EXPERIMENTAL PSYCH. - An everyday example is believing How can stereotyping mislead us?

that “opposites attract.”

CHAPTER 1: Experimental -In Stereotyping, we falsely
Psychology and the Scientific Nonscientific interference- is the assume that specific behaviors
Method nonscientific use of information to cluster together.
explain or predict behavior.
Science- came from Latin word - Stereotypes ignore individual
scientia, which means knowledge -The gambler’s fallacy, overuse of differences.
trait explanations, stereotyping, and
-connotes (1)content and Example. Since Imei is a Chinese-
overconfidence bias illustrate this
(2)process American student, she must study
problem.
10 hours a day and excel at math.
(1) the content is what we know,
What is Gambler’s Fallacy? In reality, she failed calculus.
such as the facts that we learn
-In Gambler’s Fallacy, people Why is overconfidence bias a
(2) the activity that includes the
misuse data to estimate the problem?
systematic ways, such as gathering
probability of an event, like when a
data and offering relationships Overconfidence Bias- we feel
slot machine will pay off.
more confident about our
Methodology- consists of the
Why is the overuse of trait conclusions than is warranted by
scientific techniques we use to
explanations a problem? available data.
collect and evaluate data.
-When we overuse trait -
Data- are the facts we gather using
explanations to explain others'
scientific methods.
behavior, we often make
The Need for Scientific Method unwarranted dispositional
attributions and underuse - This form of nonscientific
Commonsense Psychology situational information. inference can result in erroneous
(Heider,1985)- nonscientific data - This bias can reduce the accuracy conclusions when we don’t
gathering of our explanations and predictions. recognize the limitations of
supporting data.
- This approach uses nonscientific
sources of data and nonscientific
inference
The Characteristics of Modern Law- consists of statements Good thinking- is critical to the
Science generally expressed as equations scientific method.
with few variables
- The scientist avoids letting private
that have overwhelming empirical
beliefs or expectations influence
Why is the scientific mentality support.
observations or conclusions.
important?
-Laws, like the Laws of
- We engage in good thinking when
-Alfred North Whitehead’s Thermodynamics,
data collection and interpretation
Scientific mentality assumes that are useful in the physical sciences.
are systematic, objective, and
behavior follows a natural order and
*Typically, we do not have enough rational.
can be predicted.
information to state general law, but
What is parsimony?
- This assumption is essential to we advance understanding by
science. There is no point to using devising and testing an interim -The principle of parsimony is that
the scientific method to gather and explanation commonly known as…. we prefer the simplest useful
analyze data if there is no implicit explanation.
Theory- is an interim explanation; a
order.
set of related statements used - For example, Crandall (1988)
explain and predict phenomena. showed that a social contagion
model of bulimia was more
What makes data empirical? -Theories integrate diverse data,
parsimonious than competing
explain behavior, and predict new
-data are empirical when observed explanations.
instances of behavior.
or experienced.
How did Sir Karl Popper believe
- Theories can explain many, but
-Galileo’s empirical approach was not all, instances of a situation or
that science advances?
superior behavior – the more aa theory can -Sir Karl Popper proposed that
to Aristotle’s commonsense explain, the better. science advances by revising
method.
theories based on the “weight of
- Laws are seldom determined
evidence.”
outside physical sciences, so
-Galileo correctly concluded that behavioral sciences like psychology - Science is self-correcting as
light objects fall as rapidly as heavy largely progress by developing by scientific explanations and theories
ones in a vacuum. better and better theories.
are challenged, and revised or The Objectives of Psychological Applied research- addresses real-
replaced. Science world problems like how to improve
student graduation rates.
What role does the principle of
modus tollens play in science?
What are the four main objectives of Basic research- tests theories and
-The principle of modus tollens science? explains psychological phenomena
allows us to disprove statements like helping behavior.
The four main objectives of science
using a single, contrary observation.
are:
- We can never prove a statement  Description The Tools of Psychological
because a contradictory Science
observation might be found later.  Prediction
What are the main tools of
 Explanation psychological science?
