MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CCE 2225 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING AND DEVELOPMENT

Prerequisites: MTE 2315 Statistics and Probability
Purpose of the course
To enable students to identify road user characteristics and their relationships with road safety and
to introduce them to transportation modes and planning in addition to enabling them to plan and
carry out route location of highways.
Expected Learning outcomes
At the end of the course the students should be able to:
1. Identify the modes of transportation and explain their interaction in the transportation
system
2. Describe transportation planning process
3. Describe the methods of highway economic appraisal
4. Carry out the process of locating a highway between any two termini
5. Identify road user characteristics and their relationships with highway output
efficiency, safety and amenity
6. Discuss the causes of road accidents and their remedies
Course content
Classification of transportation facilities, route location; The evolution of transportation system:
the railroads, mass transportation, highways and aviation; Introduction to transportation planning:
Transportation planning process; basic elements of transportation planning; Urban and regional
transportation planning; Introduction to highway planning: Highway planning process,
Economic appraisal for Highway plans; Route location: principle factors affecting route
location, location surveys, location surveys in rural areas, location surveys in urban areas,
bridge surveys; The traffic operations: Characteristics of the driver, the pedestrian, the
bicyclists and bicycles, the vehicle and the road; Road Accidents: Traffic accident terminology,
traffic accident investigations, international comparisons of road accidents, accident costs, road
accident mitigations; Regulations, financing, and planning of transportation facilities.
Teaching and Learning Methods
Lectures, Tutorials and site visits
Teaching Materials and Aids
Text books, Scientific Calculators, Mathematical Tables, Multimedia technology and equipment
Course Assessment
 Continuous Assessment 30%
 End of Semester Examination 70%
Course Textbooks
1. Nicholas, G. J., & Lester, H. A. (2010). Traffic and Highway Engineering (4th ed.).
Boston: Cengage Learning. ISBN-13: 978-0-495-08250-7
2. Thom, N.H (2010). Principles of Pavement Engineering. Telford: Thomas. ISBN-10:
0727734806
3. Partha, C. & Animesh, D. (2003). Principles of Transportation Engineering. New Delhi:
Prentice - Hall of India. ISBN: 978-8120320840
Course journals
1. American journal of civil engineering. ISSN Online: 2330-8737
2. Canadian journal of civil engineering. ISSN: 1208-6029
3. Journal of civil engineering. ISSN Print: 2164-3164 ISSN Online: 2164-3172
Reference textbooks
1. O’Flaherty, C. A. (1997). Transport Planning and Traffic Engineering. London: Arnold a
Hodder Headline Group. ISBN-13:978-0-340-66279-3
2. Hobbs, F. D. (1974). Traffic Planning and Engineering. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN
9780080226972
3. Salter, R. J. & Hounsell, N. B. (1996). Highway Traffic Analysis and Design (3rd ed.).
England: Macmillan Press Ltd. ISBN-10: 0333609034
1 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES,
In order to achieve mobility, there are different modes of transport used to achieve this. Mode of
transport refers to the means by which people, goods and services achieve mobility. Modes of
transport can be grouped into three broad categories based on the medium they exploit: land, water
and air. Other modes also exist and include pipelines, cable transport and space transport.. Each mode
has its own requirements and features, and is adapted to serve the specific demands of freight and
passenger traffic. Each mode has its own infrastructure, vehicles, and operations, and often has unique
regulations. Each mode also has separate subsystems. This gives rise to marked differences in the ways
the modes are deployed and utilized in different parts of the world.

1.1 Land Transport

This is the transport or movement of people, animals, and goods from one location to another on land,
usually by rail or road. Other means include human-powered transport and animal-powered
transport.

1.1.1 Human-Powered Transport

Human-powered transport is the transport of person(s) and/or goods using human muscle power.
Like animal-powered transport, human-powered transport has existed since time immemorial in the
form of walking, running and swimming. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance
human-power. Although motorization has increased speed and load capacity, many forms of human-
powered transport remain popular for reasons of lower cost, leisure, physical exercise and
environmentalism. Human-powered transport is sometimes the only type available, especially in
underdeveloped or inaccessible regions.

The most efficient human-powered land vehicle is the bicycle. Others include skateboards, cycle
rickshaws, go-karts, etc

1.1.2 Animal-Powered Transport

Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people and goods.
Humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or
harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles.

1.1.3 Road Transport

A road is an identifiable route of travel, usually surfaced with gravel, asphalt or concrete, and
supporting land passage by foot or by a number of vehicles.
The most common road vehicle in the developed world is the automobile; a wheeled passenger vehicle
that carries its own motor. As at 2020, there are about 1.2 billion automobiles worldwide. Other users
of roads include motorcars, motorcycles, buses, trucks, bicycles and pedestrians, and special provisions
are sometimes made for each of these. For example, the use of bus lanes give priority for public
transport, and cycle lanes provide special areas of road for bicycles to use.

Motorcars offer high flexibility, but are deemed to have high energy and area use, and the main source
of noise and air pollution in cities; buses allow for more efficient travel at the cost of reduced flexibility.

Roads are the most dominant means of transport. Road infrastructures are large consumers of space
with the lowest level of physical constraints among the transportation modes. However,
physiographical constraints are significant in road construction with substantial additional costs to
overcome features such as rivers or rugged terrain. Road transportation has an average operational
flexibility as vehicles can serve several purposes but are rarely able to move outside roads. Road
transport systems have high maintenance costs, both for the vehicles and infrastructures. With
containerization, road transportation has become a crucial link in freight distribution. Road transport
by truck is often the initial and final stage of freight transport.

Transport on roads can be roughly grouped into the transportation of goods and transportation of
people. In many countries licensing requirements and safety regulations ensure a separation of the
two industries. The nature of road transportation of goods depends, apart from the degree of
development of the local infrastructure, on the distance the goods are transported by road, the weight
and volume of the individual shipment, and the type of goods transported. For short distances and
light, small shipments a van or pickup truck may be used. For large shipments even if less than a full
truckload a truck is more appropriate. In some countries cargo is transported by road in horse-drawn
carriages, donkey carts or other non-motorized mode.

Road transport in Kenya

According to the Kenya National Highways Authority, Kenya has 177,800 kilometres of roads. 13,900
kilometres of this are paved. Two routes in the Trans-African Highway network pass
through Kenya and the capital, Nairobi:

 The Cairo-Cape Town Highway, Trans-African Highway 4, linking North Africa, East Africa
and Southern Africa. From Nairobi southwards this is one of the most heavily used routes in
the network, and includes one of the longest complete paved sections. However, it still has
missing links to the north and it is not practical to travel to Cairo without off-road vehicles.
This part will be completed as part of the LAPSSET project.
  The Lagos-Mombasa Highway, Trans-African Highway 8, links East Africa and West Africa.
It is only complete between the Ugandan–DR Congo border and Mombasa, linking the African
Great Lakes region to the sea. It is in East Africa, It is better known as the Northern Corridor,
and is the busiest and most important transport route in East and Central Africa. The
alternative transport network serving the landlocked Great Lakes Region is through Tanzania,
called the Central Corridor linked to Dar es Salaam

Road transport has several advantages including the following:

i. Flexibility: road transport provides door to door service. Its route can be changed to suit the
user
ii. Economical for short distance: road transport is economical for short distance. Again, the
loading and unloading charges are reduced due to direct transportation. Where the distance
is short, road transport is not only economical, but also quicker
iii. Less overhead cost: there is less overhead cost e.g maintenance, wages, safety
iv. Convenience: road transport offers great flexibility in terms of time. Does not have to operate
on fixed schedules.
v. Low capital investment: road transport requires low investment. The vehicles such as trucks
and buses cost comparatively less compared to trains, ships and aircraft.

