload in

the prison.

• The researcher can reach the respondents with ease.

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• Permission will be sought from the respondents.

• The researcher will bear all research costs.

Problems anticipated in this study are as follows:

• Some of the juveniles may refuse to participate in the research.

• Some of the juveniles may be released before the interviews are

completed.

1.10.4 Pilot test of the semi- structured interview schedule

Five (5) respondents will be interviewed to test the effectiveness and

practicality of the instrument used. The effectiveness and practicality of

the instrument refers to the relevancy of the themes in the interview

schedule, the language used, the length of the instrument and formulation

of the themes and sub-themes. Mindel (1993:238-240) states that the

measuring instrument should be evaluated before it is administered to a

sample of individuals, who are similar to the study’s sample or

population, to determine whether the individuals understood the

questions the way the researcher intends them to.

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1.11 Population sample and sampling technique

1.11.1 Universe or population

Neuman (1997:202) describes the universe or population as follows:

“The large pool of the population which has an important role in

sampling. Sometimes the term universe is used”.

Powers, Meenaghan & Toomey in De Vos (1998:190) define a

population or a universe as a set of entities for which all the

measurements of interest to the researcher are presented.

According to the researcher the population is the total set of individuals

from which the unit of the study is chosen. It can be a totality of events,

organizations or case records, with which the research problem is

concerned.

The study will focus on juveniles in the Rustenburg Prison in North-West

Province as the population of the study.

1.11.2 Sample

De Vos (1998:192) defines a sample as the subset of measurements

drawn from the population. This is to understand the whole population

from which the sample was drawn (Neuman 1997:202). The type of

sampling procedure which the researcher will utilize is non–probability

sampling, which means that the respondents in the study do not have the
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same probability or chance of being selected (Bless & Higson–Smith

1995:95).

A sample of male juveniles ranging in age from sixteen- (16) to twenty-

one- (21), will be the respondents in the study who can speak and

understand English as a communication language. Only juvenile

offenders who have been assessed during admission by the prison social

workers, will be used in the study. Purposive sampling as an example of

non–probability sampling will be used which indicates that there is a

specific purpose for that sample to be chosen from the total population.

1.12 Ethical considerations related to data collection

During the study the researcher will focus on certain ethical issues, which

will be considered during the data collection phase. These ethical issues

include, among others, privacy or voluntary participation, anonymity,

and confidentiality (Bless & Higson- Smith 1995:102). Ethical guidelines

are essential in research since they serve as standards and the basis upon

which each researcher ought to contineously evaluate his or her own

conduct.

To ensure that these ethical issues are considered during this study, a

consent form will be provided to each of the respondents to be filled in

prior to the interview. These ethical issues will include the following:
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• Harm to subjects

There is no known medical risk associated with the study. The

respondents may experience stress when being interviewed because of the

emotional or sensitive nature of the study. To ensure that stress is

minimized, the researcher will ensure that the respondent’s stress is

acknowledge and the pace of the interview be controlled by how the

respondent is able to handle the stress involved.

• Informed consent and voluntary participation

The researcher will obtain written consent from the respondents after a

detailed explanation has been given about the purpose or goal of the

study, data collection strategies, credibility of the researcher and how the

research findings will be utilized. They will also be informed about their

rights to withdraw from the study at any point of time, should they wish

to do so.

• Anonymity

The researcher will inform the respondents about their rights to remain

anonymous and that their names will not be disclosed in the scientific

report. The researcher will refer to the respondents as anonymous in the

research report.

• Confidentiality

The respondents will be informed by the researcher of their rights to

confidentiality during the interviews. They will be assured that the data
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collected from them during the interviews, will only be used for the

stated purpose of the research and that no other person will have any

access to the data collected. All information gathered will be dealt with in

confidentiality.

• Counselling

The researcher will engage the respondents in debriefing sessions if

necessary once the investigation is completed. The debrieving will be

the responsibility of the personnel who are already involved with the

juveniles as counsellors.

1.13 Definition of key concepts

1.13.1 Family system

Goldenberg and Goldenberg (2002:24) define a family system as more as

only a collection of individuals, but instead, a whole larger than the sum

of its parts. This means that an individual’s behavior need to be

understood within the context of the family system. They refer further to

the following regarding the behavior problems of the individual in the

family system:

Within such a family framework, the individual’s disturbed or

troubled behavior (anxiety, depression, alcoholism, an eating

disorder) is seen as representative of a system that is faulty, not

due to individual deficit or deficiency. That person’s current

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difficulties might then be viewed more accurately as signaling a

social system in disequilibrium.

The above statement supports the researcher’s view that the behaviour of

the juvenile also need to be understood within the context of his family

system.

1.13.2 Alcoholism

Biggs (1994:84) describes alcoholism as a primary, chronic, hereditary

and eventually fatal disease that progress from early physiological

susceptibility into an addiction characterized by tolerance changes,

physiological dependence and a loss of control over drinking. Deutsch in

De Beer (2000: 43) defines alcoholism as follows:

Alcoholism is an illness characterised by loss of control over drinking,

which results in serious problems in any of the following areas: job,

school, or financial affairs; relationships with family or friends; or

physical health.

According to the researcher’s opinion, alcoholism is a behavioural

disorder, with severe medical, psychological and social implications. The

use of alcoholic beverages will inevitably interfere with the successful

life of a person. That person will either not be able to realize or recognize

this effect or will not be able to control his/her alcoholic consumption,

even when he/she knows its negative effects.

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Alcoholism is also noticed when a person starts to use defence

mechanisms such as withdrawal, denial, arrogance, rage and

perfectionism. By doing this, alcoholics are trying to escape from reality,

while at the same time telling themselves that they have nothing to be

ashamed of.

According to the researcher’s opinion, the alcoholic person’s personal,

spiritual, financial and emotional well-being will always be negatively

affected by the alcohol abuse.

1.13.3 Alcohol Abuse

Barker (1991:9) describes alcohol abuse as a consumption of alcohol, in

such a way as to harm or endanger the well-being of the user or those

with whom the user comes into contact with by causing accidents or

being physically abusive. The researcher adds that such people can also

encounter problems in their social relationships. According to the

researcher, alcohol abuse can be described as the misuse of alcohol,

resulting in one or more problems for the drinker. These problems can be

psychological and include depression, which can either be an acute or

chronic illness. Problems may also be social, such as family or work

problems.

According to the researcher, alcohol abuse does not necessarily involves

alcoholism. For instance, a person’s alcohol abuse can be of such nature

that he/she can become destructive without necessarily developing the

kind of dependency usually associated with alcoholism.

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The researcher believes that alcohol abuse can lead to alcoholism. This

simply means that if a parent or significant other of the child develops a

certain pattern of drinking that might lead to a disease, the parents’

responsibilities of taking care of their children can be affected. This may

contribute to a family breakdown and problems such as dropping out of

school and involvement in criminal activities, which might result in

imprisonment. Stafford (1994:22) also refer to substance abuse, in

particular alcohol abuse, that it will effect so many people in so many

ways, that no researcher or person from the helping professions can

overlook it.

1.13.4 Juvenile Delinquency

Barker (1991:124) defines juvenile delinquency as anti-social actions by

juveniles, which are regarded as criminal in nature if committed by

adults. The researcher adds that it involves illegal behaviour by a person

in most jurisdictions, under the age of eighteen (18) years who has his or

her behaviour adjudicated as delinquent in the juvenile court. It

encompasses offences such as homicide, robbery, rape and theft. Regoli

& Hewitt (1997:32) define juvenile delinquency as a behavior by a minor

child under the age of eighteen (18) years, that violates the state’s penal

code. Juveniles delinquency also involves a child who has committed

many offences of a serious nature over an extended period of time. The

same author refers to a delinquent as someone who adopts certain modes

of hairstyles, dress codes or actions that oppose the standards set by those

in authority.
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According to the researcher, juvenile delinquents are treated differently

to adult criminals in most countries, including South Africa. This is

because they are seen as less responsible for their deviance and that their

illegal behaviour has not yet taken on a more permanent pattern. On the

contrary, the researcher assumes that if these young people’s deviant

behaviour is left untreated, they might experience serious problems

which may include clashes with the law. They might also be at a very

high risk of carrying the problem over to their adulthood.

1.14 Contents of the report

Chapter 1: General orientation.

Chapter 2: The effect of alcoholism in the family on young offenders.

Chapter 3: Juvenile delinquency.

Chapter 4: Empirical investigation.

Chapter 5: Conclusions and recommendations

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Chapter 2

The effect of alcoholism in the family on young offenders

2.1 Introduction

According to different authors, such as Rocha- Silva et al. (1996:26) and

Anderson (1993:5), children are being exposed to a wide variety of

chemical substances, which are relatively available in the entire society.

Many children seem not to venture further than their homes to gain

access to intoxicating substances.

Since there is a lack of information concerning the extent to which

alcoholism affects young people and particularly those in Black families,

the researcher thoroughly explores in this research, the extent of this

phenomenon.. The findings of the study will hopefully fill the gap on

how alcoholism in the family affects young person’s lives, particularly

those who end up in trouble with the law.

Stafford (1994:10) defines alcoholism as a dysfunctional condition, with

negatively affects on the person’s physical, social, emotional,

psychological or mental and spiritual functioning. Furthermore the

researcher indicates in this chapter the way alcoholism disturbs not only

the life of the drinker, but also the functioning of the whole family
 University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)
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system which has dramatic and detrimental effects on the development of

children of these families. Alcoholism has been known profoundly to be

passed on from one generation

to the other (Rocha-Silva et al. 1996:5). De Beer (2000:42) states that

alcoholism has been for many years a problematic phenomenon in

society.

A contributing factor to the destructiveness of alcoholism is that the

addictive nature of alcohol is not recognized in its fullest. It is therefore

not perceived as a destructive drug and is also freely available (Rocha-

Silva 1998:52). Furthermore, Rocha- Silva states that three to six

people’s lives are negatively affected by a single person’s alcohol abuse.

Alcoholism is also perceived as the third most frequent health problem in

the world.

The researcher will refer in this chapter to the occurrence of family

disintegration, unemployment and other social problems related to

alcoholism. Unfortunately, most families would prefer not to

acknowledge that they are being faced with a detrimental situation of

alcoholism. In these families, talking about a member’s alcohol problem

would violate a cardinal rule, which is ‘we don’t reveal secrets of the

family’. It is as if acknowledging the drinking issues would threaten the

family’s existence (Stafford 1994:26).

The alcohol problem will continue to exist, for as long as the alcoholic

problem in the family is protected by other family members as a way to

protect the family from stigmatisation. The researcher strongly

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emphasizes that most families who are negatively affected by alcoholism

won’t easily come out of their shells due to the way the society perceives

alcoholism. Stafford (1994:2) supports the latter statement:

The single greatest hurdle to bringing the effects of alcoholism

into the open is the stigma attached to it in our society. We

continue to isolate and castigate the alcoholic for his lack of

self- control and blame him for exhibiting the symptoms of what

we now know to be an identifiable and treatable illness. We do

not blame the diabetic for his failure to produce insulin in

sufficient quantities, nor do we refuse him treatment until he

does so. Yet, with alcoholics, we use a prime symptom of the

illness (loss of control), as evidence of his untreatability and the

alcoholic is blamed for his apparent weakness character.

Rocha-Silva (1998:59) adds to the above quotation by stating the

following:

The traditional tendency among South African researchers and

treatment agencies to define, for example, the “alcoholic” or

alcohol dependent as a sick person who (necessarily) has some

defect (which means he cannot and will not ever be able) to

control his drinking, has come to be severely criticized.

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Rocha-Silva believes that the growing body of research findings on

dependency or addiction may vary over time and place. The researcher

also suggests that more focus should be placed on the findings and the

use of proper procedures and techniques for treating alcoholism, so as to

minimise its effects on children.

However, the researcher believes that if alcoholism is treated as a

symptom and the addicted person is not labelled as a sick person, the

stigma can be ended and the whole family could be encouraged to find

recovery and support in a more professional manner. An in-depth

definition and meaning of alcoholism will now be discussed.

2.2 Definition of alcoholism

Throughout the years, different authors have provided a wide range of

definitions of alcoholism. Most of the literature refer to alcoholism as an

illness, not a character defect or weakness (Stafford 1994:2). Mostly, it is

believed that if an alcoholic practised self-restraint and controlled his

drinking habit, then all would be well. The alcoholic then does not need

to understand the reason for his/her drinking pattern.

Although alcoholics are mostly stigmatised, the truth is, they come from

all social classes and races and are usually in the employment sector and

can also become parents. According to Lewis et al (1994:2) they are just

drink too much, often neglect their responsibilities and their drinking

pattern and the resultant behaviour from it, can be successfully treated.
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According to the researcher alcoholics only need encouragement and

patience from those who are supposed to provide support. That might act

as a catalyst for alcoholics to acknowledging that they have a problem.

