ΠΑΝΕΠΙΣΤΗΜΙΟ ΘΕΣΣΑΛΙΑΣ

ΠΟΛΥΤΕΧΝΙΚΗ ΣΧΟΛΗ
ΤΜΗΜΑ ΜΗΧΑΝΟΛΟΓΩΝ ΜΗΧΑΝΙΚΩΝ

Hydraulic Systems
Analysis and Design
Dimosthenis Tsalagradas
Konstantinos Kaimenopoulos

2018
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

© 2018 Dimosthenis Tsalagradas, Konstantinos Kaimenopoulos

The approval of diploma thesis by the Department of Mechanical Engineering of the

University of Thessaly does not imply acceptance of the views of the authors (Ν. 5343/32
αρ. 202 παρ. 2).

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Approved by the Members of the Examination Committee

First Examiner/Supervisor: Dr. Vasilis Bontozoglou

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Thessaly

Second Examiner: Dr. Nikolaos Andritsos

Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
University of Thessaly

Third Examiner: Dr. Alexis Kermanidis

Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, University of Thessaly

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Acknowlegments
First of all, we would like to thank our diploma thesis supervisor, Professor Dr. Vasilis
Bontozoglou for his valuable help and guidance during our effort. We are also grateful to
the rest of the members of the examining committee, Dr. Nikolaos Andritsos and Dr.
Alexis Kermanidis for the careful reading of our thesis and their valuable suggestions.
Furthermore, we would like to thank our friends Alkis, Aris, John, Sio and Vasilis for their
moral support. We also thank Christina and Thalia for their support and understanding,
especially over the last few months of our attempt. Above all, we are grateful to our
parents, George Kaimenopoulos and Adamantia Kalogirou as well as Dimitris
Tsalagradas and Kalliopi Gkotzagioridou, for their wholehearted love and support over
the years.
We dedicate this thesis to our parents and in the memory of Aria.
K. Kaimenopoulos
D. Tsalagradas

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Summary
Nowadays hydraulic systems are of high importance in the industrial as well as in the
automotive, aeronautic and naval areas. The purpose of the present thesis is to introduce
the reader to the function and analysis of hydraulic systems.

The thesis is based on a variety of bibliography sources aiming to provide a basic but
complete spherical view of hydraulic systems. Thus, the structure is established by
presenting the major designs of the different components that compose the hydraulic
systems, introducing several efficient hydraulics subassemblies that correspond to
different objectives and furthermore, analyzing and focusing the scientific areas of Fluid
Mechanics, Transport Phenomena and Thermodynamics to better describe common met
situations.

Hydraulic systems are unsurpassed in terms of speed and power in relation to other
systems. The wide variety of components and their possible assemblies makes them very
flexible. Furthermore, the fact that power is transferred through oil, minimizes and
lubricates the moving parts providing high reliability and accuracy proving their strong
position in today’s engineering.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Περίληψη
Σήμερα τα υδραυλικά συστήματα έχουν μεγάλη σημασία τόσο στις βιομηχανίες όσο στα
αεροναυπηγικά, αυτοκινητοβιομηχανικά και ναυπηγικά πεδία. Σκοπός της παρούσας
διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι να εισαγάγει τον αναγνώστη στη λειτουργία και την ανάλυση
των υδραυλικών συστημάτων.

Η διπλωματική βασίζεται σε ποικίλες πηγές βιβλιογραφίας που αποσκοπούν στην

παροχή μιας βασικής αλλά ολοκληρωμένης εικόνας των υδραυλικών συστημάτων. Έτσι,
η δομή συντίθεται παρουσιάζοντας τις κύριες παραλλαγές των διαφόρων εξαρτημάτων
που συνθέτουν τα υδραυλικά συστήματα, κατηγοριοποιώντας έναν αριθμό αποδοτικών
υδραυλικών υποσυστημάτων που αντιστοιχούν σε διαφορετικούς στόχους και επιπλέον
αναλύοντας και απλοποιώντας τις επιστημονικές περιοχές της Μηχανικής Ρευστών, των
Φαινομένων Μεταφοράς και της Θερμοδυναμικής για την εξειδικευμένη περιγραφή
κοινών καταστάσεων.

Τα υδραυλικά συστήματα είναι ανώτερα όσον αφορά την ταχύτητα και την ισχύ σε σχέση
με άλλα συστήματα. Η μεγάλη ποικιλία εξαρτημάτων και πιθανών συνδυασμών τους, τα
καθιστούν πολύ ευέλικτα. Επιπλέον, το γεγονός ότι η ισχύς μεταδίδεται μέσω λαδιού,
ελαχιστοποιεί τα κινούμενα μέρη και τα λιπαίνει, παρέχοντας υψηλή αξιοπιστία και
ακρίβεια αποδεικνύοντας την ισχυρή θέση τους στη σημερινή τεχνολογία.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 W ORKING PRINCIPLE ................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 HISTORY OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 2
1.3 APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 COMPONENTS AND BASIC OPERATION PROCESS ...................................................................... 6
1.5 FUNDAMENTALS ......................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES .......................................................................................... 8
1.7 THESIS OVERVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 9

2. HYDRAULIC COMPONENTS ....................................................................... 10

2.1 PUMPS..................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Gear Pumps ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1.2 Vane Pumps ............................................................................................................ 15
2.1.3 Piston Pumps .......................................................................................................... 18
2.1.4 Screw Pumps .......................................................................................................... 22
2.1.5 Bellows Pumps ........................................................................................................ 23
2.1.6 Diaphragm Pumps ................................................................................................... 23
2.1.7 Reciprocal Pumps .................................................................................................... 24
2.1.8 Connection Between Pump and Drive Motor ............................................................ 24
2.2 ACTUATORS/MOTORS.............................................................................................................. 25
2.2.1 Linear Actuators/Cylinders ....................................................................................... 25
2.2.2 Rotary Actuators or Motors ...................................................................................... 28
2.3 VALVES.................................................................................................................................... 31
2.3.1 Pressure Control Valves .......................................................................................... 31
2.3.2 Direction Control Valves ........................................................................................... 36
2.3.3 Flow Control Valves ................................................................................................. 41
2.3.4 Modular Valves ........................................................................................................ 44
2.3.5 Logic Valves ............................................................................................................ 44
2.3.6 Proportional Electro-Hydraulic Control Valves .......................................................... 44
2.3.7 Servomechanism & Servo Valves ............................................................................ 45
2.3.8 Dynamic Models for Valves ...................................................................................... 46
2.4 ACCUMULATORS ...................................................................................................................... 47
2.4.1 Accumulator Types .................................................................................................. 48
2.5 FILTERS ................................................................................................................................... 49
2.5.1 Classification of Filters ............................................................................................. 50
2.5.2 Filtering Methods/Types of filters .............................................................................. 50
2.6 RESERVOIRS ........................................................................................................................... 51
2.6.1 Capacity .................................................................................................................. 51
2.6.2 Design ..................................................................................................................... 51
2.7 HOSES AND FITTINGS .............................................................................................................. 53
2.7.1 Hydraulic Line Size .................................................................................................. 53
2.7.2 Hose, Tubing and Pipe Settings ............................................................................... 53
2.8 HEAT EXCHANGERS ................................................................................................................. 54
2.8.1 Modes of Heat Transfer ........................................................................................... 54
2.8.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient ............................................................................. 55
2.8.3 Types of Cooling Systems........................................................................................ 55
2.9 SHOCK ABSORBERS ................................................................................................................ 57
2.9.1 Hydraulic Heat Absorbers ........................................................................................ 57
2.9.2 Hydropneumatic Shock Absorbers ........................................................................... 57
2.9.3 Hydraulic Fluid Properties Perminet to Shock Absorbers .......................................... 58
2.9.4 Liquid Springs .......................................................................................................... 58
2.10 HYDRAULIC FLUID .................................................................................................................... 59

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.10.1 Definition of a Fluid .................................................................................................. 59

2.10.2 Tasks of a Hydraulic Fluid ........................................................................................ 59
2.10.3 Fluid Qualities .......................................................................................................... 59
2.10.4 Types of Hydraulic Fluids ......................................................................................... 60

3. FUNDAMENTALS OF HYDRAULICS .......................................................... 62

3.1 THE LOGIC BEHIND HYDRAULICS ............................................................................................. 62
3.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure ................................................................................................ 62
3.1.2 Pascal’s Law – Pressure Transmission .................................................................... 63
3.1.3 Displacement Transmission ..................................................................................... 64
3.1.4 Flow Rate ................................................................................................................ 64
3.2 THE SEVEN GENERAL EQUATIONS........................................................................................... 65
3.2.1 Navier - Stokes Equations ........................................................................................ 65
3.2.2 Continuity Equation - Conservation of Mass ............................................................. 66
3.2.3 Conservation of Energy – 1st Thermodynamic Law .................................................. 66
3.2.4 Equation of State ..................................................................................................... 72
3.2.5 Fluid Viscosity .......................................................................................................... 73
3.3 TYPES OF FLUID FLOW IN CLOSED CONDUITS ......................................................................... 76
3.3.1 Reynold’s Number ................................................................................................... 76
3.3.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes .............................................................................................. 78
3.3.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes............................................................................................ 81
3.4 FLOW THROUGH ORIFICES ....................................................................................................... 86
3.4.1 Turbulent Orifice Flow .............................................................................................. 86
3.4.2 Laminar Orifice Flow ................................................................................................ 89
3.5 MINOR LOSSES ........................................................................................................................ 92
3.6 POWER LOSS AND TEMPERATURE RISE ................................................................................... 95
3.7 PRESSURE TRANSIENTS IN HYDRAULIC CONDUITS .................................................................. 98
3.7.1 Waterhammer .......................................................................................................... 98
3.7.2 Quick’s Chart ........................................................................................................... 99
3.8 SUMMARY .............................................................................................................................. 101

4. HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS ............................................................. 102

4.1 GRAPHIC AND CIRCUIT SYMBOLS........................................................................................... 102
4.1.1 Pumps and Motors ................................................................................................. 102
4.1.2 Directional Control Valves ...................................................................................... 103
4.1.3 Types of Actuation ................................................................................................. 104
4.1.4 Pressure Valves..................................................................................................... 105
4.1.5 Flow Control Valves ............................................................................................... 106
4.1.6 Non-Return Valves................................................................................................. 107
4.1.7 Cylinders ............................................................................................................... 108
4.1.8 Transfer of Energy and Conditioning of the Pressure Medium ................................ 110
4.2 DESIGN AND REPRESENTATION OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM ..................................................... 112
4.2.1 Signal Control Section............................................................................................ 113
4.2.2 Hydraulic Power Section ........................................................................................ 113
4.2.3 Types of Hydraulic Circuits Representations .......................................................... 116
4.3 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS ............................................................................................ 123
4.3.1 Unload Circuits ...................................................................................................... 123
4.3.2 Pressure Control Circuits ....................................................................................... 128
4.3.3 Speed Control Circuits ........................................................................................... 132
4.3.4 Filter Circuits.......................................................................................................... 137
4.3.5 Synchronizing Circuits............................................................................................ 143
4.3.6 Intensifying Circuits ................................................................................................ 149
4.3.7 Brake Circuits ........................................................................................................ 150
4.3.8 Closed Circuits....................................................................................................... 151
4.3.9 Hydraulic Power Pack System ............................................................................... 153

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

5. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................... 154

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................... 155
7. APPENDIX .................................................................................................. 156

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Table of Figures
Figure 1-1 - Pascal’s Law Illustration. ............................................................................... 1
Figure 1-2 - Hydraulic Cylinder ......................................................................................... 2
Figure 1-3 - Development History of Hydraulics ................................................................ 3
Figure 1-4 - Top to bottom: Dump Truck. Excavator. Hydraulic Press ............................... 5
Figure 1-5 - Hydraulic Circuit Example.............................................................................. 6
Figure 1-6 - Hydraulic Circuit Example.............................................................................. 7
Figure 1-7 - Analogies ...................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2-1 - Characteristics of Pumps ............................................................................. 11
Figure 2-2 - Gear Pump .................................................................................................. 12
Figure 2-3 - External Gear Pump .................................................................................... 13
Figure 2-4 - Lobe Pump .................................................................................................. 14
Figure 2-5 - Spur Gear Pump ......................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-6 - Internal Gear Pump ..................................................................................... 14
Figure 2-7 - Crescent Seal Pump.................................................................................... 15
Figure 2-8 - Gerotor Pump .............................................................................................. 15
Figure 2-9 - Working Principle of Vane Pump ................................................................. 16
Figure 2-10 - Unbalanced Vane Pump ............................................................................ 17
Figure 2-11 - Balanced Vane Pump ................................................................................ 18
Figure 2-12 - Piston Pump .............................................................................................. 19
Figure 2-13 - Axial Piston Pump ..................................................................................... 19
Figure 2-14 - Bent Axis Piston Pump .............................................................................. 20
Figure 2-15 - Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump ................................................................. 21
Figure 2-16 - Radial Piston Pump ................................................................................... 22
Figure 2-17 - Screw Pump .............................................................................................. 23
Figure 2-18 - Hydraulic Cylinder ..................................................................................... 25
Figure 2-19 - Double Acting Cylinder .............................................................................. 25
Figure 2-20 - Double Acting Cushioned Linear Actuator ................................................. 28
Figure 2-21 - Motor ......................................................................................................... 29
Figure 2-22 - Types of Control Valves. Left to right: Hand-operated directional valve. On-
off miniature, solenoid actuated valve. Precision proportional valves. High precision
flapper-nozzle hydraulic servo valve ............................................................................... 31
Figure 2-25 - Direct type Relief Valve ............................................................................. 32
Figure 2-24 - Pilot Operated Relief Valve ........................................................................ 32
Figure 2-23 - Solenoid Controlled Relief Valve ............................................................... 32
Figure 2-26 - Unloading Valve ........................................................................................ 33
Figure 2-27 - Brake Valve ............................................................................................... 33
Figure 2-28 - Sequence Valve ........................................................................................ 34
Figure 2-29 - Counterbalance Valve ............................................................................... 34
Figure 2-30 - Pressure Reducing and Check Valve ........................................................ 35
Figure 2-31 - Pressure Switch ........................................................................................ 35
Figure 2-32 - Classification by Port/Position Count ......................................................... 36
Figure 2-33 - Classification by Operation Method/Spring Arrangement ........................... 37
Figure 2-34 - Pilot Operated Directional Valve ................................................................ 38
Figure 2-35 - Solenoid Operated Directional Valve ......................................................... 38
Figure 2-36 - Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated Directional Valve ................................ 39
Figure 2-37 - Pilot Operated Check Valve ....................................................................... 40
Figure 2-38 - Manually Operated Directional Valve ......................................................... 40
Figure 2-39 - Restrictor ................................................................................................... 41
Figure 2-40 - Flow Control and Check Valve................................................................... 42
Figure 2-41 - Deceleration and Check Valve .................................................................. 43

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-42 - Feed Control Valve .................................................................................... 43

Figure 2-43 - Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valve ................................................................... 45
Figure 2-44 - Direct Drive Servo Valve............................................................................ 46
Figure 2-45 - Bladder and Piston Accumulators .............................................................. 47
Figure 2-46 - Filters ........................................................................................................ 49
Figure 2-47 - Reservoir ................................................................................................... 51
Figure 2-48 - Hoses and Fittings ..................................................................................... 53
Figure 2-49 - Heat Exchanger ......................................................................................... 54
Figure 2-50 - Shock Absorber ......................................................................................... 57
Figure 3-1 - Hydrostatic Pressure. .................................................................................. 62
Figure 3-2 - Result of Pascal’s Law. The increase in Pressure from Area 1 is equal with
the increase in Pressure at Area 2. The Output Force F2 is 10 times F1. ....................... 63
Figure 3-3 - Control volume where the continuity equation is applied.............................. 66
Figure 3-4 - Pressure, Elevation and Velocity Heads in an Open Channel. (Herbert Merritt
- Hydraulic control systems)............................................................................................ 67
Figure 3-5 - The change of Energy Heads Downstream an Open Channel. .................... 68
Figure 3-6 - Summary table of Head Gain and Head Loss terms. ................................... 70
Figure 3-7 - Energies entering and leaving a Control Volume. ........................................ 71
Figure 3-8 - Flow entering and leaving a Control Volume with heat added and work being
done. .............................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 3-9 - Piston Concentric in Cylinder. ...................................................................... 74
Figure 3-10 - Laminar Flow in pipe. ................................................................................ 78
Figure 3-11 - Laminar Flow through various passages with cross sections illustrated. .... 80
Figure 3-12 - Pressure Drop and peak velocity of Steady Laminar Flow in a pipe. .......... 81
Figure 3-13 - Turbulent Flow in a pipe. ........................................................................... 82
Figure 3-14 - Friction Factor for smooth pipes ................................................................ 83
Figure 3-15 - The Moody Diagram where the friction factor for rough pipes in the turbulent
region can be found. (Wikipedia) .................................................................................... 84
Figure 3-16 - Pressure Drop per foot for smooth pipe. Fluid density is and
viscosity is . .............................................................................. 85
Figure 3-17 - Flow through an orifice. (a) Laminar, (b) Turbulent Flow. ........................... 86
Figure 3-18 - Contraction Coefficients for round and slot type orifices. ........................... 88
Figure 3-19 - Discharge Coefficient for short tube orifice. ............................................... 89
Figure 3-20 - Typical plot of Discharge Coefficient versus Reynolds Number for an orifice.
....................................................................................................................................... 90
Figure 3-21 - Asymptotic approximation of Discharge Coefficient. .................................. 91
Figure 3-22 - Resistance Coefficients due to abrupt changes in pipe cross section and
due to the geometry of pipe entrances and exits. ............................................................ 92
Figure 3-23 - Resistance Coefficients of pipe bends. ...................................................... 94
Figure 3-24 - Quick’s Chart showing maximum pressure rise with uniform valve closure.
....................................................................................................................................... 99
Figure 4-1 - Schematics of Hydraulic Pumps and Motors with fixed displacement. ....... 103
Figure 4-2 - Schematics of Directional Control Valves. ................................................. 104
Figure 4-3 - Schematics of different types of Mechanical Actuations. ........................... 105
Figure 4-4 - Schematics of open and closed Valve Position. ......................................... 105
Figure 4-5 - Schematic of set and adjustable Pressure Valves. .................................... 106
Figure 4-6 - Schematic of Pressure Relief Valve and Pressure Regulator Valve. .......... 106
Figure 4-7 - Throttle and Orifice schematics ................................................................. 106
Figure 4-8 - Two way Flow Control Valve schematics ................................................... 107
Figure 4-9 - Non-Return Valves schematics ................................................................. 107
Figure 4-10 - Non-Return Valves .................................................................................. 107

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 4-11 - Single Acting Cylinders schematics ......................................................... 108

Figure 4-12 - Double Acting Cylinders schematics ........................................................ 109
Figure 4-13 - Symbols for Energy Transferring and Conditioning of the Pressure medium.
..................................................................................................................................... 110
Figure 4-14 - Measuring devices schematics ................................................................ 111
Figure 4-15 - Pilot Operated Double Non-Return Valve ................................................ 111
Figure 4-16 - Hydraulic Power Pack ............................................................................. 111
Figure 4-17 - Structure of a Hydraulic System .............................................................. 112
Figure 4-18 - Simple Hydraulic Circuit........................................................................... 114
Figure 4-19 - Simple Hydraulic System. The drive section is highlighted. ..................... 115
Figure 4-20 - Positional sketch example ....................................................................... 116
Figure 4-21 - Circuit diagram with labels next to each component. ............................... 117
Figure 4-22 - Circuit diagram with labels and parameters mentioned next to each
component. ................................................................................................................... 118
Figure 4-23 - Circuit diagram in Table form. .................................................................. 119
Figure 4-24 - Function diagram example. ..................................................................... 120
Figure 4-25 - Function chart example ........................................................................... 121
Figure 4-26 - Displacement step diagram. .................................................................... 122
Figure 4-27 - Displacement time diagram ..................................................................... 122
Figure 4-28 - Open center circuit where the need to maintain the pilot pressure of the
valve requires the use of a Check Valve. ...................................................................... 124
Figure 4-29 - Open center circuit where the output flow from the pump is bypassed to the
reservoir through the Valve. .......................................................................................... 124
Figure 4-30 - Pressure Compensated Pump. Higher pressure leads to lower flow rate. 125
Figure 4-31 - Circuit with Accumulator (PS). If pressure exceeds a limit the flow is
directed to the reservoir but the accumulator maintains the pressure to the rest of the
system. ......................................................................................................................... 125
Figure 4-33 - Pump relief -unload valve circuit. The relief valve activates or deactivates
the high pressure pump. ............................................................................................... 126
Figure 4-32 - Flow vs Pressure diagram of a circuit with one high pressure pump, one low
pressure pump and a relief valve. ................................................................................. 126
Figure 4-34 - Two pressure two control type circuit. ...................................................... 127
Figure 4-35 - Two-Pressure Circuit with Decompression and Check Valves. ................ 128
Figure 4-36 - Decompression circuit. The pressure drops gradually by passing through a
flow control valve in order to avoid shockwaves from instant relief. ............................... 129
Figure 4-37 - Decompression circuit. A flow control valve is used to transmit the power
gradually at the piston achieving smoother motions of the shaft. .................................. 130
Figure 4-38 - Weight balancing circuit. With the use of a pilot operated check valve,
blocking the flow, the weight itself builds up the pressure that holds it with out the need of
oil flow. ......................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 4-39 - Speed change circuit using one high speed flow control valve and a low
speed one..................................................................................................................... 132
Figure 4-40 - Change speed circuit. .............................................................................. 133
Figure 4-41 - Circuit with Proportional Electro-Hydraulic Directional and Flow Control
Valve ............................................................................................................................ 134
Figure 4-42 - Differential circuit where discharged oil from the cylinder is used to add up
pressure to the other end in order to equalize or generally control the forward vs the
reverse velocities of the cylinder’s shaft. ....................................................................... 135
Figure 4-43 - Pre-Fill valve circuit. ................................................................................ 136
Figure 4-44 - Pump filter circuit. .................................................................................... 137
Figure 4-45 - Pressure line filter circuit.......................................................................... 138

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 4-46 - Pressure line filter circuit Filters contaminants from and to the cylinder. . 139
Figure 4-47 - Return line filter circuit. ............................................................................ 140
Figure 4-48 - Pressure line bleed-off filter circuit ........................................................... 141
Figure 4-49 - Off-line filter circuit. It’s a separate system dedicated to filtering and does
not affect the main hydraulic system. ............................................................................ 142
Figure 4-50 - Synchronized system with mechanical combination. ............................... 143
Figure 4-51 - Synchronized system with the use of a high accuracy flow control valve. 144
Figure 4-52 - Synchronized system using a flow divider. .............................................. 145
Figure 4-53 - Synchronized system using hydraulic motors. The synchronization error
depends on the deviation of displacement between the motors. ................................... 146
Figure 4-54 - System with synchronized cylinders. ....................................................... 147
Figure 4-55 - Circuit with servovalve. ............................................................................ 148
Figure 4-56 - Circuit with Intensifying Cylinders. ........................................................... 149
Figure 4-57 - Brake circuit with hydraulic motor. ........................................................... 150
Figure 4-58 - Closed Circuit for Vehicle ........................................................................ 151
Figure 4-59 - Closed circuit. Except for the main pump, another one is used as a
hydraulic motor. ............................................................................................................ 152
Figure 4-60 - Hydraulic Power Pack ............................................................................. 153

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 1. Introduction
1.1 Working Principle
The fast pace of technological evolution made possible increased production capabilities
as well as the accomplishment of larger and more advanced constructions. However,
along with those capabilities, an increased demand in terms of speed and power was
raised, a problem that engineers had to face in the most efficient way.
The controlled movement of parts or a controlled application of force is a common
requirement in the industries. These operations are often performed by using electrical
machines or diesel, petrol and steam engines as a prime mover. These prime movers can
provide various movements to the objects by using some mechanical attachments like
screw jack, lever, rack and pinions etc. However, these are not the only prime movers.
The enclosed fluids (liquids and gases) can also be used as prime movers to provide high
magnitude-controlled motion (linear or rotary) and force to objects or substances. This
kind of fluid-power based systems using pressurized incompressible liquids as
transmission media are called Hydraulic Systems.
Compared to all other actuation technologies, including electric motors, fluid power is
unsurpassed for force and power density and is capable of generating extremely high
forces with relatively lightweight cylinder actuators which make it ideal for high speed,
high force, high power applications. The hydraulic fluid transmits force applied at one
point in the system to some other location and to produce any desired change in direction
or magnitude of this force. To carry out this function in the most efficient manner, the
hydraulic fluid must be relatively incompressible and must flow readily and because oil
has a high bulk modulus, hydraulic systems can be finely controlled for precision motion
applications.
The function of hydraulic systems is based on the incompressibility of fluids and the
Pascal’s Law which states that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a confined
incompressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the same change occurs
everywhere. This way high output forces can be produced with relatively small inputs of
pressure.