Limitations of road transport:

i. Not suitable for bulky goods.
ii. Uneconomical for long distance
iii. Prone to breakdowns and delays
iv. It is easily affected by the adverse weather conditions
v. Lack of proper organization

1.1.4 Rail Transport

Rail transport is where a train runs along a set of two parallel steel rails, known as a railway or railroad.
The rails are anchored perpendicular to ties (or sleepers) of timber, concrete or steel, to maintain a
consistent distance apart, or gauge. The rails and perpendicular beams are placed on a foundation
made of concrete, or compressed earth and gravel in a bed of ballast. Alternative methods include
monorail and maglev. In contrast to road transport, where vehicles run on a prepared flat surface, rail
vehicles (rolling stock) are directionally guided by the tracks on which they run.

A train consists of one or more connected vehicles that run on the rails. Propulsion is commonly
provided by a locomotive, that hauls a series of unpowered cars, that can carry passengers or freight.
The locomotive can be powered by steam, diesel or by electricity supplied by trackside systems.
Alternatively, some or all the cars can be powered, known as a multiple unit. Also, a train can be
powered by horses, cables, gravity, pneumatics and gas turbines. Railed vehicles move with much less
friction than rubber tires on paved roads, making trains more energy efficient, though not as efficient
as ships.

Rail Transport has an average level of physical constraint linked to the types of locomotives and a low
gradient is required, particularly for freight. Containerization has improved the flexibility of rail
transportation by linking it with road and maritime modes. Gauges, however, vary around the world,
often complicating the integration of rail systems.

Intercity trains are long-haul services connecting cities; modern high-speed rail is capable of speeds
up to 350 km/h, but this requires specially built track. Regional and commuter trains feed cities from
suburbs and surrounding areas, while intra-urban transport is performed by high-capacity tramways
and rapid transits, often making up the backbone of a city's public transport. Freight trains traditionally
used box cars, requiring manual loading and unloading of the cargo. Since the 1960s, container trains
have become the dominant solution for general freight, while large quantities of bulk are transported
by dedicated trains.

Usage of Rail
Rail transport is a major form of passenger and freight transport in many countries. It is ubiquitous in
Europe, with an integrated network covering virtually the whole continent. In India, China, South
Korea and Japan, many millions use trains as regular transport. Freight rail transport is widespread
and heavily used in North America, but intercity passenger rail transport on that continent is relatively
scarce outside the Northeast Corridor due to competition to other preferred modes, particularly
automobiles and airplanes. The western Europe region has the highest railway density in the world
and has many individual trains which operate through several countries despite technical and
organizational differences in each national network. Africa and South America have some extensive
networks such as in South Africa, Northern Africa and Argentina but some railways on these
continents are isolated lines.

Social and Economic Benefits

Railways have also been shown to contribute to social vibrancy and economic competitiveness in its
ability to transport large amounts of customers and workers to city centers and inner suburbs.
Railways channel growth toward dense city agglomerations and along their arteries, as opposed to
highway expansion, which incentivizes development of suburbs at the periphery, contributing to
increased vehicle miles traveled, carbon emissions, development of greenfield spaces, and depletion of
natural reserves. These arrangements revalue city spaces, local taxes, housing values, and promotion
of mixed use development. Some economists have argued that the existence of modern rail
infrastructure is a significant indicator of a country’s economic advancement: this perspective is
illustrated notably through the Basic Rail Transportation Infrastructure Index (known as BRTI Index)
Rail Transport in Kenya

Rail transport in Kenya consists of 2066km of metre-gauge railway. This has remained largely
unchanged since its completion in 1901. Long stretches, especially off the main Mombasa-Malaba
line, have since fallen into disuse.

As part of the East African Railway Master Plan, Kenya is building a standard gauge railway network
to complement the meter-gauge railways. The standard gauge network will connect to other standard
gauge railways that are under construction throughout East Africa. Construction began on
the Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway in 2013, and the line was scheduled to be completed
in June 2017. Phase 2A (120km) will run from Nairobi South railway station to Naivasha Industrial
Park in Enosupukia (The goverment secured a loan of KShs. 155 Billion) . Phase 2B, a 262km stretch
will run from Naivasha to Kisumu through Narok, Bomet and Nyamira.. The final 107km phase will
run from Kisumu to Malaba through Yala and Mumias.

Rift Valley Railways (RVR) run passenger trains within Kenya only, primarily from Nairobi to
Mombasa but also to local towns such as Kisumu. Passenger services on these lines are offered on peak
periods only. Freight services are the bulk of RVR's operations

Advantages of Railway Transport

i. Suitable for high volumes of passengers and goods
ii. Suitable for bulky goods
iii. Economical over long distances
iv. Saves on pavement wear an tear
v. Adaptable to a vareity of energy sources; coal, oil, electricity
vi. Not affected by the vagaries of weather
vii. Accidents are rare
viii. Security: the security of freight and passengers is high

Limitations of Railway Transport

i. Requires gentle slopes i.e. the alignment has to chase the contours
ii. Uses widely spaced stations for loading and offloading, except for city rails
iii. Relatively high skills and wages required for staff
iv. If and when accidents occur, they are usually catastrophic
v. It is inflexible to route changes
vi. It may be uneconomical over short distances
vii. Limited to land-based operations
viii. It is capital intensive
1.1.5 Water Transport
Water transport is the process of transport that a watercraft, such as a barge, boat, ship or sailboat,
makes over a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, canal or river. If a boat or other vessel can
successfully pass through a waterway it is known as a navigable waterway. Because of the physical
properties of water conferring buoyancy and limited friction, maritime transportation is the most
effective mode to move large quantities of cargo over long distances. Main maritime routes are
composed of oceans, coasts, seas, lakes, rivers and channels. However, due to the location of economic
activities, maritime circulation takes place on specific parts of the maritime space, particularly over
the North Atlantic and the North Pacific. The construction of channels, locks and dredging are attempts
to facilitate maritime circulation by reducing discontinuity. Maritime transportation has high terminal
costs, since port infrastructures are among the most expensive to build, maintain and improve. High
inventory costs also characterize maritime transportation. More than any other mode, maritime
transportation is linked to heavy industries, such as steel and petrochemical facilities adjacent to port
sites.

Sea transport has been the largest carrier of freight throughout recorded history. Although the
importance of sea travel for passengers has decreased due to aviation, it is effective for short trips and
pleasure cruises. Transport by water is cheaper than transport by air. Virtually any material can be
moved by water; however, water transport becomes impractical when material delivery is highly time-
critical such as various types of perishable produce. However, Water transport is highly cost effective
with a regular pipeline of schedulable cargoes, such as trans-oceanic shipping of consumer
products— and especially for heavy loads or bulk cargos, such as coal, coke, ores or grains.

