STUDY GUIDE

SUBJECT: REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

COURSE MODULE: RCD2601

DEPARTMENT: CIVIL & CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Compiled by: Dr BW Wekesa, Pr.Eng

Moderated by: Prof BD Ikotun

Open Rubric
 PREFACE

1 General

This study guide contains only the extended syllabus. You will have to supplement this by
making reference to the listed prescribed and recommended books for more information on
reinforced concrete design. It is expected of you to do a great deal of self-study.

You are invited to discuss any problems that you may have regarding this subject with your
lecturer.

2 Purpose

The purpose of this module, Reinforced Concrete Design (RCD2601), is to enable students
to develop competencies and skills for the designing of structural elements of reinforced
concrete buildings. Students completing this module will be equipped with knowledge and
skills applicable to the structural design of reinforced concrete elements (slabs, beams,
columns, stairs, foundations and retaining walls). This will be achieved through the
application of empirical rules and design procedures in order to meet the requirements of the
applicable national standards and codes of practices.

3 Syllabus

The syllabus for this module, Reinforced Concrete Design (RCD2601), consists of the
following topics:

• Materials – concrete and steel

• Structural Analysis

• Design philosophy

• Structural Design of reinforced concrete elements (beams, slabs, columns, stairs,

foundations & retaining walls)

• Drawings

• Computer aided design –Prokon Structural Analysis and Design software

i
4 Outcomes

This module has five outcomes which are in line with the set outcomes of the Engineering
Council of South Africa (ECSA). The three applicable here are listed below:

• ECSA Graduate Attribute 3: Engineering Design (Perform procedural design of

components, systems, works, products or processes to meet requirements, normally
within applicable standards, codes of practice and legislation.)

• ECSA Graduate Attribute 5: Engineering methods, skills and tools, including

Information Technology (Use appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering tools including information technology for the solution of well-defined
engineering problems, with an awareness of the limitations, restrictions, premises,
assumptions and constraints.)

• ECSA Graduate Attribute 6: Professional and technical communication

(Communicate effectively, both orally and in writing within an engineering context.)

Module-related resources

5 Prescribed books

• Reinforced Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Parrott G, SAICE. ISBN:978-1-

919858-14-2

• Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement

& Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010

• SANS 10100-1 (SABS 0100), The Structural use of concrete – Part 1: Design, SABS.
ISBN: 0626056071

• SANS 10160-1, Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial structures
– Part 1: Basis of structural design, SABS. ISBN: 978-0-626-26428-4

• SANS 10160-2, Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial structures
– Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads, SABS. ISBN: 978-0-626-24759-1

• SANS 10160-3, Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial structures
– Part 3: Wind actions, SABS. ISBN: 978-0-626-26430-7
ii
6 Recommended books

• Mosley, WH, Hulse, R and Bungey, JH. 1999. Reinforced concrete design, 5th ed,
Macmillan Press Ltd, London

In addition, any other suitable reinforced concrete design book is RECOMMENDED as a

supplementary reading to the course material. Pay special attention to neatness, method
of calculation, layout of calculations and checking your calculations.

7 Pre-requisite subjects
The following subject areas at diploma level are pre-requisites for entry to Reinforced
Concrete Design (RCD2601):
• Construction Materials
• Civil Engineering Drawing II
• Theory of Structures.

The equivalent pre-requisite subjects in terms of the Unisa curriculum are:

• CMA1501 – Construction Materials

• CDW2602 – Civil Engineering Drawing II

• TST1501 – Theory of Structures

8 Co-requisite Subjects

• SAN2602 – Structural Analysis

iii
 Table of Contents

1 LEARNING UNIT 1: MATERIALS: CONCRETE & STEEL ................................ 1

1.1 Learning outcomes ........................................................................................... 1

1.2 Concrete ............................................................................................................ 1

1.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
1.2.2 Concrete strength ........................................................................................ 2
1.2.3 Elastic properties ......................................................................................... 3
1.2.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity ...................................................................... 4
1.2.5 Poisson’s ratio.............................................................................................. 4
1.2.6 Shear Modulus ............................................................................................. 4
1.2.7 Unit weight ................................................................................................... 5
1.2.8 Time-dependent behaviour .......................................................................... 5
1.2.9 Creep ........................................................................................................... 6
1.2.10 Durability of concrete ................................................................................... 6
1.2.11 Environmental exposure classes ................................................................. 7
1.2.12 Concrete specification .................................................................................. 8

1.3 Steel ................................................................................................................... 9

1.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 9
1.3.2 Stress-strain curves ..................................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Bar sizes and bends .................................................................................. 11
1.3.4 Bar shapes and bending dimensions ......................................................... 11
1.3.5 Fixing of reinforcement .............................................................................. 11

1.4 Tutorial questions – Materials: Concrete & Steel ......................................... 12

2 LEARNING UNIT 2: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS ............................................. 14

2.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 14

2.2 Analytical models............................................................................................ 14

2.2.1 Fundamental principles .............................................................................. 14
2.2.2 Boundary conditions .................................................................................. 16

2.3 Loads (forces and actions)............................................................................. 18

2.4 Methods of structural analysis ...................................................................... 20

2.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 20
2.4.2 Simple rules of static equilibrium analytical methods ................................. 20
2.4.3 Flexibility and displacement methods ........................................................ 22
2.4.4 Moment distribution .................................................................................... 23
2.4.5 Coefficients for equal loads on equal spans............................................... 23
2.4.6 Moving loads on continuous beams ........................................................... 23

2.5 Framed structures........................................................................................... 24

iv
2.6 Wall and frame system ................................................................................... 24

2.7 Redistribution of bending moments.............................................................. 24

2.8 Tutorial questions – Structural Analysis ...................................................... 25

3 LEARNING UNIT 3: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND REQUIREMENTS ............ 26

3.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 26

3.2 Design philosophy .......................................................................................... 26

3.3 Limit states ...................................................................................................... 27

3.3.1 Ultimate limit state ...................................................................................... 27
3.3.2 Serviceability limit state .............................................................................. 27
3.3.3 Other limit states ........................................................................................ 28
3.3.4 Characteristic material strength ................................................................. 28
3.3.5 Nominal loads ............................................................................................ 29
3.3.6 Partial factors of safety .............................................................................. 30
3.3.6.1 Partial factors of safety for materials (γm) ................................................. 30
3.3.6.2 Partial factors of safety for loads (γf) ......................................................... 30

3.4 Design principles and requirements ............................................................. 32

3.4.1 Design for flexure of reinforced concrete cross-sections ........................... 32
3.4.1.2.Stress-strain relationship for reinforcement in bending ............................. 33
3.4.1.3.Distribution of strain and stress at a section in bending ............................ 34
3.4.1.4.The relationship between the strain in the reinforcement and concrete .... 37
3.4.1.5.Limit on the neutral axis depth .................................................................. 37
3.4.1.6.Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete ...................................... 38
3.4.1.7.Analysis and design of singly reinforced rectangular sections .................. 39
3.4.2 Resistance to shear ................................................................................... 44
3.4.3 Resistance to torsion (analysis and design for torsion) .............................. 45
3.4.4 Fire resistance ........................................................................................... 45

3.5 Design for serviceability ................................................................................. 46

3.5.1 Deflection ..................................................................................................... 46
3.5.2 Cracking ...................................................................................................... 46

3.6 Tutorial questions – Design philosophy ....................................................... 48

4 LEARNING UNIT 4: DESIGN OF BEAMS ....................................................... 49

4.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 49

4.2 Load -carrying mechanism ............................................................................ 49

4.3 Beams .............................................................................................................. 51

4.3.1 Beams supporting rectangular panels ........................................................ 51
4.3.2 Design process .......................................................................................... 52
v
 4.3.3 Preliminary design and member dimensions ............................................. 53
4.3.4 Effective span length .................................................................................. 54
4.3.5 Effective width of flanged width .................................................................. 55
4.3.6 Curtailment of reinforcement ...................................................................... 56
4.3.6.1............................................................................................... Simplified rules
56
4.3.7 Anchorage of reinforcement ....................................................................... 57

4.4 Tutorial questions – Design of beams .......................................................... 58

5 LEARNING UNIT 5: DESIGN OF SUSPENDED FLOOR SLABS ................... 62

5.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 62

5.2 Suspended floor slabs .................................................................................... 62

5.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 62
5.2.2 One way spanning slabs ............................................................................ 63
5.2.3 Two-way spanning slabs ............................................................................. 63
5.2.4 Non-rectangular panels .............................................................................. 65
5.2.5 Flat slabs.................................................................................................... 65

5.3 Tutorial questions – Design of suspended floor slabs ................................ 66

6 LEARNING UNIT 6: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF COLUMNS ...................... 71

6.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 71

6.2 General requirements ..................................................................................... 71

6.3 Design of columns .......................................................................................... 72

6.4 Tutorial questions – Design of columns ....................................................... 74

7 LEARNING UNIT 7: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS .............. 79

7.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 79

7.2 General Information ........................................................................................ 79

7.3 Tutorial questions – Design of foundations ................................................. 80

8 LEARNING UNIT 8: DESIGN OF STAIRCASES ............................................. 84

8.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 84

8.2 General Information ........................................................................................ 84

8.3 Tutorial questions – Design of staircases .................................................... 85

vi
9 LEARNING UNIT 9: DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS ................................... 87

9.1 Learning outcomes ......................................................................................... 87

9.2 General Information ........................................................................................ 87

9.3 Tutorial questions – Design of retaining walls ............................................. 88

10 LEARNING UNIT 10: DRAWINGS ................................................................... 91

10.1 Learning outcomes ..................................................................................... 91

10.2 Reinforcement detailing considerations (bond and anchorage) ............. 91

10.3 Tutorial questions – Drawings ................................................................... 92

11 LEARNING UNIT 11: COMPUTER PROGRAMS ............................................ 95

11.1 Learning outcomes ..................................................................................... 95

12 REFERENCES.................................................................................................. 96

vii
 TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Typical stress-strain curves for normal weight concrete .............................. 4
Figure 2-1: Idealization of a structure ................................................................................ 15
Figure 2-2: Beam with arbitrary loading............................................................................. 15
Figure 2-3: Hinge support .................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2-4: Roller support .................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-5: Fixed support ..................................................................................................... 17
Figure 2-6: Rotational support............................................................................................. 17
Figure 2-7: Translational support ........................................................................................ 18
Figure 2-8: Example of beam under load .......................................................................... 21
Figure 3-1: Probability density function for materials strength ....................................... 29
Figure 3-2: Probability density function for loads ............................................................. 29
Figure 3-3: Stress -strain relationship for concrete in bending ...................................... 33
Figure 3-4:Short-term stress -strain relationship for reinforcement .............................. 34
Figure 3-5: Strain distribution .............................................................................................. 35
Figure 3-6: Moment curvature response ........................................................................... 35
Figure 3-7: Concrete stress block....................................................................................... 36
Figure 3-8: Strain distribution .............................................................................................. 37
Figure 3-9: Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete ......................................... 38
Figure 3-10: Lever arm curve .............................................................................................. 41
Figure 3-11: Doubly reinforced concrete section ............................................................. 43
Figure 3-12: Beam section................................................................................................... 48
Figure 4-1: Three-dimensional structure and elements i.e. frames, slabs, beams and
columns ................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4-2: Frame, slabs, beams and columns load carrying mechanism .................... 50
Figure 4-3: Beams and load carrying mechanism ........................................................... 52
Figure 4-4: Beam dimensions ............................................................................................. 53
Figure 4-5: More than one layer of reinforcement............................................................. 54
Figure 4-6: Effective span lengths for beams ................................................................... 55
Figure 4-7: Section of a continuous beam ........................................................................ 59
Figure 4-8: Typical floor plan ............................................................................................... 60
Figure 4-9: Sketch of a cantilever T-beam in plan and section ..................................... 61
Figure 5-1: A typical form of slab construction ................................................................. 63
Figure 5-2:One-way slab ...................................................................................................... 63
Figure 5-3: Two-way slab..................................................................................................... 64
Figure 5-4: Flat slab .............................................................................................................. 65
Figure 5-5:Typical concrete floor plan ............................................................................... 67
Figure 5-6:Slab layout for general office block ................................................................. 68
Figure 5-7:A plan of 200 mm thick concrete floor slab .................................................... 69
Figure 5-8:A plan of RC slab panel .................................................................................... 70
Figure 6-1: A frame structure .............................................................................................. 72
Figure 6-2: Idealised frame to two-dimension line structure i.e. columns and beams . 72
Figure 6-3: A reinforced concrete structure ...................................................................... 74
Figure 6-4:Illustration of a reinforced concrete column ................................................... 75
Figure 6-5:Illustration of internal column ........................................................................... 77
Figure 6-6: Illustration of a braced column of cross-section 500 x 350 mm ................ 78
Figure 7-1: A column base................................................................................................... 81

i
Figure 7-2: A concrete foundation ...................................................................................... 82
Figure 8-1:Concrete staircase ............................................................................................. 85
Figure 8-2: Concrete staircase ............................................................................................ 86
Figure 9-1: Cantilever retaining wall................................................................................... 88
Figure 9-2: cantilever retaining wall.................................................................................... 90
Figure 10-1: A reinforced concrete beam .......................................................................... 92
Figure 10-2: Bottom reinforcement (Robberts, 2010) ..................................................... 93
Figure 10-3: Top reinforcement (Robberts, 2010) ........................................................... 94

ii
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Characteristic cube strength (source SANS 10100-1, Table 2) ................... 3
Table 1-2: Unit weight of concrete ........................................................................................ 5
Table 1-3: Examples of environments exposure classes ................................................. 7
Table 1-4: Required cover to concrete in (mm) (SANS 10100-2) ................................... 8
Table 2-1: Density of concrete, mortar and plaster (SANS 10160-2) ........................... 18
Table 2-2: Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings (Source SANS
10160 -2)................................................................................................................................. 19
Table 3-1: Values of partial factors of safety for materials (γm) ..................................... 30
Table 3-2: Values for partial factor of safety for loads (γf ) .............................................. 31
Table 3-3: Typical values of yield stress and strain for reinforcement steel ................ 34
Table 3-4: Minimum dimension required for fire resistance of reinforced concrete
(source SANS 10100-2) ....................................................................................................... 46
Table 4-1:Effective lengths in beams ................................................................................. 54

i
1 LEARNING UNIT 1: MATERIALS: CONCRETE & STEEL

1.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this learning unit, you will be able to:

• understand the properties of concrete and steel that influence the behaviour and
durability of reinforced concrete structures
• explain the behaviour and durability of reinforced concrete structures
• specify design requirements for concrete and steel materials for reinforced concrete
structures

It is important to understand the properties and specifications of concrete and steel as

specified in regulations, standards, and codes of practice. This is because the empirical
rules and design procedures applied/specified in such documents rely on the properties of
the materials. Thus, the outcome of structural design of reinforced concrete structures is
influenced by the properties of steel and concrete with its constituent materials.

1.2 Concrete

1.2.1 Introduction

In general, the purpose of structural design is to ensure that a structure has a high probability
of resisting any loads and forces to which it is likely to be subjected to during its lifespan and to
remain in equilibrium and transfer such loads to the supporting ground. The construction
materials and methods used should be strong enough to ensure the structure possesses
adequate strength and stability to withstand the loads and forces. The main aim is to
guarantee the safety and health of the public.

The main materials used in constructing reinforced concrete structures are concrete and steel.
The combination of concrete and streel results in a homogenous material (reinforced concrete)
which has exceptionally good properties, i.e. high tensile and compressive strength. Concrete
and steel are complimentary and chapter 2 of the recommended textbook, Analysis and
Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute,
Midrand, 2010, provides detailed information on the properties of reinforced concrete material.
Concrete and its properties as a construction material were covered in detail in the
Construction Materials module (CMA1501 at Unisa or at diploma level elsewhere) which

1
includes the pre-requisite subject for entry to Reinforced Concrete Design (RCD2601).

Concrete as a material on its own consists of crushed rock and sand, bound together with a
hardened paste of cement and water. A large range of cement, aggregates, chemical
admixtures and other additives are available in the market. These can be used to produce a
range of concrete grades having the required properties in both the fresh and hardened states.