Figure 1-1 - Pascal’s Law Illustration.

(me-mechanicalengineering.com)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Fluid power systems have a higher bandwidth than electric motors and can be used in
applications that require fast starts, stops and reversals, or that require high frequency
oscillations. Another major advantage of fluid power is compactness and flexibility.
Hydraulic cylinders are relatively small and light for their weight and flexible hoses allows
power to pass around corners, over joints and through tubes leading to compact
packaging without sacrificing high force and high power.
However, fluid power is not as easy to generate as electric power and requires a heavy,
noisy pump. Also, with the use of oil under pressure, leaking can occur at connections
and seals and the oil itself can cavitate and retain air resulting in spongy performance and
loss of precision. Furthermore, hydraulic and pneumatic systems become contaminated
with particles and require careful filtering.
The physics of fluid power is more complex than that of electric motors which makes
modeling and control more challenging. University and industry researchers are working
hard not only to overcome these challenges but also to extend their use to new
applications, for example tiny robots and wearable power-assist tools (Durfee, Sun, &
Ven, 2015).

Figure 1-2 - Hydraulic Cylinder

(www.hunger-hydraulics.com)

1.2 History of Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulics is a very ancient science. It traces back to the Egyptians and Babylonians,
who constructed canals. Later the Roman and Egyptians, who –like the previous- had
been more interested in the practical and constructional aspects of hydraulics than in
theorizing. The first ones that tried to rationalize the nature of pressure and flow patterns
were the Greeks, with the laws of hydrostatics and buoyancy. Although, development had
been made it was very slow. This was the case until the Renaissance, when men such as
Leonardo Da Vinci began to publish the results of their observations. Ideas which
emerged then, respecting conservation of mass (continuity of flow), frictional resistance
and the velocity of surface waves, are still in use, though sometimes in a more refined
form.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

In the 17th century, several brilliant men emerged. Descartes, Pascal, Newton, Boyle,
Hooke and Leibnitz laid the foundations of modern mathematics and physics. This
enabled researchers to perceive a logical pattern in the various aspects of mechanics. On
this basis, four great pioneers -Bernoulli, Euler, Clairaut and D'Alembert- developed the
academic discipline of hydrodynamics. The 19th century was a period of further advance.
Hagen constructed experiments to investigate the effects of temperature on pipe flow. At
almost the same time, Poiseuille developed equations for laminar flow in pipes. Further
contributions were made by Weisbach, Bresse and Henri Darcy, who developed
equations for frictional resistance in pipe and channel flows.
The rapid growth of industry in the 19th and 20th centuries was by now producing a
demand for a better understanding of fluid flow phenomena. Navier, Stokes, Schwarz,
Christoffel and other hydrodynamicists all contributed to the development of a formidable
array of mathematical equations and methods. However, the real breakthrough came with
the work of Prandtl. He proposed that flow was “divided into two interdependent parts.
There is on the one hand the free fluid which can be treated as inviscid and on the other
hand the transition layer at the fixed boundaries”. With this brilliant insight, Prandtl
effectively fused together the two disparate schools of thought and laid the foundation for
the development of the unified science of Fluid Mechanics.
The 20th century has, in consequence, seen tremendous advances in the understanding
and application of fluid mechanics in almost every branch of engineering. Since 1945, the
advent of the electronic computer, and advances in sensing and data logging equipment
have revolutionized many aspects of hydraulics. Our understanding of the nature of
turbulence, steady and unsteady flows in channels, sediment transport and maritime
phenomena have developed rapidly. This has been matched by developments in
software (Manring, 2005).
Figure 1-3 traces the development history of some typical water and oil hydraulics.

Figure 1-3 - Development History of Hydraulics

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

3
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

1.3 Applications
Hydraulics is applied in a wide range of industries: from construction machinery,
automobiles, and airplanes (outdoor) to machine tools and press machines (indoor).
Typical applications in each industrial field are listed below. Figure 1-4 shows photos of
some of the applications.
 Construction machinery: earthmoving equipment (e.g. excavators, bulldozers,
wheel loaders), cranes, tunnel boring equipment, rail equipment, building and
construction machineries and drilling rigs
 Agricultural/forestry machinery: tractors, combines, rice planting machines, lawn
mowers, and logging machines
 Industrial processing/forming machinery: steel mill, machine tools, and plastic
processing, die casting, press, and sheet metal processing machines, automated
production lines, loaders, textile machineries, R&D equipment and robotic
systems
 Automobiles: power steering, transmissions, brake systems, shock absorbers and
accessories for transport vehicles
 Industrial and special-purpose vehicles: fork lifts, platform vehicles, garbage
trucks, concrete mixer trucks, concrete pump trucks, and accessories for transport
vehicles (wing roofs and tail lifts)
 Ships/fishing machinery: steering, propulsion machinery, and deck cranes
 Aerospace machinery: steering, brake systems, and landing gear
 Testing machinery/simulator: vibration testers, flight simulators, and amusement
machines
Special equipment: hydraulic lifts, vibration control systems for high-story buildings and
trains, sluice gates, crushers, and compactors (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

4
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 1-4 - Top to bottom: Dump Truck. Excavator. Hydraulic Press

(aviratgroup.wordpress.com, www.miromfg.com)

5
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

1.4 Components and Basic Operation Process

Basic components to be used in hydraulic systems are categorized as follows.
 Energy converters (hydraulic pumps, motors, and cylinders)
 Energy controllers (directional, pressure, and flow control valves)
 Accessories (reservoirs, filters, tubing, accumulators, sensors, etc.)
A power source (hydraulic package or unit) for practical systems consists of a hydraulic
pump, a motor, and a reservoir. Depending on the required accuracy and operability,
control valves are also incorporated in the systems. Recently, systems have become
available that drive hydraulic pumps with servo motors and adjust the pump speed to
control the flow and pressure. Figure 1-5 and Figure 1-6 show a circuit example of the
most basic hydraulic systems (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 1-5 - Hydraulic Circuit Example.

(isccompanies.com)

Basic operation process:

1. The reservoir contains the appropriate quantity of oil in order for the system to
operate properly.
2. The pump driven by an electric motor produces a flow of oil through the system.
3. The pressure regulator controls the maximum pressure in the system. If the
pressure exceeds a set limit, the regulator directs the flow back to the tank and
this way relieving the system from the pressure rise.
4. For normal operating pressures the regulator allows flow to the direction valve
which can control whether the oil is going to flow from the upper to the lower or
from the lower to the upper chamber of the hydraulic cylinder.
5. The hydraulic cylinder is the component through which the hydraulic power is
transformed to work with the movement of the shaft.
6. The oil exiting the respective chamber of the cylinder returns to the tank after
passing through a filter.

6
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 1-6 - Hydraulic Circuit Example

(Joshi S.N., Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation)

1.5 Fundamentals
Analyzing the system dynamics of fluid power means using differential equations and
simulations to examine the pressures and flows in components of a fluid power circuit,
and the forces and motions of the mechanisms driven by the fluid power. Because fluid
power systems change with time and because fluid power systems have energy storage
elements, a dynamic system analysis approach must be taken which means the use of
linear and nonlinear differential equations, linear and nonlinear simulations, time
responses, transfer functions and frequency analysis.
Fluid power is one domain within the field of system dynamics, just as mechanical
translational, mechanical rotational and electronic networks are system dynamic domains.
Fluid power systems can be analyzed with the same mathematical tools used to describe
spring-mass damper or inductor-capacitor-resistor systems. Like the other domains, fluid
power has fundamental power variables and system elements connected in networks.
Unlike other domains many its elements are nonlinear which makes closed-form analysis
somewhat more challenging, but not difficult to simulate. Many concepts from transfer
functions and basic closed loop control systems are used to analyze fluid power circuits.
Like all system dynamics domains, fluid power is characterized by two power variables
that when multiplied form power, and ideal lumped elements including two energy storing
elements, one energy dissipating element, a flow source element and a pressure sou rce
element. Figure 1-7 shows the analogies between fluid power elements and elements in
other domains. Lumping fluid power systems into elements is useful when analyzing
complex circuits (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015).

Figure 1-7 - Analogies

(W. Durfee, Z. Sun, J. V. Ven - Fluid Power System Dynamics)

7
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
There are many unique features of hydraulic control compared to other types of control.
These are fundamental and account for the wide use of hydraulic control. Some of the
advantages are the following (Merritt, 1967):

 Heat generated by internal losses is a basic limitation of any machine. Lubricants

deteriorate, mechanical parts seize, and insulation breaks down as temperature
increases. Hydraulic components are superior to others in this respect since the
fluid carries away the heat generated to a convenient heat exchanger. This feature
permits smaller and lighter components.
 The hydraulic fluid also acts as a lubricant and makes possible long component
life.
 There is no phenomenon in hydraulic components comparable to the saturation
and losses in magnetic materials of electrical machines. The torque developed by
an electric motor is proportional to current and is limited by magnetic saturation.
The torque developed by hydraulic actuators (i.e., motors and pistons) is
proportional to pressure difference and is limited only by safe stress levels.
Therefore, hydraulic actuators develop relatively large torques for comparatively
small devices.
 Electrical motors are basically a simple lag device from applied voltage to speed.
Hydraulic actuators are basically a quadratic resonance from flow to speed with a
high natural frequency. Therefore, hydraulic actuators have a higher speed of
response with fast starts, stops, and speed reversals possible. Torque to inertia
ratios are large with resulting high acceleration capability. overall, higher loop
gains and bandwidths are possible with hydraulic actuators in servo loops.
 Hydraulic actuators may be operated under continuous, intermittent, reversing,
and stalled conditions without damage. With relief valve protection, hydraulic
actuators may be used for dynamic breaking. Larger speed ranges are possible
with hydraulic actuators. Both linear and rotary actuators are available and add to
the flexibility of hydraulic power elements.
 Hydraulic actuators have higher stiffness, that is, inverse of slope of speed-torque
curves, compared to other drive devices since leakages are low. Hence there is
little drop in speed as loads are applied. In closed loop systems this results in
greater positional stiffness and less position error.
 Open and closed loop control of hydraulic actuators is relatively simple using
valves and pumps.

Disadvantages
Although hydraulic controls offer many distinct advantages, several disadvantages tend to
limit their use. Major disadvantages are the following (Merritt, 1967):

 Hydraulic power is not so readily available as that of electrical power This is not a
serious threat to mobile and airborne applications but most certainly affects
stationary applications.
 Small allowable tolerances results in high costs of hydraulic components.
 The hydraulic fluid imposes an upper temperature limit. Fire and explosion
hazards exist if a hydraulic system is used near a source of ignition. However,
these situations have improved with the availability of high temperature and fire-
resistant fluids. Hydraulic systems are messy because it is difficult to maintain a
system free from leaks, and there is always the possibility of complete loss of
fluid if a break in the system occurs.
 It is impossible to maintain the fluid free of dirt and contamination. Contaminated
oil can clog valves and actuators and, if the contaminant is abrasive, cause a

8
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

permanent loss in performance and/or failure. Contaminated oil is the chief

source of hydraulic control failures. Clean oil and reliability are synonymous terms
in hydraulic control.
 Basic design procedures are lacking and difficult to obtain because of the
complexity of hydraulic control analysis. For example, the current flow through a
resistor is described by a simple law—Ohm’s law. In contrast, no single law exists
which describes the hydraulic resistance of passages to flow. For this seemingly
simple problem there are almost endless details of Reynolds number, laminar or
turbulent flow, passage geometry, friction factors, and discharge coefficients to
cope with. This factor limits the degree of sophistication of hydraulic control
devices.
 Hydraulics are not so flexible, linear, accurate, and inexpensive as electronic
and/or electromechanical devices in the manipulation of low power signals for
purposes of mathematical computation, error detection, amplification,
instrumentation, and compensation. Therefore, hydraulic devices are generally
not desirable in the low power portions of control systems.

1.7 Thesis Overview

Hydraulic Components
Every hydraulic system consists of some integral parts, such as pumps, motors and
valves. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the most significant designs of each
individual part and analyze their function. The included parts apart from the above
mentioned are: reservoirs, filters, hoses, accumulators, heat exchangers and shock
absorbers.
Fundamentals of Fluid Power
Three main objectives are analyzed in this chapter.

 The first refers to the properties of fluids. Except for the pneumatic systems which
use air, the hydraulic systems use oil as a mean to transfer power, thus it is of
high importance to understand the parameters that characterize a fluid like
viscosity or bulk modulus.
 The second part refers to the mathematical scope of hydraulic systems. A
combination of Transport Phenomena, Liquid Mechanics and Thermodynamics
principles is used to describe such a system.
 Finally, the third object is to focus on specific situations found in hydraulic
systems, where the general equations are specialized and simplified.
Hydraulic Systems
Having read about the components that assembly a hydraulic system and the
mathematical approach that describes it, the main objective of the third chapter is to
present different types of systems. Since there are many combinations of components
that can lead to the same output, some efficient patterns have been established through
the years depending on the type of task the hydraulic system is going to face.
Furthermore, the schematics used for circuit design are presented as well as some
examples of how to perform calculations on a hydraulic circuit.

9
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2. Hydraulic Components
Mechanical components perform a basic function in a hydraulic power or control system
and must satisfy numerous requirements to perform adequately in a given circuit.
Furthermore, the hydraulic fluid influences the operation of the system components and
they, in turn, affect the performance of the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid and most of
the mechanical components that compose the hydraulic circuit are discussed in the
current chapter (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).
2.1 Pumps
Hydraulic pumps supply energy to the system, converting the torque and velocity of an
input shaft to pressure and flow of the output fluid. Thereby convert mechanical energy to
hydraulic energy. It provides the force required to transmit power. Pumps are rated in
terms of flow and pressure. The flow rating (volumetric output) is the amount of liquid
which can be delivered by the pump per time unit at a specified speed. A pump does not
produce pressure. The pressure developed at the outlet depends on the resistance to
flow in the circuit. Pumps are classified according to configuration or operating
characteristics. They can also be classified as fixed or variable displacement devices
(U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).
 Variable Displacement Pumps
These pumps are also known as hydro-dynamic pumps. In these pumps the fluid is
pressurized by the rotation of the propeller and the fluid pressure is proportional to the
rotor speed. These pumps cannot withstand high pressures and generally used for low-
pressure and high-volume flow applications. The fluid motion is generated due to rotating
propeller. These pumps provide a smooth and continuous flow but the flow output
decreases with an increase in system resistance (load). Therefore, the flow rate not only
depends on the rotational speed but also on the resistance provided by the system. The
important advantages of non-positive displacement pumps are lower initial cost, less
operating maintenance because of less moving parts, simplicity of operation, highe r
reliability and suitability with wide range of fluid etc. These pumps are primarily used for
transporting fluids and find little use in the hydraulic or fluid power industries.
 Fixed displacement pump
These pumps deliver a constant volume of fluid in a cycle. The discharge quantity per
revolution is fixed and they produce fluid flow proportional to their displacement and rotor
speed. They are used in most of the industrial fluid power applications. The output fluid
flow is constant and is independent of the system pressure (load). The important
advantage associated with these pumps is that the high-pressure and low-pressure areas
(means input and output region) are separated and hence the fluid cannot le ak back due
to higher pressure at the outlets. These features make the positive displacement pump
most suited and universally accepted for hydraulic systems. The important advantages of
positive displacement pumps over non-positive displacement pumps include capability to
generate high pressures, high volumetric efficiency, high power to weight ratio (Joshi,
2010).

10
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-1 - Characteristics of Pumps

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

Ideal pumps and motors are defined by the relations between fluid pressure and flow
and shaft torque and velocity . For an ideal motor, input and output power is
conserved. If is the pressure difference across the pump or motor, then the power
balance for a pump or motor is (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015):

(1.1)

If the volumetric displacement of the motor or pump is , then the relations relating fluid
to mechanical are:

(1.2)
(1.3)

Real pumps and motors are not 100% efficient and, like cylinders, have an overall
efficiency, which is made up of volumetric and mechanical efficiencies with:

(1.4)

2.1.1 Gear Pumps

Gear pump is a sturdy and simple fixed displacement pump. It has two meshed gears
revolving about their respective axes. These pumps operate with two gears engaged with
each other and rotating to feed a hydraulic fluid from the suction area to the discharge
area. These gears are the only moving parts in the pump. They are compact, relatively
inexpensive and have few moving parts. The rigid design of the gears and houses allow
for very high pressures and the ability to pump highly viscous fluids. The gear pumps are
relatively resistant to working fluid contamination (Basic Hydraulics and Components,
2006), (Joshi, 2010).

11
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-2 - Gear Pump

(MMC A. Beasley, Jr. - Fluid Power)

2.1.1.1 External Gear Pumps

The external gear pump consists of two externally meshed gears housed in a pump case
as shown in Figure 2-3. One of the gears is coupled with a prime mover and is called as
driving gear and another is called as driven gear. The rotating gear carries the fluid from
the tank to the outlet pipe. When the gears rotate, volume of the chamber expands
leading to pressure drop below atmospheric value. Therefore, vacuum is created and the
fluid is pushed into the void due to atmospheric pressure. The fluid is trapped between
housing and rotating teeth of the gears.

12
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-3 - External Gear Pump

(Department of the Army, Headquarters - Hydraulics)

The amount of fluid discharge is determined by the number of gear teeth, the volume of
fluid between each pair of teeth and the speed of rotation. The important drawback of
external gear pump is the unbalanced side load on its bearings. It is caused due to high
pressure at the outlet and low pressure at the inlet which results in slower speeds and
lower pressure ratings in addition to reducing the bearing life. Gear pumps are most
commonly used for the hydraulic fluid power applications and are widely used in chemical
installations to pump fluid with a certain viscosity (Joshi, 2010).

Types of external gear pumps (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971):

i. Spur gear pumps: A spur gear rotary hydraulic pump is illustrated in Figure 2-5.
The two gears rotate in opposite directions and transfer liquid from the inlet to the
outlet through the volume between the teeth and the housing. The output
depends on tooth width and depth, and is largest for a minimum number of teeth.
The spur gear pump is a fixed displacement pump.

ii. Helical gear pumps: A variation of the external spur gear pump is the helical
gear pump. The fact that several teeth are engaged simultaneously allows the
helical gear pump to carry larger loads at high speeds than can the spur gear
pump. Operation is similar to that of the spur gear pump, but with less noise and
usually smaller flow pulsations.

iii. Herringbone gear pumps: Another variation of the external gear pump
incorporates herringbone gears. Like all gear pumps, the herringbone device is a
constant displacement pump.

iv. Lobe pumps: Lobe pumps work on the similar principle of working as that of
external gear pumps. However, the lobes do not make any contact like external
gear pump (Figure 2-4). Similar to the external gear pump, the lobes rotate to
create expanding volume at the inlet.

13
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-5 - Spur Gear Pump Figure 2-4 - Lobe Pump

(www.visionqci.com) (www.rodem.com)

2.1.1.2 Internal Gear Pumps

Internal gear pumps are exceptionally adaptable. It comprises of an internal gear, a
regular spur gear, a crescent-shaped seal and an external housing. The schematic of
internal gear pump is shown in Figure 2-6. Liquid enters the suction port between the
rotor (large exterior gear) and idler (small interior gear) teeth. Liquid travels through the
pump between the teeth and crescent. Crescent divides the liquid and acts as a seal
between the suction and discharge ports. When the teeth mesh on the side opposite to
the crescent seal, the fluid is forced out through the discharge port of the pump. This
clearance between gears can be adjusted to accommodate high temperature, to handle
high viscosity fluids and to accommodate the wear. However, they are not suitable for
high speed and high-pressure applications (Bolton, 2003).

Figure 2-6 - Internal Gear Pump

(Department of the Army, Headquarters - Hydraulics)

Types of internal gear pumps (Department of the Army, 1997):

i. Crescent seal pumps: The crescent seal pump consists of an inner and outer
gear separated by a crescent shaped seal (Figure 2-7). The gears rotate the same
direction, with the inner gear rotating at a higher speed. The liquid is drawn into
the pump at the point where the gear teeth begin to separate and is carried to the
outlet in the space between the crescent and the teeth of both gears. The contact

14
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

point of the gear teeth forms a seal, as does the small tip clearance at the
crescent. This pump is generally used for low output applications.

ii. Gerotor pumps: Gerotor is a fixed displacement pump (Figure 2-8). The name
Gerotor is derived from Generated Rotor. Gerotor pump is an internal gear pump
without the crescent. It consists of two rotors, the inner and the outer rotor. The
inner rotor has teeth, and the outer rotor has teeth. The inner rotor is
located off-center and both rotors rotate. The geometry of the two rotors partitions
the volume between them into different dynamically changing volumes. During
the rotation, volume of each partition changes continuously. Therefore, any given
volume first increases, and then decreases. An increase in volume creates
vacuum. This vacuum creates suction, and thus, this part of the cycle sucks the
fluid. As the volume decreases, compression occurs. During this compression
period, fluids can be pumped, or compressed (if they are gaseous fluids). The flow
output is uniform and constant at the outlets.

Figure 2-7 - Crescent Seal Pump Figure 2-8 - Gerotor Pump

(www.oemoffhighway.com) (www.appliedpumps.co.uk)

2.1.2 Vane Pumps

Vane pumps generate a pumping action by tracking of vanes along the casing wall. They
generally consist of a rotor, vanes, ring and a port plate with inlet and outlet ports. The
rotor in a vane pump is connected to the prime mover through a shaft. The vanes are
located on the slotted rotor. The rotor is eccentrically placed inside a cam ring as shown
in the Figure 2-9. When the prime mover rotates the rotor, the vanes are thrown outward
due to centrifugal force. The vanes track along the ring. This produces a suction cavity in
the ring as the rotor rotates and therefore, the fluid is pushed into the pump through the
inlet. The fluid is carried around to the outlet by the vanes whose retraction causes the
fluid to be expelled. The capacity of the pump depends upon the eccentricity, expansion
of vanes, width of vanes and speed of the rotor.
Their simple construction results in a high degree of reliability and easy maintenance.
They are relatively low in cost and exhibit long operating life. They have comparatively
high volumetric and overall efficiencies and are available in a wide range of output
ratings. These pumps are quieter because of their structure and are less susceptible to
working fluid contamination than piston pumps. Therefore, they are conveniently used in
a wide range of applications. Capacity and pressure ratings of a vane pump are generally

15
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

lower than the gear pumps, but reduced leakage gives an improved volumetric efficiency
of around 95%.
They provide the following advantages: minimized discharge pressure pulsation,
compactness and light weight for high output, less efficiency degradation due to vane
wear, and reliability and ease of maintenance.
The schematic of vane pump working principle is shown in Figure 2-9. These pumps can
handle thin liquids (low viscosity) at relatively higher pressure. However, they are not
suitable for high speed applications and for the high viscosity fluids or fluids carrying
some abrasive particles. The maintenance cost is also higher due to many moving parts
(U.S. Army Material Command, 1971), (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-9 - Working Principle of Vane Pump

(S. N. Joshi - Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation)

2.1.2.1 Unbalanced Vane Pumps

In the unbalanced vane pump, the rotor and cam housing are eccentric (Figure 2-10). The
pump suction is generated in the region where the vanes begin to move outward. The
liquid is carried around the rotor by the vanes, which form a seal with the housing and the
end plates, and it is discharged as the vanes are forced back into the rotor slots by the
eccentric housing. Unbalanced vane pumps can be either fixed or variable displacement
pumps. In the fixed displacement pump the rotor-housing eccentricity is constant and,
hence, the displacement volume is fixed. A constant volume of fluid is discharged during
each revolution of the rotor. Variable displacement can be provided if the housing can be
moved with respect to the rotor. This movement changes the eccentricity and, therefore,
the displacement. In addition to sliding vanes, rolling vanes and swinging vanes are also
available in unbalanced vane pumps.

16
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-10 - Unbalanced Vane Pump

(www.constructionmanuals.tpub.com)

Although the vane tips are held against the housing, still a small amount of leakage exists
between rotor faces and body sides. Also, the vanes compensate to a large degree for
wear at the vane tips or in the housing itself. The pressure difference between outlet and
inlet ports creates a large amount of load on the vanes and a significant amount of side
load on the rotor shaft which can lead to bearing failure (U.S. Army Material Command,
1993).

2.1.2.2 Balanced Vane Pumps

Hydraulic balance is achieved in the balanced vane pump in which the rotor is in an
elliptic housing (Figure 2-11). This configuration creates two diametrically opposed
displacement volumes. Pressure loading still occurs in the vanes, but the two identical
pump halves create equal but opposite forces on the rotor. It leads to the zero-net force
on the shaft and bearings. Thus, lives of pump and bearing increase significantly. Also,
the sounds and vibrations decrease in the running mode of the pump. Balanced vane
pumps are necessarily fixed displacement machines (U.S. Army Material Command,
1971), (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

17
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-11 - Balanced Vane Pump

(www.sciencedirect.com)

2.1.3 Piston Pumps

The applications for which the piston pump is well suited are determined by its two
principal advantages high-pressure capability and high volumetric efficiency. They are
easy to convert to the variable displacement type. Thus, they can operate with various
control types. In addition, the piston pump can operate at speeds over 2,000 rpm, is
available in a wide range of output ratings, and provides a compact, lightweight unit for
high power applications, low noise level when flow path is linear, and better system
economy in the higher power ranges. The piston pumps provide advantages including:
high efficiency, ease of operation at high pressure, ease of conversion to the variable
displacement type, and various applicable control types. Piston pumps are classified by
the motion of the piston relative to the drive shaft. There are three categories-axial, radial,
or rotating (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971), (Basic Hydraulics and Components,
2006).

