Chapter 1: CROPPING SYSTEM

Cropping system:
The term cropping system refers to the crops and crop sequences and the management
techniques used on a particular field over a period of years.
Or
The term cropping system refers to the crops and crop sequences in which the crops are
cultivated on piece of land over a fixed period and their interaction with farm resources and other
farm enterprises.
Cropping system is the most important component of a farming system.
Cropping pattern:
It indicates the yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops and fallow in an area. It is
for larger area like zone, taluka, district etc.
Basic principles of cropping systems
1. Choose crops that complement each other.
2. Choose crops and a cropping rotation which utilize available resources efficiently.
3. Choose crops and a cropping system that maintain and enhance soil fertility.
4. Choose crops which have a diversity of growth cycles.
5. Choose a diverse species of crops.
6. Strategically plan and modify your cropping system as needed.
7. Monitor the progress.
Benefits of cropping systems
1. Maintain and enhance soil fertility. Some crops are soil exhausting while others help
restore soil fertility. However, a diversity of crops will maintain soil fertility and keep
production levels high.
2. Enhance crop growth. Crops may provide mutual benefits to each other. For example,
reducing lodging, improving winter survival or even acting as windbreaks to
improve growth.
3. Minimize spread of disease. The more diverse the species of plants and the longer the
period before the soil is reseeded with the same crop, the more likely disease
problems will be avoided.
4. Control weeds. Crops planted at different times of the year have different weed species
associated with them. Rotating crops helps prevent build up of any one serious weed
species.
5. Inhibit pest and insect growth. Changing crops each year to unrelated species can
dramatically reduce the population of pests and insects. Crop rotation frequently
eliminates their food source and changes the habitat available to them.
6. Use resources more efficiently. Having a diverse group of crops helps to more efficiently
use the available resources. Natural resources, such as nutrients, sunlight and water
in the soil are evenly shared by plants over the growing period, minimizing the risk

1
 for nutrient deficiencies and drought. Other resources, such as labor, animal draft power
and machinery are also utilized more efficiently.
7. Reduce risk for crop failure. Having a diverse group of crops helps prevent total crop
failures, as climate weather in one part of the season may not affect all crops
equally. It also reduces food security concerns, as well as the amount of money
required to finance production.
8. Improve food and financial security. Choosing an appropriate and diverse number of
crops will lead to a more regular food production throughout the year. With a lower
risk for crop failure, there is a greater reliability on food production and income
generation.

Types of cropping systems

Depending on the resources and technology available, different types of cropping systems
are adopted on farms. Broadly three types of cropping system are followed
1. Sole cropping
Only a single crop or variety is grown alone in a pure stand at normal density during one
farming year.
2. Mono cropping or Monoculture
Mono cropping or monoculture refers to growing of only one crop on same piece of land
year after year.
It may be due to climatologically and socio-economic condition or due to specialization
of a farmer in growing a particular crop. Under rainfed conditions, groundnut or cotton or
sorghum are grown year after year due to limitation of rainfall. In canal irrigate areas, under
waterlogged condition; rice crop is grown, as it is not possible to grow any other crop.
Problems of mono cropping
1. The resources like labour, fertilizers, water and machines are not utilized efficiently.
2. The soil health is not cared and nutrients are depleted.
3. There are chances of occurrence of pest and diseases infestation.
4. Natural resources are not fully utilized.
3. Multiple cropping
"Growing two or more crops on the same piece of land in succession within one calendar
year is known as multiple cropping" e.g. Rice-Rice-G' nut or Cotton-Wheat etc.
It aims of maximum production per unit area per unit time. It offers multiple use of
resource. It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions i.e. more number of
crops within a year & more no of crops on the same piece of land at any given period. It includes
inter-cropping, mixed cropping, sequence cropping etc.
Advantages of multiple cropping
1. It is a better source of land utilization
2. It improves yield
3. Increase yield per unit of land

2
 4. Costs of input decrease as compared to individual crop growing cost
5. Reduce pest and disease attack
6. Different type of products can be produce at a time
7. It helps to produce a balance diet for a family
8. It helps to maintain the soil fertility
9. It helps to control weeds
Disadvantages of multiple cropping
1. The survival of pests become easy
2. Pests can easily shift from one crop to another crop
3. Problem of weed management
4. Implementation of new technology is difficult etc.