Water transport is categorised in terms of:

 Distance/region covered- coastal, international, etc

 Vessel used- boat, ship, sailboat, barge, ferry, tankers etc
 Water body involved - oceans and lakes, through canals or along rivers.
 Purpose - shipping may be for commerce, recreation or the military purpose.
 Cargo involved - Virtually any material that can be moved can be moved by water;
containerization, iron ore, fuel, etc
Advantages of Water Transport
i. It achieves considerable economies of scale
ii. Suitable for bulky goods
iii. Do not require extensive land facilities
iv. Highly energy efficient

Disadvantages of water transport

i. Requires special sites for location of terminals
 ii. Accidents, if they occur are usually catastrophic
iii. Inflexible
iv. Slow speed hence unsuitable for perishable goods
v. Requires many complementary services – customs, immigration, metereological etc
vi. High wage
vii. Not suitable for passengers transport
viii. Relatively high skills and wages required for staff
ix. It is capital intensive

1.1.6 Air Transport

The movement of passengers and cargo by aircraft such as airplanes and helicopters. Plane engines
move the craft along a strip of pavement called the runway. After landing, it taxis to the terminal. The
shape of the plane wings create a lift by the air

Greatest efficiency and value are obtained when long distances are traveled, high-value payloads are
moved, immediate needs must be met, or surface terrain prevents easy movement or significantly raises
transport costs. Although the time and cost efficiencies obtained decrease as distance traveled is
reduced, air transport is often worthwhile even for relatively short distances.

The aircraft is the second fastest method of transport, after the rocket. Commercial jets can reach up
to 875 Km/hr while single-engine aircraft can reach up to 175 Km/hr. Large amounts of fuel are used.
Aircraft manufacture and maintenance make short trips rather expensive but economies of scale can
be achieved over long distances. It is a capital-intensive means of transport.

Air routes are practically unlimited, but they are denser over the North Atlantic, inside North America,
Europe and over the North Pacific. Air transport constraints are multidimensional and include the site
(a commercial plane needs about 3,300 meters of runway for landing and take-off), climate, fog and
aerial currents. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive
maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading/unloading of crew, cargo and passengers.
While the vast majority of aircraft land and take off on land, some are capable of taking off and landing
on ice, snow and calm water.

1.1.6.1 Air Transport Terminology

The area above the earth is called the airspace. However, for safety, aircraft follow specific routes
known as airways (analogous to highways); these are different for military, commercial, private, etc
aircraft. Most of the standards used to managed Kenya’s airspace are borrowed from the Federal
Aviation Authority. It is controlled by the Kenya Airports Authority in conjunction with the
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

1.1.6.2 2.3.2 Facilities and support Services

 Ground vehicles which – bring supplies

 - Clean the aircraft
- Ferry passengers and their luggage
- Pull aircraft around
 Control towers
 Fire stations
 Hotels
 Hangars
 Fuel storage areas

1.1.6.3 2.3.3 Air Transport in Kenya

Kenya has about 16 airports with paved runways and over 180 airports with unpaved runways. Jomo
Kenyatta International Airport in Nairobi, is Kenya's largest airport and serves the most destinations.
Some international flights go to Moi International Airport in Mombasa. Kisumu Airport was upgraded
to an international airport in 2011 and a second phase of expansion is under way. In 2012, US
Navy built a major new tarmac runway at Wajir Airport that can take heavy aircraft. Many airports
with unpaved runways serve private purposes, such as private game parks and safari lodges.

Other key issues will also include the management of transport andother supporting infrastructure.
Similarly, there is a need for human resource development and equipment upgrading to meet
industry’s obligations nationally,regionally and internationally. The capacity of this sub-sector to
compete regionall yand internationally for tourist traffic needs strengthening through effective sub-
sectorco-ordination. Although Kenya Airways was privatized with the majority of its sharesowned by
KLM Royal Dutch Airlines, it is still operating as Kenya’s national carrier.Currently, there are about
570 aerodromes in Kenya, of which 156 are public. Of thepublic aerodromes, nine (9) are currently
managed directly by the Kenya AirportsAuthority (KAA). Most of these aerodromes are financially
unviable, resulting in serious problems in their operation and maintenance. These problems are
reflected inthe lack of comprehensive maintenance management systems, congestion at theirterminals
buildings, lack of air control systems with own dedicated frequencies, lack ofmodern functional
information systems, unserviceable navigational aids (NAVAIDS),inadequate support services such as
water and electricity and inadequate security. Otherproblems include encroachment of land for
expansion, and bird strikes.

Advantages of Air Transport

i. Offers high speed travel
ii. Eases international travel
iii. Routes do not occupy land tracts
iv. It is the safest means of travel in terms of accidents per passenger-km of travel (due to the
high safety standards maintained)
v. Not limited to land-based operations

Limitations of Air Transport

 i. It is expensive
ii. It is inflexible
iii. Uneconomical over short distances
iv. Required specialized sites for terminals
v. Contributes considerably to noise pollution
vi. Requires special and expensive fuel
vii. Requires many complementary services – customs, immigration, metereological etc
viii. Accidents, if they occur are usually catastrophic
ix. Relatively high skills and wages required for staff
x. It is capital intensive

1.1.7 Pipeline Transport

Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. Liquids and gases are transported in
pipelines and any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Pipelines are safe but
hazards arise when leakage occurs. Using pipelines, some products can be transported very
economically; oil, gas, grains, wood chips, etc. Solid materials are usually moved in a slurry. The most
common are those transporting crude petroleum and refined petroleum product including fuels: oil,
natural gas,and biofuels.

Oil pipelines are made from steel or plastic tubes with inner diameter typically from 100 to 1,220
mm. Most pipelines are typically buried at a depth of about 1 to 2 m. The oil is kept in motion by pump
stations along the pipeline, and usually flows at speed of about 1 to 6 metres per second Multi-product
pipelines are used to transport two or more different products in sequence in the same pipeline.
Usually in multi-product pipelines there is no physical separation between the different products.
Some mixing of adjacent products occurs, producing interface, also known in the industry as
"transmix." At the receiving facilities this interface is usually absorbed in one of the products based on
pre-calculated absorption rates. Alternately, transmix may be diverted and shipped to facilities for
separation of the commingled products.

The Kenya pipeline was commissioned in 1978. The Mombasa-Nairobi pipeline consists of a 450km,
14 inch diameter pipeline. Prior to 2008, the system’s installed flow rate was 440m3 per hour
(translating to delivery of 3.85billion litres per year). The flow rate was enhanced to 880m3 per hour
in 2008 through the addition of four pumping stations along the line. The Western Kenya Pipeline
Extension (WKPE) consists of 446 kilometre, 8-inch and 6 inch diameter pipelines. At commissioning
in 1994, WKPE had a combined flow rate of 160m3/hr. Following increase in demand for products in
Western Kenya and the neighbouring countries, the system’s flow rate was enhanced in 2004 to
220m3/hr through construction of a Pump Station at Morendat.

Currently, KPC is enhancing the capacity of the WKPE through construction of a parallel 14-inch
diameter multi-product pipeline from Nairobi to Eldoret in order to increase the flow rate to Western
 Kenya to match the rising demand. Once commissioned, the parallel multi-product pipeline will
increase the combined flow rate to Western Kenya by an additional 378M3/hr. Ultimately, the 14-inch
diameter parallel pipeline will be able to achieve a flow rate of 757M3/hr through phased installation
of additional pumps.