The design requirements for concrete and its constituent materials in construction works are
specified in various national standards and codes of practice, for example, SANS 2001-
CC1:2012.

Since the purpose of this subject is to enable students to develop competencies and skills for
the designing of structural elements of reinforced concrete structures, this section deals only
briefly with those properties that influence the behaviour and durability of concrete structures.
These include physical and mechanical properties, time-dependent behaviour and durability,
amongst others. A good reference textbook is Fulton’s Concrete Technology, published by the
Cement and Concrete Institute. The text provides in-depth information on the design,
manufacture and use of concrete as a construction material.

A short description of some of the properties that influence the behaviour and durability of
concrete structures appears below. For more details and clarity, students are advised to refer
to the above-mentioned textbooks and the subjects already covered.

1.2.2 Concrete strength

The strength of concrete is specified as a strength class or grade, namely the 28-day
characteristic compressive strength of specimens made from fresh concrete under
standardised conditions. The characteristic strength is defined as that level of strength below
which 5% of all valid test results are expected to fall. In SANS 10100-1, strength grades are
specified in terms of cube strength, as shown in Table 1.1 below.

The short grade of a concrete mix is an indication of its strength. For example, a grade 25
means that the concrete concerned has characteristic cube strength of 25 MPa at the age of
28 days. Compressive strength of concrete increases with time. However, in design, the
compressive strength recorded at 28 days is used.

2
Table 1-1: Characteristic cube strength (source SANS 10100-1, Table 2)
Grade 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Characteristic cube strength fcu28 (MPa) 20 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 45.0 50.0
Required strength at 3 months (MPa) 23 29 34 39 44 49 54

The specimens for testing the strength of concrete are prepared in accordance with SANS
5861. The specimens are either cubes of 150 mm or cylinders of 300 mm high by 150 mm
diameter and tested in accordance with SANS 5863. For normal weight aggregates, concrete
strength test results from concrete cylinders show about 80% of the corresponding cube
strength.

Research shows that the compressive strength of concrete depends primarily on the
properties of the concrete mix. These are:
o water/cement ratio
o properties of aggregates
o admixtures porosity
o curing (duration, moisture content, temperature)
o age of testing
o shape and size of specimen (cube or cylinder)
o testing procedure (applied load rate, moisture conditions)

Details on how the above properties affect the compressive strength of concrete were covered
in the Construction Materials module at diploma level. Students are also advised to refer to
the textbook, Fulton’s Concrete Technology, for more information on the strength of concrete.

1.2.3 Elastic properties

Concrete is a variable material, having a wide range of strength and stress-strain curves (see
Figure 1.1). However, the initial behaviour of concrete under service load is almost elastic, but
under sustained loading, the strain increases with time.

Considering a typical stress-strain curve, as in Figure 1-1, the following can be observed:
• Initially the curve is linear (elastic range) and, as the loading increases, the curve
ceases to be linear and the concrete behaves more as a plastic material.
• In the elastic range, if the load is removed, most of the strain will be recovered.
However, if the load is removed within the plastic range, the recovery is no longer

3
 complete, and a permanent deformation remains.
In structural design of concrete structures, the ultimate strain allowed is approximately 0.0035.

Figure 1-1: Typical stress-strain curves for normal weight concrete

1.2.4 Young’s Modulus of Elasticity

Although the initial deformation is considered elastic, the relationship between stress-strain in
concrete is not truly linear. A point on the stress-strain curve is identified and used for defining
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity. The Young’s Modulus of Elasticity commonly used for short-
term effects is referred to as the Secant Modulus (Ec) or Static Modulus. It is measured at 1/3
of the compressive strength (fcu). The value of the Young’s Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete is
influenced mainly by the aggregates used. For a given aggregate, the value increases with the
strength of concrete and age at loading.

1.2.5 Poisson’s ratio

Poisson’s ratio (v) i.e. the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain for a concrete element varies
between 0.15 and 0.25. In design, SANS10100 - recommends a value of 0.2.

1.2.6 Shear Modulus

Shear modulus or (modulus of rigidity) G is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain and for
concrete G = Ec /2(1 + V) = 0.4 Ec, where Ec = Static modulus and V = Poisson’s ratio.

4
1.2.7 Unit weight

In structural design of reinforced concrete structures, the unit weight of concrete is taken as
24 kN/m3. Table 1-2 below gives typical values of unit weight of various types of concrete.

Table 1-2: Unit weight of concrete

Type of concrete Unit
weight
(kN/m3)
Plain un-reinforced concrete 23.00
Reinforced concrete
• Nominal 24.00
• 2% reinforcement 25.00
• 3% reinforcement 26.00

The values make provision for a nominal amount of steel reinforcement.

1.2.8 Time-dependent behaviour

The total long-term concrete strain is the sum of elastic strain, shrinkage and creep. Most
books allude to the fact that shrinkage takes place because of a reduction in volume caused
initially by the absorption of water by the cement and aggregate and, later, by evaporation of
water in the capillary tubes. If concrete that has been left to dry in air of a given relative
humidity is subsequently placed in water (or a higher relative humidity), it will swell due to
absorption of water by the cement paste. However, not all the initial drying shrinkage is
recovered, even after prolonged storage in water. In general, drying is much slower than
wetting and, as a consequence thereof, shrinkage takes place. In designing reinforced
concrete elements, the factors listed below must be considered. These factors have an
influence on the shrinkage of hardened concrete.
• Water / cement ratio (W/C) - shrinkage increases with W/C ratio
• Cement type – finer cement tends to increase shrinkage
• Cement content – higher cement content increases shrinkage
• Aggregate/cement ratio – a higher ratio decreases shrinkage
• Aggregate – aggregates with higher porosity increase shrinkage, while an increased
modulus of elasticity of the aggregate will decrease shrinkage
• Curing – a longer curing period decreases shrinkage
• Section dimensions – thin sections shrink more than thick sections. The effective
thickness of a section is normally expressed as the ratio of its volume to its cross-
section.
• Moisture content of environment – a high relative humidity of the environment will

5
 decrease shrinkage.

When concrete sections are restrained against movement caused by shrinkage, tension
stresses, which can induce cracks, are developed. The development of shrinkage cracks can
be limited by providing enough movement joints and by the sequence of construction.
Shrinkage cracks are often controlled by providing enough shrinkage reinforcement in the
sections. Again, for details on how the above factors influence shrinkage of hardened concrete
refer, to subject matter included in the Construction Materials module at diploma level.
Students are also advised to refer to the textbook Fulton’s Concrete Technology for more
information on the subject matter.

1.2.9 Creep

Creep is defined as the increase in strain beyond the initial elastic value that occurs in
concrete under a sustained constant stress, after considering other time-dependent
deformations not associated with stress. In normal weight concrete (unit weight of 24 kN/m3),
the source of creep is the hardened cement paste. The aggregate restrains the creep in the
paste, so that the stiffer the aggregate and the higher its volumetric proportion, the lower the
creep of the concrete. Creep is also affected by:
• water / cement ratio (creep reduces with a decrease in W/C),
• porosity of concrete (higher porosity causes higher creep),
• strength of concrete (which is inversely proportional to creep),
• relative humidity of the air (the lower the relative humidity, the higher the creep), and
• section thickness (the thinner the sections, the greater the creep).

Creep can have unfavourable effects, such as increased deflection. However, it can also be
advantageous in other situations, such as in relieving stress due to restraint of imposed
deformation, differential settlement and seasonal temperature change. For details on how
creep in concrete is affected by the above factors, refer to the subject matter covered in the
subjects forming part of the “Construction Materials” module at diploma level. Students are
also advised to refer to the textbook, Fulton’s Concrete Technology, for more information on
the subject matter.

1.2.10 Durability of concrete

Concrete must be durable in natural environments, which range from mild to extremely
aggressive. It must be resistant to factors such as weathering, chemical attack, and abrasion.

6
For concrete containing reinforcement, the surface concrete must provide adequate protection
against the ingress of moisture and air, which would eventually cause corrosion of the
embedded steel. The protection of steel in concrete against corrosion depends on the
concrete cover.

The strength of concrete (grade) is used as a guide to concrete durability. However, many
other factors must also be considered, the most important being the degree of permeability.
A high free water/cement ratio in concrete reduces permeability. Concrete must be fully
compacted to eliminate air voids and effective curing is necessary to ensure continuity of
hydration.

1.2.11 Environmental exposure classes

The environment to which concrete is exposed during its intended life is classified into various
levels of severity, i.e. mild, moderate, severe & very severe. For design and specification
purposes, examples of such environmental exposure classes are given in Table 1-3.

Table 1-3: Examples of environmental exposure classes

Exposure environment Examples
classes
Mild Unpolluted air (no risk of corrosion or attack, such as concrete inside
buildings with very low air humidity)
Moderate Sheltered from severe rain
Buried in non-aggressive soil – many foundations
Subjected to polluted air
(Generally, risk of carbonation-induced corrosion)
Severe Ground environment with chlorides
Seaside environment with chlorides
Corrosive fumes with chlorides
Salt-laden air
(Generally, risk of chloride-induced corrosion other than sea water)
Very severe Salty water – industrial wastewater
Sea water
(Generally, risk of chloride-induced corrosion)

For each category of environmental exposure, minimum requirements regarding the quality of
the concrete (grade), and the cover to the reinforcement, are given in Table 1.4. As stated
earlier, the protection of steel in concrete against corrosion depends on the concrete cover.
7
The required cover (thickness) is related to the exposure class, the concrete quality (grade)
and the intended working life of the structure.

Table 1-4: Required cover to concrete in (mm) (SANS 10100-2)

Exposure Concrete grade (MPa)
conditions 20 25 30 40 50
Mild 25 25 25 25 25
Moderate 25 30 25 20
Severe 50 40 40 35
Very severe 60 50

Codes of practice such as SANS 10100-2 specify values for covers needed to ensure safe
transmission of bond forces and provide adequate fire-resistance for the reinforced concrete
member (see Table 1-4). In addition, it may be necessary to make allowance for abrasion or
for surface treatment such as bush hammering.

Thus, corrosion of steel in concrete is avoided through design criteria and measures. The
design criteria include aggressivity and environment and specified service life. On the other
hand, design measures include provision of enough cover thickness, use of sufficiently low
permeability of concrete (in combination with cover thickness) and avoiding harmful cracks
parallel to reinforcing bars.

1.2.12 Concrete specification

Details on how to specify concrete, and what to specify, are given in standard codes of
practices. A good reference is SANS 2001-CC1:2012, section 4.2 Materials and Annex A. For
example, it can be specified that, the grade of concrete shall be 30 MPa. This means that the
designed concrete has characteristic strength of 30 MPa, and the concrete producer is
responsible for selecting the mix proportions to meet the required performance.

The specification can also be prescribed, i.e. the specification states the mix proportion, in
order to satisfy performance requirements in terms of the mass of each constituent. For
example, the mix proportions for the prescribed mix shall be in accordance with Table 5 or 6,
SANS 2001-CC2:2012, as appropriate.

8
1.3 Steel

1.3.1 Introduction

Steel for reinforcing concrete generally consists of deformed bars or welded fabric mesh. The
alkaline environment provided by a durable concrete cover protects steel against corrosion. In
South Africa, steel reinforcement bars are generally specified, ordered, and delivered to the
requirements of SANS 10144. The standard recommends methods for detailing steel
reinforcement for concrete elements. It also provides shape codes, the area and mass of
reinforcing steel, and bond and lap lengths for fully stressed bars. Students are advised to
refer to the Civil Engineering Drawing II module for techniques on detailing steel
reinforcement.

Steel reinforcement bars are round in cross-section, having two or more rows of uniformly
spaced transverse ribs, with or without longitudinal ribs. The pattern of transverse ribs varies
with the grade and can be used as a means of identification. Refer to the textbook Analysis
and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete
Institute, Midrand, 2010, for an illustration of patterns of steel reinforcement bars.

Information about basic properties of steel reinforcement bars was covered in the Construction
Materials module at diploma level. Some of this information is also given in Table 1-5.

Table 1-5: Basic properties of reinforcing bars

Type of Pattern of transverse ribs Denoted Characteristic yield
reinforcement by strength fy (MPa)
Hot-rolled mild steel Smooth bars without any marks R 250
Hot-rolled high-yield Ribbed bars with pairs of Y 450
steel longitudinal marks at 1.5 m intervals
Cold-worked high- Ribbed bars without longitudinal Y 450
yield steel marks
Welded wire fabric Ribbed bars without longitudinal FS or FD 485
marks welded together at points of
intersection

1.3.2 Stress-strain curves

Figure 1-2 shows typical stress-strain curves for hot-rolled steel reinforcement. The
relationship in tension is linear up to yield. The yield stress/strength is where there is a
pronounced increase of strain at constant stress. Any further small increases in stress are as a

9
result of work hardening and are accompanied by considerable elongation. A maximum stress
(tensile strength) is reached, beyond which further elongation is accompanied by stress
reduction to failure.

Figure 1-2: Stress-strain relationship

The characteristic strength of steel is defined as the 0.2% proof stress, i.e. a stress which, on
unloading, would result in a residual strain of 0.2%. The initial part of the stress–strain curve is
linear to beyond 80% of this value. See Figure 1.3 for definition of proof stress and work
hardening. For design purposes, the yield or 0.2% proof condition is normally critical.

Figure 1-3: Definition of proof stress

10
1.3.3 Bar sizes and bends

The nominal size of a bar is the diameter of a circle with an area equal to the effective cross-
section area of the bar. The range of nominal size (millimetres) is from 6 to 50, with preferred
sizes of 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40. Values of the total cross-section area provided in a
concrete section, according to the number or spacing of the bars for different bar sizes, are
given in standard text books, such as Parrott, G (2008).

Bends in bars should be formed around standard mandrels on bar bending machines. In
SANS 282: 2011, the minimum radius of bend “r” is standardised as 2d for d < 16 and 3.5d for
d >.20 where ‘d’ is the bar size. In some cases (where bars are highly stressed), the bars need
to be bent to a radius larger than the minimum value in order to satisfy the design
requirements and required radius ‘R’ is then specified on the bar bending schedule. To recap
on detailing of reinforcement bars, refer to subject matter covered under “Civil Engineering
Drawing II”. Reinforcement should not be bent or straightened on site in a way that could
damage or fracture the bars.

1.3.4 Bar shapes and bending dimensions

Bars are produced in a stock length of 12 m. In most structures, bars are required in shorter
lengths and often need to be bent. The cutting and bending of reinforcements are generally
specified to the requirements of SANS 282:2011. The standard contains recommended bar
shapes, designated by shape code numbers. The information needed to cut and bend the bars
to the required dimensions is entered in a bar schedule, for example, see Figure 5 (Parrott, G.
2008). To recap on detailing of reinforcement bars, refer to the subject matter covered under
“Civil Engineering Drawing II”. Each schedule is related to a member on a drawing by means
of the bar schedule reference number.

1.3.5 Fixing of reinforcement

Reinforcement bars need to be tied together to prevent their being displaced and to provide a
rigid system. Bars assemblies and fabric reinforcement need to be supported by spacers and
chairs to ensure that the required cover is achieved and kept during the subsequent placing
and compaction of concrete. Refer to SANS 10144:2012 for recommended methods for
detailing steel reinforcement for concrete.

11
1.4 Tutorial questions – Materials: Concrete & Steel

NB. Refer to Annexure A for answers.