18
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-12 - Piston Pump

(www.indiamart.com)

2.1.3.1 Axial piston Pumps

Axial piston pumps are fixed displacement pumps which converts rotary motion of the
input shaft into an axial reciprocating motion of the pistons. These pumps have a number
of pistons (usually an odd number) in a circular array within a housing which is commonly
referred to as a cylinder block, rotor or barrel. Output can be controlled by manual,
mechanical, or pressure-compensated controls. An axial-piston pump is shown in Figure
2-13. Rotary motion is converted to axial piston motion by means of the thrust cam, or
wobble plate, mounted on the drive shaft. Variable displacement volume is provided by
the internal valve arrangement (Department of the Army, 1997).

Figure 2-13 - Axial Piston Pump

(www.oilgear.com)

19
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

These pumps have sub-types as (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971):

a. Bent Axis Piston Pumps
Figure 2-14 shows the schematic of bent axis piston pump. In these pumps, the
reciprocating action of the pistons is obtained by bending the axis of the cylinder block.
The cylinder block rotates at an angle which is inclined to the drive shaft. Then it is turned
by the drive shaft through a universal link. It is set at an offset angle with the drive shaft.
Also, it contains a number of pistons along its perimeter. These pistons are forced in and
out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and the cylinder block
changes.

Figure 2-14 - Bent Axis Piston Pump

(www.flight-mechanic.com)

The volumetric displacement (discharge) of the pump is controlled by changing the offset
angle. It makes the system simple and inexpensive. The discharge does not occur when
the cylinder block is parallel to the drive shaft (offset angle is 0°). The offset angle can
vary from 0° to 40°. The flow rate of the pump varies with the offset angle . The total
fluid flow per stroke can be given as:

(1.5)

The flow rate of the pump can be given as:

(1.6)

(1.7)

20
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

where is the piston stroke, is piston diameter, is the number of pistons, is the
speed of pump and is the area of the piston.
b. Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump
A swash plate is a device that translates the rotary motion of a shaft into the reciprocating
motion. It consists of a disk attached to a shaft as shown in Figure 2-15. If the disk is
aligned perpendicular to the shaft, the disk will turn along with the rotating shaft without
any reciprocating effect. Similarly, the edge of the inclined shaft will appear to oscillate
along the shaft's length. This apparent linear motion increases with increase in the angle
between disk and the shaft (offset angle).

Figure 2-15 - Swash Plate Axial Piston Pump

(www.hydraulicspneumatics.com)

In swash plate axial piston pump a series of pistons are aligned coaxially with a shaft
through a swash plate to pump a fluid. The axial reciprocating motion of pistons is
obtained by a swash plate that is either fixed or has variable degree of angle. As the
piston barrel assembly rotates, the piston rotates around the shaft with the piston shoes
in contact with the swash plate. The piston shoes follow the angled surface of the swash
plate and the rotational motion of the shaft is converted into the reciprocating motion of
the pistons. When the swash plate is perpendicular to the shaft, the reciprocating motion
to the piston does not occur. As the swash plate angle increases, the piston follows the
angle of the swash plate surface and hence it moves in and out of the barrel. The piston
moves out of the cylinder barrel during one half of the cycle of rotation thereby generating
an increasing volume, while during other half of the rotating cycle, the pistons move into
the cylinder barrel generating a decreasing volume. This reciprocating motion of the
piston results in the drawing in and pumping out of the fluid. Pump capacity can be
controlled by varying the swash plate angle with the help of a separate hydraulic cylinder.

2.1.3.2 Radial Piston Pumps

The typical construction of radial piston pump is shown in Figure 2-16. The piston pump
has pistons aligned radially in a cylindrical block. It consists of a shaft, a cylinder barrel
with pistons and a rotor containing a reaction ring. The shaft directs the fluid in and out of
the cylinder. Pistons are placed in radial bores around the rotor. The piston shoes ride on
an eccentric ring which causes them to reciprocate as they rotate. The eccentricity
determines the stroke of the pumping piston. Each piston is connected to inlet port when
it starts extending while it is connected to the outlet port when start retracting. For

21
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

initiating a pumping action, the reaction ring is moved eccentrically with respect to the
shaft axis. As the cylinder barrel rotates, the pistons on one side travel outward. This
draws the fluid in as the cylinder passes the suction port of the shaft. It is continued till the
maximum eccentricity is reached. When the piston passes the maximum eccentricity, the
shaft is forced inwards by the reaction ring. This forces the fluid to flow out of the cylinder
and enter in the discharge (outlet) port of the pin (Department of the Army, 1997).

Figure 2-16 - Radial Piston Pump

(www.mohsen.blogspot.com)

2.1.3.3 Rotating Piston Pumps

The rotating piston pump (sometimes called the rotary abutment pump) has three parallel
synchronous shafts. Piston rotors are mounted on the outside shafts and seal
dynamically against the cylindrical housing. The rotor mounted on the centre shaft forms
an abutment valve. The rims of the piston rotors pass through a bucket cut in the centre
rotor. Except when the rim is meshed with the abutment valve, a rolling contact seal is
maintained between the rotors. Liquid is drawn into the right cylinder, pumped through to
the left cylinder, and discharged by the left piston (Joshi, 2010).

2.1.4 Screw Pumps

A screw pump is an axial-flow gear pump and operates by rotating two or three screw
shafts, which are aligned and engaged in parallel, to continuously convey a volume
structured with screw leads. Figure 2-17 shows a two-rotor screw pump with helical
gears. Liquid is introduced at the two ends and discharged at the center. The seal is
formed by the contact of the two gears at the intersection of their addenda and by the
small clearance between the gears and the pump housing. In pumps employing double
helical gears, the thrust loads are balanced. This design is frequently employed in large
pumps. Screw pumps are especially applicable where quiet operation is essential. In
screw pumps, the gears must be in contact at the intersection of their addenda. This
contact plus the minimum clearance at the outside diameter of the gears, provides a
series of sealed chambers along the length of the screws. Screw pumps can also be
arranged with three rotors. The center gear is the driver, and no timing gears are
necessary. Because of the low noise level and reduced pulsation, they are used as
hydraulic pressure sources for hydraulic lifts and submarines. Because gear pumps are
less susceptible to working fluid contamination, they are also used for pumping cutting
oils and lubricants (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

22
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-17 - Screw Pump

(MMC A. Beasley, Jr. - Fluid Power)

2.1.5 Bellows Pumps

The bellows is constructed of thin flexible metals or elastic non-metals. Compression of
the bellows by the actuator provides the pumping action. Liquid flow is controlled by
check valves at the inlet and outlet ports. Bellows pumps are not generally used in
hydraulic systems and find only limited applications in other fields. One area of
application has been the medical field where they have the advantage of simple
construction and are easily fabricated of inexpensive disposable materials. Bellows
pumps also are very effective pumps for liquids that are contaminated with solid particle
material, and for abrasive slurries. There are no small clearance areas for the particles to
damage or close (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.1.6 Diaphragm Pumps

The diaphragm is a flexible disk attached about its circumference to the pump housing.
The actuator moves the diaphragm in a reciprocating motion which provides the pumping
action. Diaphragms can be flexible sheets of metal or elastic non-metals. Liquid flow is
controlled by check valves at the inlet and outlet ports. Diaphragm pumps are primarily
low pressure, pulsating flow pumps and are not often used for hydraulic power sources.
They are occasionally used as hydraulic power sources where a remote pump is
required, such as in high temperature or corrosive environments. The valve head,
containing the inlet and outlet valves, can be located in the hostile environment and the
diaphragm unit located in a remote place. One of the most common uses of diaphragm
pumps is the fuel pump on automobiles. Diaphragm pump advantages include simple
construction, no lubrication problems, high volumetric efficiency, and insensitivity to
contamination. Major disadvantages are the low pressures obtainable, pulsating flow, and
low flow rates (MMC Beasley, 1990).

23
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.1.7 Reciprocal Pumps

These pumps have pistons installed at right angles against the pump rotating shaft in a
plane including the shaft. The pistons reciprocate with alternately moving cranks or
eccentric cams. Pumps suffer from discharge pulsation because they have a fewer
pistons than the axial and radial types. These pumps are used for high pressure
applications such as construction vehicles, cargo loading machines, and press machines.
In addition, they can handle water or water-containing fluids as the working fluid because
of the construction to be wider area applicable for lubrication (U.S. Army Material
Command, 1971).

2.1.8 Connection Between Pump and Drive Motor

The physical connection between the hydraulic pump and its drive motor is not technically
a hydraulic component. However, it is an important part of the hydraulic system, and in
many cases, may be the weakest link in the power system. There are a number of
methods for coupling the drive motor output shaft to the hydraulic pump input shaft. Some
of the more common methods are keys and pins, flexible couplings, universal joints,
clutches, and splines. The most frequently used connector in hydraulic systems is the
spline. Splines offer the advantage of being able to transmit the maximum load with the
smallest coupling diameter. In addition, they are self-centred, tend to equally distribute
the load, and are simple to manufacture with standard gear cutting equipment. Their
major disadvantage is the problem of wear. Even the best designed splines are subject to
relative motion of the parts and are difficult to lubricate (U.S. Army Material Command,
1971).

24
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.2 Actuators/Motors
An actuator is a device for converting hydraulic energy to mechanical energy, and thus
has a function opposite that of a pump. An actuator, or fluid motor, can be used to
produce linear, rotary, or oscillatory motion.

Figure 2-18 - Hydraulic Cylinder

(W. Durfee, Z. Sun, J. V. Ven - Fluid Power System Dynamics)

2.2.1 Linear Actuators/Cylinders

A linear actuator or hydraulic cylinder converts fluid power pressure and flow to
mechanical translational power force and velocity (Figure 2-18). Cylinders can push and
pull, and when mounted around a joint, for example, as is done in an excavator, can
actuate rotary motion. Cylinders come in single acting (push only), single acting with
spring return and double-acting (push-pull) type. The rest of the section will focus on
double-acting cylinders, which are most common in hydraulic applications. A cutaway
illustration of a typical double-acting cylinder used for industrial applications is shown in
Figure 2-19.

Figure 2-19 - Double Acting Cylinder

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

The end of the cylinder where the rod emerges is called the rod end and the other end is
called the cap end. This distinction is important for modelling because the rod side of the
piston within the cylinder has less surface area than the cap side of the piston. For the
same pressure a double-acting cylinder can push with much greater force than it can pull.
Cylinders have considerable friction, particularly around the piston because of its large

25
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

circumference with wrap-around seals. The rod seal tends to be even tighter than the
piston seals to prevent leaking of hydraulic oil, but because of the smaller circumference,
rod seals play less of a role in cylinder friction. While the design of a cylinder is complex,
the dynamic model used for most simulations simply captures the pressure-force
transformation and sometimes includes the cylinder friction and leakage around the
piston seal. The defining equations for an ideal, friction-free, leakless cylinder are
(Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015):

(1.8)

(1.9)

The piston force depends on the difference in pressure across the piston, taking into
account the area on each side. Piston force is:

(1.10)

where all pressures are gauge pressures with respect to atmospheric pressure. And the
piston velocity is:

(1.11)

The rod area is the piston annulus around the rod and is:

(1.12)

Another consequence of the different areas on either side of the piston is that the oil flow
in one port will not be equal to the flow out the other port. If the return line to the reservoir
is long or the return line valve has small orifices, then the pressure builds up on the rod
side of the cylinder when pushing can be significant and must be modelled. The overall
efficiency of a cylinder is given by the ratio of the output mechanical power to the input
fluid power:

(1.13)

where and refer to either the cap or rod side depending on whether the piston is
pushing or pulling. Cylinder efficiency can be split into two parts, the force efficiency:

(1.14)

and the volumetric efficiency:

(1.15)

with the overall efficiency being the product . Using these relations, Equations
1.10 and 1.11 can be modified for a non-ideal cylinder with friction and leakage:

26
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(1.16)

(1.17)

2.2.1.1 Classification of Linear Actuators

The many types of linear actuators which are available give rise to several criteria for
classification (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).
i. Rotating or non-rotating: In a rotating actuator the cylinder, rod, and piston can
rotate. In many applications, such as on rotary machine tools, this feature is
necessary to allow unrestricted motion of the piston rod. To permit stationary
mounting of the fluid connections, a rotating seal is required. The non-rotating
linear actuator, in which the cylinder is not free to rotate, is the most widely used
fluid motor.

ii. Piston or plunger: The piston and rod assembly in a piston-type linear actuator
serves to divide the cylinder volume into two separate chambers. The piston and
attached sealing devices provide the seal between the two chambers. In a
plunger-type there is no piston. The end of the reciprocating rod serves as the
working face. The only seal provided is at the point where the plunger passes
through the end of the cylinder. An external force is required to move the plunger
into the cylinder. Both types provide a longer stroke and permit the use of the
highest pressure.

iii. Rod classification: Linear actuators can also be classified as to rod type. A
cylinder with one piston rod is termed a single-rod actuator. A double-rod actuator
has piston rods extending from both ends of the cylinder. A telescoping rod
consists of a series of nested rods which provide a long extension. Such rods are
useful for applications requiring a long stroke but with only limited space available
for the unextended rod. A positional rod is used where the stroke is split up into
two or more portions. The cylinder can be actuated to any one of the positions.

iv. Cylinder action: The type of cylinder action is important in the specification of
linear actuators. An actuator can be single-acting or double-acting. The single-
acting type can move the piston rod in only one direction by the application of
hydraulic pressure. A plunger-type actuator is a single-acting actuator. In the
double-acting actuator, liquid pressure can be applied to either side of the piston,
thereby providing a hydraulic force in both directions. Springs, external forces, or
a combination of both can be used to assist return of the piston rod or plunger.

v. Single, tandem, and dual actuators: Yet another means of actuator

classification is its assembly. Assemblies of actuators can be designed to obtain
various types of cylinder operation. A tandem actuator is one in which two or more
piston and rod combinations are assembled as a rigid unit with all pistons
mounted on a single rod. Tandem pistons can also be designed to provide a large
working area (and thus large forces for a given pressure) for a small cylinder
diameter. The piston and rod assemblies of a dual actuator are not fastened
together as in the tandem actuator. In most dual actuator designs, a given piston
acts on another only in one direction. Tandem and dual actuators are frequently
used in hydropneumatic systems where air is used as the power source and a
hydraulic fluid is used for control.

27
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

vi. Cushioned or non-cushioned type: In non-cushioned actuators, no provision is

made for controlled acceleration or deceleration of the piston assembly.
Therefore, such units have speed and inertia limitations imposed at both ends of
the stroke. Cushioned actuators are designed to enable the kinetic energy of the
moving piston to be absorbed at the ends of the stroke and thereby reduce peak
pressures and forces.

Figure 2-20 - Double Acting Cushioned Linear Actuator

(MMC A. Beasley, Jr. - Fluid Power)

2.2.2 Rotary Actuators or Motors

As in the case of a linear actuator, the function of a rotary actuator, or rotary fluid motor,
is to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy. Rotary motors are usually rated in
terms of the theoretical torque developed per 100 psi of inlet or differential pressure. The
actual running torque and the stalled torque may be from 60% to 90% of the theoretical
torque, depending on the type of motor. The running volumetric efficiency may vary from
about 75% to 95%, again depending on the particular motor. The highest operating
efficiency occurs near the rated torque and speed. The desirable features of the various
types of rotary motors include:
 The ability to suddenly start, stop, and reverse without motor damage
 The ability to operate as a pump for braking
 A higher horsepower-to-weight ratio than any other conventional power source
 An infinitely-variable speed range
 The ability to operate through zero speed for overrunning loads
 The ability to accommodate contaminants in the fluid.
Rotary fluid motors are essentially rotary pumps operating in reverse. The mechanical
characteristics of a particular rotary motor are nearly identical with those of the
corresponding pump (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

28
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-21 - Motor

(www.rodem.com)

2.2.2.1 Gear Motors

Gear motors, like gear pumps, can be classified as external or internal gear units. Also,
like gear pumps, they are fixed displacement devices. External gear motors include the
gear-on-gear units such as the spur gear motor. Internal gear motors include the crescent
seal types and the Gerotor unit (Department of the Army, 1997).
 Gear-on-gear motors: In the gear-on-gear motor, rotary motion is produced by
the unbalanced hydraulic forces on the gear teeth which are exposed to the inlet
pressure. An example is the spur gear motor which has the same mechanical
features as the spur gear pump shown in Figure 2-5. Bearing loads generated by
the hydraulic unbalance are high, as in the case with unbalanced gear pumps.

 Crescent seal motors: The crescent seal motor employs an inner and outer gear
with a crescent-shaped seal separating the teeth during part of the revolution. Its
operational features are the reverse of those of the crescent seal pump illustrated
in Figure 2-7. Motor units of this type are suitable for high-speed, low-power
operations at low-to-moderate pressure. Starting torque and running efficiencies
are low.

 Gerotor motors: The Gerotor motor (see Figure 2-8 for corresponding pump) is
suitable for high-speed operation and exhibits relatively high starting torque
efficiency. Volumetric efficiency is relatively low and leakage rates are high at
most speeds. The cost of Gerotor motors is relatively high in comparison with the
other gear motors.

2.2.2.2 Vane Motors

Most vane motors are of the balanced type because hydraulic unbalance causes large
radial bearing loads which limit the use of unbalanced vane motors to low pressure
operation and applications where weight and space considerations do not preclude the
use of large, heavy bearings. Therefore, most vane motors have a mechanical
configuration similar to that of the balanced vane pump shown in Figure 2-11 and are
thus fixed displacement units. To accommodate starting and low speed operation, it is

29
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

usually necessary to provide a force -in addition to the centrifugal force- to move the vane
radially outward. Springs are commonly used for this purpose. As with vane pumps,
rolling and swinging vanes can also be used in vane motor design. The overall running
efficiencies of vane motors are typically 80% to 85% (U.S. Army Material Command,
1971).

2.2.2.3 Limited-Rotation Motors

Limited-rotation motors, or rotary actuators, provide an oscillating power output. A variety
of such units is available, all of which consist of one or more fluid chambers and a
movable surface against which the fluid pressure is applied. Both vane-type and piston-
type motors can be used to obtain an oscillatory output (U.S. Army Material Command,
1971).
 Vane type: There are two types of limited-rotation vane motors, the single-vane
and the double-vane. The single-vane unit consists of a cylindrical housing, a
shaft with a single vane, a barrier which limits the vane rotation, and end pieces
which support the shaft . High-pressure liquid enters on one side of the vane,
forcing the vane to rotate to the barrier. In the double-vane unit, the high-pressure
fluid enters on one side of a vane and is ported through the shaft to the
corresponding side of the other vane. In both the double and the single-vane
units, seals are maintained between the rotor and the barriers and between the
vanes and the housing.

 Piston type: Piston-driven actuators are available in several configurations

designed to produce an oscillating output. The helix-spline unit employs a shaft
with a helical screw which passes through the piston. A guide rod prevents
rotation of the piston. The piston-rack unit consists of two or more pistons which
provide the rack for a rack-and pinion system.

2.2.2.4 Piston Motors

Piston motors which generate a continuous rotary output motion (as opposed to linear
actuators) can be classified in terms of the piston motion: axial, radial, or rotary. They can
be fixed or variable displacement devices. They can operate at high pressures and have
high volumetric efficiencies. The power-to-weight ratio of piston motors is not as favorable
as that of gear and vane motors. Relative cost per horsepower is high (Merritt, 1967).
 Axial-piston type: The operation of an axial-piston motor is essentially the same
as that of an axial piston pump except for the direction of flow (Figure 2-13). The
high-pressure liquid introduced through the motor inlet forces the piston assembly
against the thrust cam or wobble plate. The angular application of this force
causes the plate to rotate and this rotation is transmitted by the shaft. The
displacement can be varied by changing the angle of the thrust cam. Leakage is
low under both running and stalled conditions.

 Radial-piston type: The radial-piston motor is also essentially its pump

counterpart operating in reverse (Figure 2-16). Liquid enters the piston chamber
through a central pin. The piston is forced radially outward against the thrust ring,
thereby producing a force tangent to the piston chamber. The resulting torque
causes the shaft to rotate. This motor type exhibits very high volumetric
efficiencies and high torque, and is well-suited for low-speed application because
of the small mass of the rotating parts.

 Rotary-piston type: The rotary-piston motor is the same as the rotary-piston

pump except for the flow direction. Weight and space-to-power ratios are high,
and cost per horsepower is usually high.

30
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3 Valves
Control valves are essential and appear in all fluid power systems. Valves are sometimes
categorized by function, which includes directional control valves for directing fluid flow to
one or the other side of a cylinder or motor, pressure control valves for controlling the
fluid pressure at a point and flow control valves for limiting the fluid flow rate in a line,
which in turn limits the extension or retraction velocities of a piston. Valves are also
characterized by the number of ports on the valve for connecting input and output line s
and by the number of operating positions that the valve can assume. For example, a 3 -
way, 2-position valve commonly found in pneumatic systems has three ports for
connecting supply line, exhaust or reservoir line and output line to the cylinder and two
positions. In one position the supply line connects to the cylinder line extending the
piston. In the other position the exhaust line connects to the cylinder retracting the piston,
assuming the piston has a spring return. On/off valves can only be in the states defined
by their positions while proportional valves are continuously variable and can take on any
position in their working range. A servo valve is a proportional valve with an internal
closed-loop feedback mechanism to maintain precise control over the valve behavior.
Example valves are shown in Figure 2-22 (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015).

Figure 2-22 - Types of Control Valves. Left to right: Hand-operated directional valve. On-off
miniature, solenoid actuated valve. Precision proportional valves. High precision flapper-nozzle
hydraulic servo valve
(W. Durfee, Z. Sun, J. V. Ven - Fluid Power System Dynamics)

Valve Types
Valves are classified according to their function in the hydraulic system. These basic
types are pressure control valves, directional control valves, and flow control valves. Most
valves can be regarded as some combination of these basic types.

2.3.1 Pressure Control Valves

A pressure control valve either limits the pressure in various circuit components or
changes the direction of all or part of the flow when the pressure at a certain point
reaches a specified level. Such controls are directly or indirectly actuated by some
system-pressure level (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.3.1.1 Relief Valves

A relief valve limits the maximum pressure that can be applied to the part of the system
to which it is connected. It acts as an orifice between the pressurized region and a
secondary region at a lower pressure. In most applications, the relief valve is closed until
the pressure attains a specified value. Then the flow through the valve increases as the
system pressure rises until the entire system flow is vented to the low-pressure region. As
the system pressure decreases, the valve closes (Basic Hydraulics and Components,
2006).
a. In the direct-acting pressure relief valve, the system pressure acts directly on the
spring (Figure 2-25). These valves are small and have a simple structure for their
capacity. However, they are likely to exhibit high-pressure override (a pressure

31
 Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

characteristic observed when a fluid starts flowing from a valve and reaches the rated
flow rate) and chattering. Therefore, they are used to control the pressure of relatively
small flows and low-pressure systems or when relief valve conditions are expected only
rarely. Valves of the size 1/8, in particular, are very popular for pilot pressure controls.

b. The differential relief valve can be constructed with a much lighter spring than the
direct-acting type because the system pressure acts over only a differential area.

c. In the pilot operated relief valve, pressurized liquid is used to assist the spring
(Figure 2-24). The liquid passes from the supply line through a restricted passage to a
control chamber where it acts on a plunger to add to the spring force. The force is limited
by a small capacity, direct-acting pilot relief valve. The pilot-operated relief valve is
usually specified for systems which require frequent relieving. Placed in a vent circuit,
they can perform remote control, unloading, or two-pressure control.

d. The solenoid controlled relief valve is a combination of a pilot operated relief valve
and a small solenoid operated directional valve (Figure 2-23). Sending electrical signals
to the directional valve can remotely unload pump pressure or conduct the two - or three-
pressure control in hydraulic circuits.

