PONTIFICIA UNIVERSIDAD CATÓLICA DEL ECUADOR

ENGLISH A2.2

Unit 1
1A Subject and object questions
Use a subject question to ask about the subject, who or what does an action.
Use an object question to ask about the object, who or what receives an action.

SUBJECT QUESTIONS OBJECT QUESTIONS

Who lives here? Julie. Who did you call? My sister.
Who lives whit Wanda? Fatima. Who was Jim talking to? His brother
-in.law.

● Change the word order in a object question, e.g. He works in an office.

Where does he work?
● Don’t change the word order in a subject question, e.g. Julie lives here.
Who lives here?
● Don’t use the auxiliary verb do- in subject questions. What did happen?

Now go to exercise 1.1 to practise.

Use wh - and how questions to ask for information.

Who’s your boss? What’s your name?

Which is their flat? Number 6 or number 7? Where does he live?
When did she call? Why are we waiting?
Now go to exercise 1.2 to practise.
1B
Use reflexive pronouns when the subject and object are the same.
Use by + a reflexive pronoun to mean alone, e.g. I did my homework by myself.
(without any help)

subject possessive object reflexive

pronouns adjectives pronouns pronouns
I my me myself I introduced myself to
the rest of the group.
You your you yourself Why don’t you get
yourself a drink?
He his him himself He lives by himself.
She her her herself Ellen taught herself to
paint.
We our us ourselves We enjoyed ourselves at
the party.
They their them themselves Julie and Dave did
everything by
themselves.
1C
Use the present simple for verbs which describe states, an action which happens
often, and permanent or long-term facts.
Use the present continuous for actions happening at this moment and actions
happening these days, but perhaps not at this moment.

PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

I sometimes visit art galleries. I’m wearing my new shoes.
You’re often late for lessons. You’re looking at a painting byGoya.
He doesn’t live in Paris. My computer isn’t working.
Does she like modern art? Is Simon enjoying his course?
How do we get to the museum? Where are they sitting?

● Use the present simple whit state verbs, e.g. believe, know, see,
understand, want, etc.
Now go to exercise 1.4 to practise.

Unit 2
2A The before geographical names

mountain ranges, rivers,

- We visited the Andes.
Names oceans and seas, island
- The River Seine flows through Paris.
with the groups, deserts, some
- I worked in the Middle East.
countries, some regions
most regions, single
Names - She lives in Westem Australia.
mountains, most countries,
without - The climbed Mount Everest.
continents, single islands,
the - France is in Europe.
cities, lakes
 2B Adverbs of frequency
Use adverbs of frequency to say how often something happens.

100% 0%

always often sometimes never

usually quite often hardly ever / rarely

use an adverb of frequency

Janet usually goes abroad on her holidays.
before the main verb
use an adverb of frequency after
She’s rarely late.
the verb be

● Put an adverb of frequency between an auxiliary verb and a main verb,

e.g. I’ve been on a plane.

2C Phrases + prepositions / adverbs

use made of + a material or

The desk is made of wood.
substance
- This machine is used for making coffee.
use use for / use as + a purpose
- Vegetable oil can be used as fuel for cars.
use covered with + a material or
Baseballs are covered with leather.
substance
use a kind of + a classifying noun A sporran is a kind of bag.
use look like + a noun to compare
The fishing floats look like balls.
two things
 2D Past Simple and Past Continuous
Use the past continuous for longer actions / to describe the context of a story.
Use the past simple for shorter actions / to describe the events of a story.

Past Continuous Past Simple

While I was sitting on the train. my mobile phone raing.
They were having dinner when we arrived.

2E Time Expressions

Period of time Relate Two Times Put events in Order

first / second / then /
in / during / for a before / after / (a couple of
next / in the end /
moment / for a while years) ago / later / when
finally
- It was our first time in
- We met in the evening. - Put your coat on before
Japan.
- I lost my watch during you go out.
- I got up, then I had a
the first week of them - I saw him a few days ago.
shower.