How does replication advance  Control The main tools of psychological
science? science are:
Replication- is an exact or Description- is a systematic and  Observation
systematic repetition of a study. unbiased account of observed  Measurement
characteristics of behaviors.
-Replication increases our
 Experimentation
confidence in experimental results Prediction- is the capability of
by adding to the weight of knowing in advance when certain
supporting evidence. behaviors should occur.
Observation- is the systematic
Explanation- is knowledge of the noting and recording of events.
conditions that reliably produce a
Systematic- means that
behavior.
the procedures are consistently
Control- is the use of scientific applied.
knowledge to influence behavior.
-The events or their signs must be What are the requirements for an precede effects. However, not all
observable. experiment? prior events are causes.
-We must be able to manipulate the
- Observations must be objective so
independent variable and measure
that there can be strong agreement Pseudoscience- is any field of study
its effect on the dependent variable. that gives the appearance of being
among raters.
- Ethical concerns or technological scientific, but has no true scientific
limitations may prevent basis and has not been confirmed
using the scientific method.
Measurement- assigns numbers to experimentation.
objects, events, or their -Modern pseudosciences include
- An experiment requires that we
characteristics. This is an inherent past life regression, reparenting,
create at least two treatment
feature of quantitative research. and rebirthing.
conditions and randomly assign
-Baron and colleagues (1985) subjects to these conditions.
measured anger and depression
- In psychology experiments, we
using numerical scales.
control extraneous variables so
we that we can measure “what we
intend to measure.”
Experimentation- is the process
we use to test the predictions we
call hypotheses and establish
How does an experiment establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
cause and effect?
-An experiment attempts to
-Experimentation is not always
establish a cause- and-effect
possible because our predictions
relationship between the
must be testable.
antecedent conditions (IV) and
subject behavior (DV).
- Experiments establish a temporal
relationship, because causes must
CHAPTER 2: Research Ethics - As researchers, we must Which three principles did the
accurately estimate the degree of Belmont Report (1979) emphasize?
risk in our research. We typically do
The Belmont Report proposed
Research ethics- are a framework this by reading the literature and
three principles:
of values within which we conduct consulting with colleagues.
research. 1.Respect for persons: individuals
- IRBs will also help researchers have the right of self-determination
-Ethics help researchers identify estimate the degree of risk involved (basis of informed consent).
actions we consider good and bad, in their studies.
2. Beneficence: minimize harm and
and explain the principles by which
maximize potential benefits (basis
we make responsible decisions in
at risk- Studies that place subjects of risk/benefit analysis).
actual situations.
at risk increase the chance of harm 3. Justice: fairness in both the
compared with not participating in burdens and benefits of research.
Institutional Review Boards the study.
(IRBs)- are composed of laypeople Minimal risk studies- Minimal risk
and researchers, evaluate research studies do not increase the The APA Guidelines
proposals to make sure that they likelihood of injury.
follow ethical standards.
*What’s its purpose?* What is informed consent?
When should an IRB approve an "at -A subject or guardian agrees in
- IRBs protect the safety of risk" study?
research participants. writing to the subject’s participation
-IRBs should approve an “at risk” after relevant details of
- Their first task is to decide study when a risk/benefit analysis the experiment have been
whether a proposed study determines that risks to participants explained.
increases participants’ risk of injury are outweighed by gains in - This description may include risks
since psychological research can knowledge. and benefits, but does not extend to
cause physical and/or psychological deception or the hypothesis.
discomfort.
- Perhaps the most important Which steps must researchers take Why is the use of a confederate
principle built into ethics codes is if deception is used? deceptive?
the right of a participant to refuse to
-Subjects must be allowed to -Use of a confederate is deceptive
be in the study or discontinue
withdraw from the experiment at because subjects are led to believe
participation.
any time and should never face that the confederate is another
coercion to remain. subject, experimenter, or bystander,
- Ethical researchers, therefore,
when he or she is actually part of
cannot coerce participants to agree - The experimenter should provide
the experimental manipulation.
to be in the study or prevent debriefing (full disclosure) after
participants from discontinuing the either their personal participation or
study. the completion of the entire study.