Different types of multiple cropping :

A. Inter cropping
Inter cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land with a
definite row arrangement.
The main objective of inter-cropping is to utilize the space left between two rows of main
crops and to produce more grain per unit area. Inter cropping was originally practiced as an
insurance against crop failure under rainfed condition.
e.g.: Groundnut & Tur in 6:1 ratio or sorghum & Tur in 4:2 ratio

Intercropping is further classified as:

Additive Series: Intercrop is introduced in the base crop. It is done by adjusting or changing
crop geometry. It is mostly used in India. Eg: maize + mungbean (1+1)
Replacement Series: Both the crops are component crops. It is done by sacrificing certain
proportion of population. It is mostly used in western countries. e.g: wheat + mustard
(9:1), maize + mungbean (1:3)

Advantages of intercropping:
1. Improvement in yield
2. Improvement in soil property under legume intercropping system
3. Less risk against crop diseases and pests
4. Additional income and higher profit
5. Soil erosion is reduced
6. Stability in production
7. Economic sustainability is maintained
Disadvantages of intercropping:
1. Fertilizer application in one crop may hamper the growth of other crop
2. Improved implements cannot be used efficiently
3. Harvesting is difficult
4. Yield decreases if the crops differ in their competitive abilities

3
 Management of intercropping system
Crops are grown simultaneously. Management practices should, therefore, aim to
provide favorable environment to all the components, exploit favorable interactions among the
component crops and minimize competition among the components. Prominent interactions in
intercropping include:
Light: Intercropping can increase light inception by as much as 30-40 per cent. Proper
choice of crops and varieties, adjustment of planting density and pattern are the techniques to
reduce competition and increase the tight use efficiency.
Moisture and nutrients: Competition for water and nutrients results in two main types
of effects on the less successful or suppressed component. First, the roots of dominated crop
may grow less on the sides of aggressive component. Secondly, plants affected by competition
for soil factors are likely to have increased root/shoot ratio.
Allelopathy: Some crops may be unsuitable to be grown as intercrops because they may
produce and excrete toxins into the soil which are harmful to other components.
Annidation: Refers to complementary interaction which occurs both in space and time.
Varieties: Recommended principles should be followed for realizing the benefits of
intercropping.
(a) Varieties of component crops should be less competing with the base crop and the
peak nutrient demand period should be different from the base crop.
(b) Difference in duration between the components in intercropping should be a
minimum period of 30 days (maize + soybean, sorghum + red gram, toria + gobhi
sarson).
(c) Selection of compatible genotypes of component crops increases the
complementarity of intercropping system.
(d) Varieties selected for intercrop should have thin leaves, tolerant to shading and less
branching since these crops are, generally, shaded by the base crop.
(e) If the base crop is shorter than intercrop, the intercrop should be compact with erect
branching and its early growth should be slow.
(f) Characteristics of base crop should be similar to the sole crop.
Nutrient management
When legumes are associated with cereal crop in intercropping system, a portion of
nitrogen requirement of cereal is supplemented by the legume. The amount may be as small as a
few kg to 20 kg ha-1. Cereal + legume intercropping, is therefore; mainly advantageous under
low fertilizer application. Considering all the factors, it is suggested that the nitrogen dose
recommended for base crop as pure crop is sufficient for intercropping system with cereals +
legume or legume + legume. With regard to phosphorus and potassium, one-eighth to one-fourth
of the recommended dose of intercrop is also added in addition to recommended dose of base
crop to meet the extra demand. Basal dose of nitrogen is applied to rows of both components in
cereals + legume intercrop system. Top dressing of nitrogen is done only to cereal rows.
Phosphorus and potassium are applied as basal dose to both crops.

