Gas Turbines

Subject code: ME 3302 L-P-T : 3-0-0

Students intended for: B. Tech Elective or Core: Core

Session: Spring 2022-23

Teacher: Dr. Jnana Ranjan Senapati,

Assistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering,
National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
Mobile No.:+91 9547147576,
Land line (Office): 0661 246 2509.

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 Course content

 Gas Turbines: Brayton cycle Components of a gas turbine plant open and closed

types of gas turbine plants Optimum pressure ratio Improvements of the basic gas

turbine cycle multi stage compression with inter-cooling multi-stage expansion

with reheating between stages exhaust gas heat exchanger, Applications of gas

turbines. Problems.

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 IDEAL CYCLES AND THEIR ANALYSIS

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 Introduction

 This chapter is mainly concerned with describing methods for

calculating cycle performance under ideal conditions.

 For convenience, we will treat cycles in two groups:

(i) shaft power cycle, and
(ii) aircraft propulsion cycle.

 An important distinction between the two groups arises from the

fact that the performance of aircraft propulsion cycles depend very
significantly upon forward speed of the aircraft and altitude at
which it is flying. However, these two variables do not enter into
performance calculations of shaft power cycle used in marine and
land based power plants to which this chapter is confined.

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 Introduction

 Before proceeding with the main task, it will be useful to review the
performance of ideal gas turbine cycles in which perfection of the individual
components is assumed.

 The specific work output and cycle efficiency will only be a function of
pressure ratio and maximum cycle temperature.

 The limited number of performance curves so obtained enables one to

analyze the major effects of various additions to the simple cycle.

 To be seen clearly, such curves also show the upper limit of performance.

 In the limit, this is the maximum that can be expected of real cycles as the
efficiency of the gas turbine component is improved.

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 ASSUMPTIONS IN IDEAL CYCLE ANALYSIS

(i) The change of kinetic energy of the working fluid between inlet and outlet of each
component is negligible.

(ii) Compression and expansion are reversible and adiabatic, i.e., isentropic.

(iii) There are no pressure losses in the inlet ducting, combustion chambers, heat
exchangers, intercoolers, exhaust ducting and ducts connecting the components.

(iv) Heat transfer in a heat exchanger is assumed to be perfect (100% effectiveness).

(v) The mass flow of gas is constant throughout the cycle.

(vi) Working fluid has the same composition throughout the cycle and is a perfect gas
with constant specific heats.

(vii) Bearing and windage friction, etc., are neglected.

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 THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE

Schematic arrangement of a simple gas turbine

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE

 From the thermodynamic analysis, the relevant steady flow energy

equation can be written as,

where ws is the work transfer per unit mass flow, and h stands for
enthalpies.

 Applying the above equation to each component and assuming

unit mass flow of the working fluid, we can write the work input to
the compressor (process 1→2) as

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 THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE

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 THE SIMPLE GAS TURBINE CYCLE

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 Specific work output

 This equation shows that the specific work output, upon which
the size of the plant depends is a function of not only the pressure
ratio, (r), but also of maximum cycle temperature T3.
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 Efficiency calculation

 The efficiency of a simple gas turbine thus depends only on the

pressure ratio and the nature of the gas, (γ).

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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 Physical reflections on the plot

 It may be noted that the value of t depends on the maximum cycle

temperature, known as the metallurgical limit. The highly stressed parts of
the turbine should withstand this temperature during the required working
life. For an industrial plant, it might be between 3.5 and 4.0, whereas a value
of 5.0 to 5.5 is permissible for an aircraft engine with cooled turbine blades.

 A glance at the specific output curves show that a constant t curve exhibits
a maximum at a certain pressure ratio; W = 0 at r = 1 and also at the value of
the pressure ratio, (i.e., c = t) for which the compression and
expansion processes coincide.

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 Maximum specific output

 For any given value of t, there must be an optimum pressure ratio to give a maximum
specific output. This can be found by differentiating the Equation with respect to c
and equating it to zero; the result is,

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 Physical reflections

 If the previous equation is to be true, then it follows that T2 must be equal to

T4, i.e., T2 = T4.

 This means that the specific work output is maximum when the pressure
ratio is such that the compressor and turbine outlet temperatures are equal.

 For all values of r between 1 and , T4 will be greater than T2 and a

heat exchanger can be incorporated to utilize the energy in the exhaust gas
to heat the air coming out of the compressor and thereby, the efficiency
improvement can be achieved.