1. Which one of the following statements is true?
a) The concrete cover over the reinforcing steel is not important.
b) The concrete cover over the reinforcing steel must be at least 5 mm.
c) The concrete cover over the reinforcing steel must be at least equal to the
aggregate size used in the concrete.
d) None of the above.
2. Which one of the following statements is false?
a) Mild steel has a smooth surface.
b) High tensile steel has a ribbed surface.
c) Drawn wire has a ribbed surface.
d) None of the above.
3. Which one of the following statements is true?
The concrete strength is assessed by measuring the cube crushing strength at:
a) 7 days
b) 14 days
c) 21 days
d) 28 days
4. Which one of the following statements is true?
a) If small cracks start to develop in the concrete in the tension face of the
member, the structural element is danger of collapse.
b) If the concrete in the compression face of the member starts to crumble, the
structural element is in danger of collapse.
c) None of the above.
d) All of the above.
5. Which one of the following statements is not true when reinforcing steel and concrete
are combined?
a) Concrete is usually in the compressive zone.
b) Reinforcing steel is usually in the tensile zone.
c) Concrete is usually in the tensile zone.
d) Reinforced concrete is designed with the assumption that concrete resists
compressive forces.
e) None of the above.
12
6 Which one of the following statements is false?
a) Steel reinforcement is not required in the compression zone of a structural
member.
b) Steel reinforcement is required when the compressive strength of concrete is
exceeded.
c) Stirrups are used to prevent the compression reinforcement from buckling.
d) Stirrups are used to withstand the shear force in a structural member.
7. Which one of the following statements is true regarding the bond strength between
concrete and reinforced steel?
a) Bond strength is a combination of the effects of adhesion, friction and shear.
b) Bond strength does not rely on the shear strength of concrete.
c) There is significant difference between the bond strength of plain and
deformed reinforcing steel.
d) All of the above
9. Which one of the following statements is not true?
a) Concrete is weak in tension.
b) Reinforcing steel has poor durability.
c) Concrete has poor fire resistance.
d) Concrete has good compression strength.
e) Concrete has good durability.

13
2 LEARNING UNIT 2: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

2.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this learning unit, you will be able to:

• develop an analytical model of a structure in the form of slabs, beams, columns and
frames in order to be able to determine the effects (stresses) of applied loads
• determine the loads (forces & actions) a structural element is likely to be subjected to
during its lifespan
• specify the applicable methods of structural analysis used in determining the effects
(stresses) of applied loads on various structural elements, i.e. slabs, beams, columns,
and frames
• apply the applicable methods of structural analysis to determine the effects (stresses)
of applied loads on various structural elements, i.e. slabs, beams, columns, and
frames

In general, the purpose of structural design is to ensure that a structure has a high probability
of resisting any loads and forces (stresses) to which it is likely to be subjected during its
lifespan and to remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting elements and/or
ground. On the other hand, structural analysis is about determining the stresses the structure
is likely to be subjected to during its lifespan.

2.2 Analytical models

2.2.1 Fundamental principles

An analytical model is an idealisation of the actual structure. The structural model should relate
actual behaviour to material properties, structural details, loading and boundary conditions as
accurately as possible. Engineering judgement must be used to define an idealised structure
such that it represents the actual structural behaviour as accurately as is possible. All
structures that occur in practice are three-dimensional and are built up of simpler components
called members or elements i.e. frames, slabs, beams, and columns.

Structures which have regular layout and rectangular in shape can be idealized (modelled) into
two-dimensional frames arranged in orthogonal directions, Figure 2-1(a) & 2-1(b).

14
Figure 2-1: Idealisation of a structure

A structure is said to be two-dimensional or planar if all members lie in the same plane. A
frame is a structural system in which joints are capable of transferring end moments. The
members in the system are assumed to be capable of resisting bending moments, axial force
and shear force.

Beams are those members that are subjected to bending or flexure. They are usually
horizontally positioned and loaded with vertical loads, Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: Beam with arbitrary loading

Structures can be broadly classified into three categories – that is, skeletal, plate and three-
dimensional solid structures as described below – and must be modelled as such.

15
2.2.1.1 Skeletal structures

These are structures consisting of line elements such as a bar, beam, or column for which the
length is much larger than the breadth and depth. A variety of skeletal structures can be
obtained by connecting line elements together using hinged, rigid or semi-rigid joints.
Depending on whether the axes of these members lie in one plane or in different planes, these
structures are termed plane structures or spatial structures. The line elements in these
structures under load may be subjected to one type of force, such as axial force, or a
combination of forces such as shear, moments, torsion, and axial forces.

2.2.1.2 Plated structures

Plated structures consist of elements that have length and breadth of the same order as the
thickness. These elements may be plane or curved in plane, in which case they are called
plates or shells, respectively. The elements are generally used in combination with beams and
bars. Reinforced concrete slabs supported on beams, cylindrical shells, or water tanks are
typical examples of plate and shell structures.

2.2.1.3 Three-dimensional solid

Three-dimensional solid structures have all three dimensions, namely, length, breadth, and
depth of the same order. Thick walled hollow spheres, massive raft foundation, and dams are
typical examples of solid structures.

2.2.2 Boundary conditions

In modelling a structure, the connections of members are referred to as boundary conditions.

There are five different boundary conditions, and these are:

2.2.2.1 A hinge

Figure 2-3: Hinge support

16
A hinge represents a pin connection to a structural assembly, and it does not allow
translational movements (Figure 2-3). It is assumed to be frictionless and to allow rotation of a
member with respect to the others.

2.2.2.2 A roller

Figure 2-4: Roller support

A roller represents a kind of support that permits the attached structural part to rotate freely
with respect to the support and to translate freely in the direction parallel to the support
surface. (Figure 2-4).

2.2.2.3 A fixed support

A fixed support (Figure 2-5) does not allow rotation or translation in any direction.

Figure 2-5: Fixed support

2.2.2.4 A rotational spring

Figure 2-6: Rotational support

17
A rotational spring represents a support that provides some rotational restraint but does not
provide any translational restraint (Figure 2-6).

2.2.2.5 A translational spring

Figure 2-7: Translational spring support

A translational spring (Figure 2-7) can provide partial restraints along the direction of
deformation.

2.3 Loads (forces and actions)

The basic forces and actions acting on a structure are referred to as dead, live and wind loads.
Dead loads, sometimes referred to as permanent loads, are the weights of all the materials
from which the structure is made (e.g. bricks, mortar, concrete, timber, plaster, glass, nails,
screws, etc.). These weights are constant during the life of a structure and are calculated from
tables for weights of materials. SANS10160 – 2 lists the nominal unit weight of different
materials which may be used to calculate the dead loads on a structure, e.g. Table A.1 –
density of concrete, mortar, and plaster.
Table 2-1: Density of concrete, mortar and plaster (SANS 10160-2)
1 2 3
Materials Density kN/m3
Type composition
Mortar Cement mortar 19,0 – 23,0
Gypsum mortar 15,0 – 18,0
Lime-cement mortar 18,0 – 20,0
Lime mortar 12,0 – 19,0
Plaster Cement and sand 23,0
Gypsum 17,0
Lightweight vermiculite 8,0
Reinforced concrete Nominal 24,0 a
2% reinforcement 25,0 a
3% reinforcement 26,0 a
Special heavy weight concrete Natural heavy aggregate 36,0 a
Steel short aggregate 52,0 a
Un-reinforced concrete Nominal 23,0 a
Broken brick aggregate 20,0 a

18
 Lightweight aggregate 15,0 a
a Increase mass density by 1 kN/m3 for unhardened concrete

Live loads or imposed loads refer to the weight of people using the structure and their
furniture, storage goods and so on. As these weights vary with time and space, an average
maximum load is assumed, giving values applicable to the particular use of a structure (see
Table 2-2 and SANS 10160 – 2, Table 1).

Table 2-2: Imposed loads on floors, balconies and stairs in buildings (Source SANS
10160-2)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Category Specific Sub- Example qk Qk
use category (kN/m2) (kN)
A Areas for A1 All rooms in a dwelling unit and a dwelling 1,5 1,5
domestic house, including corridors and lobbies
and A2 Bedrooms, wards, dormitories, private 2,0 1,5
residential bathrooms and toilets in hospitals, and other
activities institutional residential occupancies
A3 Stairs and escape routes in residential 3,0 1,5
occupancies, for example, serving hospitals,
hotels, hostels and other institutional
residential occupancies
A4 Balconies accessible to domestic and 4,0 3,0
residential occupancy areas
B Public areas B1 Office areas for general use 2,5 4,5
(not B2 Public libraries, excluding stack areas 3,0 4,5
susceptible B3 Kitchens, communal bathrooms and toilets in 3,0 5,0
to crowding) educational buildings, hotels, office buildings
and other institutional occupancies
B4 Light laboratories, operating theatres, X-ray 3,0 5,0
rooms
B5 Filing and office storage areas and stack 2,5 m 5,0
areas and in libraries and archives per
stack
height
but ≥ 5,0

Structures are designed to suffer little or no damage when subjected to winds associated with
a 25-year return period. The damage from winds associated with the 50-year return period
shall not prevent the use of the structure for its intended purpose, apart from the possible loss
of roof covering materials, nor should such damage pose a threat to its inhabitants. The
structure must not collapse if subjected to wind speeds substantially greater than the design
value (e.g. in an intense thunderstorm). Wind loads are calculated in accordance with the
provisions of SANS 10160 -3.

In addition to the above, the following loadings are applied to a structure during its lifespan:

19
 • Construction loads
• Temperature loads
• Long term volumetric changes
• Shrinkage, expansion, deflection, deformation, or rotation of other structural
components connected to the element
• Physical impact
• Ground movements caused by changes in soil characteristics
• Earthquakes
• Accidental loads and vegetation.

The calculation of these loadings is much more rigorous, and expert input is necessary.
Structures are designed and constructed such that, in the event of an accident, the damage to
the structure will not be disproportionate to the cause. Refer to SANS 10160-2 for more details
on the calculation of dead and imposed loadings.

2.4 Methods of structural analysis

2.4.1 Introduction

As stated earlier, structural analysis is about determining the stresses the structure is likely to
be subjected to during its lifespan. In order to be able to analyse a structure, it is modelled in
the form of slabs, beams, columns, and frames (members) with details and loading and
boundary conditions as accurately as possible to the actual behaviour of the structure. Design
should be able to ensure that under ultimate load conditions, deformations at critical sections
must remain within the limits that the sections can withstand and, under service load
conditions, deformations must not result in excessive deflection or cracking or both. There are
many analytical methods which have been developed to determine the values (bending and
shearing stresses) for various structural elements, depending on the form of model.

2.4.2 Simple rules of static equilibrium analytical methods

Simple rules of static equilibrium analytical methods are suitable for simple or freely supported
beams and cantilevers. Formulae to determine the shearing forces, bending moments and
deflections produced by various loads on a beam free-supported or fully fixed at its ends can
be found in standard structural analysis books. Students are advised to refer to the Theory of
Structures module covered at diploma level for details on the application of simple rules of
static equilibrium.

20
A structure that is initially at rest and remains at rest when acted upon by applied loads is said
to be in a state of equilibrium. The resultant of the external loads on the body and the
supporting forces or reaction is zero. If a structure or part thereof is to be in equilibrium under
the action of a system of loads, it must satisfy the six static equilibrium equations, i.e.:
• ∑ Fx = 0 , ∑ Fy = 0, ∑ Fz= 0,
• ∑ Mx = 0, ∑ My = 0, ∑ Mz= 0,

The summation in these equations is for all the components of the forces (F) and of the
moments (M) about each of the three axis, x, y, and z. If a structure is subjected to forces that
lie in one plane, say x-y, the above equations are reduced to

• ∑ Fx = 0, ∑ Fy = 0, ∑ Mz= 0,

Figure 2-8: Example of beam under load

Consider, for example, a beam shown in Figure 2-8(a) under the action of the loads shown.
Analyse the beam by determining the reactions at A and B.

The reaction at B must act perpendicular to the surface on which the rollers are constrained to
roll upon. The support reactions to the applied loads, which are resolved in vertical and
horizontal directions, are shown in Figure 2-8(b).

From geometry, it can be calculated that By = √3Bx. To determine the magnitude of the support

21
reactions, take moment about B
• 10Ay – 346.5 x 5 = 0
• From which Ay = 173.2 kN
• Equating the sum of vertical forces, ∑ Fy = 0, gives
• 173.2 + By – 346.4 = 0
• And hence, we get By = 173.2 kN
• Therefore Bx = (By) / (√3) = 100 kN
• Equilibrium in the horizontal direction, ∑ Fx = 0 gives
• Ax – 200 – 100 = 0
• And hence Ax = 300 kN.

2.4.3 Flexibility and displacement methods

Analytical methods for continuous beams and other statically indeterminate structures such as
frames are more complex. Various methods of structural analysis have been developed for
determining the bending moments and shearing forces for continuous beams over two or more
spans and other statically indeterminate structures. These can broadly be divided into two
basic categories, i.e. flexibility (force) and displacement (stiffness or equilibrium) methods. For
learners who are desirous of in-depth understanding and knowledge of structural analysis, the
textbook, Structural and Stress Analysis by THG Megson is one of a number of good
reference books.

Stiffness methods are generally better suited to hand computation than flexibility methods are.
In order to avoid the need to solve large sets of simultaneous equations, methods involving
successive approximation have been devised, for example, moment distribution. Despite the
general use of computers, the ability to use hand methods develops in the engineer an
appreciation of analysis that is invaluable in applying output from the computer.

In the flexibility (force) methods, the behaviour of the structure is considered in terms of
unknown forces, while in the displacement (stiffness/equilibrium) methods the behaviour of the
structure is considered in terms of unknown displacements. For each method, a solution
obtained by modifying the structure to make it statically determinate is combined with a
complementary solution in which the effect of each modification is determined.

For example, consider the case of a continuous beam. For the flexibility (force) methods, the
solution involves removing redundant actions (i.e. the continuity between the individual
members) to leave a series of disconnected spans. For the displacement (stiffness) method,
22
the solution involves restricting the rotation and/or displacements that would otherwise occur
at the joints.

In general, the resulting relationship between forces and displacements is a set of

simultaneous equations that can be set out concisely in a matrix form. The solution of matrix
equations, either by matrix inversion or by a systematic elimination process, is ideally suited to
computer technology. To this end, methods have been devised for which the computer both
sets up and solves simultaneous equations.

2.4.4 Moment distribution

Moment distribution is the best known and simplest system for analysing continuous beams by
hand. It was devised by Hardy Cross in 1929. The method employs a system of successive
approximations that is terminated as soon as the required degree of accuracy has been
reached. The method is simple to remember and apply and gives the engineer a feel for the
system. It can be applied to the analysis of systems containing non-prismatic members and
frames. It is described in many books dealing with structural analysis.

Students are encouraged to revise examples on analysis by moment distribution of continuous

beams, as covered in standard structural analysis books such as Structural and Stress
Analysis, second edition, by THG Megson (2000).

2.4.5 Coefficients for equal loads on equal spans

For beams that are continuous over several equal spans, with equal loads on each loaded
span, the maximum bending moments and shearing forces can be tabulated. See Table 4
SANS 10100-1. The values are used for routine design solutions. The values are applicable
when the characteristic imposed load is not greater than the characteristic dead load and the
variations in span do not exceed 15% of the longest span.

2.4.6 Moving loads on continuous beams

Bending moments caused by moving loads, such as those due to vehicles traversing a series
of continuous spans, are most easily calculated with the aid of influence lines. An influence line
is a curve with the span of the beam taken as the base, the ordinate of the curve at any point
being the value of the bending moment produced at a section when a unit load acts at that
point.

23
Students are encouraged to revise examples on analysis by influence line of moving loads on
continuous beams, as covered in standard structural analysis books such as Structural and
Stress Analysis, second edition, by THG Megson (2000).

2.5 Framed structures

Framed structures are statically indeterminate and theory relating to the analysis of statically
indeterminate beam system applies. A frame can be idealised to a two-dimension line
structure. However, the analysis of a two-dimensional frame is somewhat more complex, than
that of a beam system.

The configuration of the frame or applied loading (or both) is unsymmetrical (side-sway
invariably occurs), many more combinations of load need to be considered, different partial
safety factors may apply, there are critical design conditions and so on. This complexity is
addressed by introducing a degree of approximation in the calculations. For instance, when
considering wind loads acting on regular multi-bay frames, points of contra-flexure may be
assumed to occur at the centres of the beams and columns, thus reducing the frame to
statically determinate. In the case of frames that are not required to provide lateral stability, the
beams at each level acting with the columns above and below that level may be considered to
form a separate sub-frame for analysis. Refer to the prescribed book, Analysis and Design of
Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand,
2010, for typical examples.

2.6 Wall and frame system

In all forms of construction, the effect of wind forces increases in significance as the height of
the structure increases. One way of reducing lateral sway, and improving stability, is by
increasing the sectional size of the component members of sway frames. However, this will
have the direct consequence of increasing storey height and building costs. Often, a better
way is to provide a suitable arrangement of walls linked to flexible frames. The walls can be
external or internal, and can be placed around lift shafts and staircase wells to form core
structures or can be a combination of types.