4
 Water management
Intercropping systems are, generally, recommended for rainfed crops to get stable yield.
Total water used in intercropping system is almost the same as for sole crops, but yield is
increased. Thus, water-use efficiency of intercropping is higher than sole crops. Component
crops differ on their capacity to withstand excess or difficult moisture conditions. However, the
irrigation schedule followed for sole crops is suitable even for intercropping system. Scheduling
irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 to 0.8 or irrigation at one bar soil moisture tension is suitable
for most of the system. However, information on this aspect is meager.
Weed management
Weed problem is less in intercropping system as compared to their sole crops. In certain
situations, intercrops are used as biological agents to control weeds. Blackgram, greengram,
cowpea in sorghum and cowpea in banana reduce weed population and one hand weeding can
be avoided by this method. In some intercropping system like maize + groundnut, rice +tapioca,
maize + tapioca, weed problem is similar to their sole crops. Growth habit of genotype used in
intercropping has a great influence on weed growth. Weeds present in sole crops are different
than those present in intercropping system. Though weed problem is less, weed control
measures are necessary in intercropping system. But the labour required for weeding is less.
Second weeding is not necessary because of crop coverage. Chemical weed control is difficult in
intercropping system because the herbicide may be selective to one crop, but non-selective to
another.
Pest and disease management
Pests and diseases are believed to be less in inter-cropping system due to crop diversity
than in sole crops. Some plant combinations may enhance soil fungistasis and antibiosis through
indirect effects on soil organic matter content. Spread of the disease is altered by the presence of
different crops. Little leaf of brinjal is less when brinjal is sheltered by maize or sorghum. As the
insect carrying virus first attacks maize or sorghum, virus infection is less on brinjal. Non-host
plants in mixtures may emit chemicals or odours that affect the pests, thereby protecting host
plants.
B. Mixed cropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land in a
proportion without any row arrangement.
e.g. Wheat and Mustard seeds are mixed together in 2:1 rates and shown broadcast with no
spacing maintained between the crops.
No spacing is maintained between the crops it is a common practice in areas where
climatic hazards such as flood, drought, frost etc. are frequent and common. Under such
circumstances the farmers always fear that their crops will fail. Under mixed cropping, the time
of sowing of all the crops is almost the same, however they may

C. Sequential cropping: Growing of crops in sequence

e.g. Double cropping: Growing of 2 crops in a year e.g.: Rice-wheat

5
 Triple cropping: Growing of 3 crops in a year e.g.: Rice-wheat-maize
Quadruple cropping: Growing of 4 crops in a year e.g.: Rice-early potato-Wheat-mung
D. Multistoried cropping: Cultivation of crops of different heights in the same field at the same
time.
e.g. Sugarcane + Indian bean or potato or onion, Sorghum+ mung
E. Ratoon cropping: Raising a crop with re-growth coming out of roots or stalks after harvest of
the crop.
e.g. sugarcane, tur, fodder sorghum, fodder maize.
This minimizes the cost of production of next crop in terms of land preparation and cost
of seed, also the next crop i.e. ratoon crop gets already established root system.

F. Paira/ Utera/ Relay cropping: In this, second crop is sown before the harvest of previous
crop in same field.
e.g. 1st crop-Potato 2nd crop-Maize, Lathyrus in rice.
This is done mainly to utilize the conserve moisture in the field after kharif season. It also
saves the time and keeps the land under vegetation.

G. Alley cropping: Growing food crops within the rows of tree or plantation crops
e.g. Greengram in alley of glyricidia or subabul.