Unit 3
3A. Used to
Use used to talk about repeated actions in the past or states in the past that aren’t
true now.

+ I/You/He/She/It/We/They used to get good grades.

be shy.
- I/You/He/She/It/We/They didn’t use to get good grades.

be shy.
? Did I/ you/he/she/it/we/they use to get good grades?

be shy?
Short answers
Yes, /I/you/he/she/it/we/they did. No, /I/you/he/she/it/we/they didn’t.

3B. Present Perfect and Past Simple

Used the past simple to talk about past actions which happened in a finished
time.
Used the present perfect to talk about past actions which happened in an

unfinished time.

past simple present perfect

I took an exam a few days ago. She’s taken several exams in the last
few days.
We didn’t have a maths test last term. They haven’t had a maths test this
term.
Did you learn any new words last Have you learnt any new words this
week? week?
What did he do yesterday? What have you done today?

3B. time expressions

Used expressions of finished time with the past simple.

Used expressions of unfinished time with the present perfect.

expressions of finished time expressions of unfinished time

yesterday/last week/last year/ today/this week/this year/
in 2002/(a few minutes)ago/ in the last few (minutes)/
when (you started) since (you started)/in (my) life
3C. phrasal verbs (1)
A phrasal verb is a verb used with an adverb. Together, they have a particular
meaning, e.g. make up - invent.
Phrasal verbs can have more than one meaning, e.g. Take your coat off. The
plane took off on time.
non-separable phrasal verbs without Come on, Jim!
an object (intransitive) I grew up in Italy.
non-separable phrasal verbs with an Who’s looking after the children?
object (transitive)
separable phrasal verbs with an object Turn the TV on.
(transitive) He turned it on.

● Phrasal verbs have two parts: a verb + an adverb particle.

● Intransitive phrasal verbs do not have an object. The verb and adverb
● cannot be separated.
● Transitive phrasal verbs have an object that can be a noun or a
pronoun. Sometimes it is possible to put the object between the verb
and adverb.
● If the object of a separable transitive verb is a pronoun (me, you, him, it,
etc) it must come before the particle. Nouns can go before or after the
particle.

Unit 4
4A. -ed and -ing adjectives

Use -ed adjectives to talk about how someone feels.

Use -ing adjectives to talk about the cause of a feeling.

-ed adjectives I’m bored, there’s nothing to do there.

Mike is interested in art.
-ing adjectives I think football is boring.
Have you got an interesting hobby?
4B. Comparatives and Superlatives
Use a comparative adjective or adverb + than to compare two things.

We use slightly / a bit before comparative adjectives and adverbs to show that
two things are not very different, e.g. The Spanish guitars are a bit cheaper than
the electric guitars.
We use much, far, a lot before comparative adjectives and adverbs to show that
two things are very different, e.g. Madonna is much more famous than Rhianna.

To make comparative and adjective verbs

one - syllable + er Keyboards are cheaper than pianos.
adjectives and adverbs Henry sings louder than anyone else.
adjectives and adverbs more + Are the Spice Girls more famous than
with more than one adjective Madonna?
syllable or adverb You can hear the notes on a piano
more clearly than the notes on a
guitar.
irregular adjectives change Rap is good but I think reggae is
and adverbs their form better.
Sheila sang badly but Maria sang
worse.

Use a superlative adjective or adverb to compare more than two things.

to make superlative adjectives and adverbs

one-syllable adjectives + est He bought the cheapest
and adverbs guitar in the shop.
This MP3 player sounds
the clearest.
adjectives and adverbs the most + adjective or They’re the most
with more than one adverb popular band in the UK.
syllable Mandy practiced the
most frequently.
irregular adjectives change their form My brother is the worst
and adverbs singer in the world.
Of all the CD players,
this one is the best.

4C. Comparing with as

Use as … as to say that two things are equal or unequal.

as + adjective or adverb + as I’ve never had a meal as nice as this.

She can cook as well as a professional
chef.
not as + adjective or adverb + as My cooking isn’t as good as my
mother’s cooking.
We don’t eat out as often as we used
to.