Figure 2-23 - Direct type Relief

Valve
(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic
Hydraulics and Components)

Figure 2-24 - Pilot Operated Relief

Figure 2-25 - Solenoid Controlled Relief Valve
Valve (Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic
(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics Hydraulics and Components)
and Components) 32
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.1.2 Unloading Valves

An unloading valve provides a vent to a low pressure area when a specified pilot pressure
is applied (Figure 2-26). They are used to operate pumps at the minimum load in an
accumulator circuit or in a high-low pump circuit. A typical application is in a double pump
system where a high volume, low pressure pump is completely loaded at maximum
pressure, while a low volume, high pressure pump continues to develop higher pressure
(Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-26 - Unloading Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.1.3 Load Dividing Valves

In a circuit with two pumps operating in series, the load can be equally divided between
the pumps by a load dividing valve. The low pressure pump discharge is connected to a
larger piston area. The low pressure flow tends to open the valve and relieve the pump
discharge to the reservoir. The high pressure pump discharge is connected to the small
area and, assisted by the spring, tends to close the valve. The ratio of the pressure
produced at the low pressure pump to the discharge pressure of the high pressure pump
is the same as the valve area ratio (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.3.1.4 Brake Valves

These valves smoothly stop actuators that have a large inertia force (Figure 2-27). When
a directional control valve is closed, a relief valve at the outlet side releases the
accumulating pressure while maintaining the circuit pressure at the preset level. At the
inlet side, a check valve feeds the flow, supply of which has been blocked by the
directional control valve, to reduce a risk of cavitation (Department of the Army, 1997).

Figure 2-27 - Brake Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

33
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.1.5 Sequence Valves

The order of flow to different parts of a hydraulic system can be controlled by sequence
valves. These valves control the sequential operation of two or more actuators. If the inlet
pressure exceeds a preset level, they deliver effective pressure to the outlet side. This is
accomplished by controlling minimum pressure. Either an internal or external pilot
pressure can be applied. The valves can serve as pressure holding valves to maintain
hydraulic pressure in a circuit. Figure 2-28 shows an externally piloted, externally drained
sequence valve. The inlet pressure must reach a prescribed value before the flow is
allowed to pass through the valve (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-28 - Sequence Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.1.6 Counterbalance Valves

The counterbalance back pressure valve can be used to allow free flow in one direction
but restricted flow in the opposite direction (Figure 2-29). These valves maintain hydraulic
pressure in a hydraulic system or load backpressure on a cylinder. If the inlet pressure
exceeds a preset level, flow is released to keep the pressure constant. They are
accompanied with a check valve that allows the flow for lifting a cylinder up to freely pass.
This valve can be used, for example, to prevent the weight of a vertically mounted piston
from causing the piston to descend. The spring setting produces a back pressure on the
piston which counterbalances the force of gravity (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

Figure 2-29 - Counterbalance Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

34
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.1.7 Pressure Reducing Valves

Pressure regulator or pressure reducing valves set hydraulic circuit pressure equal to or
below a pressure in the main circuit. When the outlet pressure reaches a preset level, the
valve opens, and the balanced piston moves to throttle a passage to keep the outlet
pressure constant. The outlet pressure is maintained constant, regardless of the inlet
pressure. In the type shown in Figure 2-30, the outlet pressure is balanced against a
spring (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-30 - Pressure Reducing and Check Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.1.8 Pressure Switch

Pressure switches are used in hydraulic systems to make or break an electrical circuit at
a preset hydraulic pressure (Figure 2-31). The system pressure acts against an
adjustable spring used to preset the switch. A sensing component made of semi-
conducting materials detects the pressure. When the pressure reaches the sp ecified
value, the sensor is activated. The signal can be used to actuate a variety of control
elements. Although the pressure switch is not a valve, it is a valuable control element in
valve systems (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-31 - Pressure Switch

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.1.9 Balancing Valves

These valves are combination valves that have pressure reducing and counterbalancing
functions developed for applications such as a hydraulic balance circuit in a vertical
machining center. When the pressure reducing function is employed, the outlet pressure
is maintained at the preset level for pressure reduction, regardless of the inlet pressure. If
the counterbalancing function is employed, the outlet pressure is maintained at the preset

35
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

level for pressure relief, which is higher than the pressure reducing (U.S. Army Material
Command, 1993).

2.3.1.10 Hydraulic Fuses

A hydraulic fuse employs a fragile diaphragm or similar device which fractures at a preset
pressure. It can thus be used as a substitute for, or in conjunction with, a pressure control
valve. Hydraulic fuses can be used with safety valves to prevent hydraulic fluid loss under
normal operating conditions. They usually do not have automatic reset capabilities. It is
necessary to manually replace the diaphragm if the hydraulic fuse is actuated (U.S. Army
Material Command, 1971).

2.3.2 Direction Control Valves

Directional control valves control start/stop, directions, and acceleration/deceleration of
hydraulic cylinders and motors. They can be used in a various applications, and a wide
range of products is available. They are often used to control the operation of actuators.
They can be categorized into three types: spool, poppet, and ball. The spool type can be
either a sliding type or a rotary type. The former is the most popular for pressure
balancing and high capacity. The poppet type offers excellent leak-tight capability (zero
leak) for its poppet-seat contact. The ball type is an alternative for the poppet: a ball is
used instead of a poppet (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

2.3.2.1 Classification of Directional Control Valves

 Classification by Port/Position Count
The port count indicates the number of connectable lines, and the position count
indicates the number of changeovers in the directional control valves. Figure 2-32 lists the
classifications. The valves with four ports and three positions are very popular. The four
ports include: pump port (P), tank port (T), and cylinder ports (A and B). The symbols are
often appended with graphic symbols of the directional control valves (Basic Hydraulics
and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-32 - Classification by Port/Position Count

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

36
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

 Classification by Spool Types

The directional control valves in hydraulic systems must work such that when the spools
are in a neutral position, the fluid flow patterns meet the purpose of the systems, in
addition to causing reversible motion of the hydraulic cylinders and motors. For example,
take the “three-position” valve in Figure 2-32. This closed-center valve (all ports are
closed when the spool is in the neutral position) locks the cylinder at its position. The
pressure in the pump line is maintained at a preset level for the relief valve or the variable
pumps, and other systems can be operated as desired. On the other hand, the center-
bypassed valve (ports P and T are open when the spool is in the neutral position) unloads
the pump line while locking the cylinder, which is desirable for energy saving: lower heat
generation and reduced pump load. However, the overall performance of the hydraulic
system should be taken into consideration to choose the best valves for it (Basic
Hydraulics and Components, 2006).
 Classification by Operation Method and Spring Arrangement
These valves are classified according to the function, operation method, and spring
arrangement. The operation method is classified into: manual, mechanical, hydraulic,
solenoid-operated, electro-hydraulic, and pneumatic. The spring arrangement is classified
into: spring offset for the two-position type, spring centred for the three-position type, and
no spring for both two- and three-position types. The no-spring type includes the detent
type, which holds the spool position at a certain position. Figure 2-33 shows classification
of the valves according to the operation method and spring arrangement (Basic
Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-33 - Classification by Operation Method/Spring Arrangement

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

37
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.2.2 Structure and Characteristics of Directional

Control Valves
i. Solenoid Operated Directional Valves
These valves control the flow direction in hydraulic circuits, electrically operated with
manual switches, limit switches, or pressure switches. They are the most popular for use
in practical hydraulic systems. Three types of solenoids are available: for direct current
(DC), for alternating current (AC), and with a rectifier. The solenoids can be grouped into
wet and dry types in respect to the structure. The solenoid operated directional valves are
commercially available in the many sizes, among them, the 1/8 size is most often
selected for practical hydraulic systems. Figure 2-35 shows the 1/8 solenoid operated
directional valve. Aside from the maximum working pressure, flow, tank-line back
pressure, and changeover frequency, performance characteristics of the solenoid
operated directional valves include power consumption.

Figure 2-35 - Solenoid Operated Directional

Figure 2-34 - Pilot Operated Directional Valve
Valve
(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)
(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and
Components)

ii. Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated Directional Valves

These valves are a combination of a small solenoid operated directional valve and a large
pilot operated directional valve. The small four-way solenoid valve is used for directional
control of the pilot line. The main valve (main spool) provides directional control of the
main line. The pilot operated directional valve includes the spring offset, spring -centered
and no-spring types. Figure 2-36 shows a solenoid controlled pilot operated directional
valve of the 3/4 size.

38
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-36 - Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated Directional Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

iii. Poppet Type Solenoid Controlled Pilot Operated Directional Control Valves
These valves are solenoid controlled pilot operated directional valves, which are made
multi-functional by granting individual poppet functions, such as directional control, flow
control, and pressure control. They consist of a main valve with four poppets, a solenoid
operated directional valve for the pilot line, and a pilot selector valve. These valves are
used in large-scale hydraulic systems including press and compressing machines.

iv. Pilot Operated Directional Valves

These valves perform spool changeover by the hydraulic pilot. They are useful when the
pilot directional control valve and the main directional control valve should be installed
distant to each other. Figure 2-34 shows the pilot operated directional valve.

v. Manually Operated Directional Valves

These valves are manually operated to change the direction of hydraulic flow. They are
available in the spool-operated and rotary types. These valves are structured in two
types, detent and spring. The detent type maintains the spool position at the time t he
lever is operated, and the spool is returned to the center by the spring force. The spring
type springs back the spool to either position of changeover, as is in the two-position
valve. Figure 2-38 shows the spool-operated type and rotary type directional valves,
respectively.

39
 Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 2-37 - Pilot Operated Check Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and
Components)

Figure 2-38 - Manually Operated Directional Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and
Components)

vi. Check Valves

These valves allow free flow in one direction, while preventing flow in the reverse
direction. When flow is in the normal direction, the liquid pressure acts against the spring
tension to hold the poppet off the seat. When flow stops, the spring seats the poppet and
liquid cannot pass in the reverse direction. Check valves are often incorporated in
sequence valves or pressure reducing valves to let them open in one direction and
bypass the free flow in the reverse direction.

vii. Pilot Operated Check Valves

These check valves have a pilot piston, which works with remote pressure to open the
closed check valve, allowing reversed flow. Two types are available, standard and
decompression. The decompression type has a main poppet valve combined with a
decompression valve. When the pilot pressure increases to lift the pilot piston, the
decompression poppet valve opens first, and then the main poppet after the pressure is
reduced. These valves are used to moderate shock caused by a sudden pressure
release, which often occurs during the return stroke of a press process. They maintain the
actuator position and system pressure, opening/closing the seat, therefore, internal
leakage can be kept at minimum. When they are used with a restrictor or a
counterbalance valve that produces back pressure on the outlet side of reversed free
flow, a counter force may work on the piston, which opens/closes the poppet continuously
and vibrates the valves as a result. If the valves are in such a hydraulic circuit, the
external drain type should be used. Figure 2-37 shows the pilot operated check valve.

40
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

viii. Multiple Control Valves

These valves have multiple functions, including direction, relief, and check control in one
body and are mainly used for vehicles. Whether the functions are to be activated
individually or simultaneously determines the circuit type: parallel, tandem, or series.
When the directional control function is not working, the pump output flow goes through
the valve into the tank. For this reason, power loss and heat generation are minimum.
The mono block construction, which houses multiple spools in one body, and the
sectional construction, which is modular by valve function, are available. For directional
control, manual, solenoid, and proportional control valves are offered. (Basic Hydraulics
and Components, 2006)

2.3.3 Flow Control Valves

Flow control valves are used to regulate the rate of liquid flow to different parts of a
hydraulic system. Control of flow rate is a means by which the speed of hydraulic
machine elements is controlled. The rate of flow to a particular system component is
varied by throttling or by diverting the flow (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.3.3.1 Restrictors/One Way Restrictors

These valves regulate flow rates in hydraulic circuits (Figure 2-39). They have the
advantages of plain structure, simple operation, and wide range of adjustment. On the
other hand, they cannot accurately control the flow, even though the fixed restriction, the
flow varies with the inlet-outlet differential pressure and the fluid viscosity. Therefore,
these valves are placed where the pressure difference varies little, and high control
accuracy is not required. The one-way restrictors regulate flow in one way, while allowing
reversed flow to freely pass through (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-39 - Restrictor

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.3.2 Flow Control Valves/Flow Control and Check

Valves
These valves consist of a pressure compensator (pressure reducing valve that keeps the
pressure difference constant) and a restrictor (Figure 2-40). They maintain a constant
flow rate, independent of the inlet-outlet differential pressure. Provided with a sharp-edge
orifice, they can also work regardless of fluid temperature or viscosity. In a circuit where
the flow rate is regulated to a low level, the control flow may be momentarily exceeded,
leading to jumping of the actuator. This phenomenon is related to a time lag until the
pressure compensating piston is properly positioned for flow control. To prevent the
phenomenon, the piston stroke should be adjusted according to the inlet-outlet differential
pressure. Flow control valves are basically used as follows (Basic Hydraulics and
Components, 2006).

41
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

 Meter-In Control
The control valve is connected in series with the cylinder inlet to directly control the input
flow. Prior to the control valve, a relief valve is applied to excess flow, which escapes
through a relief valve. In a circuit where load is applied in the direction of piston travel, the
control valve may lose cylinder speed control.

 Meter-Out Control
The control valve is connected in series with the cylinder outlet to directly control the
output flow. Prior to the control valve, excess flow escapes through a relief valve to a
tank. This circuit design is used for applications where the piston could move down faster
than a control speed, as in the case of vertical drilling machines, or where there should
always be a back pressure in the cylinder. Careful attention should be paid to the fact that
the cylinder outlet pressure may rise above the relief pressure produced in the circuit.

 Bleed-Off Control
The control valve is installed on a by-pass line to regulate flow to the tank and control the
actuator speed. Compared to the other control circuits, this circuit works with small
power consumption because discharge pressure of the pump is fully delivered to the
load resistance. Given that the bleed flow is constant, the fluctuation of pump flow
determines the actuator speed. In other words, the pump discharge flow directly
influences the load and the pump’s volumetric efficiency. This circuit does not allow for
control of multiple actuators.

Figure 2-40 - Flow Control and Check Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

42
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.3.3 Deceleration Valves/Deceleration and Check

Valves

Figure 2-41 - Deceleration and Check Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

These valves continuously regulate flow rates, using a cam mechanism (Figure 2-41).
Pushing the spool down decreases the flow rate for the normal open type and increases it
for the normal close type. When the normal open type is installed to cushion the cylinder
piston, accurate stroke end control is difficult. In this case, the restrictor and directional
control valve should be adjusted so that the piston slowly returns to an intended position
and then stops (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

2.3.3.4 Feed Control Valves

These valves are a combination of a flow control and check valve and a deceleration
valve: they are used mainly for feed control of machine tools (Figure 2-42). Switching
from rapid traverse to feed is made by a cam operation, and the feed speed is controlled
with a flow control valve. Rapid return is free of cam actuation. Two-speed mode with two
flow control valves is also available (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

Figure 2-42 - Feed Control Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.3.5 Flow divider valves

Flow-divider valves utilize sliding elements to change the orifice area. They distribute the
flow to multiple lines, each of which then has the same flow rate downstream of the valve.
They are generally pressure-compensating valves and are frequently used to synchronize
the motion of several linear actuators (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

43
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.3.4 Modular Valves

These valves, including the pressure control, flow control, and directional control types,
have standardized mounting surfaces that conform to the ISO standards for solenoid
operated directional valves. They are stacked on a base plate and referred to as
sandwich valves or stack valves. They are available in nominal sizes of less than 1/8 ” and
1/8” to 1¼”. These modular valves provide the following advantages.
 Compact stacking. They require very small mounting space.
 Easy circuit building. They eliminate the necessity for a large part of piping and
assembly work, allowing easy and quick circuit building.
 Improved reliability. They are stacked together without piping: therefore, they are
almost free from problems such as oil leakage, vibration, and noise.
 Easy maintenance due to integrated functions.
Note that the number of stacking layers is subject to the bolt strength. Also, due caution
should be paid to the maximum flow and the pressure loss (Basic Hydraulics and
Components, 2006).

2.3.5 Logic Valves

These valves consist of cartridge type elements and covers with pilot passages. Although
they are two-port valves designed to simply open/close the poppets according to pressure
signals from the pilot line, various types may be combined for direction, flow rate, and
pressure control. Standard covers, which have several pressure signal ports and control
valves, including pilot operated relief valves, are available for control purposes.
Logic valves provide fast-response, high-pressure, and high-flow control. They are
typically applied to machines that involve high-speed actuator operation, such as die-cast
machines, injection molding machines, and press machines. The logic valves have the
following features (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).
 Multifunction performance in terms of direction, flow, and pressure can be
obtained by combining elements and covers.
 Various functions can be achieved, depending on the pilot line connection.
 Poppet-type elements virtually eliminate internal leakage and hydraulic locking.
Because there are no overlaps, the response time is very short, permitting high -
speed shifting.
 For high pressure, large capacity systems, optimum performance is achieved with
low pressure losses.
 Since the logic valves are directly incorporated in cavities provided in blocks, the
system faces fewer problems related to piping such as oil leakage, vibration, and
noise, and higher reliability is achieved.
 Multi-function logic valves permit compact integrated hydraulic systems that
reduce manifold dimensions and mass and achieve lower cost than that of the
conventional types.

2.3.6 Proportional Electro-Hydraulic Control Valves

These valves and related devices work with electrical settings to provide continuous
remote control of the pressure and flow in hydraulic circuits. For multi-stage pressure or
flow control, various combinations of control valves have been used, however,
proportional electro-hydraulic control valves and devices eliminate the necessity for those
valves and greatly simplify the circuit architectures. These valves and devices, which
permit remote control, allow hydraulic systems and their control rooms to be separately
located. In other words, they are well suited for applications in large plants. Proportional
electro-hydraulic control valves and devices, based on general-purpose hydraulic
products, are easy to maintain and manage, highly resistant to contamination by fluids,

44
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

and cost-effective for applications where very quick response and high accuracy are not
required (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

2.3.7 Servomechanism & Servo Valves

A servomechanism is an automatic control system designed to operate in accordance
with input control parameters. The mechanism continuously compares the input signal to
the feedback signal to adjust the operating conditions for error correction. Commercially
available servo systems vary according to their methods for error detection, amplification,
communication, and output.
Hydraulic servo systems have been widely applied in general industrial areas, as well as
in the airline, maritime, and military industries. Servo systems, capable of automatic
position, speed, and force (load) control with high accuracy and quick response, are used
for high-speed injection molding, die-casting, rolling mill, press machines, industrial
robots, simulators, testing machinery, and table feeders.
A hydraulic servo system consists of an actuator (hydraulic motor/cylinder), servo valves,
sensors, and a servo amplifier.
There are two types of electro-hydraulic servo valves: the pilot operated type, which
drives a torque motor to amplify the hydraulic power with a nozzle flapper mechanism,
and the direct type, which directly drives a spool with a linear motor and electrically
provides feedbacks about the spool position. Mechanical servo valves are also available
that have a stylus at one side of the spool to control the flow direction by the mechanical
motion of the stylus (Basic Hydraulics and Components, 2006).

2.3.7.1 Types
i. Electro-Hydraulic Two-Stage Servo Valves
Nearly all types of servo valves are based on common principles. Electro-hydraulic two-
stage servo valves generally operate with force feedback. Given that valve pressure drop
is constant, the valves control the output flow in proportion to the input signal. Therefore,
they can be used to drive a hydraulic cylinder or motor at a speed proportional to the
input current. Figure 2-43 provides illustrations of an electro-hydraulic servo valve.
The valve contains identical torque motors in parallel, which serve as a nozzle flapper
amplifier with movable coils and nozzles. Coil displacement always determines the spool
position. To ensure reliable pilot operation, the valve is provided with a filter prior to the
pilot line, as well as a high-performance line filter prior to the valve inlet.

Figure 2-43 - Electro-Hydraulic Servo Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

ii. Direct Drive Servo Valves

The valves directly drive a spool with a small and high power linear motor. Direct drive
servo valves electrically send the spool position data to the controller to provide quick
response and high contamination resistance. These valves are available in two types:

45
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

direct spool control and pilot operation (a combination of small valves). Figure 2-44 shows
illustrations of direct drive servo valves.

Figure 2-44 - Direct Drive Servo Valve

(Yuken Kogyo Co. - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

2.3.7.2 Servo Supplementary Components

a. Servo amplifiers drive servo valves, based on the same principles as the
amplifiers for proportional electro-hydraulic control.
b. Position sensors, including potentiometers, synchronization generators, magnetic
scales, and optical equipment (pulse encoder, digital position sensor, etc.), can
accurately detect the component positions.
c. A hydraulic power source is required to provide constant hydraulic power for servo
valve operation, and is incorporated in hydraulic circuits.

2.3.8 Dynamic Models for Valves

For dynamic modelling purposes, valves are fundamentally variable orifices where the
area of the orifice depends on the valve position. For example, the core dynamic model of
a solenoid proportional valve has the area of an orifice as a nonlinear function of the
command signal to the solenoid. The basic equation for a valve is the orifice equation is
(Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015):

(1.18)

where is valve coefficient, is the area of the valve opening and is the pressure
drop across the valve. For valves with internal spools and rectangular orifice slots, the
orifice opening area is proportional to the valve position, . To simplify analysis, the
orifice equation can be linearized about a nominal operating point at the valve
position with leakage flow :

(1.19)

The linearized valve is characterized by two parameters, the flow gain coefficient:

(1.20)

and the flow pressure coefficient:

(1.21)

46
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.4 Accumulators
Hydraulic accumulators are used for temporarily storing hydraulic energy in the form of
pressurized oil. The oil enters a chamber and acts against a piston or bladder to raise a
weight, compress a spring or compress a gas (Figure 2-45). Accumulators are used to
supply transient peak power, which reduces the flow rate requirement for the power
supply and to act as shock absorbers for smoothing out pressure wave spikes.
Accumulators are the equivalent to a capacitor in an electrical system and to a spring in a
mechanical system. Accumulators can be used for pressure compensation, pulse
damping, leakage compensation, emergency power, auxiliary pressure, and several other
applications. They can also be used to apply pressure across a physical boundary
between two liquids without contact or mixing of the liquids. This feature permits the
pressurization of hazardous fluids, e.g., a volatile liquid, by means of a second liquid
which can be safely pumped. Bladder type accumulators, pre-charged with nitrogen gas
are the most common type for hydraulic systems. The capacity of a fluid capacitor is
defined by its change in volume divided by its change in pressure (Durfee, Sun, & Ven,
2015):
(1.22)

Change in volume per time is flow rate and change in pressure per time is the derivative
of pressure. This leads to the constitutive law for a linear fluid capacitor:

(1.23)

For a gas-filled accumulator, the capacitance will depend on the accumulator pre-
charge. Another type of accumulator is a cylinder with the fluid pushing on one side of the
piston against a stiff spring on the other side of piston. For these spring-loaded piston
accumulators the capacitance is:
(1.24)

where is the area of the piston and is the spring constant.

Figure 2-45 - Bladder and Piston Accumulators

(www.hydraulicspneumatics.com) 47
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.4.1 Accumulator Types

Accumulators are classified in terms of the manner in which the load is applied. This is
the major factor which influences design. Accumulators can be weight-loaded, spring-
loaded, or pneumatic-loaded (Merritt, 1967).
i. Weight-loaded Accumulators
The weight-loaded accumulator consists of a piston mounted vertically in a cylinder. The
piston rod or plunger is loaded with weights which provide potential energy to compress
the fluid. This accumulator produces virtually constant pressure at all fluid levels.
However, weight-loaded accumulators are very heavy and expensive. They also do not
respond quickly to changes in the system demand. For these reasons, they are not often
used in modern hydraulic systems.

ii. Spring-loaded Accumulators

The pressure varies with the amount of fluid in the accumulator since the spring force
depends on displacement. Although such spring-loaded devices are easy to maintain,
they are relatively bulky and costly. Most applications are for low-volume, low-pressure
systems.

iii. Pneumatic-loaded Accumulators

There are two types of pneumatic-loaded accumulators. In one type, the gas which
provides the load is in direct contact with the hydraulic fluid, whereas in the second type
they are separated by a diaphragm, bladder, or piston.
 Non-separated type: Pressurization in a non-separated, pneumatic-loaded
accumulator is achieved by introducing a pressurizing gas into a container
above the liquid level. The pressurized storage vessel is a simple example of
this type. Limit switches, which are actuated by liquid level, are usually used
to limit pressure. This type can accommodate large liquid volumes, but
aeration of the liquid often precludes their use in hydraulic systems.
 Separated type: Aeration in the pneumatic-loaded accumulator can be
eliminated by providing a barrier between the pressurizing gas and the
hydraulic fluid. Diaphragms, bladders, or pistons are used as barriers. The
spherical vessel is separated into two compartments by a flexible diaphragm.
One compartment is connected to the hydraulic system and the other to the
high-pressure gas system. The bladder-type accumulator usually has a
bladder inside a cylindrical shell with pressurized gas inside the bladder and
the hydraulic fluid between the bladder and the housing.