2.7 Redistribution of bending moments

The bending moments obtained by linear elastic analysis, i.e. as mentioned in section 2.4,
may be adjusted on the basis that some redistribution of moments can occur prior to collapse

24
at ultimate limit state. Theoretically, the reduction of moment at a section assumes the
formation of a plastic hinge at that position prior to the ultimate condition being reached. It is,
therefore, necessary to limit the reduction of moment in order to restrict the amount of plastic-
hinge rotation and control cracking that occurs under serviceability conditions. For this reason,
the maximum ratio of neutral axis depth to effective depth, and the maximum distance
between tension bars, are each limited according to the required amount of redistribution.
Furthermore, such adjustment is useful in reducing the inequalities between negative and
positive moments and minimising the amount of reinforcement that must be provided at a
section, such as the intersection between beam and column, where concreting may otherwise
be more difficult due to the congestion of reinforcement. Revise typical moment redistribution
examples given in the textbook Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM
and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

2.8 Tutorial questions – Structural Analysis

A reinforced concrete beam is continuous over three-spans of 5 m, 7 m and 4 m. The beam

is subjected to a nominal dead load of 25 kN/m and a nominal live load of 20 kN/m. Use the
moment distribution method to analyse the beam and draw the ultimate bending moment
and shear force diagrams, considering all spans are loaded with maximum ultimate load. Re-
distribute the maximum moment obtained by 15% and redraw the final bending moment
diagram.

NB. Refer to Annexure B for answers.

25
3 LEARNING UNIT 3: DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND REQUIREMENTS

3.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• explain the philosophy adopted in structural design of reinforced concrete elements

• apply the concept of limit state design to reinforced concrete elements

• explain/determine design principles and requirements of reinforced concrete

elements

3.2 Design philosophy

In general, the aim of structural design is to ensure that a structure has a high probability of
resisting any loads and forces (stresses) to which it is likely to be subjected to during its
lifespan and remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting elements and/or
ground. Three basic design methods have been developed over time to achieve this aim and
these are:

Permissible stress method – The ultimate strength of the material is divided by a factor of
safety to give safe design stresses, which are usually within the elastic range. Stresses
caused by the working loads must not exceed the permissible stresses.

Load factor method – The working loads are multiplied by a factor of safety to obtain design
loads. Stresses caused by the design loads must not exceed the ultimate strength of the
materials.

Limit states method– The working loads are multiplied by partial factors of safety to obtain
design loads and the ultimate strengths of the materials are divided by a further partial factor of
safety to obtain design strengths. Stresses caused by the design loads must not exceed the
design strength of the materials.

The permissible stress method, although is simple and useful, has shortcomings when it
comes to concrete. The method is based on elastic stress distribution, while concrete is a
semi-plastic material. In addition, it is not suitable when deformations are not proportional to
the load, as in the case of slender columns.

26
The load factor method does not consider the natural variability of materials. The ultimate
strength of materials is used in the calculations. Furthermore, it cannot be used to calculate
deflections and cracking under working loads.

The limit states method overcomes the shortcomings of both the load factor and permissible
stress methods. This is achieved by applying partial factors of safety to both the material
strengths and the working loads, and by varying the magnitude of the factors, depending on
whether plastic conditions at the ultimate limit state are being considered, or whether elastic
conditions under working loads are being considered.

3.3 Limit states

A limit state is defined as a condition at which a structure becomes unfit for its intended use.
The aim of the design is to reduce to an acceptable level the probability of an occurrence of
such a limit state during the design life of the structure. There are two categories of limit state:

• Ultimate limit state (ULS) with probability of being exceeded being 1/106, and

• Serviceability limit state (SLS) with probability of being exceeded being 1/102

3.3.1 Ultimate limit state

At the ultimate limit state, the structure must be able to resist the design loads with a suitable
factor of safety against collapse. The possibility of buckling, overturning or accidental damage,
for example an internal explosion, must also be considered.

3.3.2 Serviceability limit state

Generally, the following are the most important serviceability limit states:

Deflection – the appearance and efficiency of any section of the structure must not be
adversely affected by deflection or rotations.

Cracking – local damage due to cracking, spalling or splitting may not affect the appearance,
effectiveness or durability of the structure.

Durability – This is to be considered in terms of the design life of the structure and the
exposure conditions.

27
3.3.3 Other limit states

Other limit states that may occur are:

Excessive vibration – may cause discomfort or alarm to occupants and can lead to structural
damage.

Fatigue – highly stressed materials can fail under cyclic loads.

Fire resistance – this must be considered in terms of resistance against collapse, flame
penetration and heat transfer.

Special circumstances – any special requirements not covered by normal limit states must be
considered, e.g. resistance to earthquake loading, mining activity or subsidence.

The normal procedure is to design for a critical limit state and then to check if the other limit
states are satisfied. The critical limit state for reinforced concrete structures is usually the
ultimate limit state. However, water-retaining structures and pre-stressed concrete are usually
designed at serviceability limit state with a check on the ultimate limit state.

The limit states failure criteria can be summarised as follows:

(Design load effects Qd) ≤ (Design resistance Rd)

• i.e. γf Qn ≤ fk / γm
• Where Qd = design load effects = γf Qn
• Qn = nominal load
• γf = partial safety factor for loads
• Rd = design resistance = fk / γm
• fk = characteristic material strength
• γm = partial safety factor for materials

3.3.4 Characteristic material strength

A characteristic strength is defined as a strength with a 95% chance of being exceeded. For
example, if many specimens are tested, only 5% of the test results should be less than the
characteristic strength. If the test results follow a normal distribution curve, see Figure 3.1, the
characteristic strength is given by:

28
Figure 3-1: Probability density function for materials strength

• fk = fm - 1.64σ, Where fm = mean strength, and σ = standard deviation

The standard deviation reflects variations in method and control of manufacture, quality of
constituent materials and the nature of the material.

3.3.5 Nominal loads

A characteristic load is defined as a load with a 5% chance of being exceeded (see

Figure 3.2). Theoretically, it should be possible to determine a characteristic design load Qk,
from the following:

Figure 3-2: Probability density function for loads

Qk = Qm ± 1.64σ, where Qm is the mean load.

29
Unfortunately, statistical data for all the loads that may act on a structure is usually insufficient.
It also seems as if the loads do not follow a normal distribution as with material strengths. For
this reason, nominal loads (Qn), where the values are based on experience rather than
statistical data, are therefore used rather than characteristic loads. Refer to section 2.3 of this
document.

3.3.6 Partial factors of safety

Further variations are considered by applying safety factors to material strength.

3.3.6.1 Partial factors of safety for materials (γm)

The design strength (Rd) is determined by dividing the characteristic strength (fk) by a partial
safety factor for materials (γm), thus, Rd = (fk / γm )

The following considerations are important for the choice of partial safety factor for
materials (γm)

• the material strength in a structure may be less than the characteristic strength
obtained from a carefully prepared test specimen. This is particularly important for
concrete where placing, compaction and curing strongly influence strength. For steel,
on the other hand, these variations are small, and a smaller partial factor of safety is
therefore appropriate.

• The importance of the limit state under consideration. It follows that larger values will
be used for the ultimate limit state than the serviceability limit sate.

Values for γm recommended in SANS10100-1 are given in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1: Values of partial factors of safety for materials (γm)

Limit state Concrete Steel

Ultimate Flexure and axial load 1.5 1.15
Shear 1.4 1.15
Bond 1.4
Serviceability 1.0 1.0

3.3.6.2 Partial factors of safety for loads (γf)

Errors and inaccuracies in estimating loads can also arise from the following:
• Design assumptions and normal small inaccuracies in calculations
• Unforeseen increases in loads
30
 • Unforeseen redistribution of stresses
• Inaccuracies that arise during construction

These inaccuracies are taken into consideration by applying a partial factor of safety (γf) to the
nominal load (Qn). Thus, Qd = γf Qn, where Qd is the design load or design load effect.

The factor γf is also required to:

• consider the importance of the limit state under consideration
• indicate the accuracy in predicting the loads
• consider the probability of loads occurring in combination

Typical values of partial factors of safety for loads (γf ), as recommended in SANS 10100-1 are
given in Table 3-2. Values in brackets indicate minimum values to be used if minimum loads
prove to be critical.

Table 3-2: Values for partial factor of safety for loads (γf )

Load Ultimate limit state Serviceability limit state

combination Self-weight Imposed Wind load Self-weight Imposed Wind
load load load load load
Self-weight 1.5 - - 1.1 - -
load (0.9) (1.0)
Self-weight 1.2 1.6 - 1.1 1.0 -
load + live (0.9) (0) (1.0) (0)
load
Self-weight 1.2 0.5 1.3 1.1 0.3 0.6
load + live (0.9) (0) (1.3) (1.0) (0) (0.6)
load + wind
load
See SANS 10160 – 1 (2012) for a more complete discussion on loads and their combinations

As explained in section 2.3 of this document, self-weight loads should include the weight of all
materials and finishes permanently fixed to the structure. Movable partitions, domestic and
sanitary appliances are imposed loads. Also, loads caused by occupants, vehicles (including
accidental loads), environment (wind, temperature, snow, earthquakes) and so on are all
considered to be imposed loads.

Note that the appropriate value of partial factors of safety for loads (γf ) for imposed load and
combination must be determined from SANS10160–1. While the terms self-weight and
imposed load are preferred, the terms dead load and live load are often used instead.

Refer to section 1.4 of the prescribed book, Reinforced Concrete Design to SANS 10100 – 1:
2000, for more information on the approach and application of the concept of limit states. The

31
approach, the definition of different limit states and the use of partial factors are well explained
in the section.

3.4 Design principles and requirements

A limit state design philosophy is adopted in the design of reinforced concrete elements, i.e.
ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability limit state (SLS), as well as durability and, in the
case of buildings, fire resistance. Thus, partial safety factors are incorporated in both loads
and material strength, to ensure that the probability of failure is acceptably low. Structural
members are first designed to satisfy the most critical limit-state, and then checked to ensure
that the other limit-states are not reached. Reinforced concrete elements are commonly
designed for the following:

• Bending (flexural), compressive and axial stresses

• Shear stress

• Fire, and

• Serviceability

3.4.1 Design for flexure of reinforced concrete cross-sections

According to Robberts (2010), there is a clear distinction between analysis and design of a
cross-section of reinforced concrete elements. In analysis, the material properties, cross-
section dimensions and reinforcement details are known, and the strength of the section must
be found. In design the forces acting on a section is known and material properties,
reinforcement details and area, section dimensions, must be found.

In design certain variables, for example, the material properties and section dimensions, are
assumed, and the required reinforcement is then found. Based on the results of the
calculation, it may be necessary to adjust the material properties or section dimensions and to
repeat the calculation.

In order to be able to analyse and design a reinforced concrete cross-section of an element –

for flexure, for example – it is necessary to establish the following:
• Stress-strain relationship for concrete section in bending (flexure)
• Stress-strain relationship for reinforcement in bending
• Distribution of strain and stress at a section in a reinforced concrete section in bending
32
 • Relationship between strains and neutral axis depth of a reinforced concrete section in
bending

3.4.1.1. Stress-strain relationship for concrete in bending

Experimental results achieved by others in the testing of a reinforced concrete cross-section

have shown that the short-term stress-strain relationship for concrete in flexure is parabolic up
to a strain εco and stress remain constant up to an ultimate strain εcu = 0.0035, Figure 3-3.

Figure 3-3: Stress-strain relationship for concrete in bending

The recommend (allowable) ultimate design stress in bending often used:

f = (0.67fcu ) / (γm) ≈ 0.45fcu,, where fcu = characteristic concrete strength, and γm = 1.5 =
material safety factor for concrete.

It can be shown that the modulus of elasticity of concrete (Eci) = 5.5 √(fcu/ γm) GPa and εco= 2.4
x10 -4 √(fcu/ γm).

3.4.1.2. Stress-strain relationship for reinforcement in bending

On the other hand, it has been established that the behaviour of steel in compression differs
from that in tension. For short-term stress-strain, the relationship is taken as linearly elastic up
to yield strain, Figure 3-4.

33
Figure 3-4: Short-term stress -strain relationship for reinforcement

Thus:
• Yield Strain in tension (εy) = fy / γm Es, and
• Yield Strain in compression εyc = fyc / Es , where:
o fy / γm = design yield strength in tension, and:
o fy = characteristic yield strength of steel in tension
o γm = material safety factor for reinforcement = 1.15
o fyc = characteristic yield strength of steel in compression
o Es = static modulus of elasticity of reinforcement (steel) = 200GPa

Typical values of yield stresses and strains for reinforcement commonly used in South Africa
are given in Table 3.3.
Table 3-3: Typical values of yield stress and strain for reinforcement steel
Reinforcement Symbol Tension Compression
Type
Yield strength Yield strain Yield strength fyc Yield strain
fy εy (x 10-3) εyc (x 10-3)
Mild steel R 250 1.087 196.1 0.980
High yield Y 450 1.957 327.3 1.636
Welded wire FS or FD 485 2.109 348.3 1.741
Fabric

3.4.1.3. Distribution of strain and stress at a section in bending

Distribution of strain and stress at a section in a reinforced concrete section in bending is

34
premised on the assumption that, once the concrete has cracked, it does not provide any
resistance in tension and all tensile stresses are resisted by reinforcement. It is also assumed
that plane sections, before bending, remain plane after bending, i.e. the strain distribution at a
section is linear, Figure 3-5. This assumption does not apply to deep beams where shear
deformations are critical.

Figure 3-5: Strain distribution

However, if a reinforced concrete beam of a given cross-section is “loaded” with a bending

moment which is increased until the beam fails, and moment curvature response is plotted,
four ranges can be identified, Figure 3-6.

Figure 3-6: Moment curvature response

35
Interpretation of the moment curvature response in terms of stress block (Figure 3.7) is as
follows:

• 1- Concrete is uncracked: For small applied moments and where the section is un-
cracked, the concrete and reinforcement behaviour is linear.

• 2- Concrete is cracked: When applied moment is increased and the concrete in tension
cracks, the section is approximately linear elastic. All the tension stresses are assumed
to be carried by the reinforcement. To ensure linear elastic behaviour, the section is
designed so that stresses caused by service loads fall within the elastic ranges of both
concrete and reinforcement. At the serviceability limit state, the concrete stress block
will therefore be triangular.

• 3- Concrete stresses are nonlinear: Further increases in bending moment will cause
the concrete stresses to become nonlinear and the reinforcement will start to yield. The
behaviour is now plastic, i.e. if the moment is removed, permanent deformation will
remain. The beam does not collapse when the reinforcement starts to yield. The ductile
nature of reinforcement allows it to deform while maintaining the “tensile force” and
therefore, maintaining the moment of resistance.

• 4- Concrete fails in compression: The fourth range is where concrete fails in

compression when the strain at the top fibres reaches εcu = 0.0035. Concrete failing by
crushing is brittle failure, followed by a complete loss of resistance in the concrete. The
beam will be unable to carry this moment any further and will collapse. This is what is
considered as the ultimate limit state. The concrete stress block has the parabolic
rectangular shape.

Figure 3-7: Concrete stress block

A reinforced concrete section exhibits a ductile behaviour which is highly desirable in design.

36
Large deformation serves as warning that the structure is approaching failure. This behaviour
is possible only when the reinforcement yields before concrete fails (i.e. concrete strain
reaches εcu = 0.0035). If the concrete were to fail before the steel yielded, the failure would be
brittle with little or no warming.

One method of ensuring the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails is to place a limit on
the neutral axis depth at failure. It must be noted that the neutral axis of a given cross-section,
which is incrementally loaded (moment), moves upwards as the beam approaches failure.