Those responsible for support could be their families, immediate friends,

employers or the entire community.

Deutsch in De Beer (2000:43) defines alcoholism as follows:

Alcoholism is an illness characterized by loss of control over

drinking, which results in serious problems in any of the

following areas: job, school, or financial affairs; relationships

with family or friends; or physical health.

Beck et al. (1993: 2) identifies alcoholism as an impaired control of use

and that it is considered more serious than alcohol abuse. On the other

hand, Lewis et al. (1994:2) define substance abuse as the intake of mood-

altering drugs such as alcohol, which has undesired effects on the

person’s life or on the lives of others. According to the researcher the

negative effects of alcohol abuse may involve the impairment of

physiological, psychological, social, spiritual, financial or occupational

functioning. The abuse of alcohol does not necessarily imply that the

person is an alcoholic. A person might drink too much at a time, but still

have control over his behaviour. A person reaches the stage of

alcoholism when he is totally addicted or dependent on a substance such

as alcohol. At such a stage, physical and psychological symptoms of

withdrawal or tolerance to the substance are present.

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Alcohol abuse is mostly known to have major effects on the physical

health and social functioning of the drinker. In addition, it plays a role in

many of society’s most pressing concerns, including accidents, violence,

criminal behaviour, family problems and productivity loss in the

workplace. Lewis (1994:2) agrees that alcohol abuse affects so many

people in many ways, that no researcher can overlook it.

2.3 PHASES OF ALCOHOL DEPENDENCY

According to the E.M Jellinik’s theory of alcoholism, there are various

phases, which alcoholics go through before they reach the stage of

dependency. Stafford (1994:22) describes the phases of alcohol

dependency as follows:

Pre- alcoholic phase

This phase is normally reffered to as a stage characterised by a social

drinking pattern, which means that the person only drinks to relax. The

latter does not concern other people, as the person is still in control of

his/her intake of alcohol.

• Early alcoholic phase

During this stage, heavy and more frequent drinking is experienced. The

drinker may experience first blackouts, he/she may become defensive

about his/ her drinking pattern and may even feel guilty about it. During

this stage, the characteristic of sneaking of drinks may emminate. The

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drinker may again experience secret drinking or morning drinking.

Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms are experienced during this stage.

Addiction phase

At this stage, the drinker is completely addicted to alcohol and physical

dependency is experienced. There is also a severe loss of control over the

drinking pattern and serious financial and relationship problems can be

experienced. All these problems become a reasonable excuse for their

drinking pattern.

Chronic alcoholism

This stage defines an inevitable deepening slavery to alcohol that wrecks

lives and culminates in death. It is a stage where vital organs such as the

liver, heart and the brain are seriously damaged (Benshoff & Janikowski

2000:59).

The development of alcoholism is influenced by various aspects such as

the personality and circumstances of every human- being (Potter-Efron

1991:22). For instance, children might develop deviant behaviour due to

the negative influence of their parent’s drinking patterns; on the contrary,

others maysuffer from negative peer influences. It is mostly the choices

each individual will have to make that will determine whether they will

be affected or not.

Another factor that might influence the negative impact of alcoholism in

families is the cultural variation in child- rearing practices, including the

use of physical force. Children with deviant behaviour may be viewed as

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personal failures by their parents, which may lead to feelings of

depression, helplessness, and rage against the child. This can result in

substance abuse by these parents, especially alcohol, in the hope of

relieving stress (Straussner 2001:18).

Alcoholism may threaten a family’s stability. Boyd et al. (1995:27) say

the following about it:

Family structure is related to socio-economic status and,

undoubtedly, to other aspects of the quality of family life;

nonetheless, it is not the key element in the development of

adolescent alcohol abuse and other deviance. Rather, the quality

of parental socialization is the important predictor of adolescent

outcomes - namely, nurturing parents who monitor the

whereabouts of their children and have open lines of

communication are more likely to have adolescents with fewer

problem behaviours than alcoholic families, regardless of their

socio-demographic and family structural conditions.

The family’s context may influence the choices of friends. Alcoholism as

one of the different forms of social problems affecting the child- rearing

process, may be seen as a symptom of a more particular problem within a

family system. Children who grow up in such environments, may end up

identifying themselves with the roles their parents or significant others

played in their lives. Since families are the primary place in which

children learn to socialize, it is most likely that these children will

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identify with the different roles their parents play in their lives and will

most definetely influence their peer relationships. Children from an

alcoholic background have more chances of showing deviant behaviour

than those from a non- alcoholic background (Stafford 1994:23).

The World Health Organization differentiates between the physiological

alcohol dependency and psychological alcohol dependency (De Beer

2000:43). These two forms of alcohol dependency can be defined as

follows:

• Physiological alcohol dependency

A distinct physiological condition occurs when the alcohol drinker

reaches a stage of deterioration. This condition is characterized by

withdrawal symptoms, which might last for a few weeks or months.

Withdrawal symptoms might range from light to more severe shakings,

fever, unfounded fear, aggression, muscle pain, convulsions, stomach-

aches, fatigue/ tiredness, diarrhoea, sweat, insomnia and poor

concentration abilities. When individuals become addicted to alcohol,

they are no longer able to control their alcohol-drinking patterns. This

addiction and physical symptoms can lead to death. The physiological

effects of alcoholism are categorized into three parts and can be

described as follows:

(1) Early effects

The earliest effects of alcoholism occur in the brain. There is a serious

damage of brain cells and various mental processes are affected such as
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perception, coordination, motor functioning and memory loss can also be

experienced.

(2) Later effects

Long-term alcoholism destroys the vital organs such the brain, liver,

heart and pancreas. This stage greatly increases the risk of chronic

diseases such as cancer and it also interferes with the immune system,

leaving the body vulnerable to many opportunistic diseases.

(3) The dead end

The eventual outcome of chronic alcoholism is death. Death might result

from failure in functioning of the vital organs, accidents or suicide. Death

may also result from chronic diseases such as cancer.

• Psychological alcohol dependency

Psychological dependency is defined as a strong need or craving for

alcoholic substances. When the alcohol drinker experiences

psychological dependency, physiological symptoms such as anxiety,

irritability, restlessness, depression and insomnia will be experienced for

weeks. Physiological dependency and psychological dependency of

alcohol are interrelated.. A person who is physically sick, will also

experience some unfinished business with regard to his/her emotional

functioning. According to the researcher, alcohol dependency may affect

a persons emotional functioning in the sense that it is a symptom of a

deeper problem, which impacts negatively on the addicted person’s body

and soul. It reaches beyond the boundaries of the drinker into his social
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world and affects all who come into close contact with him/ her,

especially family members.

Once engaged, family members may also become the symptom carriers

and may be greatly harmed, despite the fact that no alcohol ever passed

their lips. Understanding the psychological and emotional effects of

alcoholism within the family system cannot, however, be done in

isolation of the social context in which it manifests itself. Therefore, it is

crucial that alcoholics must not be treated in isolation from their other

family members. One family member can not entirely carry the blame for

a dysfunctional family system. Family members are in a mutual

interaction of moulding each other’s emotional and psychological

behaviour (Stafford 1994:32).

Alcoholism has always been a family problem. Where there are

alcoholics, there are immediate family members, relatives, and friends

who are affected by the alcohol related behaviour. The manner in which

alcoholism affects the family system will now be discussed.

2.4 The impact of alcoholism on the family system

According to the researcher, an alcoholic person cannot be seen and

treated in isolation. Members of the family influence each other and are

also influenced by the events taking place in their social context. When

one member of the family develops a substance abuse problem, it is not

only limited to him/her alone, but affects the entire family system

(Benshoff & Janikowski 2000:148). At the same time, the family system
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has a reciprocal effect on its stability and change towards the problems

experienced. The system that tends to be most widely recognised as

closely associated with addictive behaviours, is the family (Lewis, et al.

1994:143). There are a variety of factors which upset the structure of the

alcoholic family. According to De Wit in De Beer (2000:75) such factors

can be discussed as follows:

Long- term conflict between parents

In families where alcohol abuse is present, parents might end up getting

involved in constant conflict situations and children might intervene and

this can contribute negatively towards the developing process of these

children. Furthermore, these children might identify themselves with the

aggressive behaviour of their parents and constantly get themselves into

similar behavioural patterns.

Parental non- involvement with the children

Some parents do not show interest in the activities in which their children

are involved, either being educational or social activities. Owing to their

alcoholic behaviour, most of their time is spent on feeding such a

behaviour rather than getting involved in their children’s lives. They

would rarely bother to find out more about their children’s emotional,

social, psychological and spiritual well - being.

Parental unpredictableness

While under the influence of alcohol, parents become unpredictable in

their behavior. They may behave with aggression which would be the
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opposite of what they will do when they are sober. On the other hand,

they may be more calmed down while under the influence of alcohol. As

a result, they set double standards through this type of behaviour and

confuse their children.

• Lack of discipline

In alcoholic families, there is often inadequate supervision and discipline.

When parents are under the influence of alcohol most of the time,

children tend to take advantage of the situation. They think that they may

do whatever they wish, because their parents don’t see them or do not

care about them. If only one parent is constantly under the influence and

the disciplining and supervising of the children is the responsibility of

only one parent, this can be a frustrating and exhausting exercise.

Therefore, it is most likely that children end up making wrong choices of

friends and becoming involved in criminal activities due to lack of proper

supervision and discipline.

• Tension mounting circumstances in family ties as a

result of financial pressure

A family system may undergo a phase of economic tension due to

unemployment, resulting in poverty. The researcher would like to agree

that when parents experience financial pressure, they may alienate their

parental responsibilities by resorting to substance abuse, alcohol in

particular, and finally develop a lack of cohesion within the family

structure including the spouses and children.

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The researcher would like to emphasize that alcoholism poses a serious

threat towards child-rearing within the family system. Levy & Rutter

(1992:57) support the latter statement by indicating that children

including newborns and infants, are very often abandoned by their

alcoholic parent(s). They further state that grandparents, especially

grandmothers, have to care for their grand children after their parents

abandoned them because of drug dependency. This can result in children

starving and families disintegrating because parents spend all their

money to support their addictions (Lewis et al. 1994:59).

2.3.1 Phases of the alcoholic family

Van Wormer in De Beer (2000:74) descibes different phases of the

alcoholic family. These phases are namely: denial, anger, bargaining,

depression and acceptance. They can be discussed as follows:

• Phase 1: Denial

This is an early stage of family alcoholism and it is characterised by

denial. This behaviour is often a reaction to indicate that the family

system experiences the alcoholism as a painful experience. In this case

drinking episodes are minimised, rationalised and any discussion about

alcoholism is avoided. Most often during this phase, family members

experience no great adjustment in their roles and expectations because of

the alcoholic’s drinking behaviour (Washousky et al. 1993:38).

Most alcoholic families do not accept that they have a problem. The

family members deny the reality of alcohol abuse in their family and the
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disturbed feelings coupled with such an abuse. In most instances the

reason for denial is that the drinker often couples his/her periods of

drinking and sobriety. As a result, it makes it difficult for the family to

acknowledge the parent/ spouse’s drinking habit as a problem.

Stafford (1994:26) states that the entire family system denies the

problem, possibly because family members do not want to admit that one

of them is an alcoholic or because they perceive alcoholism as a

reflection upon themselves.

• Phase 2: Anger

During this phase feelings start to surface. Anger is the most predominant

feeling that the alcoholic family can experience. Anger may be

experienced by both the alcoholic and the family members who have the

task of managing the alcoholic in the family system and is often

experienced by all family members. In other instances family members

will go as far as repressing their anger and others might even direct it

towards themselves and start to hate themselves, for not trying harder to

stop the alcohol problem.

• Phase 3: Bargaining

This phase can be characterized by efforts of negotiation with the

alcoholic for solutions to the drinking problem. Family members make

certain promises, threats and choices in order to control the alcoholic.

The family may seek for a professional intervention such as family

therapy. The therapist will ultimately facilitate the conversation during

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36
the bargaining stage, which will likely lead to the resolution of the

problem experienced.

• Phase 4: Depression

Alcoholism or alcohol dependency destroys marital relationships and any

other forms of family life. The alcoholic family completely loses all hope

and give up on everything it has as a family. While going through such a

process of change, the alcoholic family still needs to maintain its stability

at the end. Although there are symptoms of stress and depression within

such a family, change can only be allowed to that extent that the family

maintains its stability (Snider 1992:15). The family thus needs to find

another way to cope as a system without alcohol, which creates a

destructive coping mechanism and may lead to depression experienced

by either the alcohol abuser, the affected family members, or both.

• Phase 5: Acceptance

During this phase all the anger has passed. The alcoholic family is

starting to make peace with its situation and it is unable to control the

alcoholic’s drinking behaviour. Everyone in the family is prepared to

move on with their lives. Family members may adapt to new coping

mechanisms of seeing alcohol abuse as “system- maintaining” in the

sense that it provides the family with a way to sustain its customary

patterns of interaction. Again, family therapists may also facilitate the

process by encouraging members of the family to find other ways of

coping as a system without alcohol.