48
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.5 Filters
During use, hydraulic oil picks up contaminating particles from wear of sliding metallic
surface that add to residual contaminants from the oil manufacturing process, rust from
metal and polymer particles from seal wear. These dirt particles are tiny grit that cause
additional abrasive wear. Clumps of particles can clog tiny clearances in precision valves
and cylinders and can lead to corrosion. All practical hydraulic systems require a filter in
the circuit (Figure 2-46).
Filters are rated in terms of the degree of filtration. The ratings are usually expressed in
microns ( ). If a filter can remove 98% of the particles of a certain size or
larger, then this particle size, expressed in microns, is termed the nominal filtration value.
The absolute filtration value is the size of the smallest particle which the filter can
completely remove from the flow. Filters are usually rated in terms of both nominal and
absolute values. It is common practice to specify filters with an absolute filtration value
equal to one-half of the smallest clearance or tolerance in the components which the filter
must protect.
In-line filters have a fine mesh media formed from wire, paper or glass fibre, formed to
create a large surface area for the fluid to pass through. The oil filter in a car is an
example of a hydraulic filter. Sometimes the filter is included inside the reservoir or is part
of an integrated power supply unit along with the motor, pump and reservoir. Selecting a
filter is a trade-off between a media that traps fine contaminants and one that passes fluid
with minimal resistance. The dynamic model for a filter is a nonlinear resistance
that can be linearized about the nominal flow. If the pressure drop across the filter is small
compared to other pressure drops in the system, the effects of the filter on the dynamic
model can be ignored (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015), (Merritt, 1967).

Figure 2-46 - Filters

(www.hydraulicspneumatics.com)

49
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.5.1 Classification of Filters

Filters are classified according to the filter media, the configuration, or the filtering
method. The filter media can be either the surface-type or the depth-type. The surface-
type filtering media contain numerous orifices of relatively uniform size. Particles larger
than the orifice size are trapped on the surface of the media. Depth-type media have long
twisted paths through which the liquid must flow. Particles larger than the cross section of
these flow paths are retained except perhaps for some particles which are larger in only
one dimension. Wire mesh is an example of a surface filter medium. Depth media include
sintered metal powders and fibrous materials such as paper, felt, glass, and cellulose.
The T-type filter is the most widely used unit because it is compact and easy to clean or
replace (Department of the Army, 1997).

2.5.2 Filtering Methods/Types of filters

There are three basic physical mechanisms by which filters can remove contaminants
from a hydraulic fluid-mechanical, adsorbent, and absorbent. The filtering methods
sometimes function in combination (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.5.2.1 Mechanical Filters

In a mechanical filter, particles are removed from the hydraulic fluid because of their
inability to pass through the multitude of small holes or orifices in the filter. Metal or fabric
screens are commonly used as the filter media. The size of particles which can be
removed by this filter depends on the spacing between the disks. The filter can be
cleaned while in service by revolving the central shaft. The stationary elements then act
as wipers. Wire-screen mechanical filters can also be cleaned if care is taken not to force
contaminant particles inside or through the elements.

2.5.2.2 Adsorbent Filters

Adsorption is the phenomenon by which particles of one material tend to adhere to solid
or liquid surfaces. The filter medium in an adsorbent-type filter is finely divided to present
maximum surface area to the flow. Materials used in the filter elements include activated
clay, charcoal, fuller's earth, chemically treated paper, and bone black. The flow
passages of the filter can also mechanically remove contaminants. One disadvantage of
the adsorbent filter is the tendency to remove certain additives in the hydraulic fluid.
Hence, it is not usually recommended for service with fluids which contain additives.
Many adsorbent filter housings are designed to accommodate either an adsorbent filter
element or a mechanical filter element.

2.5.2.3 Absorbent Filters

A porous, permeable medium is used as an element in an absorbent filter. Element
materials include diatomaceous earth, wood, pulp, asbestos, paper, various textiles, and
a variety of other substances. As the hydraulic fluid passes through the filter medium,
contaminants are trapped by absorption. Water and water-soluble contaminants can be
removed by some absorbent filters. The size of solid contaminant which can be filtered
depends upon the permeability and porosity of the filter element.

50
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.6 Reservoirs
The main function of the reservoir is to provide a source of room temperature oil at
atmospheric pressure (Figure 2-47). The reservoir is equivalent to the ground in an
electrical system. Conceptually, a reservoir is nothing more than an oil storage tank
connected to atmosphere through a breather and having pump and return lines to deliver
and accept oil. In practice, a reservoir has additional functions including de-aerating,
remove contaminants and acting as a heat exchanger. The dynamic model of a reservoir
is to treat it as a ground, a source of zero pressure (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015).

Figure 2-47 - Reservoir

(www.fluidpowerjournal.com)

2.6.1 Capacity
Even before the conditioning functions of the reservoir are considered in design, the
necessary capacity must be determined. The size and configuration depend on many
factors. The minimum required capacity can vary from one to three times the volumetric
rating of the pump in per minute. The reservoir should be sufficiently large to
accommodate the liquid necessary to fill all system components if the liquid drains back
to the reservoir. It should have sufficient capacity to maintain a liquid supply at the pump
suction at all times. Sufficient liquid should be in the system to prevent the formation of
vortices at the pump suction. Reservoir volume should be provided to allow time for solid
contaminants and gases to separate from the liquid. This factor also depends on both the
characteristics of the liquid and filtering system design. Adequate space above the liquid
level should be provided to accommodate thermal expansion of the liquid. If the reservoir
serves as the primary means of dissipating heat from the liquid, it should be large enough
to accommodate the required cooling (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).

2.6.2 Design
There are three basic reservoir arrangements: separate, integral, and dual-purpose.
Separate reservoirs are commonly used in large stationary systems where space and
weight are not important considerations. Integral reservoirs are spaces provided within
the hydraulic system such as: piping, tubular structural members, or machine bases.
Such a design minimizes space and weight requirements. However, the storage of a hot
liquid within the system can sometimes cause thermal distortion of precision components.

51
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

If the liquid can serve as both a lubricant and a hydraulic fluid, individual reservoirs are
not required. The reservoir in which such a liquid is stored is termed a dual-purpose
reservoir. Baffles should be provided between the suction line and the fluid-return lines to
prevent continual use of the same liquid. These also reduce the liquid velocity and
thereby facilitate the settling of solid contaminants and de-aeration of the liquid. Lines
which return liquid to the reservoir should be well below the liquid level to minimize
aeration. Suction lines should also terminate below the minimum liquid level, but the inlet
should be at least 1/2 pipe diameters above the tank floor. If the suction line strainer is
not sufficiently beneath the liquid level at all times, a vortex could form and permit air to
enter the suction line. Some reservoirs are pressurized to assist pump suction (U.S. Army
Material Command, 1971).

52
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.7 Hoses and Fittings

The design of the liquid conductors is just as important as the design of other
components of a hydraulic system. The hydraulic piping serves to contain and conduct
the hydraulic fluid from one part of the system to another. Inadequate attention to piping
design can lead to poor system operating characteristics and low efficiency. Hydraulic
piping systems are usually constructed from three types of fluid conductors: pipe, tubing,
and flexible hose. Hose is used to accommodate relative movement between
components. Most of the stationary piping, however, is either tubing or pipe. The
advantages of tubing include better appearance, greater flexibility, better reusability,
fewer fittings, and less leakage. The principal advantage of pipe is its relatively low co st
(Merritt, 1967).

Figure 2-48 - Hoses and Fittings

(www.kehose.com)

2.7.1 Hydraulic Line Size

The sizing of liquid conductors for hydraulic piping depends on considerations of
mechanical strength, volume flow rates, pressure drop, pressure surges, and
compression time. When the components of the liquid distribution system have been
converted to equivalent lengths of a common size, the pressure drop can be estimated by
the following expression (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971):

(1.25)

where, is the pressure drop, the line length, the inside line diameter, the liquid’s
velocity and the coefficient of friction of liquid in the fitting.

2.7.2 Hose, Tubing and Pipe Settings

Pipe and tubing fittings can be either threaded or permanent. Permanent methods include
various forms of brazing, welding, swaging, and adhesive bonding. Such assembly
methods are applied where low initial cost, reliability, and weight are important factors.
Threaded pipe-fitting techniques include tapered pipe threads, flanges, SAE O-ring ports,
and straight-thread ports with metal seals. Non-threaded tube fittings can be of three
types: flare, self-flare, or flareless. Hose fittings are either permanent or reusable. Self-
sealing couplings are sometimes used with hose in hydraulic piping systems (Merritt,
1967).

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.8 Heat Exchangers

Heat is generated in all hydraulic systems. The inherent mechanical and thermodynamic
inefficiencies of pumps and motors result in heat generation. Much of this heat is
transferred to the hydraulic fluid, causing a rise in fluid temperature. Since all hydraulic
fluids exhibit a limited temperature range over which the viscosity and lubricating
characteristics are optimum, the heat must be dissipated to assure satisfactory operation.
Some heat is removed by dissipation to the environment. If this heat transfer is no t
sufficient to maintain the desired fluid temperature, it then becomes necessary to provide
heat exchangers to supplement the natural dissipation. The analysis of temperature -
control problems in a hydraulic system begins with an estimate of the total heat rejection
from the system. This can be done in several ways. The heat rejection can be treated as
the input power minus the actual mechanical work, based on a convenient time interval. It
can also be estimated on the basis of pump output. The heat can be dissipated from the
surfaces of the circuit components and, if necessary, removed by a heat exchanger
(Figure 2-49), (Merritt, 1967).

Figure 2-49 - Heat Exchanger

(www.indiamart.com)

2.8.1 Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat can be removed from the system by all three of the basic modes of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation (Bontozoglou, 2003) (Merritt, 1967).
 Conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat through a gas, liquid, or solid by means of
collisions or intimate contact between the molecules. The amount of heat transferred by
conduction is given by Fourier's Law. For simple one-dimensional flow this law reduces
to:

(1.26)

where, is the rate of heat flow, is the thermal conductivity of material, the area
normal to direction of flow, the temperature difference between warmer and cooler
surfaces of the material and the thickness of material. More general forms of the
conduction equation must be used if the heat flow is other than one-dimensional.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

 Convection
Heat transfer by convection requires gross motion of liquid particles involving the
transport of regions of the liquid at different temperatures. Free, or natural, convection
occurs when the liquid particles move because of density gradients established by
temperature gradients. If the liquid is circulated by external means, the process is called
forced convection. Convection heat transfer rate Q is governed by a relation developed
by Newton:

(1.27)

where, is the rate of heat flow, the convective film coefficient, the area of surface
exposed to the fluid and normal to heat flow direction and the temperature difference
between the fluid and the surface.
This relation actually defines the film coefficient h. The film coefficient can be calculated
only in the most ideal situations. Empirical relations are often employed to estimate a
value of h.
 Radiation
Thermal radiation involves the transport of thermal energy by means of electromagnetic
radiation. The amount of heat transferred by radiation depends on the relative
configuration of the areas which exchange heat, their temperatures, and the nature of
their surfaces. The governing relation is:

(1.28)

where, is the rate of heat flow, a dimensionless factor which accounts for the
geometric orientation of the surfaces and their emittance, the area of radiating surface,
the Stefan-Boltzmann constant , the temperature of radiating
surface and the temperature of sink or receiving surface.

2.8.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

The contributions of conduction, convection, and radiation to net heat transfer can be
combined by making use of the concept of the overall heat transfer coefficient which is
defined by the relation (Merritt, 1967):

(1.29)

where, is the rate of heat flow, the overall heat transfer coefficient, the heat transfer
area, the total temperature difference across which the heat is being transferred.
The overall coefficient is a measure of the thermal conductance of the system:

(1.30)

Where, is the thermal resistance of system component i and has units of .

Additional factors such as dirt and scale deposits can contribute to the thermal resistance
in heat exchangers. In such cases, appropriate terms are added to the system
resistances in Equation 1.30.

2.8.3 Types of Cooling Systems

In general, heat transfer in a hydraulic system will involve some combination of the three
modes of heat transfer. If it is found that the heat dissipated from the surfaces of the
system is insufficient to maintain a satisfactory fluid temperature, then a heat exchanger

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

is required. Most heat exchangers for hydraulic fluids are either air-cooled or water-
cooled (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971).
 Air-cooled Heat Exchangers
Air is often used as the coolant in heat exchangers for mobile hydraulic systems, or in
stationary systems which generate moderate amounts of heat. A blower or fan is usually
used to circulate the air across finned tubes through which the hydraulic fluid flows. Air-
cooled units are limited to applications where the desired hydraulic fluid outlet
temperature is at least 10°C above the dry bulb air temperature.

 Water-cooled Heat Exchangers

The use of water as a coolant is common practice in stationary systems. The film
coefficient on the water side is generally the same order of magnitude as on the hydraulic
fluid side. Therefore, water-cooled heat exchangers are usually shell-and-tube type where
the heat transfer area on the cold side is approximately the same as on the hot side. It
consists of a tube bundle within a shell. The tubes are baffled so that the coolant flow in
the shell is perpendicular to the tube axis. Most shell-and-tube heat exchangers used in
hydraulic systems are either single- or double-pass units. In a single-pass unit, the two
liquids generally flow in opposite directions. In a double-pass exchanger, the hydraulic
fluid generally enters the same end at which the water enters and leaves. Water-cooled,
shell-and-tube heat exchangers are compact and low in initial cost. They can be used to
obtain lower hydraulic-fluid temperatures than the air-cooled exchangers. Limitations
include the possibility of corrosion and the cost of a continuous water supply. Copper
alloys are used in standard heat exchangers, and special corrosion-resistant alloys are
available. Removable tube bundles facilitate cleaning.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.9 Shock Absorbers

Fluid power is often used to cushion or absorb the impact caused when a moving mass
must be stopped. If the energy of the moving mass is to be dissipated, a shock absorber
is used (Figure 2-50). The working fluid in a shock absorber can be a liquid, a gas, or a
combination of the two. Shock absorbers are available in a variety of different designs
and configurations. Most shock absorbers, called non-regenerative shock absorbers,
dissipate all of the energy of the moving mass. They rely on springs or other mechanisms
to return the shock absorber to an equilibrium position. A common car shock absorber is
an example. However, there is an important class of shock absorbers, called
hydropneumatic mechanisms, which use pneumatic power to return the shock absorber
to equilibrium (Department of the Army, 1997).

Figure 2-50 - Shock Absorber

(www.carnbikeexpert.com)

2.9.1 Hydraulic Heat Absorbers

A hydraulic shock absorber is normally used to completely stop a moving mass in a
uniform manner. The shock absorber accomplishes the "smooth" deceleration by
metering hydraulic fluid through orifices, converting work and kinetic energy into heat
which is dissipated. The metering orifices may be fixed in size or adjustable so that
deceleration rate may be varied.
When a moving mass strikes the bumper, the piston moves inward. The resisting
pressure behind the piston closes the check valve. The piston then pushes the liquid
through the metering orifices from the inner high-pressure chamber to the outer low-
pressure chamber. The resistance to the liquid flow caused by the orifices acts against
the piston to slow its motion. As the piston moves inward, it progressively blocks the
orifices, increasing the resistance and uniformly decelerating the mass.

2.9.2 Hydropneumatic Shock Absorbers

A hydropneumatic shock absorber works on essentially the same principle as the
hydraulic shock absorber except that both a liquid and a gas are used as the working
fluids. As the mass to be stopped drives the piston inward, liquid metering through the

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

orifices and compression of the gas brings the mass to a stop. The compressed gas then
expands and returns the piston to the starting position. There are numerous variations of
the hydropneumatic shock absorber. Many designs have a separate cylinder or container
for the gas. Several methods of driving the piston into the gas cylinder are used.

2.9.3 Hydraulic Fluid Properties Perminet to Shock

Absorbers
Properties of a hydraulic fluid that are most pertinent to its use in shock absorbers are:
 Bulk Modulus: If the shock absorber is to be fully non-regenerative, the hydraulic
fluid should have a high bulk modulus so that a minimum of energy would be
stored in the fluid, producing springback of the shock absorber. A liquid spring
stores all of its energy in the working liquid and would therefore require a low bulk
modulus.
 Density: Use of a higher density working fluid would produce a shorter stroke but
higher working pressures.
 Viscosity: The working liquid viscosity is a factor in the rate at which the fluid will
pass through metering orifices, lower viscosity would mean faster rates and faster
strokes. Also, the viscosity should be shear stable and not exhibit excessive
changes with large temperature changes.

2.9.4 Liquid Springs

A liquid spring is a regenerative shock absorber that stops a moving mass and stores the
energy of the mass in the spring. A liquid spring depends on the compressibility, or bulk
modulus, of the liquid for its action. A liquid with a high compressibility is confined in a
cylinder. When a ram is pushed into the cylinder, the liquid is compressed and exerts a
strong return force on the cylinder ram. Liquid springs provide high load absorbing
capacities in small packages. A single liquid spring can provide as much load absorbing
capacity as roughly 30 coil springs of the same length and diameter. They can be
designed to reciprocate by providing little or no flow restriction or to act as a sh ock
absorber or damper by restricting the flow with orifices in the piston. Disadvantages
include high cost and sealing that results in high pressures. Loads must be high before a
liquid spring becomes practical.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.10 Hydraulic Fluid

2.10.1 Definition of a Fluid
All the components introduced above are designed in such a way that the hydraulic fluid
which is the mean through which power is transmitted, can be controlled in the most
efficient way.
A fluid may be defined broadly as a substance which deforms continuously when
subjected to shear stress. This fluid can be made to flow if it is acted upon by a source of
energy. This can be made clear by assuming the fluid being consisted of layers parallel to
each other and letting a force act upon one of the layers in a direction parallel to its plane.
This force divided by the area of the layer is called shear stress. As long as this shear
stress is applied the layer will continue to move relative to its neighbouring layers. If the
neighbouring layers offer no resistance to the movement of fluid, this fluid is said to be
frictionless fluid or ideal fluid. The resistance the layers of a fluid offer to their neighbour
layers is called viscosity of the fluid. (Practically speaking, ideal fluids do not exist in
nature, but in many practical problems the resistance is either small or is not important,
therefore can be ignored.) A fluid is always a continuous medium and there cannot be
voids in it. The properties of a fluid, e.g., density, may, however, vary from place to place
in the fluid.
In addition to shear force, fluid may also be subjected to compressive forces. These
compressive forces tend to change the volume of the fluid and in turn its density. If the
fluid yields to the effect of the compressive forces and changes its volume, it is
compressible, otherwise it is incompressible. This property of the fluid is called bulk
modulus (Manring, 2005).

2.10.2 Tasks of a Hydraulic Fluid

The hydraulic fluids used in hydraulic installations have to face multiple tasks:
• Pressure transfer
• Lubrication of the moving parts of devices
• Cooling (energy conversion produces heat)
• Cushioning of oscillations caused by pressure jerks
• Corrosion protection
• Scuff removal
• Signal transmission

2.10.3 Fluid Qualities

For hydraulic oils to be able to fulfil the requirements listed above, they must exhibit
certain qualities under the relevant operating conditions such as:
• Lowest possible density.
• Minimal compressibility; (High bulk modulus)
• Viscosity not too low (lubricating film)
• Good viscosity-temperature characteristics
• Good viscosity-pressure characteristics
• Good ageing stability
• Low flammability
• Good material compatibility

In addition, hydraulic oils should fulfil the following requirements:

• Air release
• Non-frothing
• Resistance to cold
• Wear and Corrosion protection
• Water separable

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

2.10.4 Types of Hydraulic Fluids

Although the original fluid used with the traditional cast iron component hydraulic systems
was water, it was soon found to have some major flaws. For one, as soon as the
temperature dropped, it would freeze. If the climate conditions were too hot, it would then
evaporate. Although water is still used in certain situations and applications, it will usually
be emulsified with oil.
These days, the most typical hydraulic fluids are those made from refining mineral oil. In
some cases, it’s necessary to make them fire resistant and in these cases, they are likely
to be manufactured from a variety of different materials blended together. The advantage
of using mineral oil is that is can generally handle extreme temperatures. However, these
fluids can also suffer from having a low flash point, sometimes between only 150° to
250°C. When there is a fire risk present, fire resistant fluids are typically used. Although
water is a suitable addition where there is a risk of fire, it has some obvious issues. By
adding 10% emulsified oil to water, it’s possible to gain the required lubrication. Mixing
40% water with oil and special agents will produce a fluid that is fire resistant. A flash
point as great as 600°C is possible from using synthetic fire-resistant fluids. However,
these types of fluids can be very expensive.
To find out more about industrial liquid lubricants and their categorisation you can check
the standards of ISO3448 and BS4231 (Lee, 2018).
Hydraulic Fluid is broken down into the following main categories:
 Mineral Oils
Mineral oils are created as a result of refining crude oil and then improving their quality by
adding certain substances. They may be labelled as HH which means that it’s a refined
mineral oil that is non-inhibited. HL has additives to make it anti corrosion and anti-rust.
HM type has additives for anti-wear in addition to the additives of HL type.
 Fire Resistant Fluids
There are 4 main types. HFAE is an oil in water emulsion. Type HFAB is a 40% water in
oil emulsion. Type HRAS is a chemical solution in water and HFC is a water polymer
solution containing water glycol. When a synthetic fluid is made from phosphate ester it’s
known as type HFDR. HFDS is a synthetic oil that is made of chlorinated hydrocarbons.
 Water / Oil Emulsions
This is when the predominant substance (around 60%) is the oil. Chemicals are used to
enable the water to mix into the oil (also known as emulsify). When the fluid touches a hot
surface, the water will turn to vapour and prevent a fire from occurring. This mixture also
offers good lubrication properties.
 Water Glycol
Known as HFC it comprises of 40% water mixed with 60% glycol. The result is a solution.
This mix has the benefit of being able to work at a lower temperature than an emulsion
whilst being able to produce an improved temperature viscosity trait.
 Phosphate Esters
Also known as HFDR, these fluids are resistant to fire and will not ignite unless they
reach above the temperature of 550°C. The main downside with them is their tendency to
be chemically active which leads to them stripping paint and destroying rubber. This
means that it’s necessary to use certain types of hoses, seals, etc that are able to

60
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

withstand the chemical action. They can also melt the external insulation on electrical
cables if they leak onto them. They are also known for being quite expensive.

When using hydraulic fluids, it’s critical that they are taken care of. Contamination
accounts for up to 70% of faults in hydraulic system. It’s vital to avoid water, air and any
solid matter from going into the fluid. This means that strict cleanliness is required when
assembling units. Ideally it would take place in a dust free room that is designed to
prevent contamination. After performing any work, a cleaning procedure should follow
including the flushing of particles from pipes. Filtering systems should be used that can
remove particles of between 3 microns to 10 microns (.001 mm = 1 micron). Finally, due
to the high expense of oil, it’s imperative to maintain it to provide a maximum life. Its
condition should be checked regularly with records taken for each machine.
Contamination should be avoided and filters used.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3. Fundamentals of Hydraulics
There are two methods for studying the movement of flow (Nakayama, 1998). One is a
method which follows any arbitrary particle with its kaleidoscopic changes in velocity and
acceleration. This is called the Lagrangian method. The other is a method by which,
rather than following any particular fluid particle, changes in velocity and pressure are
studied at fixed positions in space x, y, z and at time t. This method is called the Eulerian
method. Nowadays the latter method is more common and effective in most cases. Here
we will explain the fundamental principles needed whenever fluid movements are studied.

3.1 The Logic Behind Hydraulics

3.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure which rises above a certain level in a liquid owing to
the weight of the liquid mass an example of which is the atmospheric pressure (Smits,
2017):

(3.1)

The hydrostatic pressure, or simply “pressure” as it is known for short, does not depend
on the type of vessel used. It is purely dependent on the height and density of the column
of liquid as shown in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 - Hydrostatic Pressure.

(manual.midasuser.com, article: Hydrostatic Pressure Loads)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.1.2 Pascal’s Law – Pressure Transmission

Pascal's law states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined
fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container (Fairman, 1996). For
this reason, the shape of the container has no significance.

Figure 3-2 - Result of Pascal’s Law. The increase in Pressure from Area 1 is equal with the increase in
Pressure at Area 2. The Output Force F2 is 10 times F1.

Figure 3-2 shows two different pistons ( and ). We apply a force of 100N at the
piston with the small base ( ) while on the larger piston ( ) stands a mass of
applying on its base due to gravity. The pressure rise from each action is
calculated:

(3.2)

According to Pascal’s Law in a closed system, . Thus,

(3.3)

Small forces from the pressure piston can produce larger forces by enlarging the working
piston surface. This is the fundamental principle which is applied in every hydraulic
system from the jack to the lifting platform. The force must be sufficient for the fluid
pressure to overcome the load resistance.

In the case where the pressure can be controlled like the double acting cylinder
The hydrostatic pressure exerts a force on the area which is transferred via the
piston rod onto the small piston. Thus, the force F1 acts on the area and produces the
hydrostatic pressure . Since piston area is smaller than piston area , the pressure
is greater than the pressure . Here too, the following law applies (Merkle, M.Thomes,
& B.Schrader, 2003):

(3.4)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(3.5)

3.1.3 Displacement Transmission

If a load is to be lifted a distance in line with the principle described above, the base
must displace a specific quantity of liquid which lifts the base by a distance .
Assuming incompressible fluid, the volume must remain constant.

(3.6)

(3.7)

From this, it can be seen that the distance must be greater than the distance since
the area is smaller than the area .