4D. Defining relative clauses

Use defining relative clauses to identify the person, thing or place you are
talking about.

people who/that Bridget Jones is a woman who is looking for love.

Renee Zellweger is the actress that played the part of
Bridget.
things which/that A comedy is a film or a play which is funny.
Nemesis is one of the stories that Agatha Christie
wrote.
places where This is the town where Mr Bean was filmed.

We don’t need to use a subject or object pronoun (he/they/it/,etc.) when we use a

relative pronoun.
We can leave out who, which, or than when they are the object of a relative
clause, e.g. He’s an actor (that) I like.
Unit 5

5A. The or no article in names of institutions

institutions with the positions the president of france

the managing director
organizations the World Health
Organization
institution with no the names of individual King Juan Carlos
article people President Sarkozy

Don’t use an article with Mr,Miss, or Ms, e.g. Has Mrs Smith

5B. Modals of obligation

● Use can to say what is allowed

● Use can’t and mustn't to say that something is forbidden
● Use must and have to say that it’s important to dosomething
● Use don’t have to say that it’s not necessary to do something

Can + verb You can take photos in the museum

Can’t + verb You can’t take dogs into restaurants in
Britain.
Must + verb You must have a licence to drive a car
Mustn’t + verb You mustn’t smoke in the classroom
don’t/doesn’t have to + verb You don't have to pass a test to ride a
bicycle.
5C. active or passive
● Use the passive when you don’t know who does an action, or when the
action is more important than the person who does it.
● Use the active when you know who does an action, or when the person is
more important than the action.
● We can use the passive with by to show who did the action. A man was
bitten by a crocodile.

Active Passive
The police arrest criminals, Criminals are arrested.
The police are arresting criminals, The murderer is being arrested.
The police arrested criminals, The criminals were arrested.
The police have arrested criminals, The burglars have been arrested.

5D. Past perfect

● Use the past perfect when you are talking about the past and when to say
that an action happened at an earlier time in the past.

+ I/You/He/She/It/We/They ‘d been to a concert

- hadn’t been to party
? HAD - I/You/He/She/It/We/They been to a party?

5E. Linkers
● Use and the/after/while to say when something happened
● Use and then to show the sequence that things happen in.
● Usea after to show that one thing was completed before another started.
● Use while to say that one thing was happening when another happened.

And then I wrote the email and then i left the office
After After I’d written the email, I left the
office.
I left the office after I’d written the
email.
While Liz arrived while I was writing the email.
While I was writing the email, Liz
arrived.

Unit 6

6A so and such

Use so to make an adjective or adverb more extreme.

Use such to make a noun more extreme.

so + adjective The children were so tired that they fell asleep

immediately.
Why are you so happy?
such + article + noun It was such a bad experience that I just want to forget
it.
Why is he such a fool?

6B infinitive and gerunds

to + an infinitive I decided to visit my sister.

verb + gerund Do you fancy going for a walk?
preposition + gerund They arrived after traveling for two hours.
 ● Use to + an infinitive after verbs such as decide, expect, forget, hope,
phone, want, refuse, etc.
● Use a gerund after verbs such as enjoy, fancy, finish, mid, ect.
● Use a gerund after a preposition (e.g. after, before, for, etc).

6C pronouns in reported speech

direct speech reported speech

She says, “I’m tired” She says she’s tired.

He says, “You can’t play in the hall” He says I/we can’t play in the hall.

She says, “He/She/It’s noisy” She says he/she/it’s noisy.

He says, “We don’t play loud music” He says they don’t play loud music.

She says, “They shout a lot” She says they shout a lot.

● Pronouns sometimes change in reported speech, depending on the

situation.
● We don’t need to change the tense of the reporting verb, i.e. say, when it
is in the the present tense.