In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories depending on purpose:

 Gathering pipelines - Group of smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks

with the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to a treatment
plant or processing facility.
 Transportation pipelines - Mainly long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas,
refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These transportation
networks include several compressor stations in gas lines or pump stations for crude and
multi-products pipelines.
 Distribution pipelines - Composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters,
used to take the products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute gas to homes and
businesses downstream.
Advantages of Pipeline Transport
i. They are ideally suited to transport the liquids and gases.
ii. Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains as well as under water.
iii. It involves very low energy consumption.
iv. It needs very little maintenance.
v. Pipelines arc safe, accident-free and environmental friendly.
vi. Does not suffer return-cargo problems
Disadvantages of Pipeline Transport
i. It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few fixed points.
ii. Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid.
iii. It is difficult to make security arrangements for pipelines.
iv. Underground pipelines cannot be easily repaired and detection of leakage is also difficult.
v. Types of goods that can be transported are limited
1.2 Elements of transport
The movement of goods or passenger traffic, through rail, sea, air or road transport requires adequate
infrastructure facilities for the free flow from the place of origin to the place of destination. Irrespective
of modes, every transport system has some common elements: These elements influence the
effectiveness of different modes of transport and their utility to users.

i. Infrastructure
ii. Vehicles
iii. Operation
1.2.1 Infrastructure
Infrastructure is the fixed installations that allow a vehicle to operate. It consists of a way, a terminal
and facilities for parking and maintenance. Availability of well-designed and planned routes without
any obstacle for movement of transport vehicles in specific routes, is a vital necessity for smooth flow
of traffic. For rail, pipeline, road and cable transport, the entire way the vehicle travels must be built
up. The routes for water and air transport are basically gifts of the nature. However, they require fixed
infrastructure at terminals.

Terminals such as airports, ports and stations, are locations where passengers and freight can be
transferred from one vehicle or mode to another. For passenger transport, terminals are integrating
different modes to allow riders to interchange to take advantage of each mode's advantages. For
instance, airport rail links connect airports to the city centers and suburbs. The terminals for
automobiles areparking lots, while buses and coaches can operate from simple stops. For freight,
terminals act as transshipment points, though some cargo is transported directly from the point of
production to the point of use. These facilities also affect the cost of transportation. If these facilities
are provided then the cost of transportation can be minimized. Beside these things adequate storage
space, loading and unloading facilities, sufficient number of marshalling yards and weighing
equipment must be available in these terminals

1.2.2 Vehicles
A vehicle is a device that is used to move people and goods. Unlike the infrastructure, the vehicle moves
along with the cargo and riders. Unless being pulled/pushed by a cable or muscle-power, the vehicle
must provide its own propulsion; this is most commonly done through a steam engine, combustion
engine, electric motor, a jet engine or a rocket, though other means of propulsion also exist. Vehicles
also need a system of converting the energy into movement; this is most commonly done through
wheels, propellers and pressure.

Vehicles are most commonly staffed by a driver. However, some systems, such as people movers and
some rapid transits, are fully automated. For passenger transport, the vehicle must have a
compartment, seat, or platform for the passengers. Simple vehicles, such as automobiles, bicycles or
simple aircraft, may have one of the passengers as a driver.

The dimension of vehicles, its capacity and type are some of the factors, which influence the selection
of a transport system for movement of goods from one place to the other. In sea transport, the size,
speed and type of ship to be used are very important. For road transport, capacity, moving dimensions,
and speed of the vehicle are of great significance. In case of rail transport the existing railway line
capacity, type and general availability of wagons are to be considered. The capacity of vehicles and
their sectional speed determine the throughput on a particular section. With saturated sectional
capacity, introduction of vehicles tends to reduce their speed and therefore the total through put.
Preference of vehicles depends on factors like cost, speed and time of travel. The cost of a vehicle is the
resultant of many different internal and external factors, which are highly inter-related. The
advantage of vehicle over the other is measured in terms of safety, speed and time of travel.

1.2.3 Operation
Private transport is only subject to the owner of the vehicle, who operates the vehicle themselves. For
public transport and freight transport, operations are done through private enterprise or by
governments. The infrastructure and vehicles may be owned and operated by the same company, or
they may be operated by different entities. Traditionally, many countries have had a national airline
and national railway. Since the 1980s, many of these have been privatized. International shipping
remains a highly competitive industry with little regulation, but ports can be public owned.

1.3 Selection of Transport Modes

The efficiency of a transport mode can be assessed and selected in terms of the following
characteristics:

 Speed – It is the essence of transport. It helps a faster turn-around with the existing facilities,
and is of prime imporatance for perishable commodities
 Safety – For passengers against accidents, and goods against damage and pilferage
 Adequacy – Capacity to serve the demand
 Frequency – Assured frequency attracts users
 Regularity – punctuality of the service and its ability to adhere to published schedules
 Integration – a system with a few transfers and operated under a single undertaking is the
most efficiently integrated system
 Reponsibilities – ability to meet liabilities for compensation for loss or damage
 Comfort – essential for passenger transport
 Affordability – this is the main consideration for consumer preference
 Fuel efficiency – This is one of the major consideration for recurrent expenditure
 Employment generation – This is of interest to the government as it has an obligation to create
employment opportunities
Assignment 1 (Submit on 10th Feb, 2020)
Discuss the following modes of transport with particular regard to Kenya
 Ferries  Walking
 Helicopters
 Hand-drawn carts
 Motorcycles
 Tuk Tuks
 Matatus
CCE 2225 MMU 2020

Mode Rank
Characteristic Rail Road Pipeline Water Air
Speed 2 3 4 5 1
Safety 4 5 1 3 2
Adequacy 2 3 5 1 4
Frequency 3 1 5 4 2
Regularity 3 4 2 5 1
Integration 2 1 5 3 4
Responsibility 3 5 2 4 1
Comfort 2 3 4 1
Affordability 3 4 2 1 5
Fuel 3 4 1 2 5
Efficiency
Employment 3 1 4 3 2
Generation

15
CCE 2225 MMU 2020

2 EVOLUTION OF TRANSPORTATION

Source: adapted from Williams, A. (1992)

The first form of transport was, of course the human foot! However people eventually learned to use
animals for transport. Donkeys and horses were probably domesticated between 4,000 and 3,000 BC
Camels were domesticated slightly later between 3,000 and 2,000 BC. Meanwhile about 3,500 BC the
wheel was invented in what is now Iraq. The wheel and axle are one of the six simple machines (lever,

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wheel and axle, inclined plane, wedge, pulley and screw) At first wheels were made of solid pieces of
wood lashed together to form a circle but after 2,000 BC they were made with spokes. The earliest boats
were dug out canoes. People lit a fire on a log then put it out and dug out the burned wood. About 3,100
BC the Egyptians invented the sailing boat. They were made of bundles of papyrus reeds tied together.
They had simple square sails made of sheets of papyrus or later of linen. However the sail could only be
used when sailing in one direction. When travelling against the wind the boat had to be rowed. About
2,700 BC the Egyptians began using wooden ships for trade by sea. Early ships were steered by a long oar

The history of transport is largely one of technological innovation. Advances in technology have allowed
people to travel farther, explore more territory, and expand their influence over larger and larger areas.
Even in ancient times,new tools such as foot coverings, skis, and snowshoes lengthened the distances that
could be travelled. As new inventions and discoveries were applied to transport problems, travel time
decreased while the ability to move more and larger loads increased. Innovation continues by transport
researchers are working to find new ways to reduce costs and increase transport efficiency. In summary:

2.1 History of Road Transport

The origins of roads can be traced back 9,000 years ago when man settled permanently and domesticated
some animals. Man and his animals used specific routes to access pastures, watering points and primitive
business centres. In the Stone Age humans did not need constructed tracks in open country. The first
improved trails would have been over valleys, mountain passes and through swamps. The first
improvements would have consisted largely of clearing trees and big stones from the path. These trails or
tracks developed into footpaths which are the forerunners of the modern streets and highways.The resting
points, mostly at stream crossing points or where roads crossed developed into small villages and
eventually towns. These centres were usually 15-40 Km apart, consistent with the distance man and his
animals could travel in a day.