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2.3.2 Roles often played by children in alcoholic relationships

Children who grow up in alcoholic families are often pressurised to take

care of their parents, in-stead of the other way round. These children

grow up in stressful and painful circumstances and as a result, have too

many responsibilities of taking care of the household and also ensuring

their parent’s emotional stability. Eventually their behaviour is

channelled in such a way that they develop stereotypical roles and are

forced to maintain them. Clayton (1995:100-122) describes the different

roles often played by children in alcoholic relationships as follows:

• Turtle- Grand Inquisitor Relationships

Children from alcoholic families sometimes get wrapped up in a cocoon.

The author indicates that the alcoholic parent often behaves like a Grand

Inquisitor in this kind of relationships. These parent’(s) behaviour is

often recognised by witch-hunting and brings out the worst in their

children. Their communication patterns may be characterized by

elements of intimidation and as a result, this form of behaviour may push

children away from their parents. These parents would ask their children

double-bind questions, which imply that, whichever way they answer,

they would still be in the wrong or guilty. Children then like a turtle,

withdrawn out of fear and uncertainty and become too scared to say

anything. This is also a way to protect themselves. Unfortunately, in most

instances people may mistaken their silence as an admission of guilt.

They are never trusted by anyone, and they may end up not trusting

anyone too. In this relationship, children always think that they have
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done something wrong to their parents and once that happens, the

family’s stability is threatened.

• Parentified Child- Incompetent Parent Relationships

The author describes the parentified child as one who behaves more like

a parent than a child. This may be due to the fact that either or both

parents behave incompetently. As a result of this, the child is forced to

take on parental responsibilities. In some family systems children often

have to play this role because of other forms of family dysfunctions,

such as parental disability through an accident or a chronic illness.

Whenever a parent is unable or unwilling to be a parent in the fullest

sense, his/her child often need to take on the parental role as a way to

make sure that the family system can be maintained.

In alcoholic families, the difference is that the parent is present but

ironically also absent. The absence experienced by these children, is

either emotional or physical neglect or both. The author also states that

the parentified role is permanent, unless the alcoholic parent receives

treatment and resumes his/her parental role. Children often try to hide

their parent’s addiction by taking on these roles without complaining.

Despite all this, they may live under stressful conditions and may even

carry these patterns over to their own adult lives. If they do not receive

professional help to assist them to create other perceptions of family life,

specifically about parental roles and responsibilities.

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• Warrior- Peacemaker Relationships

This is a stressful and complicated relationship. The peacemaker is

constantly trying harder to protect the warrior from other family

members, while the warrior is secretly trying to protect the peacemaker

from the alcoholic. The warrior always picks fights as a way to distract

the alcoholic from his behaviour. This often happens when the alcoholic

starts to behave in an irresponsible manner. In such instances the warrior

would react as a way to withdraw attention from the alcoholic and

everyone would focus their attention towards him/her. In such

relationships, no one ever understands what is going on. Things are

always hectic and confusing for everyone.

The warrior’s behaviour might imply that there is an even deeper

problem than what is being perceived. The focus might be given towards

his/ her aggressive behaviour whereas subconsciously what is really

troubling him/her, might be his parents/ significant other’s alcoholic

behaviour.

• Hero- Rebel Relationships

Children who act like heroes always want to protect their family system.

They are great achievers and always want to be the best in order to carry

the stress off the family (Stafford 1994:77). They do well in all the

activities they are involved in. These children achieve high grades at

school, performing well in sport or other extra-mural activities. However,

they may try to forget about their family problems and rather focus on
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their achievements. This can be just a way to disguise the alcoholic

pattern in the family system.

On the contrary, rebels are children who take the stress off the family by

doing something terrible or something wrong. Rebels draw the attention

away from the family’s primary problem of alcohol dependency through

delinquency or other misbehaviour. They may be involved in all sorts of

trouble such as being naughty at school, shoplifting, stealing from other

people, abusing substances or even being sent to prison. Such behaviour

is often a child’s way of making an unconscious plea for help. While

worrying about the rebel, the family’s alcohol problem is temporarily

forgotten.

Through their behaviour, heroes and rebels appear to be different but

they are much alike especially concerning the roles they are playing

within alcoholic relationships. In some families, children may even

switch back and forth to the roles of a rebel and a hero throughout their

lives. Again, children sometimes try in a subconscious manner to protect

the family. That confirms to the researcher the lengths to which children

will go to protect their families to ensure that their families do not

disintegrate.

• Clown- Serious One Relationships

A clown in an alcoholic family always neutralizes the situation. In a

relationship full of tension and pain, a clown can help alleviate the

tension and also help the non- alcoholic parent to loosen up and, on the

other hand, cover up for the alcoholic parent. Through this behaviour,
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41
the child performing the role of a clown and distracts all the attention

from the alcoholic family. Such children often hide behind masks, which

they have to use to cope with the situation. They sometimes make fun out

of their family miseries in order to relieve the pain and hurt they might

experience because of the alcoholic problem.

• Computer- Hysteric Relationships

In these kinds of relationships, family members often complement one

another. They meet each otrhers needs in a reciprocal manner. Computers

react on the basis of thinking or using their minds rather than feelings. In

the case of the members of an alcoholic family, they don’t like to feel

because they know that some of their feelings are painful and they don’t

want to be hurt. In most cases they were taught from the early stages of

their development that they don’t have feelings and that it is acceptable

to hide their feelings. In an alcoholic family, the children may channel

themselves as computers and analyse their parents’ drinking behaviour.

At the same time they will come up with possible ways of covering up

for their parents’ mistakes.

Hysterics respond on the basis of feelings. They don’t think, but rather

express their explosive emotions. Thinking only gets them into trouble or

they may have been criticized for their thinking abilities. The pattern of

alcohol abuse by parents may lead children to respond in a hysterical

manner. They may not have time to think because of the damage they

experienced in living with alcoholic parents. These children may be

locked into one role of controlling the damage done by their parents.
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42
These roles are learned within family systems and unfortunately, they can

be carried over into the adult world.

• Psychosomatic- Rigid One Relationships

Through this form of family relationships in an alcoholic family system,

much damage can be done to the child’s life. Family members apply

excessive and rigid methods and solutions to problems. When one

solution is not working, emotions escalate and the same solutions are

tried over and over again. Consequently there is frustration and more

stress, which often leads to acute depression. In this kind of relationships,

there is often one member who will respond through psychosomatic

symptomatic behaviour. This becomes a way in which a person deals

with his/ her own stress of living with a rigid person. Family members

experiencing psychosomatic symptoms, may suffer from ulcers,

headaches, backaches, asthma, stomach- aches, anorexia, insomnia or

hypertension. Psychosomatic disorders can be so stressful that they can

be fatal amongst young people.

In an alcoholic family, the addicted parent often takes on the role of the

psychosomatic as alcohol may end up causing him/ her physiological

illnesses such as shakings, fever, muscle pain, convulsions, stomach-

aches, fatigue/tiredness and diarrhoea. The affected family members

including children, on the other hand, may try to adapt to the situation by

applying rigid methods or solutions for dealing and coping with the

situation.
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• Mascot- Lost Child Relationships

Certain children respond in such a way that they distract attention from

the alcoholic and the pain experienced within the family system. Often

mascots are talented and act creatively. In the process of acting out their

talents they have a primary goal of saving their families from the trauma

rather than self-fulfilment (Stafford 1994:77). On the other hand there is

the lost child who cannot find a way of competing with the mascot.

These children deal with the pain of their families by withdrawing from

everyone and everything within and outside their families. They do not

identify with anyone since they are the ones with severe problems within

their families.

The mascot in an alcohol family acts out the family’s troubles in a

humorous manner. This may be with the aim of diffusing tension within

the family system and the mascot child may always be trying to suppress

his/ her troubled emotions about the family problems by being funny.

These children may sometimes make fun of their family situations, even

to their friends. The lost child on the other hand, will fade into the

background and avoid conflict as far as possible. Often the lost child

experiences more damage because he/she is always in a state of

withdrawal and preoccupied with private thoughts (Stafford 1994:77).

• Switchboard- Clam Relationships

When the family experiences too much tension, the switchboard pattern

is commonly applied. The switchboard is often a child through whom the

communication will be channeled. The clam at the other hand would be

 University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)
44
the child who responds to the stress experienced by linking the rest of the

family to the stressful issue. The two people in these roles never refer to

feelings. The problem experienced in this relationship is that there is a

circle of communication, which involves someone who is not directly

affected by the problem. Eventually the switchboard and the clam

relationship never solve problems.

In addition to the abovementioned roles, the researcher would like to

indicate that children, who grow up in a home where one or both parents

are addicted to alcohol or other illegal drugs, often think they are the only

ones in such circumstances. Most of these children have never had the

opportunity to speak to someone who might rescue them from the pain

they experience. However, the researcher would also like to emphasize

that there are many ways that these children could be assisted to express

their pain and hurt. Rocha-Silva et al. (1996:1) refer to the following

poem as an indication of how these children can express their thoughts

and feelings regarding the way alcohol destroys their households:

University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)
45

Notoriety of liquor

I am the most powerful

chemical mixture of liquids

I have the potential power of

dividing many families into individuals

I am liquor, I am Joala

You started drinking me when

you said you want to forget your problems

You started drinking me occasionally

and now you are drinking me professionally

Watch out! You will end up

drinking me internationally

I am liquor, the water of mentality

I will make you brave

When you are a coward

I will make you talkative if you are shy

I will land you in danger

Gone are the days when young girls

used to cook like their mothers

but nowadays they drink like their fathers

I am existing everywhere

even in churches they drink me

in the name of Holy-communion

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46
I will make you tremble

When you are moving along the street

I will make you shiver when you are standing

I am liquor, I am Joala…

By a 14 year-old youth
 University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)
47

2.5 Conclusion

In this chapter the effects of alcoholism in the family on young offenders,

is discussed. It focuses on how parent’s addiction of alcohol affects

children’s lives and how it can result into delinquent behaviours. The

researcher defines further the concept of alcoholism from the social

perspective and how it affects families. The alcoholic family go first

certain phases before getting to the phase of dependency.

During the dependency phase children are often forced to take over the

responsibilities and tasks of their parents in order to keep the family

system intact. The researcher also focuses on the different roles, which

children of alcoholic parents adopt as part of the process to maintain the

family system.
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48

Chapter 3

Juvenile Delinquency

3.1 Introduction

Understanding criminal behaviour among young people is currently one

of the burning issues in South Africa. Such behaviour among children

resembles a complex phenomena since it encompasses many issues.

Psychological, physical, social and genetic factors could contribute

towards young children becoming involved in criminal activities.

During the development process, young people often experience inner

conflict, self-doubt, exploration and even fear of the unknown. They also

get easily excited, develop physical and mental capabilities, test societal

norms and values, become exposed to strong peer influences, desire

status and even search for a place in the larger society, beyond the family

unit. Apart from their development process, these young people can often

be drawn into delinquent activities that may be defined as inappropriate,

extreme, shocking or completely unacceptable by their parents or society

at large.

While involved in such malicious mischief, young people might end up

being caught into a situation where there might not be an escape from the
 University of Pretoria etd – Tlhoaele, O O (2003)
49
law. They may discover that their lives are deeply affected and end up

appearing before the juvenile justice system. They may be subjected to

treatment, rehabilitation, punishment, or whatever corrective measures

judged appropriate for them.

The above are issues that may contribute towards these young people

becoming involved in criminal activities and ending up being in custody

of the legal system. Such issues may vary from being minor, moderate to

severe ones and may include experimenting, peer-group pressure and

alcoholism by either or both parents.

In this chapter the focus is mainly on the social definition of juvenile

delinquency rather than the legal explanation and the factors that

contribute to juvenile delinquency which includes alcoholism as

phenomenon.

3.2 Definition of juvenile delinquency

Considering the rough treatment handed out to children who misbehaved

at home or at school, it should come as no surprise that children that who

actually broke the law and committed serious criminal acts were dealt

with harshly. Proir to the twentieth century, little distinction was made

between adults and juvenile offenders. Although judges considered the

age of an offender when deciding on punishment, both adults and

children were eligible for the same forms of punishment-prison, corporal

punishment and even the death penalty in some countries. In fact,

children were treated with extreme crualty at home, at school and by the

law.
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Over the years this treatment changed as the society became sensitive to

the special needs of children. Beginning in the mid nineteenth century as

immigrant youths poured into the United States, there was official

recognition that children formed a separate group with their own special

needs. These groups were known as child savers and were formed to

assist children in need. The concept that children could be treated

differently before the law can actually be traced to its roots in the British

legal tradition. Early British jurisprudence held that children under the

age of seven were legally incapable of committing crimes. Children

between the age of seven and fourteen were responsible for their actions,

but their age might be used to excuse or lighten their punishment. Since

1995 the legal system in South Africa recognised that many young

people are incapable of making mature judgements and that resposibility

for their acts should be limited. For example children can intentionally

steel cars and know fully well that the act is illegal, but they may be

incapable of fully understanding the consequences of their behaviour and

the harm it may cause. Therefore, the law thus not punish a youth as it

would an adult and rather sees youthful misconduct as evidence of

unreasoned or impaired judgement.