What is the principle of full
disclosure?
APA Ethical Guidelines What does debriefing involve and Full disclosure- means explaining
when is it required? the true nature and purpose of the
-APA ethical guidelines apply to
study to the subject at the end of
psychologists and students when -Debriefing involves explaining the
their participation or at the
they assume the role of true nature and purpose of the
completion of the entire experiment.
psychologists during research or experiment.
practice.
- Debriefing is an essential
component of good experimental How does debriefing accomplish
research. We must offer our this?
APA Guidelines on Deception
participants a full explanation of our
Debriefing- In debriefing, an
Deception- may be used when it is study any time that we use
experimenter discloses the true
the best way to obtain information. deception.
nature and purpose of the study to
-Deception may not be used to Confederate- is an experimenter’s the subject and solicits subjects’
minimize the participants’ accomplice. questions at the end of the
perception of risk or exaggerate experiment.
their perception of potential
benefits.
Difference between anonymity and Protecting the Welfare of Animal Fraud in Science
confidentiality Subjects
How do psychologists protect the
Scientific fraud- involves falsifying
welfare of animal subjects?
Anonymity- means that subjects or fabricating data.
are not identified by name.
What motivates fraud?
Confidentiality- means that data Animal welfare- is the humane
-A researcher’s graduation, tenure,
are securely stored and only used care and treatment of animals.
promotion, funding, or reputation
for the purpose explained to the
may motivate researchers to
subject. Institutional Animal Care and Use
commit fraud.
Committee or IACUC
*How is Anonymity and
Confidentiality achieved? -Institutions that conduct animal
research must establish an Main Line of defense against Fraud
Researchers achieve anonymity by
Institutional Animal Care and
collecting data without names and Peer review- the peer review
Use Committee (IACUC) to
assigning code numbers. process filters submitted
evaluate animal research before it
is conducted. manuscripts so that only 15-20% of
They achieve confidentiality by
articles are printed.
storing data in a locked safe and
- The IACUC must determine that
only using the data for the purposes
the researchers have explored all Replication- where researchers
explained to the participants.
alternatives and have documented attempt to reproduce the findings of
that there are no other feasible others, is the second line of
alternatives. defense.
Animal rights- is the position that Competition- by colleagues for
sensate species (those that can feel scarce resources, while a cause of
pain and suffer) have equal value fraud, is the third line of defense.
and rights to humans.
Plagiarism CHAPTER 3: Alternatives to - An internally valid experiment
Experimentation: Non- allows us to draw cause-and-effect
Plagiarism- is misrepresenting
experimental Designs conclusions.
someone’s “ideas, words, or written
work” as your own.
Why is it wrong? Describing Research Activities Why do experiments often achieve
higher internal validity than non-
-Plagiarism is a form of fraud, in
experimental studies?
which an individual claims false
Non-experimental- approaches do
credit for another’s ideas, words, or -Laboratory experiments are often
not create levels of an independent
written work. higher in internal validity because of
variable nor randomly assign
their control of extraneous
subjects to these levels.
variables.
Ethical Reports -They are used where experiments
-Researchers create levels of the IV
are not ethical or possible, or where
Which ethical issues may be and use procedures like matching
we want to test hypotheses in
involved in research reports? and random assignment to
realistic conditions.
conditions.
-Authorship credit should only be
given to those who made a major
contribution to the research or Internal validity- is the degree to
External validity- is the degree to
writing. which a researcher can establish a
which research findings can be
causal relationship between the
- Researchers should not take generalized and applicable to other
independent and dependent
credit for the same research more settings and individuals.
variables.
than once.
- An experiment has high internal
- The ethical solution is to cite
validity when we can demonstrate
original publications when
that only the antecedent conditions
republishing data in a journal article
are responsible for group
or republishing journal articles in an
differences in behavior.
edited volume.