A road built in Egypt by Pharaoh Cheops around 2,500 BC is believed to be the earliest paved road on
record-a construction road 1,000 yards long and 60 feet wide that led to the site of the Great Pyramid.
Various pan-continental trading routes developed where goods were being transported from their source
to a market outlet and were often named after the goods transported upon them. For example, the Amber
Route, developed over the period 4000 BC to 1500BC, started from Afghanistan traversing Persia, Arabia
ending at Egypt, and the Silk Route stretched 8,000 miles from China, across Asia, through Spain to the
Atlantic Ocean. However, carrying bulky goods with slow animals over rough, unpaved roads was a time
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consuming and expensive proposition. As a general rule, the price of the goods doubled for every 100
miles they had to travel.

Some other ancient roads were established by rulers and their armies. The Old Testament of the Christian
bible contains references to ancient roads like the King's Highway, dating back to 2,000 BC. This was a
major route from Damascus in Palestine, and ran south to the Gulf of Aqaba, through Syria to
Mesopotamia, and finally on to Egypt. It was renamed Trajan's Road by the Romans, and was used in the
eleventh and twelfth centuries by the Crusaders when they attempted to "reclaim" the Holy Land. Around
1,115 BC, the Assyrian Empire in western Asia began what is believed to be the first organized road-
building, and continued it for 500 to 600 years. Since they were trying to dominate that part of the world,
they had to be able to move their armies effectively-along with supplies and equipment.

As the Assyrians gradually faded, another imperial road, the Royal Road, was being built by the Persians
from the Persian Gulf to the Aegean Sea, a distance of 1,775 miles. Around 800 BC, Carthage, on the
northern coast of Africa, began to use stones for paving roads. Although they may not have been the first
to pave their roads with stones, they were among the earliest, and some historians assert that the Romans
imitated Carthaginian techniques.

2.1.1 Wheeled Transport

Wheels appear to have been developed in ancient Sumer in Mesopotamia around 5000 BC, perhaps
originally for the making of pottery. Their original transport use may have been as attachments to travois
or sleds to reduce resistance. It has been argued that logs were used as rollers under sleds prior to the
development of wheels, but there is no archeological evidence for this.[6] Most early wheels appear to
have been attached to fixed axles, which would have required regular lubrication by animal fats or
vegetable oils or separation by leather to be effective.

Wheeled-transport created the need for better roads. Generally natural materials cannot be both soft
enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet,
and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first
paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury,
England in 3300 BC[8] and brick-paved roads were built in the Indus Valley Civilization on the Indian
subcontinent from around the same time.

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2.1.2 Roman Roads

Without doubt, the champion road builders of them all were the ancient Romans who, until modern times,
built the world's most straight, best engineered, and most complex network of roads in the world. At their
height, the Roman Empire (27 BC- 476 AD) maintained 78,000 Km of roads, which covered all of England
to the north, most of Western Europe, radiated throughout the Iberian Peninsula, and encircled and
crisscrossed the entire Mediterranean area. The system constituted of 29 major roads that radiated from
Rome to the outer fringes of the empire. Famous for their straightness, Roman roads were composed of a
graded soil foundation topped by four courses: a bedding of sand or mortar, rows of large, flat stones, a
thin layer of gravel mixed with lime; and a thin surface of flint-like lava. Typically they were 0.9m to
1.5m thick and varied in width from 2.4m to 10.5m, although the average width for the main roads was
4.25m to enable two chariots to pass with ease and legions to march 6 abreast.

(A). Native earth, leveled and, if necessary, rammed tight.

(B). Statumen: stones of a size to fill the hand.
(C). Audits: rubble or concrete of broken stones and lime.
(D). Nucleus: kernel or bedding of fine cement made of pounded potshards and lime.
(E). Dorsum or agger viae: the elliptical surface or crown of the road (media stratae eminentia) made of
polygonal blocks of silex (basaltic lava) or rectangular blocks of saxum qitadratum (travertine, peperino,
or other stone of the country). The upper surface was designed to cast off rain or water like the shell of a
tortoise. The lower surfaces of the separate stones, here shown as flat, were sometimes cut to a point or
edge in order to grasp the nucleus, or next layer, more firmly.
(F). Crepido, margo or semita: raised footway, or sidewalk, on each side of the via.
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(G). Umbones or edge-stones.

The Roman roads were constructed by roman soldiers using slave labour and had the sole purpose of
enabling them move swiftly to secure newly conquered territories. Their design remained the most
sophisticated until the advent of modern road-building technology in the very late 18th and 19th
centuries. Many of their original roads are still in use today, although they have been resurfaced
numerous times. Under Roman law, the public had the right to use the roads, but the district through
which a road passed was responsible for the maintenance of the roadway. The Romans invaded Britain
around 55 BC and constructed some 5,000Km of roads in a span of 150 years. The roads radiated from
London, the capital located at the first upstream crossing of river Thames. This system was effective so
long as a strong central authority existed to enforce it. Unfortunately, as the Roman Empire declined
around the 5th century so did their roads and their work fell into disrepair all across Europe and Great
Britain.

2.1.3 The Inca Empire (12__-1752)

On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, several centuries after the fall of the Roman Empire, the Inca
Empire began to rise in South America during a period that corresponded with the middle Ages in Europe.
Centered in what is now Peru, the Incas branched out into Ecuador, Colombia, Bolivia, Argentine and
Chile. Like the Romans, they recognized the need for a system of roads that would enable them extend
their conquests and to govern their empire. Interestingly enough, the Incas built their empire without
inventing the wheel, without the use of draft animals and without a written language. Because they had
no wheeled vehicles to worry about, their roads could ascend steep inclines via terraces or steps. In one
place, a road going up a steep mountainside was built of 3,000 consecutive stone steps. They also built
over swamps, and constructed a causeway 7.2m wide and 11.7 Km long, which had a paved surface and
stone walls. Unfortunately, their well-constructed system of roads ultimately assisted in their downfall as
the invading Spaniards used the Incas' own roads to move Spanish armies, weapons, and supplies.

2.1.4 Industrial Road Construction

Back across the Atlantic, but later in 18th century England, the technology of highway construction was
getting a long overdue boost from two British engineers, Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam. and
by the French road engineer Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet. The other important figure was the English
John Metcalf

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2.1.4.1 John Metcalf (1717-1810)

The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf, who
constructed about 180 miles (290 km) of turnpike road, mainly in the north of England, from 1765, when
Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build new toll funded roads in the
Knaresborough area. Metcalf won a contract to build a three-mile (5 km) section of road between Minskip
and Ferrensby on a new road from Harrogate to Boroughbridge. He explored the section of countryside
alone and worked out the most practical route.