Senna (2000:20) defines a juvenile delinquent as a minor child who has

been found to have violated the penal code. Because of their minority

status, juveniles are usually kept separate from adults and receive

different consideration and treatment under the law. The author further

stresses the fact that terminology is also different when one refers to the

wrong doings of juveniles. He explains it as follows:

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Adults are tried in court: children are adjudicated. Adults

can be punished; children are treated. If treatment is

mandated, children can be sent to secure detention

facilities, but they cannot normally be committed to adult

prisons.

Regoli & Hewitt (1997:32) define juvenile delinqency as a behaviour

committed by a minor child, under the age of eighteen (18) years that

violates the state’s penal code. Those who socially define juvenile

delinquency, consider such behaviour as a violation of norms and values

(standards of proper behaviour) set by the controlling group, or those in

authority. Juvenile delinquency involves a child who has committed

many offences of a serious nature over an extended period of time. The

social perspective holds the fact that juveniles are considered delinquents

if they adopt modes of hairstyles, dress codes or actions that oppose the

standards set by those in authority (Regoli & Hewitt 1997:7). Juvenile

delinquency is also seen as any action by someone designated as a

juvenile (a person under the age of 18 years) who is a non-adult that

would make such a young person subject to action by the juvenile court.

According to the researcher, despite the definition of juvenile

delinquency, not all young people committing criminal or inappropriate

activities, are reported to the legal authorities and as a result, subjected to

a legal juvenile court action. The researcher would like to emphasise the

fact that in the South African context, actions such as truancy, running

away from home, having fist fights, tresspassing, having a sexual

relationship with a person of the opposite or same sex or calling the

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emergency number under false circumstances, are regarded as

inappropriate. However, if all children were to be placed before the

juvenile courts and found guilty of taking part in such activities, then

nearly every child would be regarded as a juvenile delinquent because

most children have once, if not often, took part in such activities during

their developmental processes.

Young people are not supposed to be regarded as juvenile delinquents

unless they have been through a trial and been found guilty by the

juvenile court. There are different views in the world as to when a young

person is to be considered a juvenile delinquent. The age of eighteen (18)

years does not confirm that a person is a juvenile in all countries. The

International proposed standard sets the minimum age limit at ten (10)

years and the maximum age limit at eighteen (18) years for juveniles. In

South Africa, the upper age limit in which a young person is to be

brought before the attention of the juvenile court, is eighteen (18) years.

Other countries use sixteen (16) and seventeen (17) years as the age limit

(Kratcoski & Kratcoski 1990:3).

3.3 Incidence of Juvenile Delinquency

According to statistics in South Africa, it appears that one (1) out of three

(3) young people are committing serious offences like rape, arm robbery,

murder, housebraking and assualt (Rocha-Silva 1998:53). When the court

found them guilty, they have to serve a spcified term in the juvenile

facilities in South Africa. These facilities are available in all nine (9)
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53
provinces. The incidence of juvenile delinquency is a serious concern in

South Africa as it rises daily at an alarming rate.

Senna (2000:44) indicates that crime rates can be influenced by a variety

of social and economic conditions. The following factors are playing a

major role in determining patterns and trends of crime:

• Age

Change in the age distribution of the population deeply influences

crime and delinquency rates. Juvenile males commit more crime

than any other population segment, so as a general rule, the crime

rate follows the proportion of young males in the population.

• Economy

A poor economy contributes to higher crime rates. Youth from

poor families leave their homes to look for opportunities to provide

for their own basic needs. Because of their inadequecy, they end up

committing crimes.

• Drugs

Drug use has been linked to fluctuations in the crime and

delinquency rates. Drug abusers are particularly crime prone, so as

drug use level increases, so too do crime rates. Drug abuse may

also have a more direct influence on teen crime patterns, for

example, when alcohol abusing kids engage in acts of senseless

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54
violence. Users may turn to theft and violence for money to

purchase drugs and to support their drug habits.

• Other social problems

As the level of social problems increases so too do crime rates.

Increases in the number of single-parent families, dropout rates

and teen pregnancies may also influence crime rates. Children

living in single-parent homes are as twice as likely to be in

poverished as those in two-parent homes. Such children are

especially at risk to juvenile delinquency, foretelling an increasing

crime rate.

3.4 Factors contributing towards juvenile delinquency

Researchers have been faced with the challenge of unfolding the real

factors, which contribute towards juvenile delinquency. According to the

researcher it is important to understand these factors before one can do a

complete study of this subject. Emphasis must also be placed on the fact

that it is difficult to verify that a particular characteristic or factor will

always lead to juvenile delinquency. The uniqueness of the juvenile as

well as the context in which the crime took place, should be emphasised

in order to understand the factors that contribute towards juvenile

delinquency.

Furthermore, the researcher would like to indicate that not all children

who grow up in alcoholic or poor homes, become delinquents. If the

factors that lead to juvenile delinquency could be identified with a high

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55
degree of accuracy, the prevention and treatment of such behaviour of

young people would be possible. Sonnekus (1994:46) identifies two main

categories of these factors, namely personal and social-milieu factors.

Both these categories may also be regarded as risk or trigger factors,

which may contribute to juvenile delinquency. These two main

categories will now be discussed:

3.4.1 Personal-milieu factors

Person-directed factors involve determinants in the nature and

functioning of the criminal, which motivate his/her behaviour (Van der

Hoven in Sonnekus 1994:46). Personal factors include the entire

personality of the juvenile. The author, however, agrees that there must

be an equilibrium between the study of the so-called ‘normal’ and

‘abnormal’ personalities since both of them could be regarded as

extremes of the same continuum. The developmental phases of juveniles

may also contribute towards juvenile delinquency. During this process,

juveniles undergo some serious changes, which have an enormous impact

on their personalities (Sonnekus 1994:47). The researcher would like to

indicate that early experiences within the family will definitely contribute

to the development of deviant behaviour patterns and antisocial

personality traits. Karoly et al. (1998:3) indicate that the period of early

childhood is highly important considering a child’s unique- physical,

emotional, mental and social development. It is a period where a child is

exposed to both the opportunities and vulnerabilities within the social

context. For example, children with a reduced level of parental

stimulation or emotional support may also experience socio-emotional

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problems in childhood that are associated with behaviour problems later

in life. Further research on the juvenile delinquent’s personality should

be undertaken to create personally oriented etiology for juvenile

delinquency (Sonnekus 1994:47).

3.4.2 Social- milieu factors

In order to understand the possibility of social-milieu factors contributing

towards the development of juvenile delinquency, the entire personal

world of the juvenile must be explored. That means that certain systems

such as the family and the school, which are generally supposed to be

associated with the prevention of crime should be seen as factors, which

may possibly contribute to juvenile delinquency. According to the

researcher, elements such as child neglect and abuse within families and

the association with wrong school friends, may be seen as having some

form of influence towards juvenile delinquency.

Holman (1995:44) agrees that children from large families are some-

what more subject to delinquency. Again, parents with many children

should not be alarmed since it does not necessarily imply that all children

from such families become criminals. According to Holman (1995:44)

these children are at risk since parents with five, six or more children do

find it more difficult to give their children enough attention and at the

same time, are unable to control them. This author strongly emphasizes

that, not only parenting style or parenting ability are important factors in

moulding the life of a child, but also the family structure.

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Kratcoski & Kratcoski (1990:116) indicate that a disrupted family

structure may also lead towards juvenile delinquency. A family can be

disrupted through the loss of a parent through death, desertion, separation

or divorce, which can add to the vulnerability of the children and can also

lead to delinquency. Children may also be faced with the problem of

living in poverty due to a low income or a lack of family income and as a

result of this, suffer malnutrition or health problems, which might limit

their developmental process (Karoly et al. 1998:3).

In general, children of the same age are subjected to pressure among each

other, which may lead towards their involvement in criminal activities.

Because of the pressure they might be experiencing, these children could

commit crimes such as theft, robbery, assault, illegal drugs use, truancy

and vandalism (Holman 1995:45). Most of the peer groups among

juveniles, approve aggressive behaviour as acceptable as a way to protect

themselves. Very often these children did not experience emotional

security in their family homes, and learn to use aggressive behaviour as a

way to protect themselves (Rose 1998:434).

The media have always been accused of fostering delinquency.

Televisions, newspapers or movies at cinemas are all elements of media

from which young people can imitate negative role models. Holman

(1995:45) states that television is a more influential form of media than

newspapers simply because it reaches almost every home. The author

stresses the fact that television definitely has an influence on behaviour

of children although it does not influence all children in the same way.

Violent programmes have the most negative effect on children who

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already have aggressive predispositions. In some cases children may

already have violent tendencies and being exposed to forms of media

such as television, may reinforce their hostile tendencies to copy criminal

methods (Holman 1995:45).

Rose (1998:434) indicates that there are a variety of factors, which

contribute to the increase of youth aggression. These include the increase

in poverty, violence on television and movies that serve to model the

unwanted behaviour and also the breakdown of the family structure.

However, media are seen by many researchers to be the most

contributing factor towards aggression, antisocial behaviour and

disorderly conduct among juveniles in our society.

Horwath (2001:54) refers to a systems framework, which examines the

mutual influence that the child, family, friends, neighbours, community

and wider society have upon one another. It is a holistic model, which

focuses on the ways in which children’s developmental needs, the

capacity of their parents to respond appropriately to those needs and

wider environmental factors interact with one another over time.

Bronfenbrenner in Horwath (1998:55) mentions the following:

Whether parents can perform effectively in child-rearing roles

within the family depends on the role demands, stresses and

supports emanating from other settings. Parent’s evaluations of

their own capacity to function, as well as their view of the child

are related to such external factors as flexibility of job

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schedules, adequacy of child care arrangements, the presence of

friends or neighbours who can help out in large or small

emergencies, the quality of health and social services and

neighbourhood safety.

The following diagram represents such a framework.

Figure 1: Meso-, exo- and macro-system

Society

Home

School Neighbour-
hood

Meso-System

Exo-System

Macro-System

The family environment into which a child is born may exert the most

powerful and long-lasting influence over the child’s development and

future life chances. The nature of family circumstances in which the

children are being brought up, may consequently influence them either
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60
positively or negatively, depending on what they went through during

their developmental process (Howarth 1998:56). In an alcoholic family,

parents may expose their children to their drinking patterns and as a

result, these children may copy this behaviour in their adult world and

become alcoholics themselves. On the other hand, these children may

receive professional assistance, as a way to learn from their parent’s

mistakes and become more stable people.

Siegel (2002:159) states that a number of studies indicate that children

who have experienced family breakup are more likely to demonstrate

behaviour problems and hyperactivity than children in intact families.

Family breakup is often associated with conflict, hostility and aggression.

Children of divorce are suspected of having inadequate supervision,

weakened attachment and greater susceptibility to peer pressure. The

following diagram intergrate the four factors linked to antisocial

behaviour and delinquency, which Siegel (2002:159) describes.

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Figure 2 : Four factors linked to antisocial behaviour and

delinquency

Family
Family Conflict
Break-up

Delinquency

Family Family
Neglect Deviance

Delinquency and family relationships offer ample evidence that family

life can be a potent force on a child’s development. The delinquent child

is likely to grow up in a large family with parents who may be dependent

on alcohol, participate in criminal activities, be harsh and inconsistent

disciplinarians, be cold and unaffectionate, have marital conflicts and be

poor role models. However, the quality of a child’s family life seems to

be more important than its structure. Once there is a strong link of

interaction between the above-mentioned factors then delinquent

activities may escalate (Siegel 2002:165).

Siegel (2002:32) indicates that there are more factors which can be

associated with the prevelance of juvenile delinquency and that it would

be a fruitless effort to concentrate on delinquency control efforts without

looking into these factors. He descibes it as follows:

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• Gender and delinquency

The relationship between gender and delinquency is apparent and

according to Siegel (2002:32) it is indicated that official arrest statistics,

victim data and self-reports indicate that males are significantly more

criminal that females. Furthermore, he indicates that girls are more likely

to be arrested as runaways than boys.

• Racial patterns in delinquency

Siegel (2002:33) indicates that African American youths are arrested for

a disproportionate number of murders, rapes, robberies and assaults,

while white youths are arrested for a disproportionate share of arsons and

alcohol- related violations. Furthermore, the author indicates that the

racial gap in the juvenile arrest rate has widened during the past decade.