6D tenses in reported speech

direct speech reported speech

present I play the violin. He said (that) he played the violin.

simple I don’t like the music. She said (that) she didn’t like the music.

past We played tennis. They said (that) they had played tennis.
simple They didn’t win the game The said (that) they hadn’t won the game.

future He’ll get better soon. She said he would get better soon.
simple She won’t need a doctor. He said that she wouldn’t need a doctor.
● We can shorten had and would to ‘d.
6E connectors

Use connectors to join ideas.

Use anyways to mean also or and.
Use by the way to introduce an unconnected topic.
Use however and although to mean but.

anyway I don’t really want to go out. Anyway, I’ve got too much
homework to do.

by the way Well, I think I’ve told you all my news. By the way, did
you know that Sam and Alice have split up?

however / although We haven’t finished painting the house. However, we’ve

done the most important rooms.
He likes his jobs, although he has to travel a lot.
● Use a comma after by the way, however, and anyway.

Unit 7

7B Wh-clauses
· Use Wh-clauses like nouns to refer to things, people, etc.

clause begins

things which / what She can’t decide which outfit

looks best.
They don’t know what they want.

people who Do you know who designed this

skirt?

places where This where web buy most of our

clothes.

times when I can’t remember when I bought

this suit.
reasons why He doesn’t understand why his
wife buys so many shoes.

methods / how Does she know how to sew?

conditions / I know how you feel about
quantities dressing up.
I don’t mind how much you
spend.

· We often use a wh-clause after know.

7C future intentions

· Use the present continuous to talk about arrangements and

appointments.

· Use going to to talk about plans you’ve had for a while.

· Use will to talk about plans you’ve just decided.

present continuous going to will

I’m having a haircut He’s going to do more Maybe we’ll have a

on Friday. exercise. big party after the
exams.

They aren’t doing I’m not going to go I won’t study tonight.

anything tomorrow. abroad this year.

Are you meeting Jim Are you going to learn Will you give me a lift
later? Thai? to work today?

What are we having Where are you going What shall we do at

for dinner tonight? to stay? the weekend

· Use shall instead of will in questions with / and we.

7D modals of deduction must, might, can’t

· Use must to say what you are sure is true.

· Use might to say what you think is possibly true.

· Use can’t to say what you are sure is not true.

must + verb He must be very rich if he’s got a

Rolls-Royce.

might + verb The shutters are closed. She might be

asleep

can´t + verb| They can´t be poor if they live in the

most expensive part of town.

· Use an infinitive without to after a modal verb.

UNIT 8
8A. phrasal verbs

phrasal verbs wich can’t be The car broke down.

separated We called by the garage on the way
home.
phrasal verbs wich can be You can pick up your messages later.
separated You can pick your messages up later.
I’ll put you though.
● If the object of a separable verb is a pronoun (me, you, him, it ,etc.) it
must come before the particle, e.g. Pick it up
● Nouns can go before or after the particle, e.g. Pick up a message.
Pick a message up.

8B. ability can, could, be able to, manage to

general ability in the present I can speak French.

Many dogs are able to swim.
general ability in the past She could swim when she was a
child.
He had a car so he was able to travel
a lot.
general ability on one occasion in They were able to book the flights on
the past the internet.
We all managed to pass the English
test.
other tenses or modals We’ve been able to save enought
money for a holiday.
● Put the infinitive form of the verb after can, could, be able to, managed
to.

8C. reported questions

Use ask when you want to report a question.

direct questions reported questions

present Where is he from? They asked him where he was
simple Where does he work? from.
She asked him where he
worked.
past simple How was your interview? She asked me how my
When did your course start? interview had been.
He asked us when our course
had started.
future tenses Where will you be? She asked me where I would
What will you do? be.
We asked him what he would
do.

8C. reported questions: open and closed questions.

direct questions reported questions

open questions Why are you looking for She asked him why he
(Who, Where, etc.) a new job? was looking for a new
job
closed questions Can you speak any They asked her if she
(Are, Do, Can, etc.) foreign languages. could speak any foreign
 languages.

● Open questions are questions with many possible answers.

● Closed questions have only two possible answers.
● We use if when we report a closed questions.