Why might nonexperimental studies Phenomenology- involves a  provide exceptions to
achieve higher external validity than subject's description of personal accepted ideas, theories,
laboratory experiments? subjective experience. and practices
- Non-experimental studies are -Phenomenology is low in  persuasive and motivational
more frequently conducted in real- manipulation of antecedent value (advertising)
world settings with a more diverse conditions and low in imposition
sample of participants than of units (low-low).
experiments. Limitations of Case Studies
- their generalizability to the real Case studies have several
Case studies- a researcher
world may be more apparent limitations:
compiles a descriptive study of a
subject's experiences, observable  representativeness of
behaviors, and archival records sample
What is the degree of manipulation
kept by an outside observer.
of antecedent conditions?  completeness of data
The degree of manipulation of -Case studies range from low-low to  reliance on retrospective
antecedent conditions concerns low-high. data
assignment of subjects to
antecedent conditions created for
the experiment. Strengths of Case Studies How do deviant case analyses
extend evaluative case studies?
Case studies have several
advantages: -In a deviant case analysis,
Degree of imposition of units- is
how much you limit a subject’s  source of inferences, researchers examine differences
responses on the Dependent hypotheses, and theories between deviant and normal
Variable. individuals to identify etiological
 source of therapy techniques factors.
 allow study of rare -This approach may also be applied
phenomena to nonclinical issues such as social
trends and adult morale.
Retrospective data- are Naturalistic observation- research subjects to avoid
recollections of past events that are examines subjects’ spontaneous reactivity.
collected in the present. behavior in their actual
environments and may obtain more
-While your childhood memories representative behavior than Which ethical problems complicate
constitute retrospective data, your experiments. participant-observer studies?
undergraduate portfolio does not
-This method can achieve high
since it was collected in the past.
levels of external validity.
-The main problems are invasion of
privacy, not telling people that you
Risks of using Retrospective Data are studying their behavior, and
Problem of Reactivity
pretending to be a group member.
-This information may be
- In reactivity, subjects alter their
compromised by faulty memory,
behavior when they know that they - Pretending to be a group member
current mood, and the retrieval cues
are being observed. (e.g., a researcher pretending to be
that are present when you are
a weight lifter) is a serious problem
asked to recall an event. - For example, your baby sister
that requires careful planning.
stops saying “Gramma” when you
place the phone near her mouth. Difference between Field
Field Studies Experiments from Field Studies
Field studies- are non- Field experiments- are
What is a participant-observer
experimental studies conducted in experiments conducted in real-life
study?
the field (real-life settings). The settings.
experimenter does not manipulate A participant-observer study
Field studies- are non-
antecedent conditions. involves field observation in which
experimental designs used in real-
the researcher is part of the studied
life settings and include naturalistic
-Field studies range from low-low to group.
observation, unobtrusive measures,
low-high.
This approach contrasts with participant-observer studies, and
naturalistic observation, where the surveys.
researcher does not interact with
Archival Study change Which information sources does
in attitudes, values, beliefs, empirical phenomenology use?
Archival study- is a descriptive
methods, and procedures accepted
method where researchers
during a specific time period.
reexamine data that were collected
Empirical phenomenology might
for other purposes.
rely on an experimenter’s private
How is qualitative research helpful? experiences or other experiential
-For example, universities collect a
data:
wealth of data through surveys like Qualitative research is invaluable in
the Graduating Senior studying contextual phenomena, 1. The researcher’s self-
Questionnaire (GSQ) and behavior that can only be reflection on relevant
interviews. understood within its context. experiences
2. Participants’ oral or written
For example, we might examine the descriptions of their
Qualitative Research meaning of religious faith for experiences
patients facing impending surgery. 3. Accounts from literature,
Qualitative research- obtains data
poetry, visual art, television,
consisting of words instead of
theatre, and previous
numbers.
phenomenological (and
other) research
-This information is obtained
through self-reports, personal
narratives, and expression of ideas,
memories, feelings, and thoughts.

Why is the rise of qualitative

research important?
The increased use of qualitative
research
may represent a paradigm shift—a