African American youths have experienced a steady increase in their

arrest rates, whereas rates for other groups have remained stable.

According to the researcher, it appears that the above findings indicates

that there is a high rate of criminal involvement among African American

juveniles than among whites. This could be due to various factors which

could include poverty, the family structure, the different modes of

socialization during the up-bringing of these youths and racism.

Furthermore, research has also revealed that the disproportionate number

of African American official delinquency is a result of bias. An example

is cited where there has been an indication that juvenile suspects who

belong to ethnic minorities who are male and poor, are more likely to be

formally arrested than suspects who are white, female and affluent. As a
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63
result, such bias would make reported statistics to be no correct (Siegel

2002:35).

If one takes the political situation in South Africa into account, then it

could also be the situation that racism in the past could also contribute to

juvenile delinquency. In some cases it can still be a factor.

• Social class and delinquency

Siegel (2002:36) believes that antisocial behaviour occurs at all levels of

the social strata. On the other hand, he indicates that some experts argue

that some middle- and upper class youths engage in some forms of minor

illegal activities and theft offenses. It is members of the underclass who

are responsible for the majority of serious delinquent acts. The author

also stresses that there is a prevailing wisdom that children who engage

in the most serious forms of delinquency (for example, gang violence),

are more likely to be members of the lower class.

• Age and delinquency

Siegel (2002:37) states that youths who get involved with delinquency at

a very early age are most likely to become career criminals. Age is

regarded as the key determinant of delinquency. The latter aspect is

argued by the author by indicating that crime decline with age and to

prove that, he mentions the following reasons for the ageing-out process:

• G

rowing older means having to face the future. Young people,

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especially the indigent and antisocial, tend to “discount the future.”

They think to themselves that why should they delay gratification

when faced with an uncertain future.

• With maturity comes the ability to resist the “quick fix” to their

problems. Research has revealed that some children may turn to

crime as a way to solve their problems of adolescence, loneliness,

frustration and fear of peer rejection. As they mature, conventional

means of problem solving become available. Life experience helps

former delinquents seek out nondestructive solutions to their

personal problems.

• Maturation coincides with increased levels of responsibility. Petty

crimes are a risky and exciting social activity that provides

adventure in an otherwise boring world. As youths grow older, they

take on new responsibilities that are inconsistent with criminality.

For example, young people who marry, enlist in the armed services

or enroll in vocational training courses are less likely to persue

criminal activities.

• Personalities can change with age. As youths mature, rebellious

youngsters may develop increased self-control and be able to resist

antisocial behaviour.

• Young adults become more aware of the risks that accompany

crime. As adults, they are no longer protected by the kindly arms of

the juvenile justice system.

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Research revealed that not all the juvenile criminals desist as they age,

some go on to become chronic adult offenders. Yet, even they slow down

as they age. Crime is too dangerous, physically taxing and unrewarding

and that punishments are too harsh and long-lasting to become a way of

life for most people.

3.5 Juvenile delinquency and alcoholism in the family system

The family represents the primary agent for the socialization of children

and is the first social-group which a child experiences as well as the

group with which most children have their most enduring relationships.

According to Bartollas (1993:262) the family provides a context in which

the child can identify with social roles, moral standards and society’s

laws. It is also a system in which children can be disciplined if they fail

to comply with such norms and values. Holman (1995:23) states the

following about it:

The family is the major means of the socialization of children,

that is, where they can be taught ideas of right and wrong, where

they can learn the limits of tolerated behaviour, where they can

acquire the skills, knowledge and attitudes to live as adults. Not

least, it is within the family that children can gain an identity for

themselves, can perceive themselves as good or bad, liked or not

liked.
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The researcher would like to indicate that on the contrary of providing

for these children, the family could also neglect the children’s emotional,

physical, spiritual, intellectual and social needs. The neglect of such basic

needs can have a profound effect upon the shaping up of a child’s values,

attitude and identity.

In the context of South Africa, the family system has been going through

some dramatic changes. Most parents are forced to leave their children at

an early stage of their development process because of the lack of job

opportunities in their immediate scenarios. This often results in an

unhealthy parent-child relationship. The researcher would like to

emphasize that there are also other serious social problems, which can

affect the quality of family life, especially where children are concerned.

Such social problems may include the following:

• Divorce

Most families are affected by the increasing divorce rate worldwide.

Once the rate of divorce increases, it means that the phenomenon of

single-parent families increases. According to statistics, one in four

children in the world, lives with only one parent, typically the child’s

mother (Bartollas 1993:262). The researcher argues that, once the

divorced parents remarry, it would mean that children in these families

would have to adjust to new parental figures.

• Family violence
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Marital violence is often prominent in some family systems. Different

forms of domestic violence are often experienced in such families, such

as physical assault, emotional abuse and neglect. Padayacchee (1994:50)

indicates that the dysfunctional pattern of violent family systems impairs

the ability of parents to meet the developmental and emotional needs of

their children. Children growing up from such family systems are greatly

affected by witnessing domestic violence and may end up imitating the

same violent behaviours they are exposed to. They may also end up

getting involved in violent activities themselves and creating vulnerable

living circumstances.

• Substance abuse

Children from families where parent(s) or significant others abuse

substances such as alcohol or other illicit drugs, are often exposed to

some form of abuse. They also may experience neglect and economic

hardships and their children may also be exposed to violent situations,

which can hurt their feelings and destroy their self-esteems.

• Blended- families

When divorced parents remarry, the initial definition of a family takes a

different form due to the new pattern consisting of the natural parent, the

step- parent and children. More tension can be created in the family

system when both the parents have custody of their own children and all

the children live in the same home. Bartollas ( 1993:263) mention that

the scenario can at times even become more drastic and chaotic when the

parents have children born out of their marriage. My children, your

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children and our children can create such problems in a family system,

that it can contribute to emotional stress and later unhealthy family

patterns.

• Homelessness

Regardless of age, homelessness exposes children to settings with high

prevalence of abuse and crime. Although they might still have some

family ties, they may have escaped the intolerable family life due to

various kinds of abuse such as rejection by a new step-parent, violence,

crime, drugs or prostitution as a consolation and as a way to survive

(Hundeide 1991:31).

• Unemployment

Unemployment often leads to poverty and has detrimental effects on the

family system. Once parents find it hard to fend for their families,

children may be faced with the challenge of going out in the streets and

making plans to support their poverty-stricken families. These children

may be exploited and forced to work under intolerable conditions in

order to make a living.

Children growing up in families experiencing any of the above-

mentioned social problems may develop a lot of resentment, rejection

and confusion towards their circumstances, or they may even carry the

same socialization style into their own families. The children of families

with step-parent relationship and the abuse of substances such as alcohol

or illegal drugs, may be subjected to emotional, physical, or sexual abuse.

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As a result of this, children especially boys, may resort to criminal

activities as a way to supplement their broken family lives. Bartollas

(1993:266) identifies the following factors as contributing towards

juvenile delinquency:

• Broken homes

Different factors constitute towards the broken home phenomenon. These

factors include divorce, death of a parent and the abuse of substances by

either or both parents. When the family’s stability is threatened, such as

through threats of separation by the parents or some other marital crisis

or family related problems that effect the children, these children can

behave in such a way, that the focus is upon themselves and not on the

family, which can disintegrate.

• Family size and the child’s birth order in the family

The family size also contributes to the fact that parents will be in the

position to give their children the necessary attention they may need from

them. Older siblings may be expected to care for the younger ones, but

this may be a problem since they may not be equipped to execute such

tasks. Bartollas (1993:267) indicates that delinquent behaviour is more

likely to be exhibited by middle children rather than the first or the last

child. According to this view, the first child, receives the undivided

attention and affection of both parents. The last child benefits from

parents’ experiences in raising children before as well as from the

presence of other older siblings, who serve as role models.

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• Delinquent siblings or criminal parents (genetic patterns or

role-models)

Since families are the primary source of socialization, children learn and

identify with the norms and values practiced within their family systems.

Bartollas (1993:268) supports the latter statement by indicating that

siblings learn delinquency from others in their families. He further states

that research revealed that the sons of fathers who had serious criminal

records, were likely to be raised in poor families and experienced bad

child rearing, which increased their risk of an early first conviction.

Brezina (1998:71) agrees that research that examines the psycho-social

effects of child abuse and neglect, have observed a connection between

child abuse or maltreatment and subsequent delinquency including

violence, theft, property destruction and drug use (Messman-Moore &

Long, 2000:496). Rocha-Silva (1996:27) makes use of the following case

study to emphasize how family alcoholism may lead children to the

streets and ultimately into criminal activities.

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Case- study

Tsepo, a 14 year-old male youth, was admitted to the Streetwise Soweto

shelter in Dube on 16/10/1992, after having run- away from home to the

streets of Hillbrow on 4/6/1992. In August 1992 he started visiting the

Streetwise Johannesburg shelter in Hillbrow and was transferred to the

Soweto shelter in October 1992.

Background information

Tsepo, the fourth child of a family of six children, five boys and one girl,

was the youngest. Both biological parents were alive and living with the

children. Tsepo and his five siblings lived under extremely poor

conditions. Both parents were unemployed and his eldest brother was in

prison at the time, having been arrested for theft, probably committed to

assist the family. There was indiscriminate abuse of alcohol in the family.

Both parents and two elder brothers abused alcohol. The house was filthy

with sparse old furniture and the entire family of eight lived in a two-

roomed house. Tsepo had a fairly good relationship with his mother and

siblings, but resented his father for not supporting them and for spending

most of his time drinking. As four of the boys were school drop- outs,

only the youngest girl was still at school, battling with minimum school

facilities. Tsepo dropped out of school in 1992, when he was 12 years old

and in grade 2.

Family problem and drinking history

Tsepo stated that he dropped out of school and took to the streets of the
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suburb because his home conditions were so bad. Most of the time his

family were without food or warm clothes. Nights in winter were a

nightmare: there were not enough blankets and no coal to keep a fire

going. The father coming back in the middle of the night, drunk and

abusive, was the last straw for him. At school Tsepo was the laughing

stock, had no uniform or clean clothes, and sometimes he had to steal

other children’s books to have something to write on. Nobody seemed to

care, neither his parents nor the teachers. Some of the teachers ridiculed

him for not having clean clothes, books and a uniform. None of them, he

stated, paid a house visit to see the conditions under which he lived.

Ultimately when everything seemed hopeless in June 1992, he took to

the streets. There he started to sniff glue because, according to him, it

made him feel okay. He stated that he forgot his family with all their

suffering, forgot his hunger and cold; he also stated that he hated the

taste and smell of the glue. He had to beg or wash taxis for money to

buy the glue, which he had to have, especially on days when there was

no food in dustbins and the people were not generous.

Tsepo stated further that what hurt him most out there in the streets were

the hurtful abusive attitudes of the community, who despised street

children for being in the streets, instead of trying to understand their

suffering.

This case study is an indication of how family circumstances may lead

young people to the streets. The researcher agrees with the fact that

Tsepo took off to the streets in order to run away from the life of abuse
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and neglect. Furthermore, his parents and his sibling’s abuse of alcohol

could be one of the contributing factors to the harsh conditions he lived

in. Family violence resulting from Tsepo’s alcoholic father may have

also played a serious role into supporting him to live on the streets.

Unemployment of both his parents and poverty on the other hand,

contributed to Tsepo’s predicament.

If children like Tsepo are not fortunate enough to receive early

interventions, they may as well find themselves in compromising

circumstances of having to choose between a promising future and life

behind bars. These children often suffer neglect and deprivation of

human contact and stimulation- very often combined with malnutrition.

The researcher would like to agree that most of these children are being

ignored by society and often get involved in criminal activities, which

ultimately put them in trouble with the law. The case study indicates

further that although some children might still have some family ties, the

family system had become so intolerable for them due to various kinds of

abuse like rejection by their biological or stepparents, that they had to run

away. These children see the street as their homes and they seek shelter

and a sense of belonging among other street children. In other instances

these children are left entirely alone and many of them become

psychologically disturbed in the end.

As a result of losing hope they take part in violent activities, crime, abuse

drugs or get involved in prostitution as a consolation and as a way of

survival (Hundeide 1991:30). The researcher would like to state that

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these children might also end up adopting the alcohol patterns of their

parents as a survival mechanism and as a way of coping. They may even

adopt the same behaviour in their own adult world.

On the other hand, it is not necessarily implied that due to the parent’s

alcohol abuse, children will necessarily abuse alcohol themselves.

Through the necessary therapeutic interventions, these children can be

assisted in overcoming their emotional tauma and exposure. In that

manner, the dysfunctional behavioural patterns will be changed in such a

way that they would not reappear within the family system again.