8D. reported imperatives and requests

Use told + person + infinitive with to to report imperatives
Use asked + person + infinitive with to to report requests.

direct speech reported speech

imperatives Be careful! She told the children to
Don’t move! be careful.
I told him not to move.
requests Can you tell me the She asked me to tell her
time? the time.

UNIT 9
9A Tag questions
Use tag questions to check something that you think is true.
Use sentences with tag questions to start a conversation.

positive questions negative questions

It's cold, isn't it? It isn't a very nice day, is it?

The flowers are pretty, aren't they? The days aren’t very lon, are they?

There's a lot of snow, isn't there? There isn’t a cloud in the sky, is there?

They live in Mexico, don't they? They don’t have a big garden, do they?

She enjoys the snow, doesn't she? He doesn’t like the rain, does he?

9B future perfect
 Use the future perfect to talk about something that will be finished by a certain
time in the future.
+ I/You/He/She/It/We/They ‘ll have finished work by six o’clock.
- won’t have finished work by six o’clock.
? Will I/You/He/She/It/We/They have finished work by six o’clock?

9C Other if clauses
Use an if clauses followed by a main clause with an imperative or should + a
verb to give advice.

If Clause Main Clause

If there’s an accident, call the police
If the read is flooded, don’t try to drive
If you cycle on bus road, you should wear a helmet.
If you see a bear, you shouldn’t run after it.
If there’s a fire, what should we do?

9D 2nd Conditional
Use the second conditional to talk about situations which are not true now and
probably won’t be true in the future.

If Clause Main Clause

If I had a dreamprogrammer, I’d choose dreams about travelling.
If someone gave us a personal helicopter, we would fly to Barbados.
If I didn’t have a car, I would walk to work.
If you could buy anything in the magazine. what would you buy?

● Use the past simple in the if clause and would ´verb in the main clause.
● The contraction of would is ‘d.
● The if clause can go before or after the main clause.

Unit 10
10A. article the, a, an.
Use a/an with singular countable nouns, e.g, a shop, an engineer.
Use the with singular or plural nouns, e.g, the shop, the shops.
a/an the first time you There’s a lorry outside
mention my house.
someone/something
He’s an engineer
to say what someone’s
job is It’s a new shopping mall

to say what something is

the when there is only one I saw him in the high
of something street.

when it’s clear Mr Jones is talking to

who/what you are the butcher.
talking about
Have you been to the
with places in a town bank?

10B. quantifiers
Use quantifiers to say and ask about how much or how many of something there
is/are.

plural countable nouns uncountable nouns

+ There are a lot of shops. I’ve got a lot of money.
There are a few shops. I’ve got a little money.
- There aren’t many I haven’t got much
shops. money.
There aren’t any shops. I haven’t got any money.
? Are there many shops? Have you got much
Are there any shops? money?
Have you got any
money?

● Use a lot of with plural countable and uncountable nouns. Only use of
before a noun.
 ● Use too + an adjective, too much + an uncountable noun, and too many +
a countable noun to say there is more than we want, e.g. There is too
much sugar in this coffee.
● Use not + an adjective + enough, and not enough + a non to say that there
is less than we want, e.g. There isn’t enough sugar in this coffee.

10C. Present perfect continuous

Use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity which started in the
past and has continued until now.

+ - ?
I/You/We/They’ve been I/You/We/They haven’t Have I/you/we/they
learning English for a been learning English been learning English
long time. for a long time. for a long time?
He/She/it’s been He/She/It hasn’t been Has he/she/it been
learning English for a learning English for a learning English for a
long time. long time. long time?

Don’t use the present perfect continuous with state verbs (be, believe, etc.)

10D. Time and conditional clauses

if/as long as I’ll buy the camera if / as long as it’s cheap.

unless I won’t buy the camera unless it’s cheap.
when/as soon We’ll buy a car when / as soon as we’ve saved enough
as money.
until We won’t buy a car until we’ve saved enough money.

Time clauses and conditional clauses can go before or after the main clause.