H. Strip intercropping: Growing alternate rows of erosion resisting and permitting crops along
the slope
e.g. Strips of soybean and alfalfa, cowpea and sorghum

Major cropping systems in India

A. Lowland or wetland
 Irrigation or rainfall (> 200 mm per month) extends over 9–10 months
 Rice based cropping systems predominate in lowlands
e.g. Rice- rice-rice, rice-rice-upland crop or upland crop-rice-rice
Rice-Rice is the second most dominant cropping system in India
B. Irrigated uplands or garden land
 The systems could be cereal-cereal and cereal-legume, oilseeds or other cash crops
 Rice-Wheat is the most dominant cropping system in India.
e.g. Potato or mustard can be added to maize-wheat by relay planting either of these in the
standing maize and delaying wheat by about 2 months. Short duration green gram or fodder
crops can be grown after the harvest of wheat in summer.
C. Rainfed uplands
 Predominantly take the form of intercropping
 Cereal + pigeon pea system (sorghum + pigeon pea), cereal + cotton are popular in India
 Double cropping can be practiced if the monsoon is relatively early.

6
 e.g. sorghum, pearlmillet or a pulse during rainy season followed by sunflower, safflower,
chickpea or coriander in post rainy season.

Principles of crop rotation

1. Leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops because legumes fix
atmospheric N into the soil and add organic matter to the soil.
2. Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should be followed by those which have
fibrous (shallow rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system. This facilitates proper
and uniform use of nutrients from the soil.
3. More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops because crops like
potato, sugarcane, maize etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more fertilizers,
greater number of irrigation etc.
4. Selection of crop should be based on need or demand.
5. Crops of same family should not be grown in succession because they act as alternate
hosts for insect pests and diseases.
6. The crop selected should also suit to the soil and climatic condition.
7. Selection of crops should be based on the situations such as
a. On sloppy lands, alternate cropping of erosion permitting and erosion resisting crops
should be adopted.
b. Under rain fed situations crops which can tolerate drought should be selected
c. In low-lying and flood prone areas crops which can tolerate water stagnation
should be selected
d. In areas where salt affected soils are there, salt tolerant varieties should be grown
8. An ideal crop rotation must provide maximum employment to the farm family and
labour, permits farm mechanization to ensure timely operations besides maintaining soil
health

Advantages of an ideal crop rotation

(i) The soil fertility is restored by fixing atmospheric N encouraging microbial
activity and maintaining physico-chemical properties of the soil.
(ii) Alternate cropping with other crops helps in controlling crop bound weeds.
(iii) Proper utilization of all resources and inputs could be made by following crop
rotation.
(iv) The farmer gets a better price for his produce because of its higher demands in the
market.
(v) Best utilization of residual moisture, fertilizer and organic residues is made by
growing crops of different nature.
(vi) The family needs of feed, food, fuel, fiber, spices; condiments, sugar etc are
fulfilled.

7
 TERMS USED IN CROPPING SYSTEMS
1. Alley cropping: A fanning system in which arable crops are grown in alleys formed
by trees or shrubs, established mainly to hasten soil fertility restoration and enhance
soil productivity and for shelter.
2. Calorie index: A single productivity index which incorporates caloric equivalents
produced by all the crops.
3. Competition index: Competition of intercropped species for light, nutrients, water,
carbon dioxide and other growth factors.
4. Complementary effect: Effect of one component on another which enhance growth
and productivity, as compared to competition.
5. Component crops: Individual crop species which are a part of the multiple cropping
systems.
6. Cropping index: The number of crops grown per annum on a given area of land
multiplied by hundred.
7. Double cropping: Also known as sequential cropping is the practice of planting a
second crop immediately following the harvest of a first crop, thus harvesting two
crops from the same field in one year. This is a case of multiple cropping, which
requires crops that mature quickly enough to allow two harvests in one year.
8. Mixed intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct
row arrangement
9. Monetary index: A single productivity index which incorporates monetary value of
all the crops in a system.
10. Multi-story/multi-tier cropping: It is a system of growing together, crops of
different heights at the same time on the same piece of land and thus using land,
water and space most efficiently and economically (coconut + pepper + pineapple +
grass).
11. Row intercropping: Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more
crops are planted in rows.
12. Sole cropping: One crop variety grown in pure stand at normal density.
13. Spatial arrangement: The physical or spatial organization of component crops in a
multiple cropping system.
14. Strip cropping:Growing soil conserving and soil depleting crops in alternate strips
running perpendicular to the slope of the land or to the direction of prevailing winds
for the purpose of reducing erosion.