In a National survey conducted in 1996 by Rocha-Silva & Stahmer,

prisoners in the South African prisons aged between 10-21 years old

indicated the following reasons for drinking alcohol:

• Experimenting with alcohol

Young people don’t start drinking alcohol with the aim of getting

addicted to it. The initial plan is often to imitate from either their parents/

significant others or their peers and find out how they will respond from

the effect alcohol will have on them. The main reason for experimenting

with alcohol is solely out of curiosity. If one or both parents use or abuse

alcohol regulary in the family system, the children in such families will

be even more motivated to experiment with alcohol.

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• Peer- group pressure

The researcher is of the view that children are prone to peer group

pressure especially when friends are more influential than parents.

Holman (1995:204) indicates that the influence of friends can be positive

or negative in circumstances where young people are faced with

delinquent activities such as experimenting with alcohol, or, on the

contrary, draw them into delinquency. The same author indicates further

that children will more easily become friends with peers who are abusing

alcohol when the latter are not unfamiliar to them. In other words as

other family members ore caretakers also use or abuse alcohol.

• A way of having fun

Often young people associate fun and entertainment with the presence of

alcohol. A party where alcohol is not served may not be regarded as fun

or enjoyable. Very often they identified with this pattern in their own

family system. In some instances, these young people may only

experiment with alcohol in such an environment and not necessarily

drink it afterwards (Rocha- Silva 1998:62).

• Unemployment leading towards poverty from their homes

Holman (1995:60) indicates that the unemployed tend to be poor and that

the combination of poverty and unemployment is associated with stress

and may lead people into abusing alcohol, which may result into

involvement in criminal activities in order to feed the habit.

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• Their parent(s) had a drinking problem or are dependent

on other forms of drugs

Parents are regarded as role models for their children. The manner in

which they behave, is much more crucial for the development of these

children (Rocha-Silva 1998:53). According to the researcher, it is

however evident that when parents abuse alcohol, it is most likely that

children will identify with this behaviour pattern and act it out in one way

or another. They will accept that the use and later abuse of alcohol is

accepted the way the parents introduced in the family system.

From out this discussion, it is evident that children that are exposed to an

alcohol abuse pattern in the family system, stand a good chance to adapt

to the same pattern as yong people, but can also carry it over to their

adulthood and repeat the cycle. Through this literature study it is further

confirmed that vulnerable family systems in which alcohol abuse is one

of the social problems the family experience, can contribute to the

emotional problems children experience in that family and in many cases

as a result of it, contributes to juvenile delinquency.

3.6 Conclusion

In this chapter, juvenile delinquency is explored and the concept is

clearly defined. The different factors that contribute towards delinquency

among young people, is discussed in order to indicate the connection

between family life of young people from an alcoholic background and

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delinquent behaviour which may lead to the imprisonment of these young

people.

The emperical study of the research process will be discussed in the next

chapter.
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Chapter 4

Empirical investigation

4.1 Introduction

After a thorough literature study, the researcher has conducted the

empirical investigation in order to explore the effects of alcoholism in the

family on young offenders. According to Stafford (1994:6), children who

come from alcoholic family backgrounds have more chance of displaying

deviant behaviour than those from non-alcoholic family backgrounds.

Frequently it is quite difficult to sort out the primary problem between

family alcoholism, juvenile delinquency and other related social

problems that affect families, such as divorce, unemployment and

domestic violence (Lewis 1991:109).

Through this explorative study, the researcher investigated whether or

not alcohol or other forms of substance abuse by parents or significant

others, do contribute towards juvenile delinquency and imprisonment.

During the empirical investigation, the researcher made use of a semi-

structured interview schedule in order to gather information from the

respondents’ perspective, regarding the effect alcohol abuse in their

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families, had on their lives. The interview schedule has been divided into

six (6) themes with sub-themes.

The method of gathering data to achieve the objectives of the study as

well as the research design and procedures used in the empirical study,

are discussed in this chapter. Focus is also placed on the integration of

the literature and data gathered from the twenty (20) respondents.

The following themes form part of the interview schedule:

• Composition of the family structure.

• The perception of the respondents regarding the quality of the family system.

• The respondent’s experience of alcohol abuse in the family.

• The respondent’s perception of himself.

• The social and emotional functioning of the respondent.

• The respondent’s perception of his own drinking pattern.

4.2 The research design and procedures of the empirical study

• Research design

The researcher utilized an explorative research design during the research

process. This type of the research design has been utilized to explore the

way in which alcoholism in the respondent’s families, contributed to their

behavioral problems and led to juvenile delinquency and imprisonment.

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• Population

The research population consists of the young offenders detained in

Rustenburg prison in North-West province, aged between sixteen (16) to

twenty-one (21) years. The researcher has interviewed twenty (20)

respondents who were selected with the specific purpose of exploring

their family-related problems through the social work department.

• Sampling method

Purposive sampling as an example of non– probability sampling has been

utilized during the research process. This implicates that there is a

specific purpose for selecting such a sample from the total population.

A sample of male juveniles ranging from the ages of 16 to 21 has been

selected and only respondents that could speak and understand English

and who have been identified during the assessment phase that they

experienced family problems, were considered.

• Data analysis

The data is analyzed in a descriptive form. All eight (8) themes of the

interviewing schedule are discussed according to the manner in which the

respondents respond on it. Each theme is discussed in relation to the sub-

themes as outlined in the scheduele. The literature study regarding

alcoholism and juvenile delinquency, were used as a knowledge base to

interpreted the data as collected.

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• Research procedure

The researcher conducted semi-structured interviews with the

respondents.. It is a method having a list of issues, which have to be

investigated, and such issues are made prior to the interview (Bless &

Higson-Smith 1995:110).

During the semi-structured interviews, the researcher presented specific

themes and subthemes to the respondents to gather their perceptions

regarding the effect alcohol abuse had on their lives and whether the

latter, contributed to juvenile delinquency. All ethical aspects as

discussed in chapter 1, were utilized during the interviews.

4.3 Discussion of the empirical data

Twenty (20) respondents were interviewed, ranging between the ages of

sixteen (16) to twenty-one (21) years. Discussion of the themes of the

interviewing schedule is as follows:

Theme 1: Composition of the family structure

Sub-theme 1.1: The marital status of the biological parents

of the respondents:

• During the interviewing process, it was confirmed that most

respondents came from single parent families who never

experienced the love and support they felt any child need during

their childhood. The majority of these single parents are mothers

and as a result, most respondents wouldn’t be able to tell the

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whereabouts of their biological fathers. They refer to a father figure

as unfamiliar to them and they do not know what to expect from a

father in a family system. Bartollas (1993:262) confirms the latter

by indicating that according to statistics, one in four children in the

world live with only one parent and in most cases, the child’s

mother.

• Although a small percentage of the respondent’s parents still live

together, they refer to them as unhappy people who often fight with

each other. Through that, they created an unhappy atmosphere in

which they do not want to be part off and as a result of it, rather

leave the family system.

• The majority of the population of the respondents experienced that

they did not receive the love of both their biological parents. They

also do not receive the nurturing and stimulation any child need

during their developmental phases.

Sub-theme 1.2: Family living arrangements:

• Nearly half of the respondents come from nuclear families, which

imply that they lived with their immediate family members such as

a mother, father and siblings. Another group of the respondents

lived with the extended families of which grandparent(s), uncles

and aunts are part of the family system.

• A very small part of the total population comes from both the

nuclear family and the extended family, which implies that the

respondent(s) lived in these families interchangeably. Only one

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respondent lived in a place of safety from a very early stage of his

development until imprisonment.

Sub-theme 1.3: Respondents’ birth order:

• The greatest percentage of the respondents is middle children who

explained that they often felt that they never had a special place in

the family system. Eldest children were regarded as important

according to certain cultural customs and the youngest one was

often spoiled by the parents involved or significant others who took

care of them. Some of the respondents who were firstborn children,

confirmed that although they sometimes fulfilled a special place in

the family system and were also recognised for that, they often

were burden with adult tasks which stolen their childhood from

them. They usually had to nurture the younger children in the

family system and never experienced any of that, themselves.

• According to theory, it has been discovered that children’s birth order

has a major influence on the quality of family life including the

parent-child relationship. Older siblings may be expected to assist the

parents in taking care of the younger ones, although they may not be

equipped to execute such tasks. Bartollas (1993:267) indicates that

delinquent behaviour is more likely to be exhibited by middle children

than the first or the last child. According to this view, the first-born

child receives the undivided attention and affection of both parents.

The last child benefits from the parents’ experiences in raising

children as well as from the presence of other siblings, who serve as

role models. Through this research it became evident that the firstborn
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child can also become a victim of not receiving the love and nurturing

they need as children, but it is also the researcher’s view that middle

children may have a lot of pressure and lack of parental stimulation.

Both circumstances may lead to behavioural problems.

Sub-theme 1.4: The economic status of the families

• More than half of the respondents come from poverty-stricken

families and only a small percentage, namely two (2) respondents,

came from families that coped financially. Juveniles, who were part of

poor families, were often labelled by the community as bad people,

who always had to beg for food. Sometimes they could not attend

school, because of a lack of funds and were referred to as dump

children. Others left their homes as a way to survive. When they live

on the street, people tend to feel sorry for them and provide them with

food. According to some of the respondents there was never money to

buy food as their parents or caretakers abused alcohol or other forms

of substances.

• The research confirmed that poverty in a family system due to

unemployment or low family income, can have detrimental effects on

a family system. Once parents find it hard to fend for their families,

children may be faced with the challenge of going out on the streets to

find ways of supporting their poverty stricken families. These children

may be exploited and even be forced to work under intolerable

conditions in order to make a living. Some others will even commit a

crime to survive as a human being. (Bartollas 1993:266).

Sub-theme 1.5: Childhood experiences of the respondents:

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• More than half of the respondents revealed that they had painful and

abusive childhood experiences. This involved a number of factors

such as abandonment or neglect by either of the parents, having to

fend for themselves, divorce or separation between parents and

exposure to the consequences of alcohol abuse by either parents or

significant others. Such consequences may in turn affect the stability

of the family system and the functioning of children who are brought

up in such families. The respondents confirm that when the family

experiences trauma, like a separation by the parents or some other

marital crisis or family-related problems, it affected their childhood to

such an extend that they rather left their homes than to endure the

ongoing trauma and their parents’ alcohol abuse.

Sub-theme 1.6: The academic achievements of the

respondents:

• Before their imprisonment, half of the respondents had already

dropped out of school because of a variety of factors such as poverty,

lack of parental support and peer group pressure. Some of the

respondents were still at school during the time of their arrest and

managed to go back to school while serving their prison sentences.

Although they attended school, they were constantly involved in fights

or other related problems. Only one (1) child completed grade twelve

(12).
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Theme 2: The perception of the respondents regarding the

quality of the family system

Sub-theme 2.1: The family interaction patterns

(relationships) of the respondents:

• Most of the respondents experience closeness with the mother figure

in the family system. The reason for this was because of the fact that

these children grew up in the absence of a father figure. Some of them

do not know what to expect from a father figure and mentioned that

they can only create assumptions about the value of a father-son

relationship. The respondents said specifically that their closeness

with their mothers not necessary refer to a relationship that can speak

of quality. Some of these mothers also abused alcohol and therefore

were not able to provide emotional security.

• Some of the respondents indicated that they were exposed to intense

conflict in the cases where the parents are still living together as a

result of different social problems of which alcohol abuse were very

evident. This was even the case when the respondent lived with the

extended families or other caretakers. At times it became so painful,

that the decided to leave their homes and found them later on the

street.
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Sub-theme 2.2: Stability of the family system:

• Some of the respondents referred to their family system as stable if

they could remove the parent or significant other who abused alcohol

or who experienced other social problems, out of the home. Because

of the presence of these people, they suffered of a lack of nurturing

and support as children.

• Another group of the respondents highlighted the fact that they come

from seriously dysfunctional family backgrounds. They had indicated

that they were exposed to alcohol abuse, which left them in a position

to fend for them. The respondents admitted that they left the homes

with the hope of creating new opportunities of survival. In place of

that they became part of a peer group culture to steel and hurt people

to make ends meet. Sometimes they enjoyed to hurt other people as a

way to communicate their own emotional pain and abuse alcohol

themselves to continue with this behaviour pattern. Some of the

respondents were arrested for these acts and found guilty. Owing to

their alcohol abuse problem, parent(s) or significant other(s) wouldn’t

be in a position to care for their children and as such, expose them to

vulnerable circumstances such as peer group pressure, involvement in

criminal activities and juvenile delinquency in general (De Beer

2000:75).

• The research confirms that alcohol abuse by parents or significant

others may lead to the dysfunction of the family system and as a

result, juvenile delinquency and imprisonment. This empirical study

confirms one of the objectives of the study namely that juveniles

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could identify with the patterns of alcoholism from within their family

systems and that such patterns of behaviour, may contribute towards

juvenile delinquency and imprisonment (De Beer 2000:75).

• The above confirms that alcoholism within the family system, has an

effect on the rearing of children, either directly through abuse or

indirectly through parental role modelling. Other factors, which have

been discovered by the researcher to have a negative influence on the

stability of the family system besides alcoholism, include

unemployment, poverty, birth order and many more.