(3.8)

3.1.4 Flow Rate

Flow rate is the term used to describe the volume of liquid flowing through a pipe in a
specific period of time. In hydraulics, the flow rate is designated as Q. The following
equation applies:

(3.9)

The flow rate of a liquid in terms of volume per unit of time which flows through a pipe
with several changes in cross-section is the same at all points in the pipe. This means
that the liquid flows through small cross-sections faster than through large cross-sections.

(3.10)

(3.11)

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3.2 The Seven General Equations

Knowledge of the fundamental laws and equations which govern the flow of fluids is
essential for the rational design of hydraulic control components and systems. This
chapter will discuss the general equations of fluid motion, types of flow, and flow through
conduits and orifices.

Fluids are made up of discrete particles - molecules. An accurate analysis would have to
consider the motion of each particle, and this would be hopeless analytically. For
example, the density at any geometrical point would depend on whether there exists a
molecule at that point. Therefore, we must rely on “continuous” theory and consider the
statistical properties of a fluid. This concept conflicts with molecular theory, but it is
sufficiently accurate for engineering purposes.

Analytic description of general fluid flow requires that the motion of a small cube of fluid
be defined. If such a cube can be sufficiently defined, it would be possible to proceed to
more complex situations. An infinitesally small volume of fluid can be completely defined
using eight parameters.

x coordinate Temperature Time

y coordinate Pressure
z coordinate Density
Viscosity

Therefore, seven independent equations are required in order that they may be solved
simultaneously to obtain any of the parameters as a function of another or, as is more
usually the case, to find any parameter as a function of time (Merritt, 1967).

3.2.1 Navier - Stokes Equations

The first three of these equations result when Newton’s second law is applied to the three
directions of motion.

(3.12)

(3.13)

(3.14)

These equations are a result of the law of conservation of momentum. The terms on the
left side of these equations are a result of fluid inertia. The last three terms on the right -
side result from viscous friction. If the inertia terms are neglected, the set of equations is

65
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

called Stokes equations; if viscosity is neglected, the equations are called Euler’s
equations. The ratio of inertia force over viscous force is called Reynolds number and
serves to weight the relative effects of viscosity and inertia terms of the Navier-Stokes
equations. A large Reynolds number indicates that inertia terms are dominant, whereas a
small number indicates the dominance of viscosity terms (Bontozoglou, 2003) (Merritt,
1967).

3.2.2 Continuity Equation - Conservation of Mass

Consider a control volume (Figure 3-3) in which there are weight flow rates into and
from the volume. Let the volume be Vo, and the accumulated or stored mass of fluid
inside be m with a mass density of ρ. Since all fluid must be accounted for, as the
medium is assumed continuous, the rate at which mass is stored must equal incoming
mass flow rate minus outgoing mass flow rate (Merritt, 1967). Therefore,

(3.15)

Figure 3-3 - Control volume where the continuity equation is applied.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

3.2.3 Conservation of Energy – 1st Thermodynamic Law

3.2.3.1 Energy and Hydraulics

The first law of thermodynamics states that for any given system, the change in energy
is equal to the difference between the heat transferred to the system and the
work done by the system on its surroundings (W) during a given time interval.
The energy referred to in this principle represents the total energy of the system, which is
the sum of the potential energy, kinetic energy, and internal (molecular) forms of energy
such as electrical and chemical energy. Although internal energy may be significant for
thermodynamic analyses, it is commonly neglected in hydraulic analyses because of its
relatively small magnitude.

In hydraulic applications, energy values are often converted into units of energy per unit
weight, resulting in units of length. Using these length equivalents gives engineers a
better “feel” for the resulting behaviour of the system. When using these length
equivalents, the engineer is expressing the energy of the system in terms of “head.” The
energy at any point within a hydraulic system is often expressed in three parts, as shown
in Figure 3-4:

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-4 - Pressure, Elevation and Velocity Heads in an Open Channel.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Energy types
 Static
o Potential (Elevation Head) ( )
o Pressure Head )
 Dynamic
o Kinetic (Velocity Head) ( )
o Thermal (Friction)
o Work

Hydraulic Grade
The hydraulic grade is the sum of the pressure head and elevation head (z). For
open channel flow (in which the pressure head is zero), the hydraulic grade elevation is
the same as the water surface elevation. For a pressure pipe, the hydraulic grade
represents the height to which a water column would rise in a piezometer (a tube open to
the atmosphere rising from the pipe). When the hydraulic grade is plotted as a profile
along the length of the conveyance section, it is referred to as the hydraulic grade line, or
HGL. Thus, if the depth of the channel is h, then

(3.16)

Energy Grade
The energy grade is the sum of the hydraulic grade and the velocity head . This grade is
the height to which a column of water would rise in a Pitot tube (an apparatus similar to a
piezometer, but also accounting for fluid velocity). When plotted in profile, this parameter
is often referred to as the energy grade line, or EGL. For a lake or reservoir in which the
velocity is essentially zero, the EGL is equal to the HGL. Thus, If the pressure is at a
point A in the open channel in Figure 3-4, the Total Head or Energy Grade of the fluid at
this point is:

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(3.17)

And by including the internal energy, the Total Energy is expressed:

or (3.18)

Figure 3-5 - The change of Energy Heads Downstream an Open Channel.

(Yuken Kogyo Co. Basic Hydraulics and Components)

Note that a point on the water surface of an open channel will have a pressure head of
zero, but will have a positive elevation head higher than that of a point selected at the
bottom of the channel for the same station.

In addition to pressure head, elevation head, and velocity head, energy may be added to
a system by a pump (for example) and removed from the system by friction or other
disturbances. These changes in energy are referred to as Head gains ( ) and Head
Losses ( ), respectively. Because energy is conserved, the energy across any two
points in the system must balance. This concept is demonstrated by the energy equation:

(3.19)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Where,

(Merritt, 1967) (Manring, 2005) (Basic Hydraulic Principles, 2002)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-6 - Summary table of Head Gain and Head Loss terms.
(Ph.D., Kim A. Shollenberger. Energy Heads Table. Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo.)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Considering a volume (Figure 3-7) in which weight flow rates in are and outflows are
. The fluid inside the volume is doing external work (expansion, shaft, and shear) of
(in-lb/sec), and heat is being transferred to the volume at a rate of (in-
lb/sec). The statement of the first law is that the energy flow in minus the energy flow out
must equal the rate at which energy is stored inside the volume.

Figure 3-7 - Energies entering and leaving a Control Volume.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Therefore,

(3.20)

This equation assumes the absence of capillary, electrical and magnetic forces, and that
such a volume can be defined. For a liquid, the internal energy per pound is

(3.21)

Therefore, for steady flow of an incompressible liquid (i.e., no energy stored in the
volume, , and ) which enters and leaves a control volume at only
one place with negligible changes in elevation (Figure 3-8), (3.20) becomes

(3.22)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-8 - Flow entering and leaving a Control Volume with heat added and work being done.
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Considering the heat transferred to the volume two extreme cases are usually
considered.

 Heat can be transferred at such a rate that the temperature remains constant.
This condition is called isothermal and, since temperature is constant, the energy
equation is not required.
 At the other extreme no heat is transferred, that is, , and this condition
is called adiabatic. In general, temperature changes have little effect on liquid flow
because cubical expansion coefficients are small and cause negligible density
change.
(Manring, 2005) (Merritt, 1967)

3.2.4 Equation of State

The density of a liquid is a function of both pressure and temperature. A function relating
density, pressure, and temperature of a fluid is, by definition, the equation of state.
Because changes in density as a function of pressure and temperature are small for a
liquid, the first three terms of a Taylor’s series for two variables may be used as an
approximation. Therefore,

(3.23)

A more convenient form for (3.23) is the linearized equation of state for a liquid.

(3.24)

Where

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

The mass density increases as pressure is increased and decreases with temperature
increase (Merritt, 1967).

3.2.4.1 Bulk Modulus

In Equation 3.24, for being the total volume and Vo the initial total volume of the liquid,
yields:

(3.25)

The quantity β is the change in pressure divided by the fractional change in volume at a
constant temperature and is called the isothermal bulk modulus or simply bulk modulus of
the liquid. The bulk modulus of a fluid characterizes the stiffness of the fluid acting as a
spring and is always a positive quantity, for is always negative.
Interaction of the spring effect of a liquid and the mass of mechanical parts gives a
resonance in nearly all hydraulic components. In most cases this resonance is the chief
limitation to dynamic performance. For petroleum fluids a typical bulk modulus value is
. However, values this large are rarely achieved in practice because the
bulk modulus decreases sharply with small amounts of air entrained in the liquid. In some
cases, the elasticity of structural members, such as motor housings, can reduce the
effective bulk modulus appreciably. Thus, it is important to calculate the total bulk
modulus of a system combining the stiffnesses of fluid, air and mechanical components
(Manring, 2005).

(3.26)

3.2.4.2 Cubical Expansion Coefficient.

Respectively, in Equation 3.24, for being the total volume and Vo the initial total volume
of the liquid, yields:

(3.27)

which is the fractional change in volume due to a change in temperature.

The cubical expansion coefficient for petroleum base fluids is about ,
that is, there is about a increase in volume for each of temperature increase.
(Manring, 2005)

3.2.5 Fluid Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is the measure of its resistance to gradual deformation by shear
stress or tensile stress. Viscosity is the property of a fluid which opposes the relative
motion between two surfaces of the fluid that are moving at different velocities. In simple
terms, viscosity means friction between the molecules of fluid. For example, honey has a
higher viscosity than water. When the fluid is forced through a tube, the particles which
compose the fluid generally move more quickly near the tube's axis and more slowly near
its walls; therefore, some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of
the tube) is needed to overcome the friction between particle layers to keep the fluid
moving. For a given velocity pattern, the stress required is proportional to the fluid's
viscosity.
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero
viscosity is observed only at very low temperatures in super-fluids. Otherwise, all fluids
have positive viscosity and are technically said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a
relatively high viscosity, such as pitch, may appear to be a solid.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Viscosity is an important property of any fluid. It is necessary for hydrodynamic

lubrication, and a suitable value is required for many other purposes. Close-fitting
surfaces in relative motion occur in most hydraulic components. If the viscosity of the fluid
is too low, leakage flows increase; if the viscosity is too large, component efficiencies
decrease because of additional power loss in fluid friction. Viscosity is of such
significance that it is common practice to designate the fluid by its viscosity at a certain
temperature.
Isaac Newton was the first to give a quantitative definition of viscosity. Referring to the
piston and cylinder of Figure 3-9, in which the radial clearance is filled with a fluid.

Figure 3-9 - Piston Concentric in Cylinder.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Newton observed that a force was necessary to cause relative motion. This force is a
measure of the internal friction of the fluid or its resistance to shear and is proportional to
the area in contact and to the velocity and is inversely proportional to the film thickness.

(3.28)

The ratio of absolute viscosity to mass density occurs in many equations (Navier-Stokes,
Reynolds number, etc.) and is easily measured by many viscometers. This ratio is, by
definition, the kinematic viscosity of the fluid, that is (Merritt, 1967),

(3.29)

3.2.5.1 Viscosity as a Function of Pressure and

Temperature
The viscosity of liquids decreases markedly with temperature increase and increases, but
to a much lesser degree, with increased pressure. The viscosity variation with
temperature is the more important and may be approximated by an equation of the form:

(3.30)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

The equations which describe fluid flow are nonlinear partial differential equations with
complex boundary conditions. Needless to say, no general solutions of these equations
have been found. There is therefore no general theoretical treatment of fluid motion. The
general equations do serve to define the scope of any problem involving fluids. In many
instances certain approximations can be made which reduce the complexity of these
equations and permit solutions accurate enough for most purposes (Merritt, 1967).

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.3 Types of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits

Flow in closed conduits is of particular interest and includes flow in pipes, sudden
enlargements and contractions in pipe sections, flow-through fittings, and flow through
restrictions in pipes such as orifices. Some general comments on fluid flow can be made.
The forces which affect fluid flow are:

 Body forces such as gravity and buoyancy

 Forces due to fluid inertia
 Forces arising from internal fluid friction (viscosity)
 Forces due to surface tension
 Electric and magnetic fields.

3.3.1 Reynold’s Number

In most cases, only those forces arising from fluid inertia and viscosity are significant.
Experience shows that flows in nature are generally dominated either by viscosity or
inertia of the fluid. Therefore, it is useful to define a quantity which describes the relative
significance of these two forces in a given flow situation.
The dimensionless ratio of inertia force to viscous force is called Reynolds number and
defined by

(3.31)

Where,

The characteristic length used for Reynolds number is inside pipe diameter , and the
average flow velocity is volumetric flow rate divided by pipe area, that is,

(3.32)

And the Reynolds number is given by

(3.33)

The Reynolds number, based on hydraulic diameter, should be computed to obtain a

rough idea of the type of flow. Referring to Figure 3-11, we note that flow through an
annulus increases as the shaft becomes more eccentric. In the extreme case in which the
shaft touches the cylinder wall, the eccentricity equals the radial clearance and the flow is
2.5 times that obtained with shaft and cylinder concentric. In practice the eccentricity is
not known and an average flow between the two extremes might be used. This relation is
useful in establishing the radial clearance in a seal so that leakage flow requirements are
not exceeded.
Turbulent flow in closed conduits of noncircular cross section may be approximately
computed from formulas given if the diameter is considered to be the hydraulic diameter.
The hydraulic diameter is defined by:

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(3.34)

For a circular section the hydraulic diameter becomes the inside pipe diameter. The
concept of hydraulic diameter cannot be used for laminar flows because such flows are
highly dependent on passage geometry. Transition Reynolds number may be
approximately determined based on the hydraulic radius. Transition from laminar to
turbulent flow has been experimentally observed to occur in the range 2000 < R < 4000.
Below R= 2000, the flow is always laminar; above R = 4000 the flow is usually, but not
always, turbulent. It is possible to have laminar flow at Reynolds number considerably
above 4000 if extreme care is taken to avoid disturbances which would lead to
turbulence. However, these instances are exceptional, and the high limit of 4000 is a
good rule (Merritt, 1967).

3.3.1.1 Viscosity Dominated Flow

o Laminar Flow (Viscous Flow)

It is dominated by viscosity forces and characterized by an orderly, smooth,
parallel line motion of the fluid.
(Merritt, 1967)

3.3.1.2 Inertia Dominated Flow

o Turbulent Flow
It is generally inertia dominated flow and characterized by irregular, erratic,
eddy-like paths of the fluid particles (Merritt, 1967).

o Potential Flow
In some cases of inertia dominated flow, viscosity is important only in a layer,
called the boundary layer, next to a solid boundary while the main body of flow
outside of the boundary layer is inertia dominated and behaves in an orderly
fashion similar to that of laminar flow. If the boundary layer forces can be
neglected, the resulting flow is called potential or streamline flow, an example
of which is flow through an orifice. Potential flow is non-turbulent, streamline,
and frictionless, so that the Reynolds number is infinite. However, the term
turbulent is generally used to designate flows at high Reynolds numbers.
Assuming one-dimensional, steady, incompressible, frictionless flow
with no body forces, the Navier-Stokes equations reduce to

(3.35)

which may be integrated to yield Bernoulli’s equation with negligible gravity

forces and is applicable to streamline of potential flow

(3.36)

Note that if the velocity increases, the pressure must decrease and vice
versa, that is, the Total Head at any section is a constant. Generally, laminar
flows can be solved from the Navier-Stokes equations if the geometry of the

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

flow is simple. Potential flows can be described by Bernoulli’s

equation.(Nakayama, 1998)

3.3.2 Laminar Flow in Pipes

3.3.2.1 Transition Length

Let us first consider steady laminar flow in pipes. Such pipes are often termed capillary
tubes because the small diameters usually result in laminar flow. However, it should be
recognized that low velocities or large viscosities can also result in laminar flow in pipes
of larger diameter. As fluid enters a pipe (Figure 3-10) the velocity profile is constant at a
value if there is rounding of the inlet. The fluid velocity at the pipe wall is zero, and this
layer of fluid exerts considerable shear forces on the inner layers whose velocities must
exceed to satisfy the law of continuity. The boundary layer thus formed increases in
thickness until the center of the pipe is reached. The velocity profile then becomes
parabolic and remains parabolic throughout the length of pipe. Let denote the peak
velocity of the entrance velocity profiles. For a parabolic profile, the peak velocity is .
The ratio then varies from unity at the entrance to two at the length of pipe where a
parabolic velocity profile is established. The inlet length where the peak velocity is within
of the final peak velocity of is called the transition length. The
transition length for laminar flow is

e (3.37)

Figure 3-10 - Laminar Flow in pipe.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Laminar flow is dominated by viscous forces when it achieves a parabolic velocity profile.
However, both inertia and viscous forces affect the pressure drop in the transition length.
(Manring, 2005)

3.3.2.2 Pressure Drop After the Transition Length

i. Hagen-Poiseuille Law

(3.38)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Combining 3.32, 3.33 and 3.38, yields

(3.39)

The first term in (3.39) is the well-known Hagen-Poiseuille law for fully developed laminar
flow in pipes. The second term accounts for losses due to fluid inertia because the inner
layers are being accelerated in the transition length.
In order to include entrances and exits for example, an abrupt square-edged entrance
from a large reservoir has a loss coefficient of 0.5. An abrupt exit into a large reservoir
has a loss coefficient of 1, which means that all the kinetic energy of the issuing fluid is
lost in the turbulent mixing with fluid in the reservoir; hence, . These losses can be
factored into (3.39) by replacing the value 2.28 by 2.78. Thus, the pressure drop in a
capillary with sharp-edged entrance and exit is

(3.40)

ii. Shapiro, Siegel and Kline:

(3.41)

which applies for a short tube with well-rounded entry.

If we include a loss coefficient of for a square-edged entry, assuming a square edged
exit such as and because , we obtain (Merritt, 1967),

(3.42)

3.3.2.3 Friction Factor for Laminar Flow

Equating (3-46 seen later) to the Hagen-Poiseuille law, the friction factor for laminar flow

(3.43)

3.3.2.4 Pressure Drop for Steady Laminar Flow with

Friction
However, a much more convenient representation for laminar flow can be obtained as
follows. The Hagen-Poiseuille law with friction factor, applicable to fully developed laminar
flow, can be written as

(3.44)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-11 - Laminar Flow through various passages with cross sections illustrated.
(Noah Manring, Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley, 2005.)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.3.2.5 Pressure Drop in the Transition Length

If the length of pipe is less than the transition length (Manring, 2005), then the pressure
drop is determined from the curve in Figure 3-12. A trial and error solution is required if
the pressure drop is known and flow is desired. Again, the entrance and exit losses must
be added to the result.

Figure 3-12 - Pressure Drop and peak velocity of Steady Laminar Flow in a pipe.
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

3.3.2.6 Tube Length and Laminar Flow

A concern to the designer is the length of tube required for laminar flow to be dominant.
Taking the extreme limit of laminar flow, and selecting a length to diameter
ratio of , we find that the parenthesis in (3.40) has a value of . Therefore, ratios of
L/D > 800 give no more than 11 % error in pressure drop when computed from the
Hagen-Poiseuille law. If , correspondingly shorter lengths can be used. Using
error in pressure computation as a criterion and referring to (3.40), we have design
ratios given by
(3.45)

This relation insures that the capillary is the dominant resistance when pressures are
measured in the end reservoirs.

3.3.3 Turbulent Flow in Pipes

Flow patterns and equations for turbulent flow in pipes (Merritt, 1967) are based largely
on experimental observations. As flow enters the pipe (Figure 3-13), the initial boundary
layer is laminar but becomes turbulent (except for a very thin laminar sublayer) after a
very short distance. This turbulent boundary layer increases in thickness to the center of
the pipe in a transition length of about 25 to 40 pipe diameters. A rather blunt velocity
profile, with a peak velocity of about , is then established and remains throughout the
pipe length.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-13 - Turbulent Flow in a pipe.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

3.3.3.1 Pressure Drop for Steady Turbulent Flow

The empirical Darcy-Weisbach equation giving the pressure drop for fully developed
turbulent flow is

(3.46)

Where is the friction factor which depends on Reynolds number and pipe roughness.
The additional pressure drop due to the transition length is about and is
negligible in most computations. Pressure drops due to entrance and exit losses are also
usually negligible.

3.3.3.2 Friction Factor of Turbulent Flow in Smooth

Pipes
In the turbulent flow range Blasius experimentally determined the friction factor to be

(3.47)

Prandtl’s universal law of friction for smooth pipes (3.48) is applicable

(3.48)

for arbitrarily large Reynolds numbers but is somewhat difficult to manipulate

mathematically. However, it covers most cases in hydraulic control because the pipes are
smooth and the flow velocities are normally kept below to avoid large pressure
surges with sudden valve closures (see water-hammer), and this results in Reynolds
numbers being less than .
If the flow is known and the pressure drop is required, then Reynolds number can be
directly computed and the friction factor selected from Figure 3-14. The pressure drop is
then obtained from (3-46). (Durfee, Sun, & Ven, 2015) (Merritt, 1967)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figu
re
3-14
-
Frict
ion
Fact
or
for
smo
oth
pipe
s
(Her
bert
Merr
itt -
Hyd
rauli
c
cont
rol
syst
ems
)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

If needed, the turbulent friction factor data for rough piles in the Moody diagram (Figure
3-15).

Figure 3-15 - The Moody Diagram where the friction factor for rough pipes in the turbulent region can be
found. (Wikipedia)

For fully developed turbulent flow for smooth pipes (with friction factor), equations (3.33),
(3-46), and (3-47) may be combined to yield

(3.49)

For a given fluid and selected inside diameters, the Hagen-Poiseuille law (3.44) is plotted
for , and the Darcy-Weisbach equation (3.46) is plotted for as
illustrated in Figure 3-16. Such plots are very useful in design since flow, pressure drop,
and pipe size arc read directly without explicit computation of Reynolds number. Note the
increase in the rate of pressure gradient along the pipe with flow in the turbulent region.
For this reason, laminar flow is desirable; however, the resulting pipe is usually
unnecessarily large. Usually the flow is determined from load velocity requirements, and
the pipe size is selected so that the pressure drop is moderate. Pipe selection criteria of
maximum flow velocity and pressure drop are common.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-16 - Pressure Drop per foot for smooth pipe. Fluid density is and
viscosity is .
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.4 Flow through Orifices

Orifices are a basic means for the control of fluid power (Manring, 2005) (Merritt, 1967).
Flow characteristics of orifices play a major role in the design of many hydraulic control
devices. An orifice is a sudden restriction of short length (ideally zero length for a sharp-
edged orifice) in a flow passage and may have a fixed or variable area. Two type s of flow
regime exist (Figure 3-17), depending on whether inertia or viscous forces dominate. The
flow velocity through an orifice must increase above that in the upstream region to satisfy
the law of continuity. At high Reynolds numbers, the pressure drop across the orifice is
caused by the acceleration of the fluid particles from the upstream velocity to the higher
jet velocity. At low Reynolds numbers, the pressure drop is caused by the internal shear
forces resulting from fluid viscosity.

Figure 3-17 - Flow through an orifice. (a) Laminar, (b) Turbulent Flow.
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Orifices and the orifice equations have the following applications:

 Regulating the flow out of detention ponds

 Regulating the flow through channels in the form of radial and sluice gates
 Approximating the interception capacity of submerged drainage inlets in sag
 Approximating the flow allowed through a submerged culvert operating under inlet
control
 Measuring flow

3.4.1 Turbulent Orifice Flow

Since most orifice flows occur at high Reynolds numbers, this region is of greater
importance. Such flows are often referred to as “turbulent”, but the term does not have
quite the same meaning as in pipe flow. Referring to Figure 3-17b, the fluid particles are
accelerated to the jet velocity between points 1 and 2. The flow between these points is
streamline or potential flow and experience justifies the use of Bernoulli’s equation in this
region. The area of the issuing jet is smaller than the orifice area because the fluid
particles have inertia and are moving in a curved path at the orifice opening. The point
along the jet where the jet area becomes a minimum is called the vena contracta. The

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

ratio of stream area at the vena contracta to the orifice area is called the
contraction coefficient .