 Another plot shows the relation between η and r when the working fluid is
air (γ = 1.4), or a mono-atomic gas such as argon (γ = 1.66) is used. It can be
seen that the efficiency increases with pressure ratio, but the rate of
increase reduces with the increase in pressure ratio.

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 THE HEAT EXCHANGE CYCLE

Schematic arrangement of a heat exchange cycle

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 THE HEAT EXCHANGE CYCLE

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 THE HEAT EXCHANGE CYCLE

 Since, the expressions WN = WT −WC is identical compared to a simple Cycle, we have,

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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 Physical reflections

 The T -s diagram is unchanged in outline from that of the simple gas

turbine cycle, except for the presence of the heat exchanger as indicated by
the two dotted lines 4-5 and 2-6.

 It may be seen that the temperature of the compressed air has been raised
from T2 to T5 in the heat exchanger resulting in the fall in temperature of
the exhaust gases from T4 to T6.

 As can be seen from the efficiency equation of the heat exchange cycle is
not independent of maximum cycle temperature and clearly increases as t
is increased.

 Further, it is evident that for a given value of t the efficiency increases with
decrease in pressure ratio and not with increase in pressure ratio as for the
simple cycle.

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 Physical reflections

 The solid line curves represent the above equation. Each curve for t starts
𝟏
at r = 1 with a value of 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝒕 , which is the Carnot efficiency.

 This is to be expected because in this limiting case the Carnot requirement

of complex external heat reception and rejection at the upper and lower
cycle temperatures is satisfied. The curves fall with increasing pressure
ratio until a value corresponding to the value of √t equals c is reached, and
at this point the efficiency becomes that of the simple cycle.

 At this pressure ratio T4 = T2 and the output is maximum. For higher values
of r a heat exchanger would cool the air leaving the compressor reducing
the efficiency.

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 Physical reflections

 In the Figure, the solid line curves represent the above equation. Each
𝟏
curve for t starts at r = 1 with a value of 𝜼 = 𝟏 − 𝒕 , which is the Carnot
efficiency.

 This is to be expected because in this limiting case the Carnot requirement

of complex external heat reception and rejection at the upper and lower
cycle temperatures is satisfied. The curves fall with increasing pressure
ratio until a value corresponding to the value of √t equals c is reached, and
at this point the efficiency becomes that of the simple cycle.

 At this pressure ratio T4 = T2 and the output is maximum. For higher values
of r a heat exchanger would cool the air leaving the compressor reducing
the efficiency.

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 Physical reflections

 The specific output is unchanged by the additions of a heat

exchanger.

 Compare the curves of work output with the simple cycle. From the
curves of efficiency for heat exchange cycle, it can be conclude
that to obtain an appreciable improvement in efficiency by heat
exchange cycle we must have a value of r appreciably less than
that for the optimum specific work output.

 It may be noted that it is not necessary to use a higher cycle

pressure ratio as the maximum cycle temperature is increased.

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 Physical reflections

The following observations can be made from the performance curves:

(i) With the heat exchanger cycle, the cycle efficiency reduces as the pressure
ratio increases, which is opposite to that of a simple cycle. This is due to the
fact that as the pressure ratio increases the delivery temperature from the
compressor increases and ultimately will exceed that of the exhaust gas from
the turbine. Then heat in the heat exchanger will be lost from the air to the
exhaust gases instead of desired gain. The efficiency with lower temperatures,
say at t = 2, is seen to become negative soon after the pressure ratio 11.3 is
exceeded (refer the figure WN < 0). The reason is that the temperature at
compressor outlet actually exceeds the assumed combustion temperature in
this case.

(ii) In many cases, regeneration is not desirable. With high pressure ratios,
efficiencies are higher without regeneration, again because loss of heat from
the compressed air to the exhaust gases.

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 Physical reflections

(iii) Efficiency with the heat exchanger cycle rises very rapidly with an
increase in the maximum temperature of the cycle.

(iv) Lower pressure ratios and high cycle temperatures are favorable
for the regenerative cycle since a large heat recovery is then possible.

(v) For a given temperature ratio, the curve falls with increasing value
of pressure ratio until a value of c given by c2 = t is reached (efficiency
plot). After this, the efficiency is equal to the ideal cycle without
regeneration. Any further increase in the pressure ratio will yield an
efficiency that is lower than this value and is of no interest.

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 THE REHEAT CYCLE

 A good improvement in specific work output can be obtained by

splitting the expansion and reheating the gas between the high-
pressure and low pressure turbines.