Theme 3: The respondents’ experience of alcohol abuse in the

family

Sub-theme 3.1: Alcohol abuse of family members:

• All the respondents confirmed that they were part of family systems in

which alcohol abuse took place. The alcohol abuse affected them so

badly, that they constantly experienced feelings of rejection,

worthlessness and a loss of emotional and physical security. Some of

the respondents mentioned that there was always money for alcohol but

not food or other basic needs. At times the respondents also started to

experiment with alcohol and even abused alcohol together with the

parents or other caretakers.

• Rocha-Silva (1998:53) confirms the latter statement by emphasising

that parents are regarded as role models for their children. However, it
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is evident that when parents abuse alcohol, it is most likely that children

will imitate that behaviour pattern and act it out in one way or another.

Some of the respondents abused alcohol due to peer groups pressure

and their identification with unsuitable friends.

Sub-theme 3.2: Effects of alcohol abuse in the family on young

people:

• Alcohol abuse by parents or significant others within family systems,

has a negative effect on young people, which influences their

involvement with criminal activities. The respondents confirmed this

statement by indicating that because of the alcohol abuse in their

families, they did not receive the opportunity to experience trust

towards themselves and others or how to deal with painful feelings.

This contributed to the developing of their bad self-esteem and lack of

trust towards others. Parents would rarely bother to find out more about

their children’s emotional, social, psychological and spiritual well–

being (De Beer 2000:75). In a way, juvenile delinquency may be one of

the ways to deal with these feelings (Karoly et al.1998:3).

Sub-theme 3.3: Exposure towards alcohol treatment by the

alcoholic family members:

• Most of the respondents indicated that either them or their family

members were never exposed to any form of therapeutic intervention

for alcohol abuse. It has been highlighted that these respondents are
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also not informed about methods of treatment they can receive and

where to seek support.

• In cases where the respondents have been exposed to treatment, they

did not experience it as successfully while one (1) respondent received

treatment from a traditional healer or a sangoma, which was also not a

successful attempt to heal from the alcohol abuse. In both treatment

forms, no positive results were achieved in helping the alcoholic.

• Alcohol abuse might serve a function of bringing the family members

together in order to support the addicted member. On the contrary,

such a function will limit the family members to seek professional

interventions in order to deal with the problems they are facing (Lewis

et al., 1994:146).

Bartollas (1993:268) indicates that siblings learn delinquency from others in

their families. This study has revealed that the majority of the respondents

identified with significant others in the family system who abused alcohol.

• There is often inadequate supervision and discipline in alcoholic

families. When parents are under the influence of alcohol most of the

time, children tend to take advantage of the situation thinking that they

may do whatever they wish because parents don’t see them. If only

one parent is constantly under the influence and the entire

responsibility of disciplining and supervising children is vested to one

parent, this could be a frustrating and exhausting exercise. The result

can be that these children can flee from their homes and end up

making wrong choices of friends and becoming involved in criminal

activities (De Beer, 2000:75).

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• Children from families where parent(s) or significant others abuse

substances such as alcohol or other illicit drugs, are often exposed to

some form of abuse. They may experience neglect and economic

hardships. These parents may also expose their children to violent

situations, which can hurt their feelings and destroy their self-esteems.

Theme 4: The respondent’s perception of himself:

Sub-theme 4.1: Respondents perception of their self-esteem:

• De Beer (2000:75) indicates that children living with alcoholics often

identify with unhealthy living patterns, which may lead to juvenile

delinquency. They do not have the opportunity to experience trust

towards themselves and others or learn how to deal with painful

feelings. Juvenile delinquency then becomes a way to deal with these

feelings. Most of these respondents confirmed that they experienced a

low self-esteem and also showed behaviour patterns like school drop-

outs, failure in life, depression, increased anxiety, alcohol and drug

abuse, criminal involvement and imprisonment.

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Theme 5: The social and emotional functioning of the

respondent

Sub-theme 5.1: Respondents perception of the prison

invironment

• Most of the respondents viewed the prison environment as safe and

secure since it kept them away from becoming involved in criminal

activities and associating with the wrong people. Furthermore the

respondents indicated that the prison helps them through the provision

of skills training and it improved their emotional well-being.

• Some of the respondents viewed the prison as very dangerous and

hostile, which exposed them to bad behaviour patterns they never

experimented with before. They also referred to factors that contribute

towards the lack of effective rehabilitation in prisons namely the lack

of resources in the prison, shortage of trained and qualified personnel,

over-population of prisons and gang activities. These respondents

admitted that the prison become at times unbearable and they

experience from time to time intense feelings of aggression towards

the people in their lives like parents and other caretakers, who did not

support them as children.

Sub-theme 5.2: The respondents’ support system in case of a

crisis:

• Most of the respondents only experienced their nuclear families as

supportive after their imprisonment. A small group indicated that they

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did not have a family support system either due to the distance

between their homes and prison or through negligence from their

families. The family system was also not a support system before they

were arrested. They indicated further that they are receiving support

from some prison officials, social workers or priests. They learned to

live with the fact that they do not have the love and support of their

families.

• Three of the respondents indicated that they still do not have the

support of their biological parents because they grew up under the

custody of their extended families, including grandparents, uncles or

aunts.

• Two of the respondents acknowledged that they do not have the

support of their families or other caretakers and depend solely on their

friends, both inside and outside the prison.

Sub-theme 5.3: Activities in the prison with which the

respondents are currently involved:

• All the respondents enrolled for either a formal or informal training

programme. The formal programme includes the primary level of

education up to the tertiary level of education. The informal training

includes empowerment in life-skills programmes and trade-skills such

as upholstery, garment-making, catering agricultural skills and many

others.
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Theme 6: The respondents’ perception of their own drinking

pattern

Sub-theme 6.1: The respondents’ perception about alcohol

consumption:

• Some of the respondents identified with alcohol abuse as a way of

living and admitted that alcohol intake do not need to be problematic

at all times. Although they admitted that the use of it can be

destructive because they experienced it in their own homes, one can

also associates it with fun and entertainment. The other respondents

view alcohol as very destructive and that it can only have a negative

effect on the functioning of a family system.

Sub-theme 6.2: Factors that contributed towards the

drinking patterns of the respondents:

• Some of the respondents indicated that although they were exposed to

alcohol abuse in the family system of which they were part of, start to

abuse alcohol through the influence of their friends. The researcher is

of the opinion that children are prone to peer group pressure especially

when friends are more influential than parents. Holman (1995:204)

indicates that the influence of friends can be positive or negative in

circumstances where young people are faced with delinquent activities

such as experimenting with alcohol, or on the contrary, draw them

into delinquency.
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• The other respondents indicated that they had been influenced by their

parents or significant others to experimenting with alcohol. This

confirms that parents serve as role models for the young people and

that they identify with either positive or negative behaviours of these

parents during their developmental process. Some respondents

experimenting on their own with alcohol and got addicted to it.

Sub-theme 6.3: The link between alcohol abuse and criminal

involvement:

• Most of the respondents found it difficult to respond on this sub-theme

partly because they still did not have the opportunity to deal with their

guilt feelings regarding their criminal involvement. With some

support of the researcher, these respondents indicated that alcohol

abuse contributed to their criminal activities. They even indicated that

it was easier to commit the crime when one is under the influence of

alcohol. It is clear that most of the respondents identified with the

behaviour of their parents or other significant others. Rocha-Silva

(1998:51) also confirms that juvenile offenders, who grew up in a

home where alcohol were abused, often commit crimes under the

influence themselves. The reason for that is that the alcohol let them

feel stronger and more empowered-a feeling they experienced their

parents demonstrated when they were under the influence of alcohol.

Some respondents often had to support their parents or other

caretakers in their own criminal activities when they were under the

influence of alcohol. When they refused to accompany them during a

burglary or other destructive deeds, they were physically abused.

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Sub-theme 6.4: Alcohol abuse as a coping mechanism for the

respondents:

• Through out the interviews it became clear that most of the times that

alcohol abuse were used by the respondents as a coping mechanism, it

took place on a subconscious level. Some of the respondents could

identify through the interviews that it helped them not to feel the pain

of the rejection of their beloved ones when they were still in the house

or even after their arrests, while other admitted that it was easier to

commit a crime when they were under the influence of alcohol.

Sub-theme 6.5: The respondents’ perception about total

withdrawal from alcohol abuse:

• Most of the respondents indicated that they are currently sober and are

not taking any form of drugs in the prison. The regulations of the

institution where they are detained, do not allow the use of any form

of drugs including cigarettes. They indicated that it is not difficult for

a person to withdraw completely from abusing substances, especially

alcohol. They emphasised the fact that one should really be

determined to withdraw.
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4.4 Conclusion

Alcoholism in the family system is a problem that is more serious than it is

realized. It affects every family member in the family system and prevent

escpecialy a child to grow up in an atmosphere that can only contributes to

the best interest of that child. Through the empirical study, the researcher

was able to explore the problem statement as explained clearly in chapter 1

namely that alcoholism in a family system may have an effect on the lives

of young people. This may also contribute to the fact that these children get

involved in criminal activities and as a result, possible imprisonment.

Conclusions and recommendations on the findings as explained in this

chapter, will be formulated in chapter 5.

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Chapter 5

Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Introduction

This study focused on the effects of alcoholism in the family, on young

offenders. Alcohol abuse by parents or significant others within the

family system, have been identified as having negative effects on the

lives of young people in the family system which can result in clashes

with the law and finally imprisonment (Bartollas, 1993:268). Many

factors in the family system which can lead to the fact that children in

that sytems may identify with an alcoholic pattern, is been identified and

discussed in this report. It also highligted that not all children that grew

up in a family were alcohol abuse took place, will become juvenile

delinquents, but will definetely has one or another effect on that child’s

life. The family system stays the most important context in which a child

can identify with healthy socialization skills. If this system does not

functioning in a healthy way, one can expect that this can create emtional

obstacles for this child in his adult life, which will allow the circle of

tauma to continue. Alcoholism is one of the most severe social problems

in the society of which the effect of it, is currently undersestimated.

When parents abuse alcohol, it is clear that it will influence their

parenting skills, escpesially those, which is needed to nurture their

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children to experience emtional security. The lack of the latter, can result

in juvenile delinquency as a painful way to create specialness and

selfworth.

The researcher has conducted interviews with the respondents in order to

collect data regarding the aim of this study and integrated it with

information as explored through the literature study. According to the

findings from the empirical data, the researcher came to certain

conclusions and formulated recommendations. Focus is also placed on

the assessment of the aims and objectives of the study.

5.2 Assessment of the aims and objectives of the study

5.2.1 The aims of the study

The aim of this study is to explore the effects of alcoholism in the family

system, on young offenders. The aim of the study has been achieved

through the explorative research process. The study confirms that there is

a relationship between alcohol abuse by the parents or significant others

and young offenders in their family systems. In general, this has been

identified as one of the main contributing factors regarding their

involvement in delinquent activities, which results in their imprisonment.

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5.2.2 The objectives of the study

The objectives of this study were as follows:

To explore through a literature study the function of the behaviour

patterns of juveniles, who come from alcoholic families. In achieving this

objective, the researcher undertook a literature study in chapter 2 to

elaborate on alcoholism as social phenomenon in the family system, the

factors that may contribute to alcoholism as well as the way it can affect

the members of that system. In Chapter 3, the phenomenon namely,

juvenile delinquency was explored with the focus on juvenile

delinquency as social problem as well as the factors that may contribute

to it.

To explore through the empirical study, the way in which juveniles could

identify with the patterns of alcoholism within their family systems and

how such patterns of behaviour, may contribute towards juvenile

delinquency and imprisonment.

5.3 Conclusions

The research can construct the following conclusions:

• The findings of the research confirmed the problem statement,

namely that alcoholism in the family system, contributes towards

juvenile delinquency and possible imprisonment. Goldenberg &

Goldenberg (2000:27) indicate that when the stability of the family

system is threatened by alcohol abuse, the children in that family

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will behave in such ways that they will seek alternative ways of

maintaining their stability.

• Parents who abuse alcohol, may not realize that their children need

their emotional support. If children do not receive it from their

parents, that may force them to seek for it from their peers on the

street. Most unfortunately, they might be prone to peer group

pressure as a way to feel accepted and gain some emotional

security. This way may ultimately, lead them into criminal

activities.

• The marital status of the respondent’s parents had an effect on their

involvement in criminal acts. The findings of the study indicated

that most of the respondents come from single parent families. This

is due to the fact that some parents are divorced and others are

deceased. Some of the respondents do not know their real fathers at

all. The majority of the population of the respondents do not

receive the love of both their biological parents as well as the

nurturing and stimulation any child might need during their

developmental stages (De Wit in De Beer, 2000:75). Some of the

respondents can only fantasize about a father-son relationship and

the value that could have in their lives. These boys experience

currently intense rejection by their parents and specifically the

father figure.