He believed a good road should have good foundations, be well drained and have a smooth convex surface
to allow rainwater to drain quickly into ditches at the side. He understood the importance of good
drainage, knowing it was rain that caused most problems on the roads. He worked out a way to build a
road across a bog using a series of rafts made from ling (a type of heather) and furze (gorse) tied in
bundles as foundations. This established his reputation as a road builder since other engineers had
believed it could not be done. He acquired a mastery of his trade with his own method of calculating costs
and materials, which he could never successfully explain to others.

2.1.4.2 Jérôme Trésaguet (1716-1796)

Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet was a French engineer who lived during the reign of Napoleon. He began
his career as a sub inspector in the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées (Bridges and Highways Corps), in Paris.
He later moved to Limoges, Haute-Vienne as chief engineer in 1764. In 1775 he was appointed inspector
general of roads and bridges for all of France. He published a paper describing his road building methods.
He is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in about the year
1764. Among his innovations was the use of a base layer of large stones covered with a thin layer of
smaller stones. The advantage of this two-layer configuration was that, when rammed or rolled by traffic,
the stones jammed into one another forming a strong wear resistant surface which offered less obstruction
to traffic.

Trésaguet had recommended a roadway consisting of three layers of stones laid on a crowned sub-grade
with side ditches for drainage. The first two layers consisted of angular hand-broken aggregate,
maximum size 75 mm, to a depth of about 200 mm. The third layer was about 50 mm thick with a
maximum aggregate size of 25 mm. This top level surface permitted a smoother shape and protected the
larger stones in the road structure from iron wheels and horse hooves.

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Trésaguet understood the importance of drainage by providing deep side ditches, but he insisted on
building his roads in trenches, so that they could be accessed from the sides, which undermined this
principle. Well-maintained surfaces and drains protect the integrity of the sub-base and Trésaguet
introduced a system of continuous maintenance, where a roadman was allocated a section of road to be
kept up to a standard.

2.1.4.3 Thomas Telford. (1757-1834)

Thomas Telford, was a surveyor and engineer who applied Tresaguet’s road building theories. In 1801
Telford worked for the British Commission of Highlands Roads and Bridges. Telford extended Tresaguet’s
theories but he placed emphasis on quality stone. He recognized that some of the road problems of the
French could be avoided by using cubical stone blocks. His method of road building involved the digging
of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He also designed his roads so that they
sloped downwards from the centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work
of Trésaguet. Telford used 300 x 250 x 150 mm partially shaped pitchers, with a slight flat face on the
bottom surface. However, he turned the other faces more vertically than Tresaguet’s method. The longest
edge was arranged crossways to the traffic direction, and the joints were broken in the method of
conventional brickwork, but with the smallest faces of the pitcher forming the upper and lower surfaces.
Broken stone was wedged into the spaces between the tapered perpendicular faces to provide the layer
with good lateral control.

Telford kept the natural formation level and used masons to camber the upper surface of the blocks. He
placed a 150 mm layer of stone no bigger than 60 mm in size on top of the rock foundation. To finish the
road surface he covered the stones with a mixture of gravel and broken stone. This structure came to be
known as “Telford pitching.” Telford’s road depended on a resistant structure to prevent water from
collecting and corroding the strength of the pavement. Telford raised the pavement structure above
ground level whenever possible. Where the structure could not be raised, Telford drained the area
surrounding the roadside. Previous road builders in Britain ignored drainage problems and Telford’s
rediscovery of these principles was a major contribution to road construction. Telford served as the first
President of the Institution of Civil Engineers of the United Kingdom from 1820 to 1834.

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2.1.4.4 John Loudon McAdam (1756-1836)

It was another Scottish engineer, John Loudon McAdam, who designed the first modern roads. He
developed a process (later known as macadam) where hard and waterproof road surfaces were made by
cemented crushed stone, bound together either with water or with bitumen. His road building method
was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive
foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support the
road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath
from water and wear.

Unlike Telford and other road builders of the time, McAdam laid his roads as level as possible. His 9.1m
road required only a rise of three inches from the edges to the center. Cambering and elevation of the
road above the water table enabled rain water to run off into ditches on either side. Size of stones was
central to the McAdam’s road building theory. The lower 200 mm road thickness was restricted to stones
no larger than 75 mm. The upper 50 mm thick layer of stones was limited to 20 mm size and stones were
checked by supervisors who carried scales. A workman could check the stone size himself by seeing if the
stone would fit into his mouth. The importance of the 20 mm stone size was that the stones needed to be
much smaller than the 100 mm width of the iron carriage tires which traveled on the road

McAdam believed that the "proper method" of breaking stones for utility and rapidity was accomplished
by persons sitting down and using small hammers, breaking the stones so that none of them was larger
than six ounces in weight. He also wrote that the quality of the road would depend on how carefully the
stones were spread on the surface over a sizeable space, one shovelful at a time. McAdam directed that
no substance which would absorb water and affect the road by frost should be incorporated into the road.
Neither was anything to be laid on the clean stone to bind the road. The action of the road traffic would
cause the broken stone to combine with its own angles, merging into a level, solid surface which would
withstand weather or traffic.

Through his road building experience, McAdam had learned that a layer of broken angular stones would
act as a solid mass and would not require the large stone layer previously used to build roads. By keeping
the surface stones smaller than the tire width, a good running surface could be created for traffic. The
small surface stones also provided low stress on the road, so long as it could be kept reasonably dry.

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Although McAdam had been adamantly opposed to the filling of the voids between his small cut stones
with smaller material, in practice road builders began to introduce filler materials such as smaller stones,
sand and clay, and it was observed that these roads were stronger as a result. Macadam roads were being
built widely in the United States and Australia in the 1820s and in Europe in the 1830s and 1840s.

Figure 2.1 Pioneer Road cross-sections

2.1.4.5 Further Developments

During this same time period, the growth of turnpikes was resulting in much improved road conditions
across England. Private individuals built roads and then charged for their use, usually blocking passage
by setting a long pole (pike) across the road. Once the toll had been paid, the pole would be swung (turned)
out of the way, allowing the travelers access to the road (turnpike). By 1829, 3,783 different turnpike
companies operated 20,000 miles of highway throughout England. However, during the latter half of the
19th century, canal building and the growth of railroads outstripped the turnpikes, and roads in general
became less important until the turn of the century.

As European settlers migrated across the Atlantic to the U.S., they found themselves faced with an almost
total lack of roads. In Europe, they had, at least, had the Roman roads to use as a foundation for rebuilding.
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In America, there were only Indian trails and while they were long and quite extensive, they were also
very narrow, allowing only for single file passage of foot traffic. Like their Inca counterparts, the natives
of North America did not invent a wheel, and so did not develop roads that would accommodate wheeled
vehicles. Initially, America's early roads were no more than widened Indian trails which had been leveled
and filled, most of them full of tree stumps that tripped horses and halted wagons. America, like England,
went through a period of turnpike development and for many years, turnpikes were the best roads in the
U.S.

The Germans were however the first to build the modern highway (autobahn) in 1932 with specifications
such as restricted access, overpasses and road separation that would eventually become common
characteristics of highway systems. By the 1970s, every modern nation had constructed a national
highway system, which in the case of Western Europe resulted in a pan-European system. This trend now
takes place in many industrializing countries. For instance, by the end of 2016, the total length of China's
expressway network reached 131,000 kilometers, the world's largest expressway system by length,
having surpassed the overall length of the American Interstate Highway System in 2011.