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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THE REHEAT CYCLE

 The turbine work increase is obvious from the fact that the vertical distance
between any pair of constant-pressure lines increases as the entropy increases.
Thus
 The expansion is carried out in two stages, with reheating of the working fluid
to the upper limit of temperature T3 taking place between the stages. Let the
pressure ratio in compression be r, and the pressure ratios of the expansion
stages be r3 and r4 so that

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 THE REHEAT CYCLE

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 THE REHEAT CYCLE

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 Maximum output

 The equation shows that to obtain maximum output the stage pressure
ratios must be the same, and this should be the square root of the overall
pressure ratio for two-stage expansion.

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 Maximum output

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 Physical reflections

 Comparisons of the work output curves curves with the simple cycle
indicates that reheat markedly increase the specific output, but the curves
for efficiency indicate that this is achieved at the expense of efficiency.

 This is to be expected because a less efficient cycle (4’456) is added to the

simple cycle – less efficient because it operates over a smaller temperature
range. Note that the rate of reduction in η becomes less as maximum cycle
temperature is increased.

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 THE REHEAT AND HEAT EXCHANGE CYCLE

 It is seen that improvement in specific power output is achieved in reheat

cycle at the expense of the efficiency. This can be overcome by adding a
heat exchanger to the reheat cycle.

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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 Physical reflections

 The maximum work output expression will be same as previous case since
heat exchanger will improve only the efficiency and not the work output.

 The higher exhaust gas temperature is now fully utilized in the heat
exchanger.

 In fact, when a heat exchanger is employed, the efficiency is higher with

reheat than without.

 The family of constant t lines exhibit the same features as those for simple
cycle with heat exchanger.

 Each curve starts with the Carnot values at r = 1 and falls with increasing r
to meet the corresponding curve of the reheat cycle without heat
exchanger at a value of r corresponding to maximum specific output.

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 THE INTERCOOLED CYCLE

 The specific output of the cycle can be improved by increasing the

turbine work output by incorporating the reheat cycle. Another way
of achieving the same is reducing the work of compression, i.e.,
compression in more than one stage and using an intercooler in
between.

 That is, the compression of the working fluid is cut off at some
intermediate pressure, and the fluid is cooled by passing it through
a heat exchanger supplied with coolant from some external source
before being compressed in a second stage to the required
pressure ratio, a certain improvement in overall output can be
achieved.

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 THE INTERCOOLED CYCLE

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 THE INTERCOOLED CYCLE

 It can be shown that for maximum power output and perfect intercooling,
(following a similar procedure as we have done for the reheat cycle)

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 THE INTERCOOLED CYCLE

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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 Physical reflections

 Intercooling will help to increase the net work output of the cycle.
Because of the lower compressor outlet temperature, the fuel flow
rate to obtain a given turbine inlet temperature will increase.
Therefore, the thermal efficiency of the intercooled cycle will be
less than that for a simple cycle.

 Intercooling is useful when the pressure ratios are high and the
efficiency of the compressor is low. Due to lower compressor
outlet temperature there will be more scope for adding a heat
exchanger. Due to regeneration, a substantial amount of heat from
exhaust gases can be recovered. This will be seen in the next
section.

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 THE INTERCOOLED CYCLE WITH HEAT EXCHANGER

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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 Physical reflections

 As already discussed, the specific power output increases over a

simple cycle because of intercooling.

 Because of the addition of a heat exchanger, substantial recovery

of heat from the exhaust gas is possible, which increases the
efficiency also.

 It may be noted that the improvement in efficiency is substantial at

lower pressure ratios and higher turbine inlet temperatures.

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 THE INTERCOOLED AND REHEAT CYCLE

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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 Performance curves of the cycle

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INTERCOOLED CYCLE WITH HEAT EXCHANGE AND REHEAT

 This is the most complex cycle arrangement so far discussed. Even though
the specific work output and the efficiency of this cycle will be the
maximum, it is at the expense of simplicity.

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 P - V & T – S diagram

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INTERCOOLED CYCLE WITH HEAT EXCHANGE AND REHEAT

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COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CYCLES

 The table is compiled for r = 4 and t = 3.

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COMPARISON OF VARIOUS CYCLES

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ERICSSON CYCLE

 A discussion of ideal cycles for the gas

turbine would not be complete without
some reference to the theoretical cycle
of Ericsson.

 In introducing multi-stage compression

with intercooling, and multistage
expansion with reheating, it is
immediately seen from the T -s diagram
that an approach is being made towards
isothermal processes.

 This would, of course, be achieved only

if the number of stages were infinite. In
this case, the cycle would follow the
outline 1234 given in the Figure.

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 Thank You

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