3.4.1.4. The relationship between the strain in the reinforcement and concrete

The relationship between the strain in the reinforcement and the strain in the concrete at the
top of the section is determined by considering equivalent triangles in the strain distribution,

Figure 3-8: Strain distribution

(εst) / (d-x) = εc / x, so that εst = εc (d -x)/x

Similarly, the strain in the compression reinforcement is given by:
• (εsc) / (x-dI )= εc / x, so that εsc = εc (x-dI) / x
A further useful relationship exists between the neutral axis depth and strains:
• x/d = (εc)/ (εst +εc), so that x = d (εc / (εst+ εc)

3.4.1.5. Limit on the neutral axis depth

In order to ensure that the reinforcement yields before the concrete fails, a limit is placed on
37
the neutral axis depth at failure. Consider the case where the concrete at the top fibres fails by
crushing and the tensile reinforcement reaches its yield strength at the same time.
• From the equation x = d (εc / (εst+ εc) above, the neutral axis depth (x) at failure will be
• x = d (εc / (εy+ εcy) = [ 0.0035/ (0.001957 + 0.0035) ] = 0.6414d
• Note. Concrete fibres fail when the strain εcu = 0.0035 and
• εy = fy / (γm Es) = 450 / (1.15 x 200 x 103)

This failure remains brittle in nature and is therefore undesirable. For a reinforced concrete
section, a limit is placed on the depth of the neutral axis to achieve yielding of reinforcement
before crushing of concrete, i.e. x ≤ 0.5d.
• Taking moment redistribution (see section 2.7 of this document) into account, the limit
of x is
• x ≤ (βb – 0.4) d where
• βb = (moment at the section following redistribution) / (moment at the section before
redistribution) and must be ≤ 1.0
• d = effective depth of the tensile reinforcement.

3.4.1.6. Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete

Figure 3-9: Equivalent rectangular stress block for concrete

Consider Figure 3-9. The concrete stress block, at failure, has the parabolic rectangular
shape. In order to determine the resultant of the concrete compression stresses (Fcc), you
integrate the concrete stresses over the compression zone. The line of action of (Fcc) is
determined by equating the moment of the stress distribution to that of the resultant force
about a point. It is a rigorous process. This process is simplified for a section of constant width
by replacing the parabolic-rectangular stress distribution with an equivalent rectangular stress-
block.

Mathematically, the magnitude of the stress resultant (Fcc) must remain the same for the two
stress distribution blocks. In other words, the area of the equivalent rectangular stress block
38
must therefore be equal to that of the parabolic -rectangular stress block.

The line of action of Fcc must coincide for the two distributions. The centroid of the rectangular
stress block must therefore be at the same height as that of the parabolic-rectangular stress
block.

These two requirements can be met, in an approximate but conservative manner, if the
equivalent rectangular stress block has an intensity of 0.45fcu and a depth s = 0.9x

NB. Simplification of the stress block simplifies the design and analysis of concrete sections

3.4.1.7. Analysis and design of singly reinforced rectangular sections

As explained earlier in Reinforced Concrete Structures, analysis is where the material

properties, cross-section and reinforcement details are known and the strength of the section
must be found.

Analysis of singly reinforced rectangular section

Consider a section of a singly reinforced concrete beam in bending at ultimate limit state as
shown in Figure 3-9. Take the section as failing in bending, i.e. the strain in the top fibre has
reached the ultimate strain εcu = 0.0035 with a stress distribution in concrete as shown.

N.B. The area of reinforcement = As (is known)

The moment resistance of the section (M) must be determined (i.e. strength of the section).
• Material properties and cross-section are known
• Horizontal equilibrium yields, Fcc = Fst, but
o Stress = force /area, therefore
o Force = stress x area
o For Fcc = 0.45fcu x (sxb) and Fst = 0.87fy x As
o Therefore, 0.45fcu x (sxb) = 0.87fy x As,
o S = (0.87fy x As) / (0.45fcu x b), but s = 0.9x and x = s/0.9
o Taking moments @ Fcc
o M = Fst.Z = 0.87fy x As (d – s/2)
o = 0.87fy x As (d – 0.87fy x As / 0.45fcu x b x 2)
o M = 0.87fy x As (d – 0.87fy x As / 0.90 fcu x b)

Design of singly reinforced rectangular section

39
Design is where the forces acting on a section are known and the following must be
determined:
• Materials properties for concrete and reinforcement
• Section dimensions
• Reinforcement areas, etc.

Consider a beam in bending at the ultimate limit state as shown in Figure 3-9. The ultimate
moment at the section, caused by the design loads acting on the structure, is known and the
area of reinforcement must be determined.

The stresses in the concrete and reinforcement at the ultimate limit state will have internal
results Fcc and Fst respectively. For equilibrium, the moment caused by the internal stress
resultant is equal to ultimate moment caused by the design loads i.e.
• M = Fcc x Z = Fst x Z, where Fcc = stress x area = 0.67/1.5 fcu x bs ≈ 0.45fcu x b.s
• Internal lever arm z = d-s/2, therefore s = 2(d-Z)
• Therefore, M = Fcc x Z = (0.45fcu x b x s) x Z

Substituting for s:

• M = Fcc x Z = (0.45fcu x b x 2(d-Z) x Z = 0.90fcu x b x (d-Z) x Z

The only unknown, Z, can be solved by finding the roots to the quadratic equation. However,
for design purposes it is useful to have Z in a dimensionless form. Therefore, the above
equation is divided by d2.
•
M = 0.90fcu x b x (d-Z) x Z = 0.90fcu b z d - 0.90fcu b Z2
• 0.90fcu b Z2 - 0.90fcu b z d + M = 0
• Divide through by 0.90fcu b, then, Z2 - z d + M/0.90fcu b = 0
• Divide through by d2, then (Z2)/d2 – (z d)/d2 + (M/0.90fcu b)/d2 = 0
• (Z/d)2 – (z /d) + (M/0.90fcu bd2) = 0
• Taking (M/fcu bd2) = k, then (Z/d)2 – (z /d) + k/0.90) = 0, the root of the above equation
• z/d = 1 ± √(1 - 4x 1 x k/0.9) / 2
• = 1 ± 2 √(0.25 - k/0.9) / 2
• = [ 1 ± √(1 - 4x 1 x k/0.9) ] / 2
• = 0.5 ± √(0.25 - k/0.9)
• Since Z must be greater than 0.5d, the correct root for the lever-arm ratio la is
• La = z/d = 0.5 + √(0.25 - k/0.9

40
The required area of reinforcement As is determined by assuming the stress in the
reinforcement is equal to the yield stress fy.

The resultant force in the reinforcement is then

• Fst = fs x As = (fy / γm) As = (fy / 1.15) As ≈ 0.87fyx As
• Substituting Fst in M = Fst x Z, then
• M = (0.87fyx As) x Z
• As = M / 0.87fyx Z

Therefore, in designing singly reinforced sections, use the following equations:

• K = (M/fcu bd2)
• La = z/d = 0.5 + √(0.25 - k/0.9
• As = M / 0.87fyx Z
Plotting of La = z/d = 0.5 + √(0.25 - k/0.9, Figure 3-10, shows that the lever arm-arm (Z)
reduces as the moment increases, i.e. as the moment M increases, a greater force in concrete
is required and therefore the depth of the stress block (s) increases. However, Z = d – s/2,
therefore, as s increases , Z decreases, hence the observed behaviour.

Figure 3-10: Lever-arm curve

SANS10100 places limits on the lever-arm ratio, i.e. 0.775d ≤ Z ≤ 0.95d

Lower limit 0.775d

41
The lower limit 0.775d is to ensure the reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes. As
stated earlier, a limit x ≤ 0.5d is placed on the depth of the neutral axis so that the
reinforcement yields before the concrete crushes. But s = 0.9X, substituting for x
• S = 0.9 (0.5d)
• S ≤ 0.45d , but s = 2 (d-z), therefore, 2 (d-z) ≤ 0.45d
• d-z ≤ 0.225d
• z ≥ d – 0.225d
• z ≥ 0.775d

For the limit in the lever-arm, the limit maximum moment can be determined by substituting for
Z in the equation
• M = 0.45 fcu b x s x Z
• M = 0.67/1.5 fcu b (0.45d) (0.775d)
• M = 0.156 bd2fcu
• Alternatively, the limit in terms of k
• K = M/bd2 = 0.156

Therefore, for a given moment:

K > 0.156, then x > d/2 and the tension reinforcement may not yield at failure, resulting in
brittle failure. If the section dimensions cannot be increased, compression reinforcement must
be provided.

Upper limit Z ≤ 0.95d

The lever-arm Z increases as the moment decreases. From equation s = 2 (d -z), the depth of
the stress block “s” will decrease as z increases. This means that, for very small moments, the
strength depends on the strength of a thin layer of concrete in the very top of the beam. Bleed
water migrating to the top causes this concrete to have a higher water/cement ratio than the
rest of the concrete, as well as compacted concrete lower down in the beam. A limit of 0.1d is
therefore placed on the depth of the stress block “s”.
• S = 2 (d-z) ≥ 0.1d
• d-z ≥ 0.05d
• z ≤ d – 0.05d
• ≤ 0.95d.

42
Design of doubly reinforced rectangular section

Figure 3-11: Doubly reinforced concrete section

Consider the doubly reinforced beam shown in Figure 3-11. It would be economical to use the
greatest possible depth for concrete in compression and hence we select
• X = d/2, so that , s = 0.9x = 0.45d
• And
• Z = (d- s/2) = d – 0.45d/2) = 0.775d

From the selection of the neutral axis depth x = d/2, it should be clear that the tensile
reinforcement will be yielding at failure. In the derivation of the subsequent equations it will be
assumed that the compression reinforcement is also yielding at failure.
• The forces at a section are
• Fst = 0.87fyAs
• Fcc = (0.67/1.5 ) fcu.b.s = (0.67/1.5) fcu b (0.45d) = 0.201 fcub.d
• Fsc = fycA’s
• Taking moments about the tension reinforcement As
• M = Fcc. Z + Fsc (d-d’)
• = 0.201bdfcu(0.775d) + fyc A’s (d-d’)
• = 0.156bd2fcu + fyc A’s (d-d’), from which
• A’s = (M - 0.156bd2fcu) / fyc (d-d’),
• Consider horizontal equilibrium of forces
• Fst = Fcc + Fsc
• 0.87fyAs = 0.201 fcub.d + fycA’s
• As = (0.156 b d2 fcu/0.87fy.Z) + (fyc/0.87fy) A’
• Making the following substitutions K’ = 0.156

43
 • And K = M/bd2fcu, then
• A’s = (K – K’)bd2 fcu / fyc(d-d’)
• As = (K’ bd2 fcu) / 0.87 fy.Z + (fyc / 0.87 fy). A’

It must be noted that these equations apply only if the compression reinforcement yields at
ultimate. When this is not the case, the design equations are adjusted. How the equations are
adjusted is not covered in this module.

3.4.2 Resistance to shear

Shear forces give rise to diagonal tension in the concrete and bond stresses between the
reinforcement and the concrete. The shear force in a concrete beam without shear
reinforcement is resisted by the following:
• Uniform shear stresses in the compression zone
• Aggregate interlock along the shear crack
• Dowel action in the bars where the concrete between cracks transmits shear force to
the bars.

The actual behaviour of shear forces in a reinforced concrete section is complex and very
difficult to analyse, but results from experimental investigations give reasonable design
procedures.
• V = V /bd, where V = shear stress
• V = shear force due to ultimate loads
• d = effective depth
• b = taken as the average width of web below the flange

The ultimate allowable shear stress in beams Vc = 0.75/ γm(fcu/25)1/3(100As/bd)1/3(400/d)1/4,

where γm = partial material factor = 1.4, see Table 3.1, section 3.3.6 of this document.

• (100As/bd) Is the percentage of properly anchored tension reinforcement at the point

considered and should not be taken as greater than 3%.

• fcu = shall not be taken to exceed 40 MPa.

In design, ensure that in no case, even with shear reinforcement, will shear stress exceed a
value which is the lesser of 0.75 √fcu or 4.75.

To calculate stirrups, i.e. the required area of steel for shear, the following equation is used:

44
 • Asv/Sv = b(v-vc)/0.87fyv, where Asv = is the area of the total number of legs to each link
usually 2 (legs per link)
• fyv = is the characteristic strength of the links, Sv = spacing of the links and b, v and vc
are defined as before.

Sudden failure can occur at the onset of shear cracking in members without shear
reinforcement. Therefore, a minimum amount of shear reinforcement in the form of links is
required in nearly all beams. The minimum area of stirrups is given by:

Asv/Sv = 0.0012bt and for mild steel Asv/Sv = 0.002bt , where bt = the breadth of the beam at
the level of the tension reinforcement, Asv and Sv defined as before.

Resistance to shear can be increased by adding more shear reinforcement but, eventually, the
resistance is limited by the capacity of the inclined struts that form within the web of the
section. Information on the design for shear, including worked examples, are well covered in
chapter 3 of the Reinforced Concrete Design to SANS 10100-1: 2000 textbook by Greg
Parrott.

3.4.3 Resistance to torsion (analysis and design for torsion)

Torsion is due to twisting force. The torsional shear stress Vt results from the applied ultimate
torsional moment. Similarly, information on the design for torsion is covered in the textbook
Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement &
Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010. When it is judged necessary to include torsional stiffness in
the analysis of a structure, or when torsional resistance is vital for static equilibrium, members
should be designed for the resulting torsional moment. When torsion reinforcement is required,
this should consist of rectangular closed links together with longitudinal reinforcement. Such
reinforcement is additional to any required for shear and bending.

3.4.4 Fire resistance

Building structures need to conform, in the event of fire, to the performance requirements
stated in the building regulations “SANS 10400: The Application of the National Building
Regulations”. For stability, the elements of a structure need to provide a specified minimum
period of fire-resistance in relation to a standard test. The required fire period depends on the
purpose group (occupancy classification) of the building and the height of building relative to
the ground (refer to SANS10400 – T; Table 1). Design for fire is usually in the form of
tabulated data specifying minimum values for member size and concrete cover. The required
45
nominal cover to all reinforcement and the minimum dimensions for various members are
given in section 8.2 of SANS 10100-2 (see Table 3-4).

Table 3-4: Minimum dimension required for fire resistance of reinforced concrete (source
SANS 10100-2)
Description Dimensions Fire resistance (h)
(mm) 4 3 2 1.5 1 0.5
Siliceous aggregate concrete Cover1 65* 55* 45* 35 25 15
Width2 280 240 180 140 110 80
As in (a) with cement gypsum, 15 mm Cover1 50 * 40 30 20 15 15
thick, with light fabric reinforcement Width2 250 210 150 110 85 70
As in (a) with vermiculite/gypsum plaster Cover 25* 15 15 15 15 15
or sprayed asbestos, 15 mm thick, on Width 170 145 115 85 60 60
light fabric reinforcement securely fixed
to the beam
Low density aggregates Cover 50 45 35 30 20 15
Width 250 200 160 130 100 80
1Average concrete cover to main reinforcing bars
2Maximum beam width

*Supplementary reinforcement may be necessary to hold concrete cover in position

**Vermiculite/gypsum plaster should have a mix ratio in the range of 1.5:1 to 2:1 by
volume

3.5 Design for serviceability

Design for serviceability is what is commonly referred to as “other code requirements” and
these include:

3.5.1 Deflection

The deflection of members under service loading should not impair the appearance or function
of a structure. An accurate prediction of deflection at different stages of construction may also
be necessary in bridges, for example.

For buildings, the final deflection of members below the support level, after allowance for any
pre-camber, is limited to span/250. To minimise any damage to non-structural elements such
as finishes, cladding or partition, that part of the deflection that occurs after the construction
stage is limited to span/500.

3.5.2 Cracking

Cracks in members under service loading should not impair the appearance, durability or
water-tightness of a structure. For buildings, the design crack width is generally limited to

46
0.3 mm. To control cracking in the regions where tension is expected, it is necessary to ensure
that the tensile capacity of the reinforcement at yielding is not less than the tensile force in
concrete just before cracking. Thus, a minimum amount of reinforcement is required,
according to the strength of the reinforcing steel and the tensile strength of the concrete at the
time when cracks may first be expected to occur. Generally, for design, there is no need to
calculate crack widths explicitly, and simple rules that limit either bar size or bar spacing
according to the stress in the reinforcement are provided.

47
3.6 Tutorial questions – Design philosophy

NB. Refer to Annexure C for answers.

QUESTION 1 (Limit states)

A reinforced concrete beam in an office block is subjected to the following characteristic

loads: Gk = 5 kN/m, Q1 = 10 kN/m, and Q2 = 20 kN/m.

Determine the loadings for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and serviceability Limit State (SLS)
using SANS 10160.

QUESTION 2 (Design requirements: bending, axial, shear, torsion, fire, durability,

serviceability – cracking & deflection)

The total self-weight of a floor must be calculated and expressed as a pressure over the floor
area. The floor is made of a 150 mm thick reinforced concrete slab and has 254 x 146 x 31
kg/m I-beams spaced 3 m apart. The floor spans 5 m and is 15 m long.

QUESTION 3

Calculate the ultimate moment of resistance of a beam shown in Figure 3.12, below, if
redistribution of the maximum moment will be limited to 10% and fy = 450 N/mm2 and fcu =
25 MPa.

Figure 3-12: Beam section

48
4 LEARNING UNIT 4: DESIGN OF BEAMS

4.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a beam and explain how it forms part of a load carrying mechanism in a
structure.
• determine design requirements, i.e. stresses and other code requirements for
reinforced concrete beams
• design reinforced concrete beams as structural elements.

The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked examples.

4.2 Load -carrying mechanism

There are four basic load-carrying mechanisms (structural organisation) which can be
employed in a building to ensure forces, actions and reactions from supporting ground act
together in proving equilibrium. These are defined by various terms, but here are referred to
as: continuous units, frames, shells and plates and air-supported fabrics. A structure resists
the combined applied loads mainly by compression, tension or a combination of the two. It
must be noted that load carrying mechanisms may influence the appearance and other
functions of a structure.

Most structural enclosures are, however, hybrid, utilising several of the above four basic load-
carrying mechanisms. There are many reasons for this mixing, the most common being fitness
for intended purpose, buildability, appearance and cost.

Historically, the choice of a mechanism for a structure is initially dictated by characteristics of

the supporting soil and the precise nature of all the structural influences (nature of span
required – long or short, the height of the building, and the weight of necessary materials, etc.)
However, technological solutions are now available which make almost every structural
organisation possible and an increasing burden is how to make rational decisions.

In practice, all four structural organisations are three-dimensional and are built up of simpler
components called members or elements i.e. frames, slabs, beams and columns (see Figure
4.1 and 4.2). A frame is a structural system in which joints are capable of transferring end
moments. The members in a frame system are assumed to be capable of resisting bending
49
moments, axial force and shear force.

Typically, beams and slabs are structural members subjected to bending, while columns are
subjected to a combination of bending and axial force.

Figure 4-1: Three-dimensional structure and elements, i.e. frames, slabs, beams and columns

Figure 4-2: Frame, slabs, beams and columns load carrying mechanism

50
4.3 Beams

Beams are structural members subjected to bending or flexure, Figure 4.2. They are usually
horizontal in position and loaded with vertical loads. In theory of structures, a normal beam is
defined as a member in which a clear span (L) is equal to or greater than twice the effective
depth (d), or a member with a span (L) not less than 3 times the overall depth (h). Otherwise,
the member is treated as a “deep beam”, for which different design methods are applicable.

Beams are used as primary load-carrying members in buildings and are the structural
members which, generally, support the slabs and transfer the load to the columns. Beams are
designed for flexure (bending), shear, torsion and deflection.

Some beams in portal frames, for example, might be subjected to bending and axial force. In
such cases, small axial forces that are beneficial in providing resistance to bending are
generally ignored in design. For more details, refer to Analysis and Design of Concrete
Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

In general, the purpose of designing beams is to ensure that the beam has a high probability
of resisting any loads and forces to which it is likely to be subjected to during its lifespan and to
remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting elements.

4.3.1 Beams supporting rectangular panels

When designing beams supporting a uniformly loaded panel that is freely supported along all
four edges, or with the same degree of fixity along all four edges, it is generally accepted that
each of the beams along the shorter edges of the panel caries load on an area in the shape of
a 450 isosceles triangle whose base is equal to the length of the shorter side (see Figure 4.3).
Each beam along the longer edge of the panel carries the load on a trapezoidal area. In the
case of a square panel, each beam carries a triangularly distributed load equal to one-quarter
of the total load on the panel.

51
Figure 4-3: Beams and load carrying mechanism

The Reinforced Concrete Design to SANS 10100-1: 2000 textbook by Greg Parrott provides a
good overview on the design of beams especially for students at Diploma level. Chapter 3
quite concisely defines beams and how they form part of a load-carrying mechanism in a
structure. It provides a brief background on the theory, leading up to the design formulae
popularly used in the design of beams. The procedure for design of beams and other code
requirements including deflection are covered adequately. The chapter concludes by providing
worked examples.

4.3.2 Design process

A typical design of a beam is in two stages, i.e. the preliminary and final stages. First, the
designer must select certain variables, such as material properties and section dimensions, at
the start of the design. The remaining unknowns are then determined by ensuring that the
design satisfies all limit state requirements. The design process is interactive; however, the
number of repetitions can be reduced through experience.

52
4.3.3 Preliminary design and member dimensions

In selecting the section width ‘b’ and effective depth of reinforcement ‘d’, the following should
be kept in mind:

As a general rule b = d/3 to d/2 but b should be less than 200 mm. However, to provide the
necessary head room, a wide beam may be used.

Economically, it is usually best to avoid the need for compression reinforcement M/bd2fcu ≤
0.156

To avoid the need for an excessive amount of compression reinforcement, M/bd2 fcu ≤ 10/fcu

To avoid congestion of shear reinforcement, v < vu/2 (vu = lesser of 0.75√fcu and 4.75 MPa

The basic span-effective depth ratio l/d should at least be met for the preliminary design. The
influence of fs and M/bd2 is accounted for in the final design

The overall depth of the beam is given by h = d + cover + t, where “t” is the distance from the
outside of the link to the centroid of the tension reinforcement. For example, a beam with a
single layer of tension reinforcement (see Figure 4.4), where h = 450 mm, b = 230 mm, cover
c = 25 mm, main bars Y16 and R8 as the links, then effective depth “d” is given by:

Figure 4-4: Beam dimensions

• h = d + cover + Ɣv + Φ/2, where Ɣv = diameter of the link and Φ diameter of the tension
reinforcement.

450 = d + 25 + 8 + 16/2 , then d = 409 mm

Where there is more than one layer of reinforcement (see Figure 4-5), or different bar

53
diameters, t is measured to the centroid of the tension reinforcement.

Figure 4-5: More than one layer of reinforcement

Cover to reinforcement was discussed in sections 1.2 and 3.7. The requirements for fire
resistance influence both the cover and the minimum beam width and are summarised in
Table 3-4. It is important to note that cover given in this Table applies to main reinforcement
only. The nominal cover, normally used in design and given on drawings, applies to all
reinforcement, including links.

4.3.4 Effective span length

The span of a beam is often taken as the distance between centre lines of supports. This is in
most cases conservative when calculating bending moments and deflections. A more exact
approach is to determine the effective span. For different beam types, the effective lengths are
given in Table 4.1 and illustrated in Figure 4-6 (a),(b), (c ) & (d).

Table 4-1: Effective lengths in beams

Beam Effective length

Simply supported The lesser of:
• Distance between centres of bearings, and
• Clear distance between supports plus an effective depth
Continuous beam Distance between centres of supports. For an embedded end, the centre of
support should be taken as half an effective depth from the face of the support
Cantilever The length to the face of the support plus half an effective depth. If the
cantilever forms part of a continuous beam, the effective length should be taken
as the clear length plus distance to the centre of support.

54
Figure 4-6: Effective span lengths for beams

4.3.5 Effective width of flanged width

In flanged beams, the stresses are assumed to be uniformly distributed over an effective width
beff, despite the shear-lag effect. The effective widths are as follows:

For T-section:

• beff = lesser of bw + Lz/5 and actual flange width

55
For L-section:

• beff = lesser of bw + Lz/10 and actual flange width

Where Lz is the distance between zero moments, as a simplified approach for continuous
beams, Lz can be assumed to be 0.7 of the effective span.

It is important to note that beff applies to sagging bending moment (midspan of beam) only
where the flange is in compression. In hogging bending moment (at a continuous support), the
flange is assumed to be cracked so that the compressive forces are carried by the web, for
which beff = bw.

4.3.6 Curtailment of reinforcement

The required area of reinforcement is usually calculated at a critical section where the bending
moment is at a maximum. Since the bending moment changes along the span, the required
area of reinforcement will also change along the span. By curtailing certain bars, considerable
savings can be made in reinforcement. Curtailment can be carried out from basic principles or
by following the simplified rules.

4.3.6.1. Simplified rules

Simply supported beams: Extend at least 50% of the tension reinforcement provided at
midspan to the supports and give it an effective anchorage of 12 times the bar diameter
beyond the centre line of the support. Extend the remaining 50% to within 0.08 times the
effective span from the centre of the supports.

Cantilever beams: Extend at least 50% of the tension reinforcement provided at the support to
the end of the cantilever. Extend the remaining 50% half the span or 45 times the bar
diameter, whichever is greater, from the face of the support.

Continuous beam, Top reinforcement – No more than 40% of the tension reinforcement over
the supports may be curtailed at 0.15 L from the face of the support, and a further 40% may be
curtailed at 0.25 L from the face of the support. The remaining reinforcement is to continue
through the spans.

Continuous beam, Bottom reinforcement – No more than 70% of the tension reinforcement
may be curtailed at 0.15 L from the centre of interior supports and at 0.1 L from the centre of
exterior supports. The remaining reinforcements are to extend at least to the centre of interior
56
supports and extend 12 times the diameter, past the centre of exterior supports.

4.3.7 Anchorage of reinforcement

At simply supported end, the tension reinforcement should be anchored by one of the following
methods:

• An effective anchorage length 12 times the bar size past the centreline of the support.
If a hook or bend is provided, it should not start before the centre of the support.

• An effective anchorage length 12 times the bar size plus d/2 from the face of the
support. If a hook or bend is provided, it should not start closer than d/2 from the face
of the support.

57
4.4 Tutorial questions – Design of beams

NB. Refer to Annexure D for answers.

QUESTION 1
(i) Name the possible elements that generate loading on beams for a reinforced
concrete frame structure.
(ii) What are the five different types of beams for practical illustration of beam design?
(iii) A simple supported rectangular beam with cross sectional dimension of 300 x
500 mm spans 7000 mm. The characteristic design dead load, including allowance
for self-weight, is 14 kN/m and the characteristic design live load is 32 kN/m.
Calculate the required reinforcement to resist the possible maximum bending
moments. Use concrete class 25 and exposure conditions as mild.

QUESTION 2

A three-span rectangular beam is subjected to the following nominal loads, Dn = 2 kN/m

excluding self-weight) and Ln = 5 kN/m. Each span is 6000 mm. Calculate an appropriate
beam size and the required area of reinforcing steel, given that the exposure conditions are
mild and a 1-hour fire rating is required. In addition, design for shear and check deflection.
Use fcu = 25 MPa and fy = 450 MPa.

QUESTION 3

A roof beam spans 4500 mm c/c and is 450 mm by 250 mm in cross-section. It supports a
parapet wall 230 mm thick and 1500 mm high constructed of burnt clay bricks, which in turn
supports a lean-to roof 4000 mm wide. If the ultimate total load of the roof is 4.5 kN/m2,
estimate the load on the beam and design the beam for flexure and shear. Also check other
code requirements. Assume the beam is simply supported and take the unit weight of the
wall, including finishes, as 19 kg/m3. Use concrete grade 30.

QUESTION 4
A T-beam, continuous over three spans of 6 m each, is subjected to a dead load (self-weight
inclusive) of 15 kN/m and a live load of 12 kN/m.
(i) Calculate the maximum ultimate moments in the end and central spans and at the
interior supports.

58
(ii) Calculate suitable reinforcement to resist the maximum sagging moment if the beam
is 450 mm x 270 mm and it is constructed using grade 25/26 concrete. The exposure
condition is moderate.

(iii) Calculate suitable shear reinforcement using links to resist a shear of 185 kN at the
first interior support, assuming 3Y25 bars are provided to resist the negative moment
at this point.

QUESTION 5
A continuous beam with equal spans of 7 metres has a cross-section as shown in Figure
4.7. The beam has an overall depth of 500 mm with a flange of 150 mm and a web of
300 mm wide. The dead and live loads on the beam are 15 kN/m and 12 kN/m respectively.
If the dead load is inclusive of self-weight:
(a) Calculate the maximum sagging moment near middle of end span and shear force at
first interior support.
(b) Calculate suitable tension reinforcement to resist the moment calculated in (a) if the
beam is to be constructed using grade 25/26 concrete and the exposure condition is
severe.
(c) Calculate suitable shear reinforcement (mild steel) using links to resist a shear at first
interior support, assuming 2Y32 + 1Y25 bars are provided to resist the negative
moment at this point.

Figure 4-7: Section of a continuous beam

QUESTION 6
Figure 4-8 is the floor plan of a typical reinforced concrete building. Assume the slab
supports a live load of 4.0 kNm-2 and floor finishes of 1.0 kNm-2. The overall size of the
beams and slab are as indicated in Figure Q5 and columns are 400 x 300 mm. Take the
characteristic strength of concrete as 30 N mm-2 and for steel reinforcements as 450 Nmm-2.
The cover to all reinforcements may be assumed to be 25 mm.

59
Figure 4-8: Typical floor plan

(i) Calculate the ultimate design load on a typical internal beam (675 x 400 mm)
(gridline B1 – B3).

(ii) Analyse the above beam (gridline B1 – B3) by calculating the maximum bending
moments and shear force. Use the moment distribution method of analysis.

(iii) Draw the ultimate bending moment and shear force diagrams and then re-distribute
the maximum ultimate negative moment obtained by 15%. Redraw the final bending
moment and shear force diagram for the beam.

(iv) Design the above beam for maximum sagging and hogging moments and check for
deflection and shear. Ignore curtailment of reinforcement.

QUESTION 7
Figure 4-9 is a sketch of a cantilever T-beam in plan and section. Nominal live load on the
beam is 20 kN/m. Given the following:
• Beam is 550 mm high and 300 mm wide
• The concrete grade = 25/19 with moderate exposure conditions
• Where applicable, assume Y20 tension bars due to flexure, Y16 bars compression
due to flexure and Y10 bars for shear and torsion.
• All the flexural bars will extend beyond the centre line of the supports.
(i) Design the cantilever beam by calculating the area of reinforcement due to flexure
and shear. Ignore curtailment of steel reinforcement

60
 (ii) Check for span-effective depth ratio

Figure 4-9: Sketch of a cantilever T-beam in plan and section

61
5 LEARNING UNIT 5: DESIGN OF SUSPENDED FLOOR SLABS

5.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a suspended floor slab and explain how it forms part of a load-carrying
mechanism in a structure.
• determine design requirements, i.e. stresses and other code requirements for
reinforced concrete slabs
• design reinforced concrete slabs as structural elements.

• The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked
examples. For more information, refer to the prescribed textbooks, Reinforced
Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Parrott G, SAICE. ISBN:978-1-919858-14-2 and
Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement
& Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010

5.2 Suspended floor slabs

5.2.1 Introduction

Chapter 4 of the textbook Reinforced Concrete Design to SANS 10100-1: 2000 by Greg
Parrott. Greg Parrott starts by explaining how slabs form part of the load carrying mechanism
in a structural system. The chapter gives a brief introduction to various types of slabs and to
how such slabs are analysed for bending moments and shear forces. The various types of
slabs include rib & hollow block, coffer or waffle, voided construction, permanent formwork,
and ribbed beam. The chapter also gives information on the design for flexure (bending) and
shear for the various types of slab. Referencing is to SANS 10100-1 where design slabs are
well covered. A typical form of slab construction is shown in Figure 5-1.

Generally, in monolithic building construction, the column layout often forms a rectangular grid.
Continuous beams may be provided in one-direction, or two orthogonal directions, to support
slabs that may be solid or ribbed in cross-section.

62
Figure 5-1: A typical form of slab construction

5.2.2 One way spanning slabs

As stated earlier, continuous beams may be provided in one-direction, or two orthogonal

directions, to support slabs that may be solid or ribbed in cross-section. Where beams are
provided in one direction only, the slab is a one-way slab. Where beams are provided in two
orthogonal directions, the slab is one-way if the longer side of a slab panel exceeds twice the
shorter side (see Figure 5-2). In one-way spanning slabs, bending moments and shearing
forces are usually determined on strips of unit width for solid slabs and strips of width equal to
the spacing of the ribs for ribbed slabs.

Figure 5-2: One-way slab

5.2.3 Two-way spanning slabs

In two-way slabs, Figure 5-3, the precise amount and distribution of the load taken by each
support, and consequently the magnitude of the bending moments on the slab, are not easily
calculated if assumptions resembling real conditions are made. Generally, approximate
methods of analyses are used. The method applied in many cases depends on the shape of

63
the slab panel, the conditions of restraint at the supports and the type of loading.

Figure 5-3: Two-way slab

There are two basic methods which are commonly used to analyse the two-way spanning
slabs and these are theory of plates and yield-line theory. Theory of plates is based on elastic
analysis and is particularly appropriate to the behaviour of slabs under service loads, while
yield-line theory considers the behaviour of the slab as a collapse condition approach.

In some circumstances, it is convenient to use coefficients derived by an elastic analysis with

loads that are factored to represent ultimate limit state (ULS) conditions, e.g. the case of a
simply supported slab with corners that are not held down or reinforced for torsion.

The analysis must take account of the support conditions, which are often idealised as being
free or hinged or fixed, and whether the corners of the panels are held down. A free condition
refers to an unsupported edge such as, for example, the top of a wall of an uncovered
rectangular tank. The condition of being freely or simply supported, with the corners not held
down, may occur when a slab is not continuous and the edge bears directly on masonry walls
or structural steelwork. If the edge of the slab is built into a substantial masonry wall or is
constructed monolithically with a reinforced concrete beam or wall, a condition of partial
restraint exists. Such restraint may be allowed for when computing the bending moments on
the slab, but the support must be able to resist the torsion and/or bending effects and the slab
must be reinforced to resist the negative bending moment.

A slab can be considered as fixed along an edge if there is no change in the slope of the slab
at the support, irrespective of the incidence of the load. A fixed condition could be assumed if
the polar second moment of area of the beam or other support is very large. Continuity over a
support generally implies a condition of restraint less rigid than fixity – that is, the slope of the
slab at the support depends upon the incidence of load not only on the panel under
64
consideration but also on adjacent panels.

5.2.4 Non-rectangular panels

When a panel that is not rectangular is supported along all its edges and is of such proportions
that main reinforcement in two directions seems desirable, the bending moments can be
obtained approximately from the data given in standard codes of practice. These include
approximately square slab, circular in plan, regular polygon, hexagons and octagons and
circular panels.

5.2.5 Flat slabs

The design of flat slabs (see Figure 5-4), that is, beamless slabs supported directly on
columns, has often been based on empirical rules. Modern codes place much greater
emphasis on the analysis of such structures as a series of continuous frames. Other methods,
such as finite element and yield-line analysis, may be employed.

Flat slab Flat slab with drops

Figure 5-4: Flat slab

A flat slab can be of uniform thickness throughout or can incorporate thickness drop panels at
the column positions. The columns may be of uniform cross-section throughout or may be
provided with an enlarged head. The simplified method may be used for slabs consisting of
rectangular panels, with at least three spans of approximately equal length in each direction
and where the ratio of the longer to the shorter side of each panel does not exceed 2.
Punching shear around the columns is a critical consideration for which shear reinforcement
can be provided in slabs not less than 200 mm thick. The need for shear reinforcement can be
avoided if drop panels or column heads of sufficient size are provided.

65
5.3 Tutorial questions – Design of suspended floor slabs

NB. Refer to Annexure E for answers.

QUESTION 1
(i) State the differences between one-way and two-way spanning slabs.
(ii) What are the various types of slabs and what factors influence the choice of slabs in
structural design?

(iii) It is proposed to build a new carport at a residential house situated in Gauteng

Province, South Africa, near the Unisa Florida campus. The proposed roof is a two-
way spanning slab 4.5 m x 6.0 m. Design the slab – that is, select your own material
properties (concrete) and thickness of the slab and calculate suitable reinforcement. In
addition, check the slab for deflection.

QUESTION 2

The layout of a slab over a proposed double garage has the overall dimensions of 6730 x
5730 mm. It is supported over 230 mm thick walls. The environmental conditions are mild
and 0.5 hours fire rating is required. Given that fcu = 30 MPa and fy = 450 MPa, calculate the
required reinforcement and check all the code requirements (deflection, shear, minimum
area of reinforcement and bar spacing).

QUESTION 3
Figure 5-5, below, is the floor plan of a typical reinforced concrete building structure. Assume
the slab supports a live load of 3.0 kNm-2 and floor finishes of 1.50 kNm-2. The overall size of
the slab and beams are as indicated on the drawing and the columns are 400 x 300 mm.
Take the characteristic strength of concrete = 30 Nmm-2, steel reinforcement = 450 Nmm-2
and the cover to all reinforcements may be assumed to be 25 mm. Design the continuous
one-way spanning slab (bay gridline A/1-5 and B/1-5) by calculating the required flexure
reinforcement for the maximum sagging moment and check for shear and deflection. Ignore
curtailment of bars.

66
Figure 5-5: Typical concrete floor plan

QUESTION 4
A two-way spanning, 6000 mm c/c long and 5000 mm c/c wide reinforced concrete roof slab
is 200 mm thick. It is simply supported on all four sides on a ring beam 250 mm wide and
500 mm deep. The slab is designed to have adequate provision to resist torsion at the
corners and to prevent the corners from lifting. Given the following:
• Nominal live load = 10 kN/m2
• Characteristic material properties:
o concrete (fcu)= 30 N/mm2 and reinforcement steel (fy)= 450 MPa
• exposure conditions – moderate
(i) Calculate the required area of bending reinforcement in the long and short span.
Assume the diameter of main and transverse reinforcements as 12 mm and 10 mm
respectively.
(ii) Check other code requirements (minimum reinforcement, maximum spacing of
reinforcement, shear and deflection).

67
QUESTION 5

Figure 5-6: Slab layout for general office block

The slab shown in the Figure 5-6 is to be used for a general office block. The slab is divided
by panels and is supported by beams, which are also supported by columns. The slab is
power floated and the beams are not cast monolithically with the slab and are truly
supported. The concrete strength is 30 MPa, cover to reinforcement is 25 mm and the unit
weight of the concrete is 2500 kg/m3. Design for flexural reinforcement and check for
deflection in the short span of the slab designated Panel C. Given the characteristic strength
of steel fy = 450 MPa, all columns are 300 x 300 mm and slab thickness is 200 mm. Provide
a simple sketch showing all important information (bar diameters, spacing, area required
etc.) for the slab.

QUESTION 6
Figure 5-7 is a plan of a 200 mm thick concrete floor slab supported monolithically on beams
along the gridlines as shown. Given the following information:
• Ultimate design load on the slab = 12 kN/m2
• Characteristic strength of concrete fcu = 25 MPa
• Characteristic strength of reinforcement steel fy = 450 MPa
• Cover to reinforcement c = 25 mm and Y12 tension bars for flexure
(i) Identify different types of panels in the concrete floor slab in terms of Table 15,
SANS10100.

68
 (ii) Calculate the maximum positive moments at mid-span in both long and short-span
directions per unit width of any panel with two discontinuous adjacent edges as
identified in (i) above.
(iii) Design the slab by calculating the steel reinforcement required in the mid-span for
the short-span moment of the panel in (ii) above. Ignore curtailment of reinforcement.
(iv) Provide a neat sketch of the panel in plan to illustrate your design (assume the
reinforcement is similar in all cases).

Figure 5-7: A plan of a 200 mm thick concrete floor slab

QUESTION 7
Figure 5-8, below, is a plan of an RC slab panel that forms part of a floor for a shelved area
of a library complex. The floor will be finished in terrazzo. It is proposed to use concrete
grade 30/19 with either 12 or 16-mm diameter high tensile steel reinforcement. The
exposure conditions are moderate.
(i) Calculate suitable tension reinforcements required for the entire panel.
(ii) Provide a neat sketch to show placement of reinforcement. Indicate any possible
curtailment without calculating the actual curtailment positions. Torsion steel may be
omitted from the sketch for clarity.
(iii) Calculate suitable longitudinal reinforcement for beam (2) at one of the support
positions if it were to be subjected to an ultimate negative bending moment of 180
kN-m after being reduced by 10% as a result of re-distribution. Provide a sketch.

69
Figure 5-8: A plan of an RC slab panel

70
6 LEARNING UNIT 6: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF COLUMNS

6.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a column and explain how it forms part of a load carrying mechanism in a
structure
• determine design requirements i.e. stresses and other code requirements for
reinforced concrete columns
• design reinforced concrete columns as structural elements

The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked examples.
For more information refer to the prescribed textbooks.

6.2 General requirements

All structures that occur in practice are three-dimensional and are built up of simpler
components called members or elements, i.e. frames, slabs, beams and columns. A column is
defined as a member in which the greater overall cross-sectional dimension does not exceed
four times the smaller dimension. Otherwise, the member is considered as a wall, for which a
different design approach is adopted.

A frame is a structural system (see Figure 6-1) in which joints are capable of transferring end
moments. A frame can be idealised to a two-dimensional line structure, i.e. columns and
beams, Figure 6-2. The analysis of a two-dimensional frame (columns and beams) is
somewhat more complex than that of a beam system only. The members in the system are
assumed to be capable of resisting bending moments, axial force and shear force. The
configuration of the frame or applied loading (or both) is unsymmetrical (side-sway invariably
occur), many more combinations of load need to be considered, different partial safety factors
may apply, as well as critical design conditions and so on. This complexity is addressed by
introducing a degree of approximation into the calculations. For instance, when considering
wind loads acting on regular multi-bay frames, points of contra-flexure may be assumed to
occur at the centres of the beams and columns, thus reducing the frame to statically
determinate. In the case of frames that are not required to provide lateral stability, the beams
at each level acting with the columns above and below that level may be considered to form a
separate sub-frame for analysis. Typically, columns are subjected to a combination of bending

71
and axial force.

Figure 6-1: A frame structure

Figure 6-2: Idealised frame to two-dimension line structure i.e. columns and beams
6.3 Design of columns

The second order effects associated with lateral stability are an important consideration in
column design. An effective height (length) and slenderness ratio are determined in relation to

72
the major and minor axis of bending.

An effective height, or length, is a function of the clear height and depends upon the conditions
of restraint at the ends of the column.

A clear distinction exists between a braced column, with effective height < clear height, and an
un-braced column, with effective height > clear height.

A braced column is one that is fully restrained in position at the ends, as in a structure where
resistance to all the lateral forces in a plane is provided by stiff walls or bracing.

An unbraced column is one that is considered to contribute to lateral stability of the structure,
as in a sway frame.

Slenderness ratio is defined as the effective height divided by the depth of the cross-section in
the plane of bending. A column is then considered as either short or slender, according to the
slenderness ratios. Braced columns are often short, in which case second order effects may
be ignored.

Slenderness is also defined as the effective length divided by radius of gyration of the cross-
section.

Columns are subjected to combination of bending moments and axial forces, and the cross-
section may need to be checked for more than one combination value. In slenderness
columns, the initial moments, obtained from the elastic analysis of the structure, are increased
by addition moments induced by deflection of the column. Details of the design procedures are
given in the textbook, Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and
Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

73
6.4 Tutorial questions – Design of columns

NB. Refer to Annexure F for answers.

QUESTION 1
Figure 6-3 is a reinforced concrete structure. It is braced and the columns are fixed at the
foundation. All columns are 300 x 250 mm and all beams are 400 x 250 mm. Dimensions
shown are to member centreline.
(i) Using the rigorous method, calculate the effective height of column A and B shown in
Figure 6-3 and compare the values from the simplified method. Determine if the
columns are short or slender. Assume end moments M1 = M2 for both columns.
(ii) Calculate the reinforcement required for column A, including links, if axial nominal
dead load on the column (including self-weight) is 300 kN and axial nominal imposed
load is 600 kN. Use 30 MPa concrete and fy = 450 MPa. Ignore any moments on the
column and give a sketch of the column with reinforcements.

Figure 6-3: A reinforced concrete structure

74
QUESTION 2
The storey height, from floor to floor, of a 10-storey reinforced concrete frame structure is
4000 mm. The structure is braced with beams about the y-y axis only and all beams are 500
x 250 mm and slabs are 175 mm. If the column dimensions are 350 mm in the y-direction
and 250 mm in the x-direction, calculate the effective height for the column about each axis
and state whether the column is short or slender.

QUESTION 3

Figure 6-4: Illustration of a reinforced concrete column

Figure 6-4 illustrates a reinforced concrete column (400 x 300 mm) for a multi-storey building
at first floor level. All beams are 500 x 300 mm, floor slab is 175 mm thick and floor height is
3500 mm. Structural analysis of the column for design loading produced bending moments
results as shown in 6-4 If the column is braced about the y-y axis only, ultimate axial load is
1200 kN, cover to reinforcement = 30 mm and concrete grade 30/26, determine suitable
75
reinforcement steel for the column and provide a neat sketch of the section to illustrate your
design.

QUESTION 4
(a) A central short circular concrete column supports symmetrical arrangements of
beams that are designed for uniformly distributed imposed load and have spans that
do not differ by more than 15% of the longer. Design the column, if the column is
2700 mm in height and 250 mm in diameter and it carries an ultimate axial load of
1700 kN. Use concrete grade 30 and mild steel. Check for minimum and maximum
area of main reinforcement.

(b) If the column referred to in 4 (a) above is part of a four-floor office block, determine
the base dimensions of the pad foundation of the column. Assume the maximum
allowable working ground pressure to be 120 kN/m2.

QUESTION 5

A reinforced concrete column in a three-storey building is 450 x 250 mm. The floor height
(measured from floor to floor) is 4500 mm. All beams are 475 x 250 mm and the floor slabs
are 150 mm thick. The column is braced about the weak axis only. A linear analysis of the
column at the first floor level at ultimate limit state produced bending moments in the x-axis
in double curvature as 56 kN-m and 47 kN-m, and in the y-axis in single curvature as 9 kN-m
and 6 kN-m. Calculate suitable reinforcement for the column and provide a cross-section of
the column to show the placing of the reinforcement. Take the end condition at top and
bottom as 1 in both directions. Given axial load N= 685 kN, cover to reinforcement = 40 mm
and concrete grade 30.

QUESTION 6
An internal column in a braced two-storey building supports an approximately symmetrical
arrangement of beams (350 mm wide x 550 mm deep). The column is 350 mm square and
has a clear height of 4.5 m at ground floor, as shown in Figure 6-5. The pad footing is not
specifically designed to provide restraint to rotation of the column. An analysis resulted in the
characteristic dead and live loads of 1100 kN each as being applied to the column. Design
the longitudinal reinforcement and links for the column, assuming fCU = 30 Nmm-2 and fy & fyv
= 450 Nmm-2.

76
Figure 6-5: Illustration of internal column

QUESTION 7
A column between the first and second floors of a multi-storey building is 500 x 250 mm. The
column has a clear height of 3.5 m with an effective length factor of 1.5 in the major axis
(x-x) and 4.0 m with effective length factor of 1.2 in the minor axis (y-y). Consider the column
to be braced in both axes and, given the following:
• Axial load:
o Ultimate live load = 350 kN
o Nominal dead load = 175 kN
• Moments about the major axis (x-x)
o Ultimate top = 55 kN-m
o Ultimate bottom = - 47 Kn-m
• Moments about the minor axis (y-y)
o Ultimate top = - 22 kN-m
o Ultimate bottom = -18 kN-m
• Concrete grade = 30/19 and cover c = 30 mm to main reinforcement
(i) Determine the ultimate design load.
(ii) Calculate the longitudinal reinforcement and stirrups.

77
(iii) Determine how many vertical Y20 bars are required per face and the spacing of R10
stirrups.

QUESTION 8
A braced column of cross-section 500 x 350 mm (Figure 6-4) is subjected to ultimate axial
load of 3000 kN. The column is bent in double curvature due to two end moments about the
y-axis, My1 = 20 kN-m and My2 = 80 kN-m. Give the following, and where symbols have the
usual meaning:
• Cover to reinforcement (c) = 50 mm,
• Reinforcing steel = Y20 diameter bars
• Material properties fcu = 30Mpa, and fy = 450MPa,
• Effective length ley = 4250 mm and lex = 5000 mm
Calculate the required area of the main reinforcement steel and provide a sketch to illustrate
your design.

Figure 6-6: Illustration of a braced column of cross-section 500 x 350 mm

78
7 LEARNING UNIT 7: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS

7.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a foundation and explain how it forms part of a load carrying mechanism in a
structure
• determine design requirements, i.e. stresses and other code requirements, for
reinforced concrete foundations
• design reinforced concrete foundations as structural elements

• The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked
examples. For more information, refer to the prescribed textbooks, Reinforced
Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Parrott G, SAICE. ISBN:978-1-919858-14-2 and
Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement
& Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

7.2 General Information

In general, the purpose of designing foundations is to ensure the foundation has a high
probability of resisting any loads and forces to which it is likely to be subjected to during its
lifespan and remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting ground.

The design of the foundations for a structure comprises three stages. The first stage is to
determine the nature of the ground from an inspection of the site, together with field data on
soil profiles and laboratory testing of soil specimens.

The second stage is to select the stratum on which to impose the load, the bearing capacity
and type of foundation. These decisions depend not only on the nature of the ground, but also
on the type of structure, and different solutions may need to be considered.

The third stage is to design the foundation to transfer and distribute load from the structure to
the ground without failure. Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and
Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010 describes how various types of
foundations can be designed depending on the applied loading.

79
7.3 Tutorial questions – Design of foundations

NB. Refer to Annexure G for answers.

QUESTION 1
(i) What are the common forms of classifications for foundations? State the different
types of foundations under the classifications.

(ii) The proposed administrative block for the Unisa Pretoria campus consists of four (4)
floors of reinforced concrete frame. The columns are 3000 mm c/c in both directions.
The roof is a 200 mm thick reinforced concrete slab and all the floor slabs are
175 mm thick. Determine the required area of the base of one of the centre columns.
Assume the bearing capacity of soil is 120 kN/m2 and select the appropriate live load
from appropriate loading tables.

QUESTION 2
A concrete square footing is to be cast on a blinding layer to support a 400 x 300 mm
concrete column. Using the following information:
• base thickness h = 450 mm
• axial dead load = 900 kN and axial live load = 400 kN
• self-weight of the footing 150 kN (assumed)
• characteristic cube strength of concrete (fcu) = 35 N/mm2 and unit weight of concrete
24 kN/m3
• steel reinforcement = 20 mm diameter and the characteristic strength (fy) = 450 MPa
• permissible bearing capacity of the soil = 200 kPa, and
• partial material safety factor for shear = 1.4 and cover to reinforcement = 50 mm.

Determine the main steel reinforcement required for the foundation and sketch the plan and
elevation of the footing with clearly marked steel reinforcement.

QUESTION 3

A 400 x 400 mm column supports the following loads, Dn = 1100kN and a moment due to self-

weight, M = 150kN − M . The permissible bearing capacity of the soil is 250kN / m 2 . Design a
reinforced concrete base given that f cu = 20MPa and f y = 250MPa . Check for shear and

sketch a typical plan layout and cross-section.

80
QUESTION 4
Figure 7.1 is a column base of dimension 4.0 x 2.5. Given the following information:
• Concrete grade = 30/19 with 50 mm cover to reinforcement bars
• Ground bearing capacity = 200 kPa
• Loading
o Nominal dead and live loads are 750 kN & 550 kN respectively
o Moments about x-x axis due to nominal dead load mx = 76 kN-m and Nominal
live load mx = 45 kN-m
Assume the thickness of the footing h = 600 mm and Y20 bars as main reinforcement.
Design the column base by determining:
(i) if the maximum soil pressure is exceeded
(ii) the maximum bending moment in the long direction
(iii) flexural reinforcement in the long direction
In addition:
(iv) check for beam shear

Figure 7-1: A column base

QUESTION 5
Figure 7.2 shows a concrete foundation supporting column C1 (300 x 250 mm) and
column C2 size 400 x 250 and spaced at 3.5 m centres. The foundation is to be cast on a
concrete blinding of 50 mm. Given the following:
• axial dead and live load for column C1 is 1000 kN and 450 kN respectively
• axial dead and live load for column C2 is 1300 kN and 550 kN respectively
• characteristic compressive strength of concrete = 30 MPa
81
 • assume main reinforcing steel Y20, and
• permissible soil bearing capacity = 250 kPa

Figure 7-2: A concrete foundation

Design the foundation by:

(i) sizing and positioning the footing appropriately
(ii) calculating bearing pressure at ultimate limit state
(iii) checking and ensuring that punching shear is within acceptable limits
(iv) determining the critical bending moments and shear forces in the longitudinal
direction and the corresponding flexural reinforcement.

QUESTION 6

A column 450 x 450 mm supports the following loads, design load Dn = 1100 kN and a
moment due to self-weight, M = 150 kN-m. Take the allowable bearing capacity of the soil
has 250 = kN/m2. Determine the dimensions of the base and the required reinforcement in
the long direction of the base. Given fcu = 20 MPa and fy = 250 MPa.

82
QUESTION 7
A 350 mmm square column carries an axial dead load of 1000 kN and a live load of 750 kN.
The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 150 kNm-2. Design a square footing to resist the
applied loads and check for punching shear.

Assume the following material strengths: fcu = 30 Nmm-2 and fy = 450 Nmm-2.

Provide neat sketches for the plan and cross-section of the column base to illustrate your
design.

83
8 LEARNING UNIT 8: DESIGN OF STAIRCASES

8.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a staircase and explain how it forms part of a load carrying mechanism in a
structure
• determine design requirements, i.e. stresses and other code requirements, for
reinforced concrete staircases
• design reinforced concrete staircases as structural elements

• The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked
examples. For more information refer to the prescribed textbooks, Reinforced
Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Parrott G, SAICE. ISBN:978-1-919858-14-2 and
Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement
& Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

In general, the purpose of designing a staircase is to ensure that the staircase has a high
probability of resisting any loads and forces to which it is likely to be subjected to during its
lifespan and remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting elements.

8.2 General Information

In principle, the design requirements for beams and slabs also apply to staircases. Analysis
and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete
Institute, Midrand, 2010, illustrates how the design is carried out.

Unless circumstances dictate otherwise, suitable step dimensions for a semi-public stair are
165 mm rise and 275 mm going, which with a 25 mm nosing or undercut gives a tread of 300
mm. It should be remembered that the prime purpose of a staircase is to provide safe
pedestrian access between the floors it connects. As such, it is of vital importance in the event
of fire and a principal design consideration must be to provide adequate fire resistance.

84
8.3 Tutorial questions – Design of staircases

NB. Refer to Annexure H for answers.

QUESTION 1
Design suitable reinforcing steel for the concrete staircase shown in Figure 8.1 below. The
superimposed dead load is 1 kPa and the live load is 3 kPa. Use 30 MPa reinforcing steel.

Figure 8-1: Concrete staircase

QUESTION 2
Consider the staircase in Figure 8.2. It spans longitudinally between beams cast monolithic
with the stair. The treads have a 15 mm granolithic finish.
i) Design suitable main and secondary reinforcement for the staircase.
ii) Check the span-effective depth ratio for the staircase.
iii) Illustrate your design with a clear diagram showing the reinforcements and detail to
ensure continuity between the landing, stair and slab.

85
Figure 8-2: Concrete staircase

Given the following information:

• Nominal live load = 5 kN/m2
• Characteristic material properties – concrete = 35 MPa and reinforcement steel
= 450 MPa
• Cover to reinforcement = 20 mm
• Thickness of finish = 15 mm
• Unit weight of concrete = 24 kN/m3

86
9 LEARNING UNIT 9: DESIGN OF RETAINING WALLS

9.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• define a retaining wall and explain how it forms part of a load carrying mechanism in
a structure.
• determine design requirements, i.e. stresses and other code requirements, for
reinforced concrete retaining walls
• design reinforced concrete retaining walls as structural elements

The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked examples.
For more information refer to Reinforced Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Parrott G,
SAICE. ISBN:978-1-919858-14-2 and Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures,
Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010.

In general, the purpose of designing a retaining wall is to ensure it has a high probability of
resisting any loads and forces to which it is likely to be subjected to during its lifespan and
remain in equilibrium and transfer these to the supporting ground.

9.2 General Information

Earth retention systems can be categorised into one of two groups, according to whether the
earth is stabilised externally or internally. An externally stabilised system uses an external
structural wall to mobilise stability forces. An internally stabilised system uses reinforcements
installed within the soil and extending beyond the potential failure zone.

Traditional retaining walls can be considered as externally stabilised systems, one of the most
common forms being the reinforced concrete cantilever wall.

Retaining walls on spread foundations, together with gravity structures, support the soil by
weight and stiffness to resist forward sliding, overturning and excessive soil movements. The
equilibrium of cantilever walls can also be obtained by embedment of the lower part of the
wall. Anchored or propped walls obtain their equilibrium partly by embedment of the lower part
of the wall, and partly from anchorage or prop systems that provide support to the upper part
of the wall. The textbook, Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures, Robberts, JM and
Marshall, V, Cement & Concrete Institute, Midrand, 2010, describes how to design and detail
traditional cantilever retaining walls.
87
9.3 Tutorial questions – Design of retaining walls

NB. Refer to Annexure I for answers.

QUESTION 1
The cantilever retaining wall shown in Figure 9.1 is filled with granular material having a unit
weight (ρ) = 19 kNm-3 and an angle of internal friction, () = 30O. Assume the allowable
bearing pressure of the soil to be 150 kNm-2, sliding friction coefficient = 0.35 and the unit
weight of reinforced concrete = 24 kN-3 and weep holes are provided behind the wall.

Figure 9-1: Cantilever retaining wall

(i) Determine the factors of safety against sliding and overturning.

(ii) Calculate ground bearing pressure.
(iii) Determine the main flexural reinforcement steel for the Stem and Base of the wall.

Take fCU = 30 kNm-2, fy = 450 kNm-2 and the cover to reinforcement in the wall and base as
50 mm.

88
 QUESTION 2
A reinforced concrete cantilever retaining wall is 200 mm thick with a base of 300 mm thick.
The retained height is 3500 mm with a soil cover of 500 mm, toe = 450 mm and heel = 1600
mm. The backfill behind the wall will be subjected to an imposed load of 2.5 kN/m 2. A
geotechnical survey gave the following soil parameters:
• Unit weight of soil = 21 kN/m2
• Angle of internal friction = 300
• Allowable bearing pressure = 200 KPa
• Friction co-efficient = 0.32
The retained soil (backfill) will be well-drained and the soil in front of the wall will be well
compacted and may be used to offer passive resistance to sliding.

(i) Check the stability of the wall against overturning, sliding and ground pressure.

(ii) Design suitable steel reinforcement for flexural strength in the stem at the ultimate
limit states, using grade 25/26 concrete and high tensile steel reinforcement.

QUESTION 3
Figure 9.2 shows the section through a proposed reinforced concrete cantilever retaining
wall that will be situated on a property boundary. Grade 30/19 concrete and high tensile steel
reinforcement are to be used. The backfill behind the wall is sloping at an angle of 150
measured from the horizontal and is subjected to an imposed load of 2.5 kN/m2.
A geotechnical report gave the following soil parameters:
• Unit weight of soil (γ) = 17 kN/m3
• Angle of internal friction () = 33
• Allowable bearing pressure (Pb) = 150 kPa
• Friction co-efficient () = 0,47
Assume that the backfill will be well drained, that the soil in front of the wall is adequately
compacted, and that it will be used to offer passive resistance to sliding.
(i) Check the stability of the wall, considering overturning, sliding and ground pressure.
(ii) Design suitable reinforcement (ignore curtailment thereof) for flexure in the stem of
the retaining wall and provide a simple sketch to illustrate your design.

89
Figure 9-2: Cantilever retaining wall

90
10 LEARNING UNIT 10: DRAWINGS

10.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

• detail structural design drawings for reinforced concrete elements
• interpret structural design drawings for reinforced concrete elements

The above outcomes will be achieved by means of tutorial questions and worked examples.

10.2 Reinforcement detailing considerations (bond and anchorage)

Detailing forms a very important part of structural design. It has long been realised that the
calculated strength of a reinforced concrete member cannot be attained if the details of the
required reinforcement are unsatisfactory. Research has shown that this applies particularly at
joints and intersections. A drawing is the language engineers use to communicate their design
to the other stakeholders, especially building contractors. Without proper and accurate
drawings, your design may not be realised. It is therefore vital that proper and accurate
drawings are made. Students are advised to refer to the module “Civil Engineering Drawing
II”, covered at the diploma level, for further information on detailing.

Codes of practice such as SANS 10144 contain many requirements affecting the
reinforcement details, such as minimum and maximum areas, anchorage and lap length,
bends in bars and curtailment. The reinforcement may be curtailed in relation to the bending
moment diagram, provided there is always enough anchorage to develop the necessary
design force in each bar at every cross section. Requirements apply at the positions where
bars are curtailed and at simple supports.

91
10.3 Tutorial questions – Drawings

NB. Refer to Annexure J for answers.

QUESTION 1
A reinforced concrete beam, 500 mm deep and 300 mm wide with cover to links as 20 mm,
was designed and detailed as shown in Figure 10.1 below. Based on a standard format,
prepare a complete bar bending schedule for the beam. Comment on the anchorage length
and curtailment of the reinforcements.

Figure 10-1: A reinforced concrete beam

QUESTION 2
Prepare a complete bar bending schedule for the fixing details of a four-span continuous
one-way spanning slab which is 180 mm thick. The beams are 460 mm deep and 230 mm
wide. The required reinforcement is summarised in Figure 10.2 and Figure 10.3.

92
Figure 10-2: Bottom reinforcement

93
Figure 10-3: Top reinforcement

94
11 LEARNING UNIT 11: COMPUTER PROGRAMS

11.1 Learning outcomes

After studying this unit, you will be able to carry out structural design of reinforced concrete
elements (reinforced concrete slabs, beams, columns, stairs, foundations and retaining
walls) using computer software, i.e. Prokon Structural Analysis and Design software,
including modelling, loading, analysis, “design”, and detailing/drawings.

The assignment for the project must have a component on the use of computer programs.

95
12 REFERENCES

1. Cement and Concrete Institute. 1994. Fulton’s Concrete Technology, 7th ed., edited
by BJ Addis, Cement and Concrete Institute, Midrand, South Africa.

2. Cement and Concrete Institute. 2010. Analysis and Design of Concrete Structures,
by Robberts, JM and Marshall, V, Midrand, South Africa.

3. Megson, THG. 2000. Structural and stress Analysis, Butterworth Heinemann,

Johannesburg.

4. Mosley, WH, Hulse, R and Bungey, JH. 1999. Reinforced Concrete Design, 5th ed,
Macmillan Press Ltd, London

5. Parrot, G. 2008. Reinforced Concrete – Design to SANS 10100, Shades Technical

Publications, PARROTT G, SAICE. ISBN:978-1-919858-14-2.

6. SANS 10100-1 (SABS 0100).2000. The Structural use of concrete – Part 1: Design,
South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.

7. SANS 10144. 2012. Detailing of steel reinforcement for concrete, South African
Bureau of Standards, Pretoria

8. SANS 10160-1. 2011. Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial
structures – Part 1: Basis of structural design, South African Bureau of Standards,
Pretoria.

9. SANS 10160-2. 2011. Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial
structures – Part 2: Self-weight and imposed loads, South African Bureau of
Standards, Pretoria.

10. SANS 10160-3. 2011. Basis of structural and actions for buildings and industrial
structures – Part 3: Wind actions, South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.

11. SANS 10400. 2016. The application of the National Building Regulations, South
African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.

12. SANS 282. 2011. Bending dimensions and scheduling of steel reinforcement for
concrete, South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.
96
13. SANS 5861-3. 2006. Concrete tests – Making and curing of test specimens, South
African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.

14. SANS 5863. 2006. Concrete tests – Compressive strength of hardened concrete,
South African Bureau of Standards, Pretoria.

97