(3.50)

For round orifices, the vena contracta occurs at approximately half an orifice diameter
downstream and point 1 is about the same distance upstream (for a slit type orifice, these
same distances are about ). Thus, the fluid is accelerated in a total distance of about
one orifice diameter. Between points 2 and 3 of Figure 3-17b, there is turbulence and
violent mixing of the issuing jet with the fluid in the downstream region. The kinetic energy
of the jet is converted into an increase in internal energy (temperature) of the fluid by the
turbulence. Since the kinetic energy of the jet is not recovered, pressures and are
approximately equal. This may be shown by analysing the section between 2 and 3 as a
sudden expansion.
The pressure difference required to accelerate the fluid particles from the lower upstream
velocity to the higher jet velocity is found by applying Bernoulli’s equation between points
1 and 2. Therefore

(3.51)

And for incompressible flow

(3.52)

Combining 3.51 and 3.52,

(3.53)

Because of viscous 'friction, the jet velocity is slightly less than that given by (3.53), and
an empirical factor called the velocity coefficient , is introduced to account for this
discrepancy. is usually around 0.98 and is approximated by unity in most
computations. Since , the volumetric flow rate at the vena contracta then
becomes

(3.54)

Because it is more convenient to use orifice area rather than vena contracta area, (3.54)
and (3.50) can be combined to yield

(3.55)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

where called the discharge coefficient, is given by

(3.56)

Since and is usually much less than , the discharge coefficient is

approximately equal to the contraction coefficient. The contraction coefficient is difficult to
compute but solutions have been made for round and slit-type sharp-edged orifices and
are plotted in Figure 3-18. Experience shows that the theoretical value of
can be used for all sharp-edged orifices, regardless of the particular
geometry, if the flow is turbulent and . For this reason, a discharge coefficient of
0.60 is often assumed for all orifices and, since , the
orifice equation takes the familiar form

(3.57)

Figure 3-18 - Contraction Coefficients for round and slot type orifices.
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

Sharp-edged orifices are desirable for their predictable characteristics and insensitivity to
temperature changes. However, cost frequently prohibits their use, especially as fixed
restrictors, and orifices with length are often employed. An average discharge coefficient
for such short tube orifices can be obtained as follows: Comparing (3.55) with (3.38) and
(3.42), respectively, the discharge coefficient plotted in Figure 3-19 can be identified as

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(3.58)

Figure 3-19 - Discharge Coefficient for short tube orifice.

(Noah Manring, Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley, 2005.)

3.4.2 Laminar Orifice Flow

At low temperatures (Merritt, 1967), low orifice pressure drops, and/or small orifice
openings, the Reynolds number may become sufficiently low to permit laminar flow.
Reynolds number for an orifice is defined by

(3.59)

For a circular orifice of diameter the hydraulic diameter is . For a rectangular slit
orifice of width and height b where , the hydraulic diameter, defined by (3.34),
becomes

(3.60)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-20 - Typical plot of Discharge Coefficient versus Reynolds Number for an orifice.
(Noah Manring, Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley, 2005.)

Although the analysis leading to (3.55) is not valid at low Reynolds numbers, attempts
have been made to extend this equation to the laminar region by plotting discharge
coefficient as a function of Reynolds number. A typical plot of such data is shown in
Figure 3-20.

For many investigators have found the discharge coefficient to be directly

proportional to the square root of Reynolds number; that is

(3.61)

The quantity depends on geometry and is called the laminar flow coefficient.
Substituting (3.59) and (3.61) into (3.55) yields

(3.62)

for low Reynolds numbers. Note that flow is directly related to pressure difference and,
since mass density is absent, dominated by fluid viscosity.

Wuest has theoretically determined expressions for laminar flow through sharp-edged
orifices. For a circular orifice in an infinite plane (i.e., in Figure 3-18), the result is

(3.63)

For a rectangular slit of height and width w in an infinite plane (i.e., in Figure
3-18) with , the result is

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

(3.64)

Equating (3.62) to (3.63) and to (3.64) gives for a sharp-edged round orifice and
for a sharp-edged slit orifice.

Viersma represents the discharge coefficient by asymptotes defined by (3.61) in the

laminar and in the turbulent regions as shown in Figure 3-21. The transition
Reynolds number is defined by the intersection point of the two asymptotes, that is

(3.65)

For , the transition Reynolds number is and increases as is

decreased.

Figure 3-21 - Asymptotic approximation of Discharge Coefficient.

(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

In many instances it is desirable to evaluate the flow coefficient, of an

orifice with no initial pressure drop. If turbulent flow is assumed, this coefficient is infinite
as seen by differentiation of (3.55). However, the flow becomes laminar when the
pressure drop is small and the flow coefficient has a finite value which can be estimated
from (3.63) and (3.64).
In summary, orifice flow is laminar for with flow rates directly related to pressure
drop as given by (3.62). Near ,both inertia and viscosity are important.
For the flow can be treated as turbulent and described by the orifice equation
(3.55). The orifice equation is commonly used for all situations with a total disregard for
the types of flow that can be encountered. This is justified in most cases but can lead to
gross errors in certain instances.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.5 Minor Losses

The term minor losses (Merritt, 1967) (Shollenberger) (Taborek, 1959) refers to those
energy loses caused by bends fittings and sudden changes in flow cross section. These
losses are empirically described by

(3.66)

Values for K are given in Figure 3-22 for many cases of interest.

Figure 3-22 - Resistance Coefficients due to abrupt changes in pipe cross section and due to
the geometry of pipe entrances and exits.
(Noah Manring, Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley, 2005.)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Bernoulli’s equation applied between points 2 and 3 of the abrupt exit in Figure 3-22
would predict a pressure increase. However, there is a loss in energy which must be
considered. Because for all reasonably abrupt exits into a large reservoir (i.e.,
the head loss is . This means that the entire kinetic energy of the fluid
entering the reservoir is converted into heat energy by the turbulent mixing which takes
place. Hence, there is little or no recovery in pressure during the expansion so that
. The exit must be smooth and diverge gradually to achieve significant pressure
recovery. For most cases in hydraulic control it is sufficient to assume that for an
exit into a large chamber.
When fluid flow encounters a sudden contraction, a vena contracta is formed between
approximately one half to one pipe diameters downstream. Because the conversion of
pressure energy into kinetic energy at the inlet is very efficient, most of the energy loss
occurs due to the expansion of the fluid stream from the vena contracta. Application of
Bernoulli’s equation to points 0 and 2 of the sudden contraction in Figure 3-22 yields

(3.67)

where K is given in Figure 3-22 for different inlet geometries. Because can
be neglected and we obtain

(3.68)

Although point 2 is downstream of the vena contracta, the distinction between points 1
and 2 is often overlooked and ( ) is referred to as the inlet pressure drop.

Centrifugal forces and secondary flow patterns result in a pressure drop in pipe bends.
There is much variation in test data for resistance coefficients of bends and those values
given in Figure 3-23 should be considered approximate. Because the fluid velocities at
points 1 and 2 in Figure 3-23 are the same, application of Bernoulli’s equation yields

(3.69)

as the pressure drop due to the bend. The pressure drop for the length of the bend is
determined from (3.46) and added to that due to the bend. Pressure drops in fittings and
valves vary widely and data should be obtained from component manufacturers or by
direct measurement.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 3-23 - Resistance Coefficients of pipe bends.

(J. J. Taborek, “Fundamentals of Line Flow” 1959)

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

3.6 Power Loss and Temperature Rise

Hydraulic horsepower is the product of pressure drop and flow , and in many
instances this power is consumed by fluid friction and increases the internal energy of the
fluid (Merritt, 1967). The power used by all hydraulic resistances such as orifices, valves,
pipes, capillaries, and minor losses, is converted into a temperature increase of the fluid.
Most of the horsepower produced by hydraulic motors is used as shaft work, but power
used by internal and cross leakages is converted into heat.
The power converted into heat energy by a hydraulic resistance is .
Equating this to the supplied hydraulic horsepower of yields a temperature rise
in the direction of flow of

(3.70)

Thus, there is about a rise in temperature across any hydraulic resistance (orifice,
pipe, etc.) for each drop if the fluid has a petroleum
base for which .
Equation 3.70 may be derived in a more rigorous manner from (3.22). If there is no heat
added or work done and the flow is steady (i.e., ) then (3.22) becomes

(3.71)

In most cases the inlet and outlet is about the same size so that and (3.71)
reduces to (3.70).
The temperature rise given by (3.70) is useful in determining the heat generated in
hydraulic systems.

Because hydraulic systems generate heat, they must operate above ambient temperature
to dissipate the heat to the environment or to reject it to the coolant of a heat exchanger.
Operation at excessive temperatures can break down the oil, causing sludges, varnishes,
etc., which can clog orifices. Decrease in viscosity and lubricity at elevated temperatures
may drastically shorten service life of components such as pumps. Seals, packings,
hoses, filters, etc. have a definite temperature range for satisfactory operation. Thermal
distortion in hydraulic components and adjacent structures may be undesirable.
Therefore, it is quite important that the hydraulic system be designed so that a heat
balance is achieved at a satisfactory operating temperature.

There are several sources of heat generation in hydraulic systems.

 The major heat generators are the orifices and valves in the system used to
throttle and control the flow. The hydraulic power consumed by these devices is
dissipated in heating the fluid and, to a much lesser extent, local heating of a
valve itself. It is important to realize that valves are inherently heat generators, but
this is the price that must be paid for the ability to control. Relief valves and servo -
valves are good examples of heat generators.
 Another source of heat generation is the resistive pressure drops in hydraulic
lines, fittings, filters, and passageways in components such as valves, motors,
and heat exchangers. Undersized and/or dirty passages should be avoided to
minimize heat losses.

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

 Leakage flow losses in pumps, motors, and valves add to the heat generated by a
system.
 Seal friction, mechanical friction, windage losses, and viscous drag between
surfaces in pumps and motors also generate heat.
 The compression of oil and, especially, entrained air to higher pressures in pumps
during the pumping portion of the stroke causes heat generation. Rapidly cycling
of gas-charged accumulators can cause gas temperatures higher than that of the
oil which results in heat flow to the oil.

Each of the latter four sources of heat are usually much smaller than that produced by the
metering orifices of control valves but collectively represent a significant contribution. The
hydraulic system can absorb heat from external sources such as prime movers which
also must be taken into account.
The operating temperature of the oil in a system should be determined to see whether it
is satisfactory. This requires a computation of the heat generated and the natural heat
dissipation capability of the system. One method of determining the heat generated is to
add up the losses of each component. This technique is tedious and requires estima tion
of many quantities, such as leakage rates, efficiencies, and pressure drops. Because
the hydraulic horsepower initially generated must be used in mechanical power at the
output or converted into heat, a far better technique is to compute the total hydraulic
horsepower generated by the pump (or pumps) and subtract the mechanical power
delivered to the load by actuation devices (pistons or motors) to yield the heat that must
be dissipated.
The mechanical horsepower and heat power equivalents of hydraulic pressure and flow
will prove useful. Manipulation of appropriate conversion constants yields the horsepower
developed as

(3.72)

and the equivalent heat power as

(3.73)

where

The hydraulic horsepower initially generated depends on the type of power supply. For a
constant pressure supply with a bypass type (i.e., relief valve) regulator, full power is
generated at all times and the heat power is

(3.74)

Because the total power generated is desired, the ideal rather than actual pump flow
(actual is the ideal flow minus leakage) is used because the difference represents a heat
loss.

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If the constant pressure supply used a stroke regulated variable delivery pump, the heat
power will be less and depends on the load flow, . Therefore

(3.75)

where now denotes the pump flow at maximum stroke and the ratio is between
zero and one. An analysis of the load duty cycle is necessary to establish . If the duty
cycle is not repetitive, then might be estimated at say 0.5 or the most conservative
value of unity used. It should be clear that the two equations given do not represent the
heat generated by the pump but rather the heat power equivalent of the generated
hydraulic power.
The load duty cycle must now be analysed to determine the average mechanical power
delivered to the load. If the output actuator is holding a given position during most of the
cycle, no power is consumed. This is usually the case in servo-controlled systems where
nearly all the generated power is eventually dissipated as heat. Systems using a variable
delivery pump have much less heat dissipation when the actuator is holding position
because the pump flow is reduced to only that necessary to supply leakage losses.
However, the heat losses would be comparable to that of a bypass supply if the actuator
moved at high velocities and required low pressure differences, but such loads are
exceptional.
The heat power to be dissipated is the equivalent heat power generated at the pump
minus the mechanical power at the actuator. Heat is dissipated in hydraulic systems by
the three basic methods of conduction, radiation, and convection. Heat conduction to
adjacent structures is the principal cooling means when the reservoir is built-in. The heat
conducted is given (Bontozoglou, 2003) by

(3.76)

For complex and irregular structures, as they all are, it is obviously difficult to identify the
thermal gradients, and specific tests are required to determine the oil temperature.

Separate reservoirs are self-cooled by radiation and, to a lesser degree, by free

convection of heat from the heat sink formed by the mass of the oil, reservoir, housings,
and tubing. The heat transferred from separate reservoirs is usually written

(3.77)

where

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3.7 Pressure Transients in Hydraulic Conduits

3.7.1 Waterhammer
When fluid flowing in a conduit is suddenly stopped due to a rapid valve closure at the
end of the conduit, a very large pressure transient may result (Manring, 2005) (Merritt,
1967). This phenomenon is called waterhammer because it is usually accompanied by
considerable noise. The fluid adjacent to the valve is stopped initially and a pressure
wave, which heads the increasing amount of fluid being brought to a standstill, travels
back to the fluid source at velocity given by

(3.78)

When the pressure wave arrives at the source end of the conduit (in seconds where
is the conduit length), then the kinetic energy of the moving mass of fluid has been
completely stored as potential energy in the elasticity of conduit and fluid and the
pressure of the compressed fluid, , is a maximum. At this time a decompression wave
forms and travels back to the valve. These waves continue to travel back and forth with
the associated interchanges of kinetic and potential energies until friction expends the
energy involved.

At the instant of valve closure the kinetic energy of the moving fluid is

(3.79)

where is the conduit area and is the initial velocity of the fluid.

The potential energy stored in the compressed fluid is

(3.80)

where is the pressure rise due to the instant valve closure.

Equating these energies yields an expression for pressure rise.

(3.81)

It is apparent from (3.81) that the most effective and only way, since and are fixed, to
reduce this pressure surge is to design pipe systems to have low original fluid velocities
by keeping pipe areas large. If fluid velocities are limited to a maximum of , then
the instant closure pressure rise (above the steady state level) is about , which is
generally considered a safe design value and is a criterion for conduit selection. It is
interesting to note that is independent of line length.
Equation 3.81 is valid and the closure is considered instantaneous if the valve closure
time T is less than that required for one round trip of the pressure wave, that is,

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(3.82)

Where is commonly called the critical closure time. For short lines this inequality is
generally not satisfied. In this event the pressure rise will depend on line length, steady
state pressure level, and valve closure time in addition to . The mathematical
equations which describe this situation are unwieldy but solutions can be made and
expressed in graphical form (Figure 3-24).
(Manring, 2005)
3.7.2 Quick’s Chart

Figure 3-24 - Quick’s Chart showing maximum pressure rise with uniform valve closure.
(Herbert Merritt - Hydraulic control systems)

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Quick’s chart assumes uniform valve closure and is the most convenient graphical
technique (Figure 3-24).

To use Quick’s chart first compute the quantities K and N in which

Now, from the chart obtain the value of from which, since is computed from
(3.81), is computed. Note that will always be less than

In summary, the most severe pressure surge in a single pipe is that caused by an
instantaneous valve closure (i.e., and is given by (3.81). If the valve closure is not
instantaneous (i.e., then uniform valve closure should be assumed and
obtained from Quick’s chart. This latter case is typical for short lines (less than if
). However, because is the maximum surge pressure, instant valve
closure is usually assumed for design purposes.
(Merritt, 1967)

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3.8 Summary
At the outset it was determined that seven equations are required to define a situation
involving fluids. These seven equations reduce considerably if the fluid is a liquid. The
first three equations, the Navier- Stokes equations, are reduced to the application of
certain formulas which were discussed in Sections 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6.
As a general rule, only those equations that describe intentionally inserted hydraulic
resistances are used in a dynamic analysis because these are usually the dominant
restrictors. Resistances of flow passages such as pipes, bends, and fittings, are often
neglected. Therefore, the formulas most often used are the orifice equation, (3.55) and
those given in Figure 3-11.
Because cubical expansion coefficients are small for liquids, the direct effect of
temperature on fluid density and, consequently, on fluid flow is often negligible. This is not
to say that thermal gradients never exist. It is simply that these gradients have little
influence on flow conditions. Therefore, it is usually sufficient to include temperature by
evaluating fluid properties at the operating temperature.
It is generally assumed that isothermal conditions exist in liquid flow. The assumption of
constant temperature eliminates the need for the energy equation and reduces the
equation of state to the simple form

(3.83)

where and are the mass density and bulk modulus at zero pressure. The continuity
equation (3.15) can be written

(3.84)

Noting that weight flow rate can be written , we can combine (3.83) and (3.84) to
yield

(3.85)

Thus, the continuity equation and the equation of state are combined into the more useful
form given by (3.85). The first term on the right side is the flow consumed by expansion of
the control volume; if the volume is fixed, this term is zero. The second term is the
compressibility flow and describes the flow resulting from pressure changes.
Need for the seventh equation is eliminated by assuming that viscosity is constant.
Therefore, all seven of the initial equations have been accounted for. In pneumatic
systems the temperature may vary and a slightly different reduction of the initial equations
is required.

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4. Hydraulic Circuit Analysis

Hydraulic circuits are composed of pumps, pressure control valves, directional valves,
flow control valves, actuators and accessories, and change their compositions according
to objectives and specifications. Many compositions are possible for a single objective.
The most efficient circuit is (Merkle, M.Thomes, & B.Schrader, 2003):
i. Safe and completely optimal to meet objective.
ii. Capable of smooth movement.
iii. Energy efficient.
iv. Effective for initial and running costs.
v. Easy to maintain.

4.1 Graphic and Circuit Symbols

Simple graphic and circuit symbols are used for individual components to enable clear
representation of hydraulic systems in diagrams. A symbol identifies a component and its
function, but it does not provide any information about its design. The symbols to be used
are laid down in DIN ISO 1219. The most important symbols are dealt with in this chapter
(Merkle, M.Thomes, & B.Schrader, 2003).
An arrow drawn at an angle through the symbol indicates that setting possibilities exist.
4.1.1 Pumps and Motors
Hydraulic pumps and motors are represented by means of a circle which shows where
the drive or output shaft is located. Triangles within the circle give information about the
direction of flow. These triangles are filled in, since hydraulic fluids are used for hydraulics.
If a gaseous pressure medium were being used, as is the case in pneumatics, the triangles
would not be filled in. The symbols for hydraulic motors and hydraulic pumps can only be
distinguished from one another by the fact that the arrows indicating the direction of flow are
drawn pointing one way for the pumps and the other for the motors.

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Figure 4-1 - Schematics of Hydraulic Pumps and Motors with fixed

displacement.
(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

4.1.2 Directional Control Valves

Directional control valves are shown by means of several connected squares.
• The number of squares indicates the number of switching positions possible for a valve.
• Arrows within the squares indicate the flow direction.
• Lines indicate how the ports are interconnected in the various switching positions.

There are two possible methods of port designation. One method is to use the letters P,
T, A, B and L, the other is to label ports alphabetically A, B, C, D, etc. The former method
is generally preferred. Ports should always be labelled with the valve in the rest position.
Where there is no rest position, they are allocated to the switching position assumed by
the valve when the system is in its initial position.
The rest position is defined as the position automatically assumed by the valve on
removal of the actuating force.
When labelling directional control valves, it is first necessary to specify the number of
ports followed by the number of switching positions. Directional control valves have at
least two switching positions and at least two ports. In such an instance, the valve would
be designated a 2/2-way valve. The following diagrams show other directional control
valves and their circuit symbols.

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Figure 4-2 - Schematics of Directional Control Valves.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

4.1.3 Types of Actuation

The switching position of a directional control valve can be changed by various actuation
methods. The symbol for the valve is elaborated by the addition of the symbol indicating
the actuation method. In the case of some of the actuation methods shown, such as push
button, pedal, lever with detent, a spring is always necessary for resetting. Resetting may
also be achieved by switching the valve a second time, e.g. in the case of a valve with
hand lever and detent setting.
Listed below are the symbols for the most important actuation methods. Refer to DIN ISO
1219 for other methods of actuation.

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Figure 4-3 - Schematics of different types of Mechanical Actuations.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

4.1.4 Pressure Valves

Pressure valves are represented using squares. The flow direction is indicated by an
arrow. The valve ports can be labelled as P (pressure port) and T (tank connection) or A
and B.
The position of the valve within the square indicates whether the valve is normally open
or normally closed.

Figure 4-4 - Schematics of open and closed Valve Position.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

A further distinction is made between set and adjustable pressure valves. The latter are
indicated by a diagonal arrow through the spring.

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Figure 4-5 - Schematic of set and adjustable Pressure Valves.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

Pressure valves are divided into pressure relief valves and pressure regulators:

Figure 4-6 - Schematic of Pressure Relief Valve and Pressure Regulator Valve.
(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

4.1.5 Flow Control Valves

In the case of flow control valves, a distinction is made between those affected by
viscosity and those unaffected. Flow control valves unaffected by viscosity are termed
orifices. Throttles constitute resistances in a hydraulic system. These valves are depicted
as a rectangle into which are drawn the symbol for the variable throttle and an arrow to
represent the pressure balance. The diagonal arrow running through the rectangle
indicates that the valve is adjustable. There is a special symbol to represent the 2 -way
flow control valve.

Figure 4-7 - Throttle and Orifice schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)
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Figure 4-8 - Two way Flow Control Valve schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

4.1.6 Non-Return Valves

The symbol for non-return valves is a ball which is pressed against a sealing seat. This
seat is drawn as an open triangle in which the ball rests. The point of the triangle
indicates the blocked direction and not the flow direction. Pilot controlled non -return
valves are shown as a square into which the symbol for the non-return valve is drawn.
The pilot control for the valve is indicated by a control connection shown in the form of a
broken line. The pilot port is labelled with the letter X.
Shut-off valves are shown in circuit diagrams as two triangles facing one another. They
are used to depressurise the systems manually or to relieve accumulators. In principle,
wherever lines have to be opened or closed manually.

Figure 4-9 - Non-Return Valves schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

Figure 4-10 - Non-Return Valves

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)
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4.1.7 Cylinders
Cylinders are classified as either single-acting or double-acting.

 Single Acting Cylinder

Single acting cylinders just have one port, i.e. only the full piston surface can be
pressurised with hydraulic fluid. These cylinders are returned either by the effect of
external forces – indicated by the symbol with the open bearing cap – or by a spring.
The spring is then also drawn into the symbol.

Figure 4-11 - Single Acting Cylinders schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

 Double Acting Cylinder

Double acting cylinders have two ports for supplying either side of the piston with
hydraulic fluid. It can be seen from the symbol for a double acting cylinder with single
piston rod that the piston area is greater than the annular piston surface.
Conversely, the symbol for the cylinder with a through piston rod shows that these areas
are of the same size (synchronous cylinder). The symbol for the differential cylinder can
be distinguished from that for the double-acting cylinder by the two lines added to the end
of the piston rod. The area ratio is 2:1. Like single-acting telescopic cylinders, double-
acting ones are symbolized by pistons located one inside the other. In the case of the
double-acting cylinder with end position cushioning, the cushioning piston is indicated in
the symbol by a rectangle.

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Figure 4-12 - Double Acting Cylinders schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level
Textbook)

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4.1.8 Transfer of Energy and Conditioning of the Pressure

Medium
The following symbols are used in circuit diagrams for energy transfer and conditioning
of the pressure medium.

Figure 4-13 - Symbols for Energy Transferring and Conditioning of the Pressure
medium.
(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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Figure 4-14 - Measuring devices schematics

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic
Level Textbook)

If several devices are brought together in a single housing, the symbols for the individual
devices are placed into a box made up of broken lines from which the connections are led
away.

Figure 4-16 - Hydraulic Power Pack

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

Figure 4-15 - Pilot Operated Double Non-Return Valve

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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4.2 Design and Representation of a Hydraulic System

A hydraulic system can be divided into the following sections (Merkle, M.Thomes, &
B.Schrader, 2003) (Festo):

 The signal control section

 The power section

Figure 4-17 - Structure of a Hydraulic System

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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4.2.1 Signal Control Section

The signal control section is divided into signal input (sensing) and signal processing
(processing).
Signal input may be carried out:

 Manually
 Mechanically
 Contactlessly
Signals can be processed by the following means:

 by the operator
 by electricity
 by electronics
 by pneumatics
 by mechanics
 by hydraulics
4.2.2 Hydraulic Power Section
The hydraulic power can be divided up into the power supply section, the power control
section and the drive section (working section). The power supply section is made up of
the energy conversion part and the pressure medium conditioning part. In this part of the
hydraulic system, the hydraulic power is generated and the pressure medium
conditioned.
The following components are used for energy conversion – converting electrical energy
into mechanical and then into hydraulic energy:

 Electric motor
 Internal combustion engine
 Coupling
 Pump
 Pressure indicator
 Protective circuitry
The following components are used to condition the hydraulic fluid:

 Filter
 Cooler
 Heater
 Thermometer
 Pressure gauge
 Hydraulic fluid
 Reservoir
 Filling level indicator

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Figure 4-18 - Simple Hydraulic Circuit.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

The power is supplied to the drive section by the power control section in accordance with
the control problem. The following components perform this task:

 directional control valves

 flow control valves
 pressure valves
 non-return valves.
The drive section of a hydraulic system is the part of the system which executes the
various working movements of a machine or manufacturing system. The energy
contained in the hydraulic fluid is used for the execution of movements or the generation
of forces (e. g. clamping processes). This is achieved using the following components:

 cylinders
 motors

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Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

Figure 4-19 - Simple Hydraulic System. The drive section is highlighted.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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4.2.3 Types of Hydraulic Circuits Representations

A suitable type of representation is required in order to reproduce movement sequences
and operating statuses of working elements and control elements clearly.
The following types of representation are of importance (Merkle, M.Thomes, &
B.Schrader, 2003):

 Positional Sketch
The positional sketch is a drawing or schematic diagram of a production installation or
machine etc. It should be easily understandable and should include only the most
important information. It shows the spatial arrangement of the components.
The positional sketch in the Figure shows the position of cylinder Z1 and its function: Z1
is intended to lift the hood of the tempering furnace.