• The majority of the respondents grew up in their families of origin.

The others grew up in extended families in which they were

exposed to family members who abused alcohol. Most of these

families did not provide in the emotional needs of the respondents

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as they did not experienced emotional security while they were still

living there. Some of the respondents refer to their emotional states

at that time as depressed, painful and sad. They further refer to their

living conditions as abusive through which they learned to be

aggressive as a way to protect themselves against others.

• The middle child experiences often more pressure and also a lack

of parental stimulation. This is also supported by Bartollas

(1993:267) in his study. This author also indicates that the first

child, receives in general the undivided attention and affection of

both parents and the last child benefits from the parents’

experiences in raising children before as well as from the presence

of other siblings, who serve as role models. The study highlighted

further that the eldest child often has to fulfil the roles of absent

parents especially in the case of alcohol abuse, which can withhold

the right of such child to experience his own childhood. This can

lead to emotional insecurity and runaway behaviour as a way to

bring some relief for a situation such child is not able to deal with.

• Young people who come from families with a low income or

families where parents were unemployed, tend to be prone to peer-

group pressure and may easily engage themselves in delinquent

activities. The children often have to leave home to create

opportunities to generate some income to survive financially. This

may lead to unlawful practises and as a result, clashes with the law.

Some parents of these children were employed, but because of the

severe alcohol abuse, the family were constantly faced with

financial breakdowns. To be outside on the street without a secure

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home and the constant stressful task to provide for your own

means, often leads to alcohol abuse by the juvenile to survive with

the latter. The result is that the alcohol abuse became a surviving

mechanism. The respondents even indicated that they learn through

experience, that one can experience less stress when under the

influence of alcohol. Poverty thus can contribute directly to alcohol

abuse by young people and together with this, to juvenile

delinquency.

• The majority of the respondents had already dropped out of school

before their imprisonment. Such factors that contributed to this,

includes poverty, lack of parental support and stimulation and peer-

group pressure (Bartollas1993:262). Some of the respondents

continue with their school education after their imprisonment. The

respondents received minimal if any form of stimulation from their

family systems. As a result, many of them did not value the

importance of education and dropped out of school. Some were

forced through poverty and labelling to leave school very early.

Currently, all these respondents have the opportunity of enrolling

again for formal or informal education during their incarceration.

• The family structure can have a negative effect on childrearing,

either directly through abuse or indirectly through role modelling

of the parents. Factors like parental unemployment, poverty, the

child’s birth order and alcohol abuse, can have a negative effect on

childrearing (Jones 1993:6). The research confirms that alcohol

abuse by parents or significant others definitely hinder their

parenting skills and prevent children from growing up in functional

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family systems. Most of the children indicated that they

experienced their parents and sometimes both parents absent when

they abused alcohol. Some respondents left their homes because of

the aggressive behaviour of the parents when they were under the

influence of alcohol.

• Some of the respondents abused alcohol themselves. The reason for

this is that they identified with people who abused alcohol

themselves. The study confirms further that the respondents who

abused alcohol, started first by experimenting with the substance

but later became dependent on it for a number of reasons as already

explained. Some of them only started to abuse alcohol as a way to

relax and have fun.

• Alcohol abuse by parent(s) or significant others, has been identified

as a factor which contributes to criminal involvement by their

children and as a result, imprisonment. These young people

indicated that they do not receive the opportunity of experiencing

trust in themselves and others and also that they still do not have

the knowledge or skills to deal with their painful feelings.

According to the research findings, juvenile delinquency became

one way to deal with these feelings (Rocha–Silva 1998:53). The

research substantiates the latter by indicating that these young

people did not receive enough stimulation and nurturing as

adolescents during their developmental process. As a result, they

seek for support, acceptance and security among their peers on the

streets. This may lead further to the fact that they became more

susceptible to negative influences.

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• The research study confirms further that most respondents, as well

as their family members who abuse alcohol, have not been exposed

to professional treatment for alcohol abuse. Many of the

respondents were referred to a drug rehabilitation centre without

responding positively to treatment. Some were referred to a

traditional healer in the belief that the person could be bewitched

and that the family believed that the person would be healed of

alcohol dependency. This might prevent their therapeutic bond

during treatment. The majority of the respondents indicated that no

one in their families including themselves, were exposed to

available resources for treatment. The respondents and their family

members did not know anything about alcohol rehabilitation and

are also not informed regarding the availability of the resources for

such treatment. The majority of the respondents have never been

exposed to treatment.

• Young offenders who come from alcoholic families, basic needs

were not met and they find the environment in prison to be more

secured compared to their homes. They revealed to the researcher

that they do not have to feed, clothe and educate themselves while

they are in prison. There are also no exposure in the prison to

alcohol abuse and those who abused it themselves, can now heal

from it.

• The majority of the respondents have committed crimes while

under the influence of alcohol and other drugs, such as dagga. Most

of them associate their criminal involvement with the abuse of

alcohol by their parents or significant others. This indicates that

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there is a strong connection between alcohol abuse in the family

and juvenile delinquency (Rocha–Silva 1998:50). According to the

researcher, the latter supports the statement that parents serve as

important role models for young people. Whatever they do will

strongly reflect on their children. Once children are exposed to

parents or significant others who are constantly under the influence

of alcohol, there is a strong possibility that these children will

identify with the pattern of alcohol abuse. The same behaviour can

be projected on their relationships with their peers, but also on their

adult life. Alcohol abuse can become a way to cope with the

difficult and dangerous life on the streets.

5.4 Recommendations

The following recommendations can be formulated:

• That the family system as context in which the juvenile offender

grew up, must be taken in consideration during the rehabilitation

process. It will provide a broader picture of the juvenile’s physical

as well as emotional world, which can assist the therapist to be

more effective in the facilitation of the helping process.

• Further research needs to be conducted in this field. According to

the researcher, more can still be research regarding the effect of the

frequency, duration and intensity of alcohol abuse within the family

system, on children.

• That juvenile offenders as well as alcoholics must be

therapeutically treated in the context of their families or other

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systems of which they part of. The family is an important system to

support the juvenile as well as the alcoholic during the

rehabilitation process. These systems must be part of changes that

can take place.

• Many short-falls regarding the helping process of juveniles in the

Department of Correctional Services, were identified during the

research process. There is a shortage of professional social workers

in most of the institutions where juvenile offenders are detained

and as a result, it makes it nearly an impossible task to provide

effective therapy to each one of these juvenile offenders. More

focus is placed on problem-solving, rather than the development

and empowerment of these young people to discover more about

themselves and specifically, their potential and strengths. It is

recommended that the social workers in Correctional Institutions

should give more attention to the juvenile offenders in order to

empower them to help themselves and experience more emotional

security.

• That as part of the rehabilitation programmes rendered in the

Department of Correctional Services, respondents need to be

assisted to form a support group of children of alcoholics while in

custody to share their experiences, frustrations and losses with each

other.

• The parents of juveniles must be included in the healing process of

their children. Change need also to be facilitated within the family

system of the juvenile.

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• That a thorough after-care programme for these young offenders

needs to be designed and implemented. This can promote a proper

support system for these juveniles during parole or correctional

supervision. This can be further a way of preventing them from

committing crimes again and would ensure that they receive

support and guidance from the helping professions.

• That specialized training need to be offered to the helping

professions and specifically personnel of The Department of

Correctional Services, to provide more effective therapeutic

interventions to juvenile offenders and their families. This will

enable the juvenile offender to experience more emotional stability

and minimize the possibility to get involved in criminal activities in

the future.
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Annexure 1: Interview schedule

SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

The effect of alcoholism in the family on young offenders

1. Composition of the family structure

What is your home language?

What is your place of birth/ where did you live?

What is the marital status of your parents? (Single, married, divorced, etc)

How is your family constituted?

How many children are there in your family and what is your birth order?

Did you live as a nuclear or extended family? How many?

Who is your favourite person in the family? Why?

Are your parents employed or not? Type of employment?

If either one of the parents is unemployed, who used to maintain you? (Relatives,
yourself, other)

What are the living arrangements? (Hosing/ accommodation)

How do you regard your family economically? (Poor, managing, affluent)

How would you describe your childhood experience? (Pleasant, abusive, etc)

Did you experience abandonment/neglect, divorce, death or removal from the family
as a child? What are/were the effects?

Are your parent’s alcoholic/abuse substances or involved in criminal activities?

Explain? How does that affect their parenting skills?

How did your parents discipline you? (Talking, physical punishment, not concerned,
etc)
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Did you attend school?

Did your siblings attend school?

In what grade were you at the time?

2. The perception of the respondents regarding the quality of

the family system
Who is the favourite person to the respondent in the family? Why?

Who is the closest among the parents to the respondent? Why?

Who in the family is more distant from other members? Why?

Does the respondent regard other/some family members to be involved in conflicting

relationships? If so, why?

Does the respondent perceive the family members as in a position of sharing deep
emotions? Why? How?

If there is a conflict situation in the family, do they resolve it together? How?

Is there a prescribed manner of doing things in the family? What things and how?

If there is a crisis in the family, who calms things down?

Does the family have particular ways of approaching problems?

Who does the family turn to in times of need?

Does the respondent regard his family system as stable?

3. The respondents’experience of alcohol abuse in the family

According to the respondent, who is abusing alcohol in the family?

How long has this person been in that state?

Have the same person ever received treatment? If so, what form of treatment and
when?

How long did this person receive treatment?

What was the response towards treatment?

What is the respondent’s perception regarding treatment?

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How did the alcohol abuse in the family affect the respondent? (Emotionally,
socially, psychologically, other)

Did the abuse of alcohol in the family push him to the streets to look for support
from his peers?

Does he think that if it weren’t for his parents/ significant other’s drinking pattern he
wouldn’t be in prison?

Does he tell lies to other people in order to hide his parents/ significant other’s
alcohol problem?

How does it feel to talk about his parent’s alcohol problem?

Does he try not to think about his parents/significant other’s alcohol problem?

How is alcohol abuse in the family currently affecting the respondent?

Does anybody visit him currently in the prison?

4. The respondent’s perception of himself

What is his perception about himself?

Does he accept the way he is?

Do other people follow his advices?

Does he feel like a failure? If yes why?

Does he feel other people would like to be with him?

Does he think that other people like him?

What does he regard as his strengths?

What does he regard as his weaknesses?

5. The social and emotional functioning of the respondent

How does the respondent feel about the environment he is currently living in? (Safe,
hostile, depressing)

Who does he turn to in case of need? (Family, friends, other)

Does he have many friends?

Do most people like him?

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Is it difficult for him to make friends?

Does he feel different than others?

Does he know someone who will support him in an emergency situation?

Does he regard his friends as taking him for a ride? If so why?

Does he regard his friends as people he can count on?

Does he take advantage of his friends?

With what type of activities does he keep himself busy?

6. The respondent’s perception of his own drinking pattern

What is the respondent’s perception about alcohol?

How did his alcoholic problem start?

Who introduced the respondent to alcohol?

When did he become aware of the fact that he is abusing alcohol/other forms of
substances/drugs?

Was there a way that alcohol helped him in coping with his life situations? How?

Did he ever make an attempt to stop abusing the substance and what happened after
that?

How is he feeling currently not using alcohol?

7. Other information
Is there any other information the respondent would like to share with the researcher?
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ANNEXURE 2: LETTER OF CONSENT

Participants’s Date:
Name:

Principal Onicca Ofentse Tlhoaele

Investigator: University of Pretoria
Pretoria
0001

Informed Consent:

Title of the Study: The Effect of Alcoholism in the Family on Young Offenders.

Purpose of the Study: The purpose of the study is to explore the effect of
alcoholism in the family system on young offenders.

Procedures: I will be interviewed during the research study with the aim to provide
necessary answers to the questions asked by the researcher. The interview will take
approximately sixty (60) minutes.

Risks and Discomforts: There are no known risks and discomforts associated with
this study. Furthermore, the time span of the interview will only last for sixty
minutes at the most.

Benefits: I understand that there are no known direct social benefits to me for
participating in this study. However the results of the study may help the researcher
gain a better understanding of the effect of alcoholism within the family system on
young people.

Participants Rights: I may withdraw from participating in the study at any time.

Financial Compensation: I understand that there will be no known financial

compensation for my participation in this study.
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Confidentiality: I understand that the information given by me will be treated
confidentially and if there is any information the researcher would like to reveal, she
will have to get my permission. The results of this study may be published in
professional journals or presented at professional conferences, but my records or
identity will not be revealed unless required by law.

If I have any questions of concerns, I can call Onicca Ofentse Tlhoaele at 082 745
1144 at any time of the day or night.

Respondent’s Signature Date

Tlhoaele O.O. (Researcher) Date

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Annexure 3: Letter of Approval

(no letter of approval available)