2.1.5 History of Kenyan Roads

Early transport in Kenya : The first form of transport in Kenya was horse drawn rickshaws, especially in
Nairobi. The man behind this innovative mode of transport was Aly Khan, whose Livery Stables were in
Market Street (now Muindi Mbingu). He held the monopoly of Nairobi passenger transport with the horse
drawn vehicles.

The first person to drive a vehicle from Mombasa to Nairobi was Douglas Galton-Fenzi in 1919. Galton-
Fenzi helped to map most of the major roads in Kenya as more settlers imported cars, tractors and lorries.

Road building in Kenya followed shortly after establishment of the first railway lines. A number of roads
were constructed in the year 1910. Among them are Kisumu-Kaimosi, Homa bay- Karungu and Kendu
bay-Kisii roads. Two roads went into Uganda through Busia and Mbale in 1914. There was a proliferation
of roads in the period between 1920 and 1940 and considerable lengths of roads to serve the newly
settled European districts of Trans-Nzoia, Nanyuki and Laikipia were constructed. By 1946, the country’s
road network system consisted of approximately 27,162 Km of road and remarkable progress had been
made to bituminize some sections of trunk roads with heavier traffic. The first roads to receive bitumen
in Kenya were Nairobi-Thika (1946), Nairobi-Nakuru(1946) and the Kipkelion-Kericho (1946).

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Historically, the road network in Kenya was developed as a subsidiary of the railway system up tothe time
of Kenya’s independence in 1963. Railways were developed for the transportation of bulk commodities
and passengers over long distances. Roads were used as a link between the railways and the European-
owned large scale farming areas. Little or no interest was accorded to rural areas where subsistence
farming was practiced by Africans. Since independence, measures taken by the government todevelop
and maintain roads include:

1 Selective bituminization of heavily trafficked trunk and primary roads and upgrading of priority
earth roads to gravel standards in the late 1960’s and early 1970’s;
2 Development of Special Purpose Roads to serve specific areas of economicactivities e.g. roads serving
areas where main cash crops such as tea, coffee, or sugar were grown or roads serving the tourist
industry.
3 Construction of farm-to-market rural roads under the Rural Access Roads Programme (RARP) from
1974 to 1986. The purpose of the RARP was toprovide access to social and administrative facilities,
promote agricultural development and create employment opportunities;
4 Improvement of low-trafficked secondary and minor roads under the MinorRoads Programme (MRP)
from 1986 to link rural access roads to roads ofhigher classes;
5 Improvement of heavily trafficked secondary and minor roads under the Gravelling, Bridging and
Culverting Programme (GBCP) in the 1970’s and1980’s.
6 Introduction of public road tolls for road maintenance in 1984/85.
7 Introduction of axle load controls in 1986;
8 Introduction of the fuel levy and transit tolls for road maintenance in 1994 and spot improvement of
non-maintainable road sections using a combination of labour and equipment under the Roads 2000
strategy. This was adopted on realization that available financial resources were inadequate to
provide full link improvements in the network.

2.2 History of Maritime Transport

Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity
greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and the capacity for
fishing. In the time before ancient maritime history, the first boats are presumed to have been dugout
canoes, developed independently by various stone age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel.
The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest are very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for totem

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poles up to 80 feet (24 m) tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 60 feet (18 m) long for everyday
use and ceremonial purposes.

It has been argued that boats suitable for a significant sea crossing were necessary for people to reach
Australia an estimated 40,000-45,000 years ago. With the development of civilization, vessels evolved
for expansion and generally grew in size for trade and war. In the Mediterranean, galleys were developed
about 3000 BC. Polynesian double-hulled sailing vessels with advanced rigging were used between 1,300
BC and 900 BC by the Polynesian progeny of the Lapita culture to expand 6,000 km across open ocean
from the Bismarck Archipelago east to Micronesia and, eventually Hawaii. Galleys were eventually
rendered obsolete by ocean-going sailing ships, such as the Arabic caravel in the 13th century, the
Chinese treasure ship in the early 15th century, and the Mediterranean man-of-war in the late 15th
century. In the Industrial Revolution, the first steamboats and later diesel-powered ships were developed.
Eventually submarines were developed mainly for military purposes for people's general benefit.

Meanwhile, specialised craft were developed for river and canal transport. Canals were developed in
Mesopotamia c. 4000 BC. The Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan and North India (from c. 2600 BC)
had the first canal irrigation system in the world.[2] The longest canal of ancient times was the Grand
Canal of China.Iss 1,794 kilometers (1,115 mi) long and was built to carry the Emperor Yang Guang
between Beijing and Hangzhou. The project began in 605, although the oldest sections of the canal may
have existed since c. 486 BC. Canals were developed in the Middle Ages in Europe in Venice and the
Netherlands. Pierre-Paul Riquet began to organise the construction of the 240 km-long Canal du Midi in
France in 1665 and it was opened in 1681. In the Industrial Revolution, inland canals were built in
England and later the United States before the development of railways. Specialised craft were also
developed for fishing and later whaling.Ramps for water were made in 1937. Maritime history also deals
with the development of navigation, oceanography, cartography and hydrography.

During the Age of the Ajuran, the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo
and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and
coming from Arabia, India, Venetia,[14] Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China.

Although Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, it has a very long coastline,
and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is

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uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them
in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.

Steam was first applied to boats in the 1770s. With the advent of economical steam engines, efficient
external combustion heat engines that makes use of the heat energy that exists in steam and converting
it to mechanical work, the prime mover was steam for ships. The technology only became relevant to
trans-oceanic travel after 1815, the year Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the steamship
Élise. After 1850, most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships
were superseded by diesel-driven ships in the second half of the 20th century.

2.2.1 History of Water Transport in Kenya

The maritime transport system in Kenya consists of one major seaport, Mombasa and other smaller
scheduled ports along the Kenyan coastline (namely, Funzi, Vanga, Shimoni, Kilifi, Malindi, Lamu, Kiunga
and Mtwapa). The port of Mombasa which is managed by Kenya Ports Authority (KPA) is one of the
modern ports in Africa. It handles all types of ships and cargo services not only for Kenya but also for the
land-locked countries of Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, DemocraticRepublic of Congo, Ethiopia, Somalia,
Southern Sudan and North-Eastern Tanzania.The port has 16 deep-water berths of which three handle
containers and 13 deal withconventional cargo. There are two oil jetties for refined and crude oil with a
capacity ofhandling tankers of up to 80,000 DWT. The challenge for the Port of Mombasa is that of
attracting and handling increasing traffic within Kenya and from the neighbouringcountries as well as
international traffic from outside the region. Although KPA has rendered acceptable services over the
years, like other parastatals, its efficiency has been hampered by bureaucracy for many years. KPA owns
and operates Inland Container Depots (ICDs) or “dry ports” at Nairobi, Kisumu and Eldoret, all of which
are connected to the port of Mombasa by a special rail service (railtainer) for the transportation of
containerized imports and exports. At the moment only Kisumu and Nairobi ICDs are operational.

The Kenya National Shipping Line Ltd. is owned by the GoK and some private international shareholders.
The Line was established under the Companies Act in 1987 to take advantage of the business opportunities
offered by the growing Kenyan international sea-borne trade under the provisions of the UNCTAD Code
of Conduct for Line Conferences. The Line, which has operated on slot charter basis, has been unable to
exploit the business opportunities available due to structural corporate governance and management
problems. It is currently dormant.