Figure 4-20 - Positional sketch example

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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 Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram describes the functional structure of the hydraulic system.

Figure 4-21 - Circuit diagram with labels next to each component.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

The power supply section of the system with filter (0Z1), pressure-relief valve (0Z2),
pump (0P1) and electric motor (0M1) is depicted in the lower part of the circuit diagram
shown for the hydraulic device of the tempering furnace.
The power control section with the non-return valve (1V1), the 3/2-way valve (1V3) and
the pressure-relief valve (1V2) is located at the centre of the circuit diagram. The 3/2-way
valve (1V3) with the hand lever for signal input forms the “system-person” interface.
Like the drive section, the power control section is assigned to the power section. In this
hydraulic device, the drive section consists of the single-acting cylinder 1A. In the circuit

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diagram, the technical data are often additionally specified with the devices in accordance
with DIN 24347.

Figure 4-22 - Circuit diagram with labels and parameters mentioned next to each component.
(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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Or in a table form:

Figure 4-23 - Circuit diagram in Table form.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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 Function Diagram
Function diagrams of working machines and production installations can be represented
graphically in the form of diagrams. These diagrams are called function diagrams. They
represent statuses and changes in status of individual components of a working machine
or production installation in an easily understood and clear manner.
The following example shows a lifting device controlled by electromagnetic directional
control valves.

Figure 4-24 - Function diagram example.

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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 Function Chart.
A function chart is a flow chart in which the control sequence is strictly divided into steps.
Each step is executed only after the previous step has been completed and all step
enabling conditions have been fulfilled.

Figure 4-25 - Function chart example

(D.Merkle, M.Thomes and B.Schrader. Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook)

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 Displacement-step and time diagram

The displacement-step diagram and the displacement-time diagram are used for motion
sequences (Festo). The displacement-step diagram represents the operating sequence of
the actuators; the displacement is recorded in relation to the sequence step.
If a control system incorporates a number of actuators, they are shown in the same way
and are drawn one below the other. Their interrelation can be seen by comparing the
steps.

Figure 4-26 - Displacement step diagram.

(Festo Didactic)
In this case there are two cylinders 1A and 2A. In step 1, cylinder 1A extends and then
cylinder 2A extends in step 2. In step 3, cylinder 1A retracts and in step 4, cylinder 2A
retracts. Step number 5 is equivalent to step 1.

In the case of a displacement-time diagram, the displacement is plotted in relation to the

time.

Figure 4-27 - Displacement time diagram

(Festo Didactic)

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4.3 Types of Hydraulic Systems

Depending on the objective, a proper hydraulic system can be assembled in different

ways through different combinations of hydraulic components. For this reason, some
categories of hydraulic systems have been developed for the most common groups of
similar objectives and each one of which, has different specifications in order to apply
best to each group.
The followings are general circuit types of hydraulic systems (Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006)(8
types, 29 examples).
4.3.1 Unload Circuits
These circuits (Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006) enhance the product life and efficiency, at the
same time, keeping the power consumption and heat generation at a low level when the
system is in waiting mode. Hydraulic power is expressed in the following equation.

(4.1)

As shown, hydraulic power is proportional to the product of pressure and flow rate.
Reducing either exponent then leads to lessened hydraulic power.
4.3.1.1 Open Center Circuits
An open center system (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971) is one having fluid flow, but
no pressure in the system when the actuating mechanisms are idle. The pump circulates
the fluid from the reservoir, through the selector valves, and back to the reservoir. The
open center system may employ any number of subsystems, with a selector valve for
each subsystem. Unlike the closed center system, the selector valves of the open center
system are always connected in series with each other. In this arrangement, the system
pressure line goes through each selector valve. Fluid is always allowed free passage
through each selector valve and back to the reservoir until one of the selector valves is
positioned to operate a mechanism. When one of the selector valves is positioned to
operate an actuating device, fluid is directed from the pump through one of the working
lines to the actuator. With the selector valve in this position, the flow of fluid through the
valve to the reservoir is blocked. The pressure builds up in the system to overcome the
resistance and moves the piston of the actuating cylinder; fluid from the opposite end of
the actuator returns to the selector valve and flows back to the reservoir.
Operation of the system following actuation of the component depends on the type of
selector valve being used. Several types of selector valves are used in conjunction with
the open center system. One type is both manually engaged and manually disengaged.
First, the valve is manually moved to an operating position. Then, the actuating
mechanism reaches the end of its operating cycle, and the pump output continues until
the system relief valve relieves the pressure. The relief valve unseats and allows the fluid
to flow back to the reservoir. The system pressure remains at the relief valve set pre ssure
until the selector valve is manually returned to the neutral position. This action reopens
the open center flow and allows the system pressure to drop to line resistance pressure.
The manually engaged and pressure disengaged type of selector valve is similar to the

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valve previously discussed. When the actuating mechanism reaches the end of its cycle,
the pressure continues to rise to a predetermined pressure. The valve automatically
returns to the neutral position and to open center flow.

Figure 4-29 shows a circuit in which output flow from the pump is by-passed to the
reservoir with the spool of the PT connection valve at the center position. In the case of
solenoid pilot operated directional valves, as shown in Figure 4-28 the check valve is
required to maintain the minimum pilot pressure of the valve.

Figure 4-29 - Open center circuit where the Figure 4-28 - Open center circuit where the
output flow from the pump is bypassed to need to maintain the pilot pressure of the
the reservoir through the Valve. valve requires the use of a Check Valve.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and (Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and
Components) Components)

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4.3.1.2 Circuit by Pressure Compensated Pump

This circuit reduces the amount of output flow rate by using the variable displacement
pump with pressure compensating function. The pressure of the system is raised to a set
level even when it is in idle.

Figure 4-30 - Pressure Compensated Pump. Higher pressure leads to lower

flow rate.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

4.3.1.3 Circuit with Accumulator

Pressure switch PS is correlated with the solenoid valve; when the circuit pressure equals
the pressure set in the pressure switch PS, the solenoid valve is turned off, and output
flow is by-passed to the reservoir, but the accumulator keeps the circuit pressure
constant.

Figure 4-31 - Circuit with Accumulator (PS). If pressure exceeds a limit the flow is directed to the
reservoir but the accumulator maintains the pressure to the rest of the system.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components) 125
Hydraulic Systems: Analysis and Design

4.3.1.4 Pump-Relief Unload Circuit

The circuit shown Figure 4-33 contains a low pressure and large volume pump (1) and a
high pressure and small volume pump (2). The circuit raises its efficiency by using (1) and
(2). In a case where the pressure in the circuit is lower than the pressure set at the unload
valve, the output flow rate from (1 and (2) are gathered and provided to the circuit. In
contrast, in a case where pressure in the circuit is higher than the pressure set at the
unload valve, the output flow rate from (1) is by-passed to the reservoir by the unload
valve, and the pressure is unloaded. In this case, pressure within the circuit is kept at a
certain level by the output flow rate from (2) only. This circuit provides flow rate

Figure 4-32 - Pump relief -unload valve circuit. The relief valve activates or deactivates
the high pressure pump.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

Figure 4-33 - Flow vs Pressure diagram of a circuit with one high pressure pump, one
low pressure pump and a relief valve.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.1.5 Circuit with Two-Pressure Two-Control Type

When pump pressure is lower than PL, the angle of the swash plate becomes maximum,
and the output flow reaches to the maximum (the flow rate goes to QH). In contrast, a
pump pressure higher than PL causes a smaller swash plate angle and smaller output
flow (QL). When the circuit pressure equals pump pressure, the swash plate angle falls
close to zero, and output flow reduces to the amount of internal leakage. In this circuit,
the power of the electric motor is kept small.

Figure 4-34 - Two pressure two control type circuit.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.2 Pressure Control Circuits

(Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006)
4.3.2.1 Two-Pressure Circuit with Decompression
and Check Valves
In the cylinder-forwarding process (solenoid OFF), circuit pressure is kept at 10 MPa
(1450 psi). But, in the cylinder- returning process (solenoid ON), circuit pressure is
controlled at 7 MPa (1015 psi) by the decompression valve.

Figure 4-35 - Two-Pressure Circuit with Decompression and Check Valves.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.2.2 Decompression Circuit I

Releasing compressed working fluid instantly back to a reservoir generates shock waves.
Compressed working fluid must be released gradually. In Figure 4-36, compressed
working fluid in the cylinder cap is released gradually through the flow control valve. This
reduces circuit pressure slowly, thus preventing shock waves.

Figure 4-36 - Decompression circuit. The pressure drops gradually by passing through a flow
control valve in order to avoid shockwaves from instant relief.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.2.3 Decompression Circuit II

After completion of pressure release, this circuit achieves automatic lift of the cylinder by
electric signals from the pressure switch. After compressing working fluid in the cylinder
cap, the solenoid of the decompression valve is turned ON. Then, the compressed
working fluid is released back to the reservoir through the flow control valve. Pressure in
the circuit drops until it hits a certain point set in the switch PS. Then, the switch transmits
signals out, and turns the solenoid valve ON to lift the cylinder. By this sequence, a
smooth lift-up-and-down motion is achieved.

Figure 4-37 - Decompression circuit. A flow control valve is used to transmit the
power gradually at the piston achieving smoother motions of the shaft.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.2.4 Weight Balancing Circuit

This circuit balances (holds up) the weight by using the balancing valve. The balancing
valve cannot hold up the weight if the pump does not work and does not generate enough
energy or pressure to hold up the weight. Therefore, a pilot operated check valve is
commonly used in the circuit.

Figure 4-38 - Weight balancing circuit. With the use of a pilot operated check valve,
blocking the flow, the weight itself builds up the pressure that holds it with out the need of
oil flow.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.3 Speed Control Circuits

(Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006) (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971)
4.3.3.1 Speed Change Circuit I
This circuit changes the speed of the cylinder motion by employing two flow control
valves. Shifting to high speed, change over the solenoid operated directional valve for low
speed first then change over the solenoid valve for high speed so that shock is kept small

Figure 4-39 - Speed change circuit using one high speed flow control valve and
a low speed one.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.3.2 Speed Change Circuit II

Figure 4-40 - Change speed circuit.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.3.3 Circuit with Proportional Electro-Hydraulic

Directional and Flow Control Valve
Optimal flow rate (speed) is achieved by controlling the amount of the spool shifted in the
proportional electro- hydraulic valve; the spool is shifted proportional to the amount of
electric signal received. The actuator is controlled smoothly with this valve, and the
hydraulic circuit is simplified, as shown in Figure 4-41.

Figure 4-41 - Circuit with Proportional Electro-Hydraulic

Directional and Flow Control Valve
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.3.4 Differential Circuit

When the cylinder is pushed forward, working fluid discharged from the cylinder head is
added back to the cylinder cap because of the difference in surface area betwee n the cap
and the head of the cylinder. This achieves a faster-cylinder-forward motion, compared to
a circuit with only one channel of incoming flow.

(4.2)

(4.3)

The relationship between forward speed V and the rod area, and between output force F
and the rod area, are obtained as follows. V and F are functions of the rod area. The size
of load pressure and pressure loss require due attention.

Figure 4-42 - Differential circuit where discharged oil from the cylinder is used to add up pressure
to the other end in order to equalize or generally control the forward vs the reverse velocities of the
cylinder’s shaft.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.3.5 Pre-Fill Valve Circuit

In this circuit, the subsidiary cylinders and the pre-fill valve help the main cylinder achieve
pumping function. This circuit drastically reduces the pump-output volume required for the
high-speed up-and-down cylinder motion of the press machine.
As the subsidiary cylinders move downward, the main cylinder is pulled down with them,
sucking fluid from the reservoir through the pre-fill valve. At the end of the downward
motion, the sequence valve is opened, and working fluid is directed to the main cylinder,
which then generates a great pressure force on the press.
After the pressure is released, the solenoid valve is set for the high-speed upward motion.
The main cylinder is pulled up again with the subsidiary cylinders, pushing

Figure 4-43 - Pre-Fill valve circuit.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4 Filter Circuits

Objectives of filtering and filtration rating change depending on where a filter is set in a
circuit. One of the objectives, other than filtering contaminants is to let fluid flow at a
certain rate. Another objective is to protect filter and provide a by-pass valve. Examples
are shown in Figure 4-44 to Figure 4-47.
Figure 4-48 and Figure 4-49 show circuits in which a clogged filter does not have an
adverse impact. Also, filtration rating in these circuits can reach high class performance,
(class 8 in the NAS Cleanliness Requirements with 1 pass quality,), when the ideal flow
rate is applied to the filters.
4.3.4.1 Pump Filter Circuit
This circuit’s objective is to protect the hydraulic pump.
This circuit has two types: in one type, a filter is set inside a reservoir on a pump suction
port (sometimes it is called a strainer), and in the other, a filter is set outside a reservoir to
aid in maintenance. The filtration rates of these circuit types are limited to around 100 μm
because of the influence on pump suction resistance.

Figure 4-44 - Pump filter circuit.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4.2 Pressure Line Filter Circuit I

This circuit protects the directional and other control valves in the line. Its filtration rate
ranges from about 10 μm (solenoid/proportional valve) to 3 μm (servo valve, etc.).

Figure 4-45 - Pressure line filter circuit

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4.3 Pressure Line Filter Circuit II

This circuit has an objective similar to that of Figure 4-45, but it filters out contaminants
from the cylinder. It is better to filter out contaminants from only one direction with the
anti-reverse-flow valve.

Figure 4-46 - Pressure line filter circuit Filters contaminants from and to the cylinder.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4.4 Return Line Filter Circuit

This circuit filters working fluid going back to the reservoir. The filtration rate is
approximately 10 μm to 20 μm.

Figure 4-47 - Return line filter circuit.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4.5 Pressure Line Bleed-Off Filter Circuit

This circuit filters a small amount of the by-passed outlet flow from the pump
( )).

Figure 4-48 - Pressure line bleed-off filter circuit

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.4.6 Off-Line Filter Circuit

By using a pump and an electric motor specialized for filtration, this circuit filters
contaminants even when the main hydraulic pump is not turned on. This circuit has the
best filtration of all the filtration circuits.

Figure 4-49 - Off-line filter circuit. It’s a separate system dedicated to

filtering and does not affect the main hydraulic system.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5 Synchronizing Circuits

This circuit synchronizes movements of multiple actuators. Minimal error should never be
overlooked, however, to avoid the accumulation of synchronization errors, it is always
recommended that the circuit be set in such a way that the error is corrected at the end of
an operation with one, full cylinder stroke, instead of the repeated, half -way cylinder
motion. (Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006)
4.3.5.1 Synchronizing Circuit with Mechanical
Combination
This circuit realizes a synchronized motion by mechanically combined cylinder rods. In
the following figure, the relationship between the two main cylinders and two other
auxiliary cylinders is also a mechanical combination. This circuit does not necessitate a
control valve for synchronization. Synchronization errors would be happened by
production accuracy and rigid of mechanism.

Figure 4-50 - Synchronized system with mechanical combination.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5.2 Synchronizing Circuit with Flow Control

Valves
In this circuit, the flow control valve controls fluid flowing in and out of the cylinders.
Generally, a high accuracy valve is employed.

Figure 4-51 - Synchronized system with the use of a high

accuracy flow control valve.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5.3 Circuit with Flow Divider

This circuit utilizes the flow divider specialized for synchronization.

Figure 4-52 - Synchronized system using a flow divider.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5.4 Circuit with Synchronized Hydraulic Motors

With the shafts combined, these motors can displace the same amount of working fluid to
and from each cylinder. The accuracy of the amount of displacement controls the
accuracy of synchronization. Therefore, if the volumetric efficiency is the same, setting
the circuit with high speed motors reduces synchronization errors.

Figure 4-53 - Synchronized system using hydraulic motors. The synchronization error
depends on the deviation of displacement between the motors.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5.5 Circuit with Synchronized Cylinders

This circuit realizes a very accurate synchronized motion via combined synchronizing
cylinders. But, sometimes, spacing becomes an issue because it requires the volume of
all the cylinders to be the same.

Figure 4-54 - System with synchronized cylinders.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.5.6 Circuit with Servo Valve

This circuit detects the position of two cylinders and uses two servo valves to control the
amount of working fluid required to adjust synchronization errors. The following figure is
an example of such feedback-synchronization control. Rather than detecting the position
of one cylinder and giving the feedback to the other cylinder for synchronization, it is
better and more accurate with less time lag if each cylinder works separately and their
positions are controlled by different servo valves.

Figure 4-55 - Circuit with servovalve.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.6 Intensifying Circuits

4.3.6.1 Circuit with a Cylinder as Intensifier

This circuit intensifies pressure by using the difference between cap and head area in
cylinders. In the following figure, the solenoid valve for adding pressure is turned ON.
Working fluid channelled through the sequence valve (1) pushes the working cylinder
head forward until it hits an object. The contact between the cylinder head and the object
eventually increases the pressure inside the line. Then, the circuit delivers the
pressurized working fluid to the intensifying cylinder in which the fluid is pressurized yet
further. The highly pressurized working fluid in the intensifying cylinder is then supplied
back to the working cylinder. The decompression valve on the primary side of the
intensifying cylinder adjusts the output power. Also, in the process of returning the
cylinders, it is important to note that the intensifying cylinder is returned by the sequence
valve (2) (using the counter balance valve as the sequence valve).

Figure 4-56 - Circuit with Intensifying Cylinders.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.7 Brake Circuits

(Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006) (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971)
4.3.7.1 Brake Circuit with Hydraulic Motor (Fig.
15.28)
This figure is an example of a motor that turns both directions. With the solenoid valve in
position (1), the hydraulic motor turns right. After that, the solenoid valve is in the middle
position, but the hydraulic motor keeps working as a pump because of inertia. Discharged
working fluid runs through the check valve (4) and returns to the reservoir with back
pressure given by the relief valve. The primary side of the motor becomes low pressure,
thus working fluid through the check valve (3) is supplied into the line. In the case of a left
turn, the check valve (2) and (5) are used. (Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006)

Figure 4-57 - Brake circuit with hydraulic motor.

(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.8 Closed Circuits

4.3.8.1 Closed-Center Circuit

In the closed-center system (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971), the fluid is under
pressure whenever the power pump is operating. The three actuators are arranged in
parallel and actuating units B and C are operating at the same time, while actuating unit A
is not operating. This system differs from the open-center system in that the selector or
directional control valves are arranged in parallel and not in series. The means of
controlling pump pressure varies in the closed-center system. If a constant delivery pump
is used, the system pressure is regulated by a pressure regulator. A relief valve acts as a
backup safety device in case the regulator fails. If a variable displacement pump is used,
system pressure is controlled by the pump’s integral pressure mechanism compensator.
The compensator automatically varies the volume output. When pressure approaches
normal system pressure, the compensator begins to reduce the flow output of the pump.
The pump is fully compensated (near zero flow) when normal system pressure is
attained. When the pump is in this fully compensated condition, its internal bypass
mechanism provides fluid circulation through the pump for cooling and lubrication. A relief
valve is installed in the system as a safety backup. (Figure 4-58). An advantage of the
open-center system over the closed-center system is that the continuous pressurization
of the system is eliminated. Since the pressure is built up gradually after the selector
valve is moved to an operating position, there is very little shock from pressure surges.
This action provides a smoother operation of the actuating mechanisms. The operation is
slower than the closed-center system, in which the pressure is available the moment the
selector valve is positioned. Since most aircraft applications require instantaneous
operation, closed-center systems are the most widely used.

Figure 4-58 - Closed Circuit for Vehicle

(Fluid Power Aviation)

Closed circuits (Yuken Kogyo Co., 2006) are widely employed in vehicles performing
running, circling or HST (Hydro Static Transmission: no shift change for speed change)
functions. One of the characteristics of this circuit is to use a pump as a hydraulic motor
to absorb the power: this is a reverse use of the pumping function of a motor found in the
previous section on brake circuits. In addition, pressure inside the line is low because the
hydraulic pump controls the speed of the vehicle. This system is more efficient and
achieves less heat generation when compared to valve control systems. The feed pump
fills and replaces working fluid internally, and it supplies clean fluid through a filter. The
circuit must be made in such a way that safety valve (1) has a higher pressure than that

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of safety valve (2), and that working fluid from the feed pump is discharged to the
reservoir via the flushing valve.

Figure 4-59 - Closed circuit. Except for the main pump, another
one is used as a hydraulic motor.
(Yuken Kogyo, Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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4.3.9 Hydraulic Power Pack System

A hydraulic power pack (U.S. Army Material Command, 1971) is a small unit that consists
of an electric pump, filters, reservoir, valves, and pressure relief valve. [Figure 4-60]

Figure 4-60 - Hydraulic Power Pack

(Fluid Power Aviation)

The advantage of the power pack is that there is no need for a centralized hydraulic
power supply system and long stretches of hydraulic lines, which reduces weight. Power
packs could be driven by either an engine gearbox or electric motor. Integration of
essential valves, filters, sensors, and transducers reduces system weight, virtually
eliminates any opportunity for external leakage, and simplifies troubleshooting. Some
power pack systems have an integrated actuator. These systems are used to control the
stabilizer trim, landing gear, or flight control surfaces directly, thus eliminating the need for
a centralized hydraulic system.

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5. Conclusions
The following deductions were made through the elaboration of this thesis:

 Taking advantage of the fluid properties, hydraulic systems achieve great

superiority in terms of speed and power compared to other systems.
 Because of their flexibility and high performance, hydraulics are applied in a wide
range of industries: from construction machinery, automobiles, and airplanes
(outdoor) to machine tools and press machines (indoor).
 Hydraulic systems consist of the following components: pumps, motors, valves,
accumulators, filters, reservoirs, hoses and fittings, heat exchangers and shock
absorbers. Each one of the above may be found in different designs depending on
the system requirements.
 The analysis of fluid power systems brings together the scientific areas of Fluid
Mechanics, Transport Phenomena and Thermodynamics. Complex Mechanical
components are used for the establishment of such systems; Electronics and
Automations are often seen in the control section of the systems.
 Hydraulic components provide a wide variety of systems that can be assembled
for a specific goal. For this reason, assembly patterns have been established in
favor of efficiency depending on the objective that has to be faced by the system.
 Except for transmitting power, the hydraulic oil also lubricates the system,
protecting the components from wear and corrosion and making hydraulic
systems reliable and resistant in time.

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6. Bibliography
Basic Hydraulic Principles. (2002). Waterbury: Haestad Methods.
Bontozoglou, V. (2003). Transport Phenomena Notes. Volos, Greece: University of
Thessaly.
Department of the Army, H. (1997). Hydraulics. U.S. Army Material Command,
Headquarters.
Durfee, W., Sun, Z., & Ven, J. V. (2015). Fluid Power System Dynamics. Mineapolis:
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minesota.
Fairman, J. G. (1996). Pascal's Principle and Hydraulics. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration.
Festo, D. (n.d.). Hydraulics Basic Level. Festo.
Joshi, S. N. (2010). Mechatronics and Manufacturing Automation. Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati.
Lee, B. (2018). Retrieved from hydraproducts.co.uk.
Manring, N. (2005). Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley.
Merkle, D., M.Thomes, & B.Schrader. (2003). Hydraulics Basic Level Textbook.
Germany: Festo Didactic GmbH & Co.
Merritt, H. (1967). Hydraulic Control Systems. Wiley.
MMC Beasley, A. J. (1990). Fluid Power. Νaval Education and Training Development and
Technology.
Nakayama, Y. (1998). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Tokai University, Japan.
Shollenberger, K. (n.d.). Energy Heads. Cal Poly State University, San Luis Obispo: Cal
Poly State University.
Smits, A. J. (2017). A Physical Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. Princeton University.
Taborek, J. (1959). Fundamentals of Line Flow.
U.S. Army Material Command, H. (1971). Engineering Design Handboon - Hydraulic
Fluid. U.S. Army Material Command, Headquarters.
U.S. Army Material Command, H. (1993). Design Guide for Military Applications of
Hydraulic Fluids. U.S. Army Material Command, Headquarters.
Yuken Kogyo Co., L. (2006). Basic Hydraulics and Components. Tokyo.

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7. Appendix

Useful Equations (Yuken Kogyo - Basic Hydraulics and Components)

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