Unit 11
11A. Indirect questions
 direct question indirect question
closed question with be. Is there a newsagent’s Can/Could you tell me if
near here? there’s a newsagent’s
near here?
closed question with an Can I buy a map here? Do you know if I can
auxiliary verb and a buy a map here?
main verb.
open question with be. Where is the town hall? Do you know where the
town hall is?
open question with an When does the shop Can/Could you tell me
auxiliary verb. open? when the shop opens?

11B. To have something done

I have my hair styled every week.

My sister’s having her house
painted
They’ve had a new garage built

● Make the causative (to have something done) with subject + have +
object + past participle.

11C. Have to, need to , should , ought to

● Use have to/ need to say that it is necessary to do something.

● Use don’t have to / needn’t + verb to say that it isn't necessary to do
something.
● Use Should/ought to /shouldn’t + verb to give advice.

have to/need to + verb You have to take the pills three times
a day.
You’ll need to show your passport at
the hotel.
should/ought to/shouldn’t + verb You should make an appointment to
see the doctor if you’re ill.
You ought to keep a first aid kit in
your car.
you shouldn’t leave medicine where
children can reach it.

11D. Non defining relative clauses

● Use defining relative clauses to identify the person, thing, or place you
are talking about.
● Use non defining relative clauses to add extra information to a sentence.

people My sister, who is from Barcelona,

speaks Castellano and Catalan.
possessive Sam, whose father is a doctor , is
studying French.
things, places (subject) Edinburg, which is in the east of
Scotland , is a beautiful city.
places (object) Edinburg, where we spent our
holiday, is a beautiful city.
times The accident happened on tuesday,
when I was driving home.

● We don't need to use a subject or object pronoun (he/they/it,etc.) when we

use a relative pronoun..
● We can't leave the relative pronoun out of a non-defining relative clause.
● Use commas to separate a non-defining relative clause from the rest of a
sentence.
12A so, because, (in order) to

Use so to talk about the result of a situation.

Use because to talk about the cause of a situation.

Use (in order) to to talk about a purpose.

so I got up late so I missed the bus.

because I missed the bus because I got up

late.

(in order) to I got up early (in order) to catch the

bus.

12B wish

Use wish to talk about unreal situations in the present.

Use hope to talk about things that we want to happen in the future.

Use be glad to say that you are happy about situation.

real situation wish / hope / be glad

I’m so tired. I wish I wasn’t / weren’t so tired.

I’m not rich. I hope I’ll be rich soon.

I live in the city I wish I didn’t live in the city centre.

centre.

I haven’t got any I’m glad I haven’t got any problems.

problems.
 I can’t drive. I wish I could drive.

They won’t speak I hope they’ll speak to me tomorrow.

to me today

● Change the tense in sentences with wish to show that the situations is
unreal

12C -ing and -ed clauses

Use -ing and -ed clauses to add extra information about the subject of a
sentence.

-ing clauses The story is about a man. The story is about a man
+He’s working in London. working in London.
-ed clauses The author was a man. The author was a man
+His name was Emerson Hough. called Emerson Hough.

● Form -ed clauses with any past participle, including irregular past
participles, e.g. written, seen, said, etc.
● Use -ing and -ed clauses when both clauses in a sentence have the same
suject.
● Use -ed for past tenses and -ing for continuous tenses.

12D. 3rd conditional

Use the third conditional to talk about an imagined situation in the past
(something that didn’t happen) and its imagined result.

If we’d worked harder at school, we’d have passed our exams.

If they’d invited me to the party, I wouldn’t have gone.
If he hadn’t gone to Mexico, He wouldn’t have met his future wife.
If you’d won the lottery last week, What would you have done with the
money?
● Use the past perfect in the if clause and would have + past participle in
the main clause.
● ‘d in the if clause is a contraction of had, but ‘d in the main clause is a
contraction of would.
● The if clause can go before or after the main clause.
● When a conditional sentence begins with the if clause, use a comma to
separate the two clauses.