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2.3 History of Rail Transport

The history of rail transportation dates back nearly 500 years, and includes systems with man or horse
power and rails of wood (or occasionally stone). This was usually for moving coal from the mine down to
a river, from where it could continue by boat, with a flanged wheel running on a rail. The use of cast
iron plates as rails began in the 1760s, and was followed by systems (plateways) where the flange was
part of the rail. Cast iron proved unsatisfactory because it was brittle and broke under heavy loads. With
the introduction of rolled wrought iron rails, these became obsolete.

The introduction of the Bessemer process, enabling steel to be made inexpensively, led to the era of great
expansion of railways that began in the late 1860s. Steel rails lasted several times longer than iron. Steel
rails made heavier locomotives possible, allowing for longer trains and improving the productivity of
railroads. The open hearth furnace began to replace the Bessemer process near the end of 19th century,
improving the quality of steel and further reducing costs

Modern rail transport systems first appeared in England in the 1820s. These systems, which made use of
the steam locomotive, were the first practical form of mechanized land transport, and they remained the
primary form of mechanized land transport for the next 100 years.

The world's first electric tram line opened in Lichterfelde near Berlin, Germany, in 1881. It was built by
Werner von Siemens (see Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway). Seven years later, in January 1888, Richmond,
Virginia served as American proving grounds for electric railways as Frank Sprague built an electric
streetcar system there. By the 1890s, electric power became practical and more widespread, allowing
extensive underground railways. Large cities such as London, New York, and Paris built subway systems.
When electric propulsion became practical, most street railways were electrified.

Starting with the opening of the first Shinkansen line between Tokyo and Osaka in Japan in 1964, high-
speed rail transport, functioning at speeds up and above 300 km/h, has been built in Spain, France,
Germany, Italy, the People's Republic of China, Taiwan (Republic of China), the United Kingdom, South
Korea, Scandinavia, Belgium and the Netherlands. The construction of many of these lines has resulted in
the dramatic decline of short haul flights and automotive traffic between connected cities, such as the
London–Paris–Brussels corridor, Madrid-Barcelona, as well as many other major lines.

Maglev trains have been undertaking test runs on the Yamanashi test track since 1997, running at speeds
of over 500 km/h (310 mph). As a result of this extensive testing, maglev technology is almost ready for
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public usage. An extension of this test track from 18.4 km to 42.8 km was completed in June 2013,
enabling extended high-speed running trials to commence in August 2013. This section will be
incorporated into the Chūō Shinkansen which will eventually link Tokyo to Osaka. Construction of the
Shinagawa to Nagoya section began in 2014, with 86% of the 286 km route to be in tunnels.

2.3.1 History of Rail Transport in Kenya

The Kenya-Uganda Railway was built by the British government under the Foreign Office at the start of
the period when Britain maintained colonial control of the region as British East Africa. Construction of
the line started at the Kenyan port city of Mombasa in 1896, the line reached Nairobi in 1899, Nakuru in
1900 and reached Kisumu, on the eastern shore of Lake Victoria, in 1901. By 1931 it was extended to
Kampala in Uganda. Although almost all of the rail line was actually in the colony that would come to be
known as Kenya, the original purpose of the project was to provide a modern transportation link to carry
raw materials out of the Uganda colony and to carry manufactured British goods back in. The railway is
1,000 mm gaugeand virtually all single-track. The project cost around 5 million pounds (approximately
680 million Ksh.) to complete, and the first services started in 1903

Branch lines were built to Thika in 1913, Lake Magadi in 1915, Kitale in 1926, Naro Moro in 1927, from
Tororo to Soroti in 1929 and finally Mount Kenya in 1931. The mainline was extended from Nakuru
towards Uganda reaching Kampala in 1931. Another went to Kasese in western Uganda in 1956. It was
extended to Arua near the border with Zaire in 1964.A disassembled ferry was transported to Kisumu by
sea and rail where it was reassembled and used to provide a service to Port Bell and, later, other ports on
Lake Victoria. A 10 km rail line between Port Bell and Kampala was the final link in the chain providing
efficient transport between the Ugandan capital and the open sea, at Mombasa, over 1400 km away.

The focusing effect of railway junctions and depots created many of the interior's modern towns and
ports, such as:

 Eldoret, originally called "64" its distance, in miles, from the railhead at the time
 Jinja, a city and port close to the outlet of Lake Victoria, the source of the River Nile
 Kisumu, a city and port on Lake Victoria allowing ferry transport between Kenya, Tanzania and
Uganda
 Kitale, a small farming community in the foothills of Mount Elgon
 Nairobi started as a rail depot, becoming the capital of Kenya.

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 Nakuru, where the main line splits, one branch going to Kisumu and the other to Uganda
 Port Bell, a rail-linked port, near Kampala, on Lake Victoria allowing ferry transport between
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda

2.4 History of Air Transport

Started with the invention of Santos Dummont, Brazilian born scientist, who created the 14BIS and the
very first motor powered airplanes in the world . Humanity's desire to fly likely dates to the first time man
observed birds, an observation illustrated in the legendary stories of Daedalus and Icarus in Greek
mythology, and the Vimanas in Indian mythology. Much of the focus of early research was on imitating
birds, but through trial and error, balloons, airships, gliders and eventually powered aircraft and other
types of flying machines were invented.

During the 17th and 18th century, when scientists began analysing the Earth's atmosphere, gases such as
hydrogen were discovered which in turn led to the invention of hydrogen balloons. The Wright brothers
made the first sustained, controlled and powered heavier-than-air flight on December 17, 1903, in their
revolutionary aircraft, the Wright Flyer.

World War II saw a drastic increase in the pace of aircraft development and production. All countries
involved in the war stepped up development and production of aircraft and flight-based weapon delivery
systems. After the war ended, commercial aviation grew rapidly, using mostly ex-military aircraft to
transport people and cargo. This growth was accelerated by the glut of heavy airframes that could be
converted into commercial aircraft. The first commercial jet airliner to fly was the British De Havilland
Comet. This marked the beginning of the Jet Age, a period of relatively cheap and fast international travel.

In the beginning of the 21st century, subsonic military aviation focused on eliminating the pilot in favor
of remotely operated or completely autonomous vehicles. Several unmanned aerial vehicles or UAVs have
been developed.

2.4.1 History of Air Transport in Kenya

Historically, aviation in Kenya and the other EAC states followed British rules and regulations until the
East African Common Services Organization (EACSO), the precursor to the EAC, was established in 1963.
The three EACSO / EAC member States, Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania, formed one East African Directorate
of Civil Aviation, which formulated aviation policy for the region borrowing heavily from the British
policy. EAC governments provided aerodromes infrastructure, while the International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) played a big role in the
development of human resources and provision of air navigation equipment. When the former EAC
collapsed in 1977, each Member State established its own flight information region with its own
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infrastructure and national airline based on what existed in its territory when the Community collapsed.
The first draft Kenyan aviation policy was written in 1978 and its provisional application served the
industry well. It was revised in 1999, when new concepts like liberalization, code sharing between
airlines and Computer Reservation Systems (CRS) were incorporated. After liberalization of the air
transport sub-sector in the 1990s, a need has emerged for the GoK to create an environment conducive
to the efficient operation of air transport for passengers and freight. To do this, it has been necessary to
accommodate the needs of both domestic and international air operators through the provision of
efficient and reliable services at all aerodromes. Aviation policy should also address the problems of safety
and security.

Read About the History of Pipelines globally and in